Papers of the Forty-Seventh Annual Meeting of the SEMINAR on the ACQUISITION of LATIN AMERICAN LIBRARY MATERIALS

¡88 L4 546 2002 Trends and Traditions in Latin American and Caribbean History

SEMINAR ON THE ACQUISITION OF LATIN AMERICAN LIBRARY MATERIALS

XLVII LEE LIBRARY ' AROIDB. UMVERS11T IHAM YOUNG PROVO.UTAH Trends and Traditions in Latin American and Caribbean History

SALALM Secretariat Benson Latin American Collection The General Libraries The University of Texas at Austin

Trends and Traditions in Latin American and Caribbean History

Papers of the Forty-Seventh Annual Meeting of the SEMINAR ON THE ACQUISITION OF LATIN AMERICAN LIBRARY MATERIALS

Cornell University June 1-4, 2002

Denise A. Hibay Editor

SALALM Secretariat Benson Latin American Collection The General Libraries

The University of Texas at Austin ISBN: 0-917617-73-8

S?nU^

Contents

Preface vii

1. Dressed Like an Indian: Ethnic Ambiguity in Early Colonial Peru

Karen B. Graubart 1

2. Revolutions on the Radio: People and Issues Related to Revolutionary Movements in Latin America, Audio Gleanings from the Peabody Awards Collection Laura D. Shedenhelm 10

3. Atlantic Crossings: The Trade in Latin American Books in Europe in the Nineteenth Century Geoffrey West 29

4. El color, la textura, el peso de la página: el arte del libro en América Latina Lourdes Vázquez 44

5. The Map in the Book: Barbados Alan Moss 52

6. Judging a Book by Its Cover: Cover Art of Editora Política Sharon A. Moynahan Wendy Louise Pedersen 56

7. A Poster is Worth 10,000 Words: Cuban Political Posters at the University of New Mexico Claire-Lise Bénaud Sharon A. Moynahan 61

8. Tendencias interpretativas en torno a Fidel Castro Enrique Camacho Navarro 69

9. ¿Qué aportan los estudios biográficos a la historiografía cubana actual? Eliades Acosta 11

10. Bibliotecas digitales en México

Víctor J. Cid Carmona 85

1 1 Mexicoarte: una alternativa electrónica para conocer la historia del arte de México Elsa Barberena 103 Contents vl

12. Course-Integrated Information Literacy: Tales of Success Foretold 112 Anne C. Barnhart-Park

197 Contributors 1Z,/ Conference Program ™ Preface

The forty-seventh Seminar on the Acquisition of Latin American Library Materials (SALALM) met in June 2002 to discuss trends and traditions in Latin American and Caribbean history, including the full range of resources librarians collect to support this research. The present volume includes a representative sample of the presentations that were made and captures the essence of how scholars and librarians approach the collecting and use of traditional primary source materials as well as materials in new formats. Oftentimes, it is not the format that has changed but the way the source is read and interpreted, as Karen B. Graubart, from Cornell's History Department, demonstrated in her reading of seventeenth-century colonial wills in Peru. A number of papers in this volume reflects the never-ending fascination librarians have with the book, its history and dissemination, and the cultural clues gleaned from its production. A number of panelists also discussed the use and efficacy of the digitalization of historical materials such as manuscripts and pamphlets. The August 2002 SALALM Newsletter provides more details on the various issues and projects discussed during the conference and not covered in these papers. Professor George Reid Andrews, the keynote speaker, gave a lively overview of his project on blacks in Latin America and his research trips to Brazil and Uruguay. His comments focused on the cultural constructs of race, the debate over racial democracy, and the most effective means to achieve equality. The audience was also treated to a tape recording of drumming music he captured during his participation in a comparsa procession during Carnival in Uruguay. Although Professor Andrews's comments are not included in the present volume, the results of his research can be found in his recent work Afro-Latin America, 1800-2000 (Oxford University Press, 2004). The tape recording that Professor Andrews shared, quite unexpectedly, anticipated the panel on multimedia approaches to Latin American history.

Laura D. Shedenhelm's article, including her excellent bibliography of audio recordings contained in the Peabody Awards Collection at the University of Georgia, highlights resources not typically considered by students and scholars. This type of material—tape recordings, CD-ROMs, videos, DVDs, and 16 mm film—provides exciting opportunities for new approaches to research, but brings a host of preservation concerns and challenges.

Vll viii Preface

Finally, I feel compelled to point out that the conference was held nine months after the events of September 11, 2001. In the painful days and months that followed, the community spirit, so easily evinced within SALALM's discussions and activities, served as a great source of strength and solidarity. More than ever before, we came together in Ithaca with a new sense of urgency in greeting old friends and colleagues and, of course, with a renewed sense of — 1 the values "the free exchange of ideas and information" —we affirm through our libraries. While the ramifications of and responses to those tragic events continue to reverberate throughout the world, even reminding us of events 2 in Latin American history, our steady progress in building and preserving collections slowly continues. Yet, as it was confirmed for us in New York after

September 11, the library is more than its collections; it is also an essential civic place.

I am especially indebted to David Block and the Local Arrangements Committee. Ithaca, New York, was a delightful conference site and Cornell

University a most gracious and welcoming host institution. I would also like to thank Cecilia Sercan, Sarah Thomas, Cornell's University Librarian, and Debra A. Castillo of the Latin American Studies Program. In Texas, Laura Gutierrez-Witt, Jane Garner, and Sandy Lowder gave invaluable help and support. I am most fortunate and grateful indeed to have in New York such wonderful colleagues as Elizabeth Diefendorf, Fernando Acosta-Rodriguez, Angela Carreño, Ramón Abad, and Pamela Graham. A special thanks to Mark L. Grover and Shannon Thurlow for their help in editing these papers. In the end, the conference came together through the efforts of the many active members of SALALM who participated in committee meetings; volunteered to serve as panelists, moderators, and rapporteurs; and faithfully attended each and every session (or nearly each one). And finally, to past and current members, from whom I have learned so much, and to future generations of salamis- tas, I dedicate these proceedings.

Denise A. Hibay

NOTES

1. From a statement issued by the New York Public Library, "NYPL Responds: Meeting

Community Needs in the Wake of Tragedy." The full statement was available for a period of time on NYPL's website: "Libraries have always been the bulwark of our democracy and are more important today than ever before. The free exchange of ideas and information and the opportunity for people to connect with each other and discover new tools to improve their lives lie at the heart of a civil society. These values are reaffirmed every day through the collections, services and programs provided at the New York Public Library and libraries across America."

2. "The Other September 11," The New York Times, September 11, 2003, p. A24. 1. Dressed Like an Indian: Ethnic Ambiguity in Early Colonial Peru

Karen B. Graubart

Recently, historians of colonial Latin America have proposed that what people take to be stable concepts of ethnicity or race need to be reassessed. Instead of seeing ethnic identity as inherent and immutable, Douglas Cope, for example, has argued that people should take it as a "social identity that may be reaffirmed, modified, manipulated, or perhaps even rejected— all in a wide variety of contexts." 1 Cope, like Patricia Seed in her own work on Mexico City, has found that ethnic labels shifted with circumstance or perspective. Similarly, Ann Twinam has found that legitimacy — a concept much intertwined with ethnicity in the colonial Americas— was also subject 2 to manipulation or purchase. While documents often appear to provide a stable "snapshot" of an individual's social characteristics, even within a single text readers often encounter ambiguities and dissonances. A succinct example comes from the 1613 padrón (tributary census) of the Indians of Lima, Peru, where Miguel de Contreras, the census-taker, argued with those he was enu- merating as well as with himself in the deceptively simple paragraphs of his record. In one example, an entry ambivalently headed "Indian servant, mestizo youth," Contreras wrote the following:

[I]n the house of the accountant Sebastián de Mosquera, there was found in his service a young Indian boy called Martin, he knows no other name, and he

said that he is a native of La Chimba in Arequipa and he was born in the home of the said accountant, and he does not know who his parents are, other than

that he is said to be a mestizo. And the accountant certified that said young

man is a mestizo although he was wearing the clothing of an Indian, and that

he is twelve years old.

Marginal annotations reveal that Contreras indeed counted the boy as an Indian, probably as much from the desire to increase tributary rolls as from an 4 ability to discern his ethnicity from visual or auditory cues.

This ambiguity is expected when it is taken into account that "Indianness" was an identity rarely claimed by natives until much later in the colonial period. Similarly, mestizaje, or the product of sexual relations between Indians and Spaniards, was regularly treated as a problem or a socioeconomic condition rather than a cultural identity in the first century of colonization. That is, 2 Karen B. Graubart

what are thought of as ethnic identities were more likely unwanted labels that made individuals liable for tribute payments or mita (forced labor) service, and constrained their career choices and marriage possibilities. While Indians in colonial Latin America were overdetermined by their status as "Indians"— as colonized tributaries to Spanish and native overlords as well as to the Crown, and as members of an imagined república de indios with its own legal logic— 5 their own imaginations were presumably not saturated with this identity. For the majority of Latin American Indians in the sixteenth century, cultural identity was embedded in local relations. In many regions, kin-based ayl- lus, large ethnic groups, probably functioned more or less as they had prior to the conquest. This is not to say that rural areas experienced no cultural change in the century after conquest: compelling studies have already described how migration and the opportunities and demands of colonial law effected change 6 in the very structure of ethnic groups. The quick shift to self-identification in colonial documents by encomienda or repartimiento reminds one that tributaries were well versed in responses to bureaucratic questions, like "to whom are you subject?" But it can be assumed that older systems of kinship and community still took precedence over newer models of identity in rural areas.

Within the newly constituted cities, however, old local networks gave way to new ones, which were formed around religious institutions, work and trade relations, and physical urban spaces. Culture is always a contested terrain, but in these urban centers there were probably fewer reminders of one's past con- straints, for Spaniards as well as Indians. It seems that in this case one might take ambiguity as an urban norm, rather than as an exception. This paper examines two aspects of ethnic ambiguity stemming from the wills of moderately 7 well-off urban women described as "Indians." The two issues these women's wills put forward— the relationship between dress and ethnicity, and the possibility of ethnically "elevating" illegitimate children— are purely suggestive, in that there is no evidence within the documents that these were conscious strategies or even successful ones (if indeed they were strategies at all). Yet given the fluidity and ambiguity of ethnic designations in the new colonies, and the ongoing attempts of the mushrooming bureaucratic apparatus to link social expectations and the division of labor to ethnic labels, these occasions are remarkable in the possibilities they have for undermining the status quo. Not only are these cases suggestive of new ways to think about ethnicity and gender in the early colonial period, but they also provide new ways to read the documents, as incomplete and fragile to be sure, yet also as compelling narra- tives of new cultures.

The first wills to be discussed are the wills of Francisca Ramírez, a prominent female merchant in seventeenth-century Trujillo. Her story is known from the many wills she left— there were at least four written between 1633 and 8 1686— as well as a few other notarial documents bearing her name. In the 1633 will, she was called "Francisca Ramírez yndia," the common designation Ethnic Ambiguity in Early Colonial Peru 3

for a nonelite Indian woman, born in a town outside the city of Trujillo and married to a carpenter named Pedro de Miranda, whose name bore no ethnic designation and who may therefore have been a Spaniard. At this time Ramirez appears to have been a petty marketeer, perhaps selling from a chest in the plaza market. From her possessions it appears that she sold painted shawls (a local indigenous craft) and an assortment of indigenous-style women's clothing like anacos and lliquillas (dresses and shawls), although some of these were made from fabrics imported from Europe and Asia. She also owned some domestic animals, equipment for making chicha (fermented corn beer, an indigenous staple), a few pieces of jewelry, and some furniture. From this first inventory, it appears that she was already relatively well-off, but firmly established within the network of Trujillo's indigenous community.

The will of 1653 is another matter. In contrast to the businesslike tone of the first, this one began with a long religious protestation and meticulous instructions for services and processions at her funeral. She requested burial in the Franciscan convent, in the habit of Saint Francis, a request which she had already arranged with the prelates of that order. She named her own soul as her heir, through the establishment of an ongoing fund to say masses in her honor. Her inventory of property now included large quantities of corn for making chicha, some of which she had purchased on credit from a royal judge named Don Diego Rodríguez Quiros, who also acted as her legal representative and was one of the two executors of her will. Other debts were with equally lofty citizens, including a local cacique. Ramirez was owed money by several Spaniards and Indians. She sold chicha, soap, candles, furniture, jewelry (especially pearls and gold), religious icons, and imported fabrics and clothing (silk, damask, taffeta, and velvet). Of the long list of clothing, only one item was in an indigenous style ("a velvet lliclla still unmade"), the rest were European fashions. Her first husband had died and she had requested a divorce from her second, a Spaniard referred to in other contemporaneous documents as a vecino or property-owning citizen, for mistreatment and the "diminution of her estate." Rather than from a box in the plaza, she now sold from her own store— unusual for a woman of any ethnicity in this period. In the third will, of 1677, she was known simply as "Francisca Ramírez," the "yndia" having disappeared either by her own effort or by decision of the 9 notary, although her mother's plainly indigenous name remained on record. Her inventory gave no indication that her clientele might be indigenous, and no longer included chicha or corn. The final will, of 1686, called her "doña Francisca Ramírez yndia."

Although her Indian status had returned, it was now qualified by "doña," the honorific reserved for the wealthiest and highest status members of Spanish or indigenous society. Her second husband, whom she had unsuccessfully tried to divorce, was now a second lieutenant or alférez. The will was written on what she believed to be her deathbed, and the notary was present in her house, 4 Karen B. Graubart

opening chests and boxes to inventory her extensive collection of clothes, jewelry, religious statuary, and household goods.

Francisca Ramirez's story is not one of "whitening" or "passing," but instead one of social climbing in a society where ethnicity was still a fluid concept, and not the determinant of identity that it may later have become. Her ethnic identity was presented firmly in the earlier documents, but as she grew wealthier it appeared to grow less prominent. The return of her "Indianness" alongside the "doña" can be interpreted as an ultimate constraint upon her mobility, even though she was a powerful and wealthy woman. While Francisca Ramírez was assuredly an uncommon individual, other urban women of lesser status negotiated aspects of their identities in parallel ways. For example, many women identified as "Indians" within their wills had transcultural wardrobes. Whether one ethnic group should wear the clothes characteristic of another had been a political question from the earliest moments of the conquest. In 1567, the Spanish jurist Juan de Matienzo argued against those who wanted to prohibit Indians from wearing European garb, concluding

that they should do so, "because they come to love us and our clothing . . . they begin to have some human essence," taking on the exterior characteristics of 10 civilized Europeans. On the other hand, many Europeans as well as native elites decried this practice as a loosening of hierarchy and social control. While

Spaniards of all social levels were quick to feel threatened by the possibility of well-dressed Indians and mestizos muddying the social boundaries, some elite Indians also condemned this dressing as part of an erosion of their own fragile status. The indigenous critic Felipe Guarnan Poma de Ayala and the mestizo chronicler Garcilaso de la Vega both railed against the looseness of ethnic dress in the seventeenth century, when plebeian Indians took on the status markers

* of Incas and caciques donned the frivolous fashions of Europeans. ' Even the census-taker of Lima's Indians in 1613 commented frequently that people he considered to be tributary Indians were dressing "like mestizos," sometimes as a subterfuge (to escape tribute payments) but also as a normalized practice. Given the need for consumer markets beyond the small European population in the early colonial period, this should not be surprising: well-to-do Indians, male and female, were pressured or encouraged to purchase luxury goods, even though there were royal orders against this mercantile practice. For the women and girls who were domestic servants in urban households, hand-me- down clothes and uniforms probably provided them with some European-style pieces, and certainly impressed upon them the utility of not "dressing like an Indian." Within a few decades of colonization, ethnic identity could no longer be immediately divined by wardrobe, at least in urban areas. This wardrobe preference appears in Indian women's wills of the period. Maria Carua Sacsa was in her mid- to late-twenties when she testated in Lima 12 in 1615. Her will indicates strong connections both to the Catholic Church in Lima (where a local priest was holding her savings) and to family and friends Ethnic Ambiguity in Early Colonial Peru 5

back in rural Huarochiri, where she continued to own property. Her wardrobe illustrates the same combination of new and old, rural and urban. Rather than the traditional anaco, she owned three Spanish-style skirts called faldellines, trimmed with imported velvet and silk, one of them made in Mexico; and a number of blouses, camisas, one embroidered with black silk. But the largest number of garments listed in her will was not in the European style, because they were llicllas. Only one of María Carua Sacsa's llicllas was typical of the tapestry-woven mantles worn in the Andes; the rest were made of relatively inexpensive imported fabrics (satin and twill) but trimmed with silk and taf- 13 feta, and edged with gold and silver thread. Catalina Carguay Chumbi, who dictated her will in 1608, had a similarly 14 transcultural wardrobe. She was an immigrant from nearby Huarochiri, but her main material ties were in Lima, where she was a full member of the cofradía or religious sodality of Santísimo Sacramento. Cofradías were important pillars of city life, providing small loans as well as other forms of community support to men and women of all ethnicities. In addition to the substantial sum of 250 pesos and a plot of land and a house in Lima, she listed two blouses and a mantle of ruán (a colored cotton imported from France), a child's blouse made of black silk, a skirt of paño (an inexpensive fabric made in the textile factories of the Americas), and a lliclla of lavender twill with a passementerie of purple and tan silk and an iridescent taffetized sash. She also mentioned three anacos: one of black cotton, a "worn-out" purple one from Cajamarca, and another "old" and "worn-out" one. These were not of much value, and could have been everyday items or reminders of her less transcultural past. A third will comes from Catalina Sacsa Nurma, who testated in February 15 of 1600. She was a member of the cofradía of Nuestra señora de la Candelaria and wanted to be buried in the Church of San Francisco. She may have been a seamstress, since she had more clothing than one would expect of an Indian woman of moderate means (as well as a "sewing box with a few sewing items"). She had savings of 138 pesos in cash, in addition to damask llicllas, a jubón (bodice) of taffeta, a blue Spanish sayuelo, and a number of older garments of various provenances. She also owned porcelain from China, a wooden chest and some rams from Mexico, and some pieces of jewelry. She left this rather handsome estate to her parents, who apparently still lived in their rural town in highland Jauja.

These three indigenous women are fairly representative of those who left wills in Lima in this period, although they were of higher economic status than the general Indian population. These women were not poor, having at 16 least some cash and household items, often evidencing some trade. They had deep ties to local religious and social institutions, and there were no signs (like skeins of wool, which do show up in some wills) that they wove their own clothing as their relatives in the provinces probably continued to do, but rather they purchased it in Lima. While it was not difficult to buy the llicllas and 6 Karen B. Graubart

anacos that their nonurban kin wore (and which were still flooding the market from tribute payments in kind, and sold in shops on the street called "Mantas" 17 in Lima ), these women chose to own a mix of clothes to demonstrate their status and allow them to interact with a variety of clients, patrons, friends, and acquaintances. Thus their social position and flexibility support Cope's argu- ment that economic status was of greater descriptive quality than ethnicity was in this period, at least for urban women. The hybridity of these wardrobes does not imply the equality of the elements contained therein. As colonial administrators and tributaries both well knew, there were incentives to emphasize certain aspects of identity, or suffer the consequences. But such pulls went in both directions: claiming mestizaje, or more probably, choosing to dress and act in a more ambiguous way, might free one from tribute burdens or other "Indian" obligations. But this might also alienate one from one's natal community and kin, or bar one from living in an Indian community, holding office, or receiving one's inheritance. Another pattern was established through these early colonial wills. Wills are, of course, legal instruments aimed at influencing the actions of others after one's death. Women often left wills when they had illegitimate children whose inheritances had to be established via legal means, when a father might have been reticent to do so. They also commonly used their wills to create long lists of outstanding debts to be collected, often in order to raise money to pay for funeral arrangements. Thus the great majority of indigenous women's wills are full of entries that meticulously identify debtors in order to collect from them, as in Secilia de Abila's declaration that she was owed a number of expensive garments being held "in the house of an Indian woman named Madalena who lives below the entrance to the plaza," or Catalina Payco's business debt of 2 1 Q pesos, owed by "don Loreto Manguillo an Indian, native of Chachapoyas." On the other hand, women who used their wills to name and provide for illegitimate children were sometimes loathe to attach an ethnicity to their 9 illegitimate children, referring vaguely instead to an hijo or hija natural} For example, Elbira, an Indian woman who testated in Lima in 1572, was mar- 20 ried at the time to Juan de Popayani, an Indian silversmith. Her heir, however, was "Lorencia Román, my illegitimate daughter, with the late Raphael Duran." The studious lack of an ethnic label for either the father or daughter, as well as the Hispanic surnames of both, suggests that Duran was a Spaniard, but nothing in the will clarifies this. When a legitimate Indian spouse was named in a will— most often in the same sentence where the testator herself was named— he was usually identified as "indio" or by his repartimiento. But this identification was overlooked when a sexual partner was inserted in the will, making the child's ethnicity mysterious. The child's ethnicity was even more ambiguous when the name of the father was withheld or only hinted at, 21 as it often was in these circumstances. It is impossible to establish this action either as a conscious practice of the testator, or the action of the notary, but it Ethnic Ambiguity in Early Colonial Peru 7

is remarkable for its effect: the public is made cognizant of a child, but not of his or her ethnicity. While the will itself had a limited value as a legal instrument, the practice of maintaining mystery around the parentage of illegitimate offspring might have had a broader scope. Thus, the flexibility of legitimacy could work alongside the ambiguity of ethnicity to favor individuals of wealth in the context of limited social information. A good example of how this might have been played out is offered by the will of Magdalena de Anaya, an elite and wealthy Indian from Quito. She had never married at the time of testating, but had an illegitimate daughter named Catalina Tirado. Magdalena de Anaya declared, "I have married the said Catalina Tirado my daughter to Don Francisco de la Fuente," with a large dowry including houses and a slave. In this case there is no mention of Catalina's father, nor her ethnicity, but her ability to contract marriage with a titled Spaniard suggests that the daughter either was a mestiza or had been able to pass as one through her status, wealth, and perhaps the very 22 ambiguity surrounding her parentage. In conclusion, some reinterpretations will be offered to provoke more thought than has usually been given to these apparently simple descriptive labels. While librarians are aware of the dangers inherent in taking census data at face value, they could be more skeptical in the face of other, more innocent- looking categories within the historical record. This is not, however, an argu- ment for "passing" or "whitening," in the sense that ethnic categories were concrete obstacles for getting around. Certainly all of the women mentioned here found themselves constrained at some time or another by their failure to be securely part of the "república de españoles." But rather, this reading suggests that there were alternate ways of being in early colonial Peru, not reduc- ible to biological or cultural notions of race or ethnicity, especially for those with some economic privilege. Gender too might have affected the instrumen- tal use of ethnicity, as women were not liable for the mita, and thus might be under less official scrutiny, and, as many have noted, had more access to urban Spanish society through their occupations. Certainly, individuals went about their daily lives with these categories trailing after them and sometimes catch- ing up, to impose a tax, assign an obligation, erect a barrier. But the fact that ethnic categories affected people's lives does not mean that individuals were defined by them, or lived firmly within them. 23

NOTES

1. R. Douglas Cope, The Limits of Racial Domination (Madison: University of Wisconsin

Press, 1994), p. 5. See also Patricia Seed, "Social Dimensions of Race: Mexico City, 1753," Hispanic American Historical Review 62, no. 4 (1982): 569-606; David Cahill, "Colour by Numbers: Racial and Ethnic Categories in the Viceroyalty of Peru, 1532-1824," Journal of Latin American Studies 26 (1994): 325-346; and Anthony Pagden, "Identity Formation in Spanish America," in Colonial Identity in the Atlantic World, 1500-1800, ed. Nicholas Canny and Anthony

Pagden (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987), pp. 51-94. 8 Karen B. Graubart

2. Ann Twinam, Public Lives, Private Secrets: Gender, Honor, Sexuality and Illegitimacy in Colonial Spanish America (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999), p. 25.

3. Miguel de Contreras, Padrón de los indios de Lima en 1613 (Lima: Seminario de

Historia Rural Andina, 1968), p. 416.

4. Contreras was the census-taker as well as the scribe, so the marginal annotations can be assumed to be his own. For translation purposes, he was accompanied by Indian alcaldes and may- orales of the parishes of Lima. None of the padrón's entries mentions translation issues, although these might also have affected Contreras's perception, though in this particular case the boy— born in a Spanish household— presumably spoke Spanish.

5. On the production of Indian ethnicity in Peru, see Irene Silverblatt, "Becoming Indian in the Central Andes of Seventeenth-Century Peru," in After Colonialism: Imperial Histories and

Postcolonial Displacements, ed. Gyan Prakash (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), pp. 279-298; Alberto Flores Galindo, Buscando un Inca: Identidad y utopía en los Andes (Lima: Instituto de Apoyo Agrario, 1987); Frank Salomon and Armando Guevara-Gil, "A 'Personal

Visit': Colonial Political Ritual and the Making of Indians in the Andes," Colonial Latin American

Review 3, no. 1-2 (1994): 3-36; and the nuanced treatment of Andean and Spanish elites in Karen

Spalding, "Constructing Indians," Yale Latin American Studies 1 (1998): 23^4-3.

6. On ethnicity and migration in the colonial Andes, see Ann Wightman, Indigenous Migration and Social Change: The Forasteros of Cuzco 1570-1620 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1990); Nicolás Sánchez-Albornoz, Indios y tributo en el Alto Perú (Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 1978); and Karen Vieira Powers, Andean Journeys: Migration, Ethnogenesis, and the State in Colonial Quito (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995).

7. Clearly, gender will also play a role in the production of ethnicity in these cases, a topic which will not be addressed in this paper. For a provocative treatment of this question in a slightly later period, see Susan Kellogg, "Depicting mestizaje: Gendered Images of Ethnorace in Colonial Mexican Texts," Journal of Women's History 12, no. 3 (2000): 69-92.

8. The wills are located in the Archivo Regional de La Libertad (ARLL), Trujillo, Peru, in the following notarial protocols: Escobar legajo 136 (1633); Antonio Alvarez legajo 84 esc 81 (1653); Bernabé Rentero legajo 207 (1677); and Vicente de Salina legajo 238 (1686).

9. She was known by the surname of her father, Pedro Ramirez, in a manner more custom- ary for mestizos in this region than for Indians, who rarely shared a surname with either parent. See Karen B. Graubart, "Con nuestro trabajo y sudor: Indigenous Women and the Construction of Colonial Society in 16th and 17th Century Peru" (Ph.D. diss., University of Massachusetts,

Amherst, 2000), pp. 256-257; and James Lockhart, Spanish Peru, 1532-1560 (Madison:

University of Wisconsin Press, 1968), p. 155.

10. Juan de Matienzo, Gobierno del Peril (Paris and Lima: LTnstitut Francias d'Etudes

Andines, 1967), pp. 69-70.

11. Don Felipe Guarnan Poma de Ayala, El primer nueva coránica y buen gobierno (Mexico City: Siglo Veintiuno, 1980), pp. 692, 732-734; Garcilaso de la Vega, Royal Commen- taries of the Incas and General History of Peru, trans. Harold V Livermore (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1989), p. 375.

12. "Testamento de Maria Carua Sacsa," Archivo General de la Nación (AGN), Lima,

Peru, Testamentos de Indios, legajo 1, 1615; Contreras, Padrón de los indios de Lima, pp. 26-21.

13. Though commonly identified with indigenous women's costume, the lliclla was in some times and places a staple of both indigenous and mestiza women. For an interesting case, see Karen Vieira Powers, "The Battle for Bodies and Souls in the Colonial North Andes: Intraecclesiastical Struggles and the Politics of Migration," Hispanic American Historical Review

75, no. 1 (1995): 3 1-56. On colonial indigenous clothing, see Elena J. Phipps, "Textiles as Cultural Ethnic Ambiguity in Early Colonial Peru 9

Memory: Andean Garments in the Colonial Period," in Converging Cultures: Art and Identity in Spanish America, ed. Diana Fane (Brooklyn, N.Y.: Brooklyn Museum, 1996), pp. 144-195.

14. "Testamento de Catalina Carguay Chumbi," AGN, Testamentos de Indios, legajo 1A, 1608.

15. "Testamento de Catalina Sacsa Nurma," AGN Protocolos Notariales (PN) Jimenez 103, fol. 666v, 1600.

16. Most of the Indian women whose wills I have collected were of moderate income, and a few were wealthy even by Spanish standards. But some lived in very marginal conditions, like Catalina Hallo, who in 1580 claimed as her estate eight chickens, eight roosters, three bottles, some cotton thread, a fishing net, and an uncollected debt of 5 pesos (AGN PN de la Cueva 29, fol. 662). For a description of the entire collection, see Graubart, "Con nuestro trabajo y sudor" chapters 3 and 4.

17. Fray Buenaventura de Salinas y Cordova, Memorial de las historias del nuevo mundo

Pirú [1630] (Lima: Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, 1957), p. 255.

18. "Testamento de Secilia de Abila yndia," AGN PN Rodríguez de Torquemada 141,

1598; "Testamento de Catalina Payco," AGN PN Gómez Báez 740, fol. 380, 1606.

19. "Natural" children were born of unmarried parents, and could inherit property if recognized by the parents. "Bastards" were children of two people not married to each other, but at least one of which was married to someone else. They could not be legitimated or recognized, and could not inherit equally with other children. See Maria Emma Mannarelli, Pecados públicos: La ilegitimidad en Lima, siglo XVII (Lima: Ediciones Flora Tristán, 1993).

20. "Testamento de Elbira yndia," AGN PN Esquivel 33, fols. 303-304, 1572.

21. These questions are further developed in Graubart, "Con nuestro trabajo y sudor" chapter 4.

22. "Testamento de Magdalena de Anaya," AGN PN Diego Jiménez 103, fols. 871-872v.

23. Thanks to Denise Hibay and SALALM for inviting me to present this work. Original research for this project was funded by a Fulbright grant. A more complete version will be forth- coming in S. Charusheela and Eiman Zein-Elabdin, eds., Postcolonialism Meets Economics (New York: Routledge). 2. Revolutions on the Radio: People and Issues Related to Revolutionary Movements in Latin America, Audio Gleanings from the Peabody Awards Collection

Laura D. Shedenhelm

Introduction

The sociopolitical situation in many Latin American countries during the twentieth century was one of unrest, upheaval, and violent change. The century also saw technological innovations that offered new ways of recording and reporting these changes. As the broadcast media of radio, then television, allowed wider distribution of information, broadcast media gave more immediacy and intimacy to the events affecting people's lives. This conference's theme, looking at new applications of primary sources for the study of trends and traditions in Latin American and Caribbean history, affords an opportunity to do an analysis of some of the materials from the Peabody Awards Collection of the Walter J. Brown Media Archives in the University of Georgia Libraries.

The focus of this paper and its accompanying bibliography is the identification of radio programs that reported civil unrest, rebellions, revolutions, the underlying causes, and the aftermaths of these events in Latin America and the Caribbean. During the mid-1990s, Gayle Williams, a University of Georgia bibliographer, working in coordination with Linda Elkins, the Peabody Awards Collection archive librarian, had begun to identify materials in the Peabody Awards Collection that had content relevant to the study of Latin America. They limited their identification of materials to entries for which audiotapes or videotapes were available. Utilizing their initial list, I extracted the entries that reflected revolution in its broadest sense: an "activity or movement designed to effect fundamental changes in the socioeconomic situation." 1 A second review of all the entries was done in order to identify the radio programs for which no audiotape was available in the archives, thus yielding a larger representation of how radio presented these events to the listening public. Because of the self-selected nature of the Peabody Awards Collection, it is not comprehensive and is somewhat idiosyncratic. Further, the collection does not allow for com- prehensiveness since there is no collection development in the traditional sense

10 1

Revolutions on the Radio 1

of directing purchases and filling in gaps in the collection. Therefore, only the largest set of materials would provide a good basis for a study of the radio coverage, exposing thematic trends for the push for social change and providing highlights of the unstable political milieu in Latin America.

History and Description of the Peabody Awards Collection

The George Foster Peabody Awards are granted each year by the Henry

W. Grady College of Journalism and Mass Communication at the University of Georgia. Established in 1939, the award is given to "recognize distinguished achievement and meritorious service by radio and television networks, stations, producing organizations, cable television organizations and indi- 2 viduals." It is for broadcast journalism what the Pulitzer Prize is for print journalism. The first presentation of the award was given in 1940 for radio coverage. With the advent of television in 1948, the award was expanded to include this new medium, and has continued to grow with the changing broadcast formats. Today, the Peabody Board considers entries from "alternative distribution" sources including home-video releases and Internet broadcasts. 3

The Peabody Awards Collection at the University of Georgia Libraries is not limited to the very few award-winning programs. The collection includes information about the over forty-five thousand entries that have been submitted through the years. The collection is administered by two separate departments in the libraries. Media Archives preserves the audio and visual media from the collection. There is usually an audio or visual media representation of the entry, especially for entries beginning in 1990. These entries range from transcription discs and audiotapes of varying formats, 16 mm kinescopes, 2-inch 4 video reels and videocassettes to CD-ROMs, CDs, and digital audio tapes. Media Archives also has realia such as the surgery smocks that came with the entry for the television show ER. The Hargrett Rare Book and Manuscript Library maintains the supporting paper documentation for each entry. The paper part of an entry often will include not only a description of the program, but significant supporting documentation concerning the importance and rel- evance of the entry. Currently, separate arrangements must be made to view both the media and paper parts of an entry.

Highlights of the Bibliography

The collection has a relevant radio entry as early as 1941, with historical coverage going back to Pancho Villa and the Mexican Revolution. The most recent round of awards for stories aired in 2001 yielded the entry Making Terror, Breaking Terror [Part 2, 2001-11-30]. Aired on the BBC in London, the story reviews "Operation Condor," former Chilean President Pinochet's program to eliminate dissidents and members of the opposition. There are seventy entries in the bibliography representing seventy-one discrete radio entries that cover stories relevant to the study of revolutionary movements in Latin 12 Laura D. Shedenhelm

America. The descriptions of these entries occasionally include information

about associated television entries. The bibliography is arranged by country, with a section titled "Latin America in General," which includes materials with a regional scope. Chile, Colombia, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Grenada, Guatemala, Haiti, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, and El Salvador are repre-

sented. Noticeably missing are Argentina, Paraguay, and Peru, which have all had their periods of civil unrest. However, these countries are included in the television materials. The earliest entry, The Network of the Americas (entry number 41080 PSR), describes the work of William S. Paley and CBS to create a network of radio stations to link the region together and to provide intercommunication

among the various Latin American countries. The entry includes Paley 's dedication speech on December 31, 1941, expressing his views on the Americas following the attack on Pearl Harbor. The propaganda value of radio was already well established. The North Americans wanted to be able to counter any effectiveness in Latin America of the propaganda machines of the

Axis powers during World War II. This entry is exemplary of the future of broadcast media as a forum for the various groups and movements wishing to

foster change in Latin America. A later example is The Quiet War (entry number 62007 PSR), which features clips from shortwave radio broadcasts from around the world, including two from Havana. The historical connections in the collection are especially notable given the Colombian context. In the episode "The Revolution of Rising Expectations," from the University of Florida's 1961 series Contemporary Revolution in Latin America (entry numbers 61007 EDR and 61008 PRR), President Alberto Lleras Camargo of Colombia seems prophetic given later developments in his country. He declares that his country may well become a zone of danger if certain trends continue. One can hear Lleras Camargo 's worry played out

and its terrible consequences in Voice of America's 1985 entry Terrorismo: Camino al caos (Terrorism: The road to chaos) (entry number 85034 DCR). Many people will remember when the group M19 took over the Colombian

Supreme Court in Bogotá on November 7, 1985. The entry tape opens with a reporter attempting to speak over the telephone with Chief Justice Alfonso

Reyes Echandia during the crisis. The chief justice's pleading with the government to withdraw the army is punctuated by gunfire and screams. Later in the tape, one survivor describes how the guerrillas had decided to kill all of the hostages, one by one. By the end of the three-day ordeal, over 100 people were dead including the guerrillas and Chief Justice Reyes Echandia.

Given its close proximity to the United States, it is not surprising that Cuba had the most entries. There are twenty-two entries in the bibliography representing twenty-three discrete Peabody entries and several television pro-

grams. The earliest is from Charles Shaw's series As I See It (entry number 58014 NWR), broadcasted in 1958 by WCAU of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Revolutions on the Radio 13

There are no tapes for this series, but there are seven transcripts for programs that describe Shaw's experiences in Cuba during a ten-day visit to the "zone of hostilities," Castro's camp in the mountains, and his revealing interview with Raúl Castro. Comparing this to the 1960 reporting by Ed King about the

Cuban situation is fascinating {Castro's Cuba, entry number 60026 NWR).

The earliest clip in the collection is from the 1959 CBS compilation tape News of 1959 (entry number 59019 NWR). Stuart Novins reports on the collapse of the Batista government and the subsequent actions by Castro's troops. The collection gives the researcher an opportunity to hear varying styles of reporting. Some people think of media personalities as remaining detached from the events they cover, yet Amina Hassan's coverage of the 1983 coup against Prime Minister Maurice Bishop is anything but dispassionate. In

Grenada: The Fall of the Revolution [Part I] (entry number 83051 DCR), Hassan is running in the streets with the crowd trying to free Bishop. She describes pushing past the tanks and armed soldiers. Then one hears the shoot- ing begin. One may compare this to the initial announcement by CBS correspondent Judy Muller as she talks with Sandy Gilmore in Barbados about an unconfirmed report that the United States invaded Grenada earlier that day,

October 25, 1983. This completely professional presentation is found in an unexpected source: You Talk [1983-10-25], "Lebanon the Killing Ground- excerpts" (entry number 83007 PSR), a talk show from Denver, Colorado, station KOA. The program, hosted by Ken Hamblin, was about the October

23, 1983, bombing of the marine barracks in Beirut, yet it included these few minutes about an event in Latin America.

Only one of the entries in this bibliography is a winner of the Peabody Award. Scott Simon was given an individual award for his 1983 essays, which included Weekend Edition Saturday [1989-11-18], "The Murder of 6 Jesuit Priests in El Salvador" (entry number 89028 NWR). The citation given to Scott Simon for this program reads in part:

In one of its most elemental forms, the art of radio consists of one person speaking and another listening. As presented on NPR's "Weekend Edition Saturday," Scott Simon communicates and interprets our increasingly com- 5 plex world with simple elegance and eloquence.

Anyone hearing his calm voice vividly describing the murdered bodies of 6 people that he knew personally, a description of a scene that would not be allowed to be shown on television, would agree that radio provides a forum for expression unparalleled by other media.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The entries are organized by country with general Latin America and Caribbean materials grouped first. Within the groups, the arrangement is chronological by year. If there are two or more entries within one year, they are arranged alphabetically by the 14 Laura D. Shedenhelm

title. Each entry includes the following: (1) the title of the program; (2) the station or

network, with the city and state or country; (3) the Peabody entry number, followed by

the original format of the entry and the length of the program; and (4) an annotation

about the entry. Programs may be individual entities or parts of series. If the entry is part

of a series, the series title comes first, followed by the program number (if known) and

the date of broadcast. The episode title is last. A schematic example would appear: Title

[episode #, date of broadcast (yyyy-mm-dd)]."Episode title." An example is Assignment [1998-11-26]. "Chile, Pinochet's Legacy."

Not all of the entries have a media component. In other words, there is not always an audio or visual part of the entry. These entries were included for the research value and clues to other sources of media related to the topic. All of the media from the radio entries included in this bibliography have been transferred from the original format to an audiocassette for visitors to use. For entries with complementary television entries, the television part may not yet be transferred. Visitors are advised always to contact the

Walter J. Brown Media Archives at the University of Georgia prior to traveling to use the collection. Media entries are fragile and new copies may need to be made for use. Finally, the University of Georgia does not own copyright to any of these programs. A researcher must come to Athens, Georgia, to view or hear them. Duplicates may be made only if the researcher has written permission on letterhead paper from the copyright holder granting duplication permission.

Latin America in General

The earliest programs covering revolution, unrest, and war are in this category. There are eleven entries covering general aspects and history of Latin American and Caribbean unrest and rebellion.

1941:

The Network of the Americas (La cadena de las Americas). CBS, New York, N. Y. Entry

number 41080 PSR. This is one part of an overall entry from CBS. As part of

the dedication of this network, William S. Paley broadcasted a message to the peoples of Latin America on December 31, 1941, expressing his views on the Americas following the attack on Pearl Harbor. The transcription disc for this

broadcast is entered as 41080.41 PSR (6 mins., 28 sees.). The transcript of this

message is included in a fifteen-leaf booklet that also describes the plans to

connect "seventy-four Central and South American stations . . . creating the

first complete facilities for radio inter-communication between the twenty Latin American republics as well as with the United States." The network seems to have been created to counter the war propaganda being spread throughout Latin

America by the Axis powers during World War II. This entry is exemplary of the future of broadcast media as a forum for the various groups and movements wishing to foster change, violent or otherwise, in Latin America.

1942:

The Rights of Man. Peace by Justice. KMYR, Denver, Colo. Entry number 42016 PSR. The entry form indicates that the series emphasized "mankind's great struggles for freedom and tolerance," specifically naming Juárez and Mexico, Revolutions on the Radio 15

and Bolivar and South America. While there was supposed to be a transcript

of the program in the paper archives, it is no longer available. It is not clear if

the specific program entered was about either Juárez or Bolivar, but it gives the researcher a clue for further investigation.

1961:

The Cold War in Latin America. WBAI-FM, New York, N.Y. Entry number 61030

NWR; 1/4 in. tape on 2500 ft. reel; 41 mins., 42 sees. Jen Donald interviews Dr. José Figueres, former president of Costa Rica, following the politician's

twelve-day visit to Washington, D.C., to meet with the Kennedy administra- tion officials. A few of Dr. Figueres's comments illustrate sentiments heard repeatedly from Latin Americans in other Peabody entries.

Contemporary Revolution in Latin America. University of Florida, Gainesville, Fla.

Entry numbers 61007 EDR and 61008 PRR; 1/4 in. tape on 1200 ft. reel; 4 tapes, approx. 30 mins. each. The program was eleven episodes, of which

they entered four examples: [1] "The Revolution of Rising Expectations,"

[2] "The Agrarian Revolution," [3] "Struggle for Democracy," and [10] "The

United States and Latin America [Part I]." The entry form describes the series as reporting "on the great social, political and economic changes taking place in the 20 countries of Latin America."

1963.

What's the Score in Latin America? WRFD, Worthington, Ohio. Entry number 63010

PRR; 1/4 in. tape on 1200 ft. reel; 2 tapes, approx. 30 mins. each. The pro-

gram was five episodes of which two were entered: [3] "Revolution and the

Communist Threat," and [4] "The Alliance for Progress." The other episodes

were [1] "Brazil and Its Problems of Development," [2] "Peru and Ecuador,"

and [5] "Education in Latin America." The paper files include transcripts of

all five episodes. Dave Hess was the correspondent for this series described as "exploring the revolutionary forces sweeping the southern hemisphere."

Includes a clip of John F. Kennedy discussing the ideas behind the Alliance for Progress.

1966:

Operation International Understanding. WFMB, Indianapolis, Ind. Entry numbers

66014 NWR and 66007 PRR; 1/4 in. tape on 1200 ft. reel; 14 mins., 51 sec; associated television entries 66008 PRT and 66028 PST. The entry form for 66007 PRR opens with "WFMB management determined that South America was vital to our nation's interest and dispatched a two-man team to explore five 11 countries, especially Brasil [sic] and the Dominican Republic." They go on to say that there was also an expedition to India, Pakistan, and other Southeast Asian countries, looking at the conditions that lead to rebellions. The tape only covers the Asian trip, as being exemplary of the information found in both

areas. The paper files, however, include three editorials about the Dominican

Republic and sample transcripts from their South American trip. 16 Laura D. Shedenhelm

1983:

Caribbean Report [1983-12-13]. USÍA, Washington, D.C. Entry number 83015 NWR;

1/4 in. tape on 1200 ft. reel; 20 mins., 10 sees. The relevant part of the tape

covers the Grenada situation, but the other reporting puts it in perspective for

the region. Stories included are the following: (1) security plan developed by

U.S. forces for Grenada; (2) ACLU criticism of interrogations and detentions

in Grenada; (3) State Department comment on U.S. forces in Grenada; (4) U.S.

AID and Peace Corps programs in Grenada; (5) OAS meeting of legal experts

in Barbados; (6) U.S. review of optional uses for naval base in Antigua; (7) Chinese loan to Antigua for education and agriculture; (8) Saint Lucian lea-

der's speech on Caribbean Basin Initiative; (9) visit of Kissinger Commission to Mexico; (10) Inter-American Development Bank loan to Jamaica; (11) financial news; (12) sports roundup; and (13) regional weather. Central America: Friends and Enemies. WBUR, Boston, Mass. Entry number 83019

DCR; 1/4 in. cassette master; 79 mins. The paper files include a letter from

Patricia Bodnar, producer/host of Weekend Edition. "The first third of the program examines El Salvador, while the second third focuses on Nicaragua.

The last segment (26 minutes) is a roundtable summarizing the findings of the fact-finding delegation on human rights, political and military trends, and U.S. policy options." Features former U.S. Ambassador to El Salvador Robert

White, Rep. James Shannon, Lt. Col. (ret.) Edward King, and producer/ reporter Patricia Bodnar.

1989:

Foreign News Coverage 1989. NPR, Washington, D.C. Entry number 89029 NWR;

1/4 in. cassette master; 4 tapes, 60-65 mins. each. The year 1989 was a particularly rough year. NPR included twenty-seven stories from throughout the world. Tom Gjelten, Richard Gonzalez, and Alan Tomlinson reported on eight stories related to revolutionary movements from El Salvador, Panama, Nicaragua, and Peru.

The Smedley Butler Story. NPR, Washington, D.C. Entry number 89002 DCR; 1/4 in. cassette master; 22 mins., 15 sees. The entry form emphasizes the importance of this entry: "coming from a man who participated in near[l]y every 'banana war' from the turn-of-the-century to 1931, his anti-war and anti-interventionist 1 "2 speeches cannot be dismissed or overlooked." The form goes on to note that the documentary's use of archival recordings vividly places contemporary events in a historical context.

1994:

Voices of Our World [program #9449, 1994-12-04]. Maryknoll World Productions, Maryknoll, N.Y. Entry number 94008 NWR; 1/4 in. cassette master; 28 mins. Vicki Immerman and Chuck Call discuss their activities toward the goal of

closing the School of the Americas at Fort Benning in Georgia. Revolutions on the Radio 17

Chile

There are four entries about Chile, all related to activities under the Pinochet regime.

1984:

Perspective [1984]. "Chile." ABC, New York, N.Y. Entry number 84021 NWR; 1/4 in. cassette master; 8 mins., 48 sees. James Wooten discusses the Chilean love and history of democracy, and the destruction of that ideal by the Pinochet regime.

The files include a transcript of the essay.

1998:

Assignment [1998-1 1-26]. "Chile, Pinochet's Legacy." BBC, London, United Kingdom.

Entry number 98041 DCR; 1/4 in. cassette master; 27 mins., 30 sees. Oana Lungescu, a Romanian journalist and broadcaster, was already in Chile working on a documentary about how that country was trying to move from years of a dictatorship toward democracy, when Spain started extradition proceedings against General Augusto Pinochet after his arrival in London. Her report

was timely in helping the British public to understand the situation. The file includes a transcript.

7999:

BBC News [1999- 12-09]. "Murder on Embassy Row." BBC, London, United Kingdom.

Entry number 99036 NWR; 1/4 in. cassette master; 46 mins., 5 sees. Steve Bradshaw interviews Isabel Letelier about her quest to find out the truth about her husband's murder. Orlando Letelier was a former ambassador to the United States under the Allende government. He was killed in a car bombing in Washington, D.C., in 1976. Many people claimed that Pinochet was responsible for the murder.

2001:

Making Terror, Breaking Terror [Part 2, 2001-11-30]. BBC, London, United Kingdom.

Entry number 2001010 DCR; 1/4 in. cassette master and CD; entry form says 29 mins., 55 sees. Covers former Chilean President Pinochet's "Operation

Condor" to eliminate dissidents and members of the opposition. This is the second of a three-part series.

Colombia

The two entries covering Colombia present two approaches to the political situation in that country.

1985:

Terrorismo: Camino al caos (Terrorism: The road to chaos). Voice of America,

Washington, D.C. Entry number 85034 DCR; 1/4 in. cassette master; 24 mins.,

11 sees. In Spanish. The audiotape is accompanied by an English transcript of the documentary and a memorandum from Richard Araujo to Herb Koster, both of Voice of America. The event was the M19 takeover of the Colombian 8

1 Laura D. Shedenhelm

Supreme Court on November 7, 1985. The tape opens with a reporter attempting to speak with Chief Justice Alfonso Reyes Echandia during the crisis. Later

one survivor describes how the guerrillas had decided to kill all of the hostages, one by one. By the end of the three -day ordeal, over 100 people were dead including the guerrillas and Chief Justice Reyes Echandia.

1998:

La FM: Cita histórica por la paz en San Vicente (Historical appointment with peace

in San Vicente). RCN, Bogotá, Colombia. Entry number 98037 NWR; 1/4 in.

cassette master; 3 tapes, each about 1 hour. In Spanish. Diego Fajardo and María Elvira Arango cover the attempts to reach a peace agreement between the FARC (Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia) and the president of

Colombia, Andres Pastrana. The entry has an alternate title from the tapes: La FM de Radio Cadena Nacional de Colombia, South America. Cuba

This is the largest group related to the topic. There are twenty-two entries in this bibliography representing twenty-three Peabody entries about Cuba. The dates range from 1958 to 1999. Cuba has been in the news during May of 2002. This may result in entries to the 2002 Peabody Awards concerning former President Jimmy Carter's visit to the island.

1958:

As I See It. WCAU, Philadelphia, Pa. Entry number 58014 NWR. There are no tapes for this series reported by Charles Shaw. However, there are ten transcripts for programs aired during 1958, seven of which relate Shaw's experiences in

Cuba during a ten-day visit to the "zone of hostilities," Castro's camp in the mountains, and his interview with Raúl Castro. Compare to Ed King's reports

in 1960.

1959:

News of 1959. "Castro in Cuba." CBS, New York, N.Y. Entry number 59019 NWR; tran-

scription disc; 49 mins., 10 sees. The entry is accompanied by a spiral-bound book (36 pages including the covers) with photographs and brief biographies of

the various correspondents. The disc is a composite of twelve important stories

during the year. The eleventh story is Stuart Novins's reporting on the collapse of the Batista government and the subsequent actions by Castro's troops. This

is the earliest radio clip on the topic found in the collection.

1960:

Castro's Cuba. KDKA, Pittsburgh, Pa. Entry number 60026 NWR. The entry form

indicated that there was a tape, but it could not be found. However, there are

transcripts of all of Ed King's broadcasts. King visited Cuba several times dur-

ing his life. He submitted twelve 5-minute programs comparing his observations of prerevolutionary and postrevolutionary Cuba. Compare this coverage to Charles Shaw's observations from 1958. 98

Revolutions on the Radio 1

1961:

The Anatomy of a Broken Promise. Voice of America/USIA, Washington, D.C. Entry

number 61006 PRR; 1/4 in. tape on 1200 ft. reel; 60 mins., 40 sees. The focus

of the entry is the many promises made by Castro when he was in the Sierra Maestras. Narrator William McCrory tries to find out what happened to those promises. The entry includes a 45-page transcript of the program.

Dade County, 1961 (also titled Cuba, 1961). WCKR, Miami, Fla. Entry number 61011

NWR; 1/4 in. tape on 1200 ft. reel; 28 mins. The entry form describes the tape as a "chronological recap of [the] Cuban situation from [the] U.S. diplomatic

break to [a] surface sketch of [the] invasion attempt and other Cuban developments as related to this area," Dade County, Florida.

1962.

All America Wants to Know: Impatient Exiles. Special Net, Washington, D.C. Entry number 62019 PSR; associated television entry 62009 PST. This was a special television documentary program produced in Miami about the Cuban refugees. The audio part of the program may have been broadcasted over radio. The entry form indicates that a transcript (not found in the paper archives) and a kinescope were sent.

The Cuban Crisis. Voice of America, Washington, D.C. Entry number 62012 PSR;

1/4 in. tape on 1200 ft. reel; 16 mins., 10 sees. The composite tape has origi-

nal speeches and translated clips that were rebroadcasted later. The entry form describes this as a report about the activities of Voice of America dur-

ing the crisis. A 15-by-20-inch portfolio accompanies this entry, and includes Kennedy's speech on October 22, 1962. This speech was translated into Spanish and Portuguese and rebroadcasted throughout Latin America.

Fitchburg Civil Defense in the Cuban Crisis. WEIM, Fitchburg, Mass. Entry number

62023 NWR; 1/4 in. tape on 1200 ft. reel; 17 mins., 32 sees. This is a composite tape of news stories and editorials about the civil defense preparedness of Fitchburg, Massachusetts. The station investigated the lack of shelters,

questioning what would have happened if the missiles had been fired from

Cuba. Report given by Ed Horgan; editorial written by James A. Fitzgerald Jr.

Includes parts of John F. Kennedy's speech about the Cuban missile sites.

Giftsfor Gitmo. KPRC, Houston, Tex. Entry number 62077 PSR; 1/4 in. tape on 1200 ft.

reel; 17 mins., 30 sees. The tape is a history of the project to provide Christmas

gifts for the men stationed in Cuba during the missile crisis. It includes samples of the announcements and reports from Chuck Ferris and Tom Jarriel from the

base at Guantánamo. There is a spiral-bound booklet that includes photographs and six transcripts of radio announcements about the drive. Independent News Coverage. WNEW, New York, N.Y. Entry numbers 62050 NWR

and 62083 PSR; 1/4 in. tape on 1200 ft. reel; 18 tapes. Because of the way the

paper archives are arranged, these two entries are combined here. There are 1 tapes in the news composite (62050 NWR) of the year's most important stories, however, none of them cover the period in October covering the Cuban missile crisis. The paper archive supporting the programming does have an entire 20 Laura D. Shedenhelm

section devoted to the station's coverage of the crisis. Additionally, in the sec-

tion called "News for Women," there is a description of a program on October 24, 1962, including Reid Collins, James Van Sickle, and Henry Cassidy discussing the "The Cuban Crisis."

1962, Dade County's Year of Crisis. WCKR, Miami, Fla. Entry number 62010 NWR;

1/4 in. tape on 1200 ft. reel; 2 tapes, 52 mins., 5 sees. News director Les Smith discusses the effects of the Cuban crisis on the Dade County community. Reporters include John Ingle, Micky Lamonica, and Don Baker. Various people from the Dade County region are interviewed, including James Russell, editor of the Miami Herald, and Bill Bags, editor of Miami News.

The Quiet War. KNBR, San Francisco, Calif. Entry number 62007 PSR; 1/4 in. tape

on 1200 ft. reel; 30 mins. The program presents the use of shortwave radio broadcasts as propaganda or information, depending on one's point of view,

from Moscow, China, the United States, and Cuba. It includes two clips from

Havana: the first about conditions of workers in Brazil, and the second about flour production.

1963:

Castro: Interview and Comment. ABC, New York, N.Y. Entry number 63015 NWR; associated television entry 63023 NWT. This was an hour-long television interview by Lisa Howard, followed by comments from Senators Kenneth Keating

(R-N.Y.) and Hubert Humphry (D-Minn.). Again, it seems that the audio part

may have been broadcasted on radio. There is no audio or videotape in the col-

lection, but the entire transcript of the interview (without the commentaries) is included.

1974:

News Coverage of Cuban-American Relations. WNEW, New York, N.Y. Entry number

74037 PRR; 1/4 in. tape on 2500 ft. reel; 62 mins., 1 sec. "News Director Dick Stapleton and news analyst Edward Brown traveled to Cuba with Senators Jacob K. Javits and Claiborne Pell. They reported frequently and fully on the

visit, including the meeting with Primier Castro and the massive CDR rally in 15 Revolution Square."

7977:

Cuba Now. WXRT, Chicago, 111. Entry number 77033 NWR; 1/4 in. tape on 1200 ft.

reel; 32 mins., 5 sees. The program is a series of four "mini-documentaries":

(1) a piece on the Cuban economy (8 mins.); (2) a piece on American hijackers

living in Cuba (6 mins., 35 sees.); (3) a piece about changes in Cuban life since the revolution (6 mins., 40 sees.); and (4) an article on Fidel Castro (8 mins., 20 sees.).

1980:

Second Sunday [1980-07-11]. "They, the Unwanted." NBC, New York, N.Y. Entry

number 80050 DCR; 1/4 in. tape on 1200 ft. reel; 29 mins. The program is about Revolutions on the Radio 21

the worldwide refugee issue in general, and discusses the Cuban refugees in

particular. There is a transcript of the program. The reporter is Gary Nunn.

1981:

Twentieth Anniversary Historical Features. WAMU-FM, Washington, D.C. Entry num-

ber 81003 EDR; 1/4 in. cassette master; 46 mins. This tape celebrates twenty years of broadcasting for the station. There are twenty-three segments of about 2 minutes each, including a segment on the Cuban Missile Crisis.

1982:

Perspective [1982-10-31]. "20th Anniversary of the Cuban Missile Crisis." ABC, New

York, N.Y. Entry number 82047 NWR; 1/4 in. tape on 1200 ft. reel; 21 mins. Reporter Bob Walker interviews John Scali and Sander Vanocur about their experiences as correspondents during the Cuban Missile Crisis.

1987:

Destruction Deferred: The Cuban Missile Crisis Remembered. NPR, Washington, D.C.

Entry number 87031 NWR; 1/4 in. cassette master; 17 mins., 10 sees. Reporter Bob Edwards combines new information with historical tapes to provide a fresh understanding of the events in 1962. Includes comments by Dean Rusk, Theodore Sorenson, Robert McNamara, and Fydor Berlotsky (former speech writer for Nikita Kurshchev). "They pointedly reveal how private decisions differed from public events."

1997:

The World [1997-10]. "Che Guevara: The Man Behind the Myth." WGBH, Boston,

Mass. Entry number 97009 NWR; 1/4 in. cassette master; 34 mins. In this four- part series broadcasted on October 6-9, 1997, Alejandra Martins explores the origins and the legacy of "the Argentine doctor turned Marxist rebel," Che 17 Guevara.

7999:

Dave Ross, C.B.S. Network Commentaries [#4, 1999-12-16]. "Due Process: Elian

González Story." KIRO, Seattle, Wash. Entry number 99006 NWR; 1/4 in. cas-

sette master; 2 mins. The tape is a composite of five essays by Dave Ross. The

fourth essay is about the Elian González situation. The files include a transcript of the essay.

Un siglo, diez historias (One century, ten stories) [1999-11-01]. "Che Guevara." BBC,

London, United Kingdom. Entry number 99004 DCR; 1/4 in. cassette master;

28 mins., 15 sees. According to the entry form, the program is not about what the revolutionary leader did, but rather what he was like as a man.

Dominican Republic

The Peabody Awards Collection holds one remarkable story about the shift of power from President Juan Bosch to General Antonio Imbert Barrerras. 22 Laura D. Shedenhelm

1965:

Special Report: Dominican Republic. KPFK, Berkeley, Calif. Entry number 65001 NWR. The collection has a 4-page single-spaced transcript of the June 20,

1965, program by KPFK News Director, Scott Keech. It concerns a dossier given by Juan Bosch to a Mr. Albert Ujcic of San Francisco, claiming that General Imbert had long-standing Communist ties and that this was known by U.S. Embassy officials.

Grenada

The five entries about Grenada are all from 1983. The entries range from the totally dispassionate reporting from a CBS correspondent in the United States to the involved woman-on-the-street reporting directly from Grenada.

1983:

Grenada: The Fall of the Revolution [Part I]. NPR, Washington, D.C. Entry number

83051 DCR; 1/4 in. cassette master; 26 mins., 30 sees. This is the first of a two- part story. The two producers were in Grenada as part of a Caribbean education project. Amina Hassan, an American radio producer, was in Grenada for a year with her four daughters and fellow producer Don Foster. There are eleven clips in the story, including one by Hassan from the streets while recording the events

surrounding the attempted freeing of Maurice Bishop. The tape is accompanied by a narrator's script and cue sheet for the clips from Hassan and Foster.

Grenada Invasion. ABC, New York, N.Y. Entry number 83032 NWR; 1/4 in. cassette master; 4 mins., 20 sees. Bob Schmidt comments on the "logistical night-

mare" of covering the Grenada invasion. The paper files include a transcript of Schmidt's comments and an explanatory letter on ABC News letterhead, dated October 31, 1983, giving times and dates of related broadcasts. Perspective [1983-11-13]. "Beirut/Grenada." ABC, New York, N.Y. Entry number

83035 NWR; 1/4 in. cassette master; 11 mins., 15 sees. Richard Threlkeld com- pares the situation in Beirut to that in Grenada, and the lessons learned by President Johnson in the Dominican Republic and Vietnam to the current presi-

dential actions. The paper files include a complete transcript of his essay.

Sunday Morning [1983-10-30]. "Operation Urgent Fury: The Invasion of Grenada."

CBC, Toronto, Canada. Entry number 83055 DCR; 1/4 in. cassette master;

42 mins., 40 sees. There are four sections: (1) gunships over Grenada; (2) Canadians at risk; (3) speaking out with a big stick; and (4) the Caribbean basin at the crossroads.

You Talk [1983-10-25]. "Lebanon the Killing Ground— excerpts." KOA, Denver, Colo.

Entry number 83007 PSR; 1/4 in. cassette master; 27 mins., 17 sees. The entry

form for this program states "during the program little attention is paid to a

CBS News Special Report telling of the invasion of a little known island called

Grenada." The program is a call-in talk show hosted by Ken Hamblin. The topic of the day was the October 23, 1983, bombing of the marine barracks in Beirut, which killed 240 people. Near the end of the composite tape, CBS correspondent Judy Muller talks with Sandy Gilmore in Barbados about an Revolutions on the Radio 23

unconfirmed report that the United States had invaded Grenada. This is exemplary of the serendipitous nature of the collection.

Guatemala

There are five entries from 1980 through 1999 about the human rights struggles in Guatemala.

1980:

Guatemala: Prelude to a Struggle. NPR and WGBH, Cambridge, Mass. Entry number

80048 DCR; 1/4 in. tape on 1200 ft. reel; 29 mins., 45 sees. Using interviews with journalists, labor leaders, peasants, priests, public and private officials; Deborah Stavro and James Bradford investigate human rights violations in Guatemala as reported by Amnesty International.

1985:

Sunday Morning [1985-03-10]. "Guatemala." CBC, Toronto, Canada. Entry number

85056 DCR; 1/4 in. cassette master; 35 mins. Reporter Elizabeth Hay spent two weeks in Central America. Among the people she interviewed for this report were Archbishop Prospero Penados del Barrio, Frank LaRue, Guatemalan Col. Hector Rosales, Venicio Serezo, Jorge González, and Carlos Alberto Ramirez Pereira.

1987:

Guatemala: Culture of Fear. Seventh Generation Fund, Forestville, Calif. Entry number 87047 DCR; 1/4 in. cassette master; 28 mins. This program was broad-

casted through NPR stations. It reports on the Mayan Indians who were forced to flee their homes in the highlands of Guatemala to escape the war between the army and the guerillas. Featured personalities include Arturo Ramírez, Domatilla Canek, Rigoberta Menchii, Margarita Garcia, Father Jim Curtin, and Mark Silverman.

7996:

The World. "Body of Work by Native Journalists." WGBH, Boston, Mass. Entry num-

ber 96002 INR; 1/4 in. cassette master; 40 mins., 50 sees. The entry includes stories from Russia, Hungary, and Mexico. Andrea Dabrowski covers the plight

of the Guatemalan refugees living in Mexico in her story (5 mins., 22 sees.). The entry also includes an article from Inside the World (PRFs newsletter) about Mariusa Reyes's coverage of the Nicaraguan 1990 elections.

1999:

Latino USA [1999-11-19]. "Who Were the Torturers? The Betrayal of Sister Dianna Ortiz"; [1999-1 1-26], "Surviving Torture: The Search for Healing." Entry num-

ber 99038 DCR; 1/4 in. cassette master; 1 10 mins. This is a two-part story about the torture of the nun Sister Dianna Ortiz in Guatemala, and her work to find out who was responsible. 24 Laura D. Shedenhelm

Haití

The six stories from 1963 through 1997 demonstrate a recurring theme of poverty and unrest.

1963:

Headache in Haiti [episode #5]. "Haiti ... So What?" Westinghouse Broadcasting,

New York, N.Y. Entry number 63021 NWR; 1/4 in. tape on 1200 ft. reel; 28

mins., 1 1 sees. Walter McGraw narrates and reports. The tape includes an interview with Louis Dejoie, cochairman of the exile government. A 2-page highlights document indicates that the other episodes were called the following:

[1] "Haiti ... In Living Black and White," [2] "Dialogue on Death," [3] "The

Other Haitians," and [4] "The Week of Tension."

1992:

All Things Considered [1992-02-20]. "Uprooting Democracy: Human Rights After the Coup in Haiti." NPR, Washington, D.C. Entry number 92012 NWR; 1/4

in. cassette master; 15 mins., 8 sees. Linda Wertheimer introduces the piece by reporter Alan Tomlinson. People interviewed include Elisine Petitfrere, Narcisse Valjean, Jean-Sebastian Roi, Michel Adelson, and Father Antoine

Adrienne. There is a transcript of the tape.

1994:

Dan Rather Reporting. CBS, New York, N.Y. Entry number 94020 NWR; 1/4 in. cassette master; 12 mins., 55 sees. Of the five commentaries included on this composite tape, three are from Haiti (September 15, 1994; September 16, 1994; and

September 19, 1994).

Haiti: A Return to Democracy. CBS, New York, N.Y. Entry number 94019 NWR; 1/4

in. cassette master; 12 mins., 27 sees. The composite tape includes reports from Dan Raviv and Robert Berger, and excerpts from Dan Rather's interview with General Raoul Cedras.

Haiti Coverage. Westwood One, Arlington, Va. Entry number 94006 NWR; 1/4 in.

cassette master; 8 mins., 12 sees. This is a compilation tape of twelve clips by Ross Simpson and Joe Walsh from their coverage of the intervention of the U.S. Marines in Haiti. Clip eleven discusses Jean Bertrand Aristride's return to the country with Secretary of State Christopher Warren, William Gray, Jesse Jackson, and Randall Robinson of Trans-Africa.

7997:

The World. "Waiting for Change: Haiti's Troubled Democracy." WGBH, Boston, Mass.

Entry number 97008 NWR; 1/4 in. cassette master; 31 mins., 5 sees. This is a five-part series by Mariusa Reyes. She looks at why the island remains in pov-

erty, hunger, and political unrest. Revolutions on the Radio 25

Mexico

The two entries in this category are interesting in their diversity. One is a historical story, and the other looks at the plight of Guatemalan refugees seeking shelter in an area torn by internal political strife.

1984:

Writers of the Purple Sage: Origins of a National Myth [1984-10-26]. "Down Mexico Way: Images of Pancho Villa" (Allí en México: Imágenes de Pancho Villa).

Tucson Public Library, Tucson, Ariz. Entry number 84012 DCR 4/4; 1/4 in. cassette master; side A: English version, 28 mins., 52 sees.; side B: Spanish

version, 28 mins., 47 sees. The entry is one of four half-hour episodes. Side A

of the tape is in English and side B is in Spanish. There are also five laminated cards for the series flyer and the bibliographies for each episode.

1998:

The World. "Tony Kahn's Journal. Tony Turok." WGBH, Boston, Mass. Entry number

98004 NWR; 1/4 in. cassette master and DAT master; 50 mins. "Tony Kahn's

Journal" is part of the BBC World Service program The World. The compos-

ite tape covers six episodes, the fourth of which is an interview with photo- journalist Tony Turok about his encounter with Sub-Comandante Marcos and the Zapatista revolt in Chiapas, Mexico. Turok discusses his book The End of Silence.

Nicaragua

Four of the six stories from 1980 through 1996 are related to the Iran-Contra Affair.

1980:

A Nicaraguan Shaggy Dog Story: Foreign Aid to Nicaragua. WRFM, New York, N.Y.

Entry number 80051 PSR; 1/4 in. tape on 1200 ft. reel; 4 mins. News director Jim Branch comments about giving nearly $100 million in aid to Nicaragua.

1987:

The Iran-Contra Affair: A Special Report [1987-07-30]. NPR, Washington, D.C. Entry

number 87025 NWR; 1/4 in. cassette master; 28 mins., 23 sees. The entry is for the series of forty-one half-hour special reports distilling each day's testimony,

broadcasted between May 5 and August 3, 1987. The representative tape is

from July 30, 1987. There is also a transcript of the tape. In 1992 Daniel Schorr won a Peabody Award for the body of his work (Peabody entry 92008 INR). However, that set of essays did not include an excerpt from his commentary

about Iran-Contra, even though the entry form mentions this incident.

Pacifica Network National Contragate Coverage. Pacifica Network, Berkeley, Calif.

Entry number 87015 NWR; 1/4 in. cassette master; tape 1: 74 mins., 11 sees.; 26 Laura D. Shedenhelm

tape 2: 44 mins.; tape 3: 59 mins., 55 sees., tape 4: 89 mins., 20 sees. Includes

a sheet giving broadcast times and dates. Tape 1: Pacifica's Gavel to Gavel Coverage: IraniContrabate Hearings, with anchor Larry Bensky, has a summary of Richard Secors's testimony. Tape 2: Analysis and Commentary on IraniContragate Hearings, summary from the July 24 testimony of Secretary

of State George Schultz. Tape 3: America: At War with the World (also called Diane James: Contragate Highlites). Tape 4: Untangling the Web, with Larry Bensky summarizing his sense of the hearings' shortcomings and interviewing participants.

1989:

Soundprint [1989-07-05]. "Ten Years After: The Nicaraguan Contras." WJHU,

Baltimore, Md. Entry number 89022 DCR; 1/4 in. cassette master; 28 mins., 20 sees. Chris Brookes produced and reported this story, also called "Happy

Birthday Freedom Fighters" according to the credits at the end of the tape. He interviews people in Florida, Honduras, and Nicaragua, including Julio Samoza, Adolfo Calero, Eileen Tobin, José Gabriel López, Gema Velasquez, Susan Cooksen, Tim Tecaro, Jaime Bengo Chea, Javier Gorestiaga, and Alejandro Bendana. Near the end of the tape, Oliver North gives a speech in Miami.

1990:

Nicaragua Journal: The Georgia Connection. Peach State Public Radio, Atlanta, Ga.

Entry number 90044 DCR; 1/4 in. cassette master; 60 mins., 10 sees. Coverage of the delegation observing the voting in the Nicaraguan presidential election between Daniel Ortega and Violetta Chamorro. Former U.S. President Jimmy Carter and Georgia Congressman Ben Jones were among delegates.

1996:

Madison! WWRC-AM, Silver Spring, Md. Entry number 96012 NWR; 1/4 in. cassette

master; tape 1: 46 mins., 5 sees.; tape 2: 75 mins., 50 sees.; tape 3: 37 mins.,

10 sees.; tape 4: 39 mins.; tape 5: 75 mins. Joe Madison, an African American talk show host, dedicated several of his programs to the sale of drugs in the African American community to raise funds for the Iran-Contra deal. Oliver

North is featured on at least 2 of the tapes. Panama

There is only one entry for Panama, which covers the 1964 riots in front of the American Embassy.

1964:

Panama Crisis. WMEX, Boston, Mass. Entry number 64013 NWR. While the entry

form indicates that a tape was sent, it cannot be located. There is a spiral-bound booklet that includes an explanatory letter about the entry, a letter from the White House Press Secretary George E. Reedy, several wire-service entries Revolutions on the Radio 27

about the riots, an article from Reader 's Digest, and complete transcripts of two

telephone calls by reporter Dick Levitan to Panama: (1) to the U.S. Embassy,

which was under siege; and (2) to President Roberto Chiari of Panama.

El Salvador

There are five entries about El Salvador, ranging from 1983 to 1998, including the only Peabody Award-winning entry related to this topic.

1983:

All Things Considered [1983]. "Selected Commentaries by Adam Hochschild." NPR,

San Francisco, Calif. Entry number 83002 NWR; 1/4 in. cassette master; 9

mins., 10 sees. The first essay of five is about civil rights in El Salvador. It aired

on January 24, 1983. Unfortunately, the tape begins abruptly so it is not certain

that the whole essay is included.

Common Ground [program #8323, 1983-06-07]. "Personal Witness: Life and Death in El Salvador." Stanley Foundation, Muscatine, Iowa. Entry number 83031

DCR; 1/4 in. tape on 1200 ft. reel; 28 mins., 46 sees. Reporter Jeff Martin interviews Sister Charlotte Seubert about her experiences during the eighteen years she spent in El Salvador. She discusses her observation of bodies of executed people being moved from one department to another so that the family members could not travel to identify them. She also knew the four nuns who were killed. Her personal opinion was that their only crime was feeding the hungry and giving shelter to women and children.

1984:

Perspective [1984]. "El Salvador." ABC, New York, N.Y. Entry number 84020 NWR;

1/4 in. cassette master; 10 mins., 45 sees. Includes a biography of the reporter Anne Garrels and a transcript of her essay about a guerilla massacre in a remote village in El Salvador.

1989:

Weekend Edition Saturday [1989-11-18]. "The Murder of 6 Jesuit Priests in El

Salvador." NPR, Washington, D.C. Entry number 89028 NWR; 1/4 in. cassette master; 17 mins., 55 sees. Scott Simon's moving essay about the murder of the

priests he had known is one of four essays included on the tape. Winner of the Peabody Award for host and essayist Scott Simon. The citation may be viewed at http://www.peabody.uga.edu/recipients/search.html.

1998:

Voices of Our World [1998-11-29]. "Martyrs Remembered." Maryknoll World Produc-

tions, Maryknoll, N.Y. Entry number 98035 DCR; 1/4 in. cassette master and DAT master; 28 mins. Father Steve De Mott talks with the families of nuns Ita Ford and Maura Clarke, and friends of Sister Dorothy Kazel and missionary Jean Donovan, who were murdered in El Salvador in 1980. The entry includes a transcript. 28 Laura D. Shedenhelm

NOTES

1. Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary (Springfield, Mass.: Merriam, 1975), p. 992.

2. About the Peabody Awards, http://www.peabody.uga.edu/about/index.html, accessed May 24, 2002.

3. Ibid.

4. Peabody Awards Collection, http://www.libs.uga.edu/peabody/pbacoll.html, accessed May 24, 2002.

5. Peabody Awards— Winners, http://www.peabody.uga.edu/recipients/search.html, accessed May 24, 2002.

6. Peabody Awards Collection, The Network of the Americas (La cadena de las Americas), leaves 9-10.

7. Ibid., leaf 15.

8. Peabody Awards Collection, The Rights ofMan. Peace by Justice, entry form.

9. Peabody Awards Collection, Contemporary Revolution in Latin America, entry form.

10. Peabody Awards Collection, What's the Score in Latin America? entry form.

11. Peabody Awards Collection, Operation International Understanding, entry form.

12. Peabody Awards Collection, Central America: Friends and Enemies, entry form.

13. Peabody Awards Collection, The Smedley Butler Story, entry form.

14. Peabody Awards Collection, Dade County, 1961, entry form.

15. Peabody Awards Collection, News Coverage of Cuban-American Relations, entry form.

16. Peabody Awards Collection, Destruction Deferred: The Cuban Missile Crisis Remem- bered, entry form.

17. Peabody Awards Collection, The World [1997-10], "Che Guevara: The Man Behind the Myth," entry form.

18. Peabody Awards Collection, Grenada Invasion, transcript of Bob Schmidt's comments.

19. Peabody Awards Collection, You Talk [1983-10-25], "Lebanon the Killing Ground- excerpts," entry form. 3. Atlantic Crossings: The Trade in Latin American Books in Europe in the Nineteenth Century

Geoffrey West

This paper is general because it offers an overview and some provisional conclusions, and specific because it looks in some detail at how, why, and from

whom the library of the British Museum acquired the basis of its collection

of Latin American imprints over the period 1 840-1900. ' The acquisition of Latin American books by the British Museum during the nineteenth century can be divided into three periods: the years before the spectacular Andrade sale; the years 1869-1880, which embrace the three great sales, those of the libraries of Andrade, Fischer, and Ramirez; and the year 1881 until the end of the century.

Before the Andrade Sale

Serious collecting by the British Museum of Latin American imprints, indeed of any foreign books, did not begin until 1846 when Antonio Panizzi, Keeper of Printed Books (1837-1856), secured a significant increase in the purchase grant. 2 Until then, the most important Latin American items to enter the library of the British Museum had come as part of the foundation 3 gift of Sir Hans Sloane in 1753. The first major purchase of Latin American

imprints occurred in January 1 843 when the museum acquired a consignment of books from the leading London bookseller Thomas Rodd the Younger. These included some 185 items printed in Peru between 1585 and 1839. Rodd acquired these books at the sale in Paris of books collected in Peru by Amédée Chaumette des Fossés (1782-1841). 4 The coincidences between items in the sale catalogue of the latter's books and items listed in Rodd's 1843 catalogue make this highly likely, although not conclusive. 5 Chaumette des Fossés was a notable polyglot and a member of several learned societies. He had served France overseas for more than twenty years before being posted to Lima in 1826, first as "inspecteur du commerce," then as consul general. A fifteen-year stay in the country gave him ample opportunity to add a number of manuscripts and printed books to an already valuable library. 6 The Rodd family had

a tradition of dealing in Hispanic, largely Spanish, material, and it is consistent

that they should have been interested in the material at the sale in Paris in November 1842.

29 30 Geoffrey West

London was an important center for the trade in Hispanic books in the

1840s, as it had been since the 1820s when both Vicente Salva and Obadiah 7 Rich had set up as booksellers there. It was Rich who provided the ambitious

American book dealer Henry Stevens with his first major coup after the latter 's arrival in London, namely, the acquisition of many items from the Henri Ternaux-Compans collection of Americana. Ternaux-Compans had sold part of his library in 1 844 to Rich, who had informed John Carter Brown of this by 8 letter. Stevens thus already had a potential customer and Brown duly obliged, eagerly purchasing 378 titles relating to both North and South America. It is important to note that the overwhelming majority of these books were printed in Europe. 9 Ternaux-Compans had been a previous owner also of the Spanish colonial manuscripts known as the Rich Collection, now in the New York Public Library. 10 He had sold them to Rich some time between 1844 and 1848, during which the latter had produced a sale catalogue in an edition of just twenty-five copies. 11 However, in 1847 Stevens was already trying to interest James Lenox in the manuscripts. 12 In 1848 Rich sold them to Lenox through Stevens. 13

Rich, however, did not purchase all of the Hispanic books in the Ternaux- Compans collection, because the Berlin bookseller Adolphus Asher possessed a number of valuable items. Asher was probably the most important supplier of European books to the British Museum and assisted Panizzi in his aim of creating a universal research library. Ternaux-Compans had been one of 14 Asher 's most assiduous clients. In September 1842 the museum had already purchased from Asher a consignment of approximately ninety Hispanic books of which two incunables and several sixteenth-century imprints had belonged to Ternaux-Compans. However, just two Latin American imprints figure among them (both printed in Guatemala: one in 1667 and the other in 1808). 15 Then, in

1 846, the museum acquired a further 22 items that had belonged to him, the vast majority relating to the indigenous languages of Central and South America. 16

1869-1880: The Andrade, Fischer, and Ramirez Sales

It is during this second period that an unprecedented number of books made the Atlantic crossing from Mexico to Europe. 17 The agent of this movement was Father Agustín Fischer, the German-born Jesuit who had his hand in all three major sales. The immediate catalyst was the fall and execution of the emperor Maximilian. A previous factor had been the suppression of monastic libraries after 1855, which had permitted all three collectors to increase their own libraries considerably. Several books acquired by the British Museum show signs of this provenance: library stamps of religious institutions and occasionally branding marks on fore-edges. 18 The library of José María Andrade, a bookseller and bibliophile, was sold to Maximilian in 1 865 in order to form the basis of a projected imperial library. Maximilian's execution and the end of the empire project prompted The Trade in Latin American Books 31

Father Agustín Fischer to have the books parcelled up, transported to Veracruz on pack mules, and sent to Europe. The Andrade library was auctioned by List and Francke of Leipzig in January 1869. 19 The sale consisted of 4,484

lots. The British Museum, through Asher, purchased 597 items (considerably more in numbers of physical volumes) in April 1869 and a further 4 items, 20 all early imprints, in December that year. Although the Andrade collection contained much Old World material (broadly lots 1-1,737), the museum concentrated from the outset on the Mexican (lots 2,145-^4,480) and other Latin American items. The Keeper of Printed Books, Thomas Watts, had asked for permission from the trustees to spend £1,000 from his annual grant (£10,000) to acquire Mexican items, arguing that this was a library "rich to an unex-

21 ampled degree." Of the first 1,737 lots, the museum purchased just 56 items,

and from the remainder it purchased 541 items. The acquisitions included seven sixteenth-century Mexican imprints, including Zumárraga's Doctrina breve (1543/1544) and Alonso de Molina's Vocabulario en lengua castellana y mexicana (1555). 22 Also acquired were recent periodicals, and a consider- able number of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century historical, political, and religious printed documents and pamphlets. The nineteenth-century pamphlets include some 130 directed against the Napoleonic invasion of Spain, over half printed in Mexico, although the lot 1 ,073 was placed in the French history section of the catalogue. The religious documents include sixty-three pastorals of

Mexican bishops and archbishops dating from 1734 to 1864 (lots 2,313-2,325). Among the Mexican historical and political materials are a "collection de 1998

pieces politiques, historiques, archéologiques, proclamations . . . conc^rnant le Mexique, imprimes de 1745 jusqu'en 1864," including "une proclamation de l'empereur Iturbide imprimée en or" (lot 3,901), and eight volumes of the writings of Lizardi (lot 3,798). 23 The choice of periodicals was broad, embrac- ing literature, politics, and illustrated magazines. The total expenditure by the museum in April was £1,090 7s. 6d., and in December (on the four sixteenth- century books) a further £292 4s. 3d. The nature of these purchases tallies with what Watts had highlighted in his memo to the trustees on January 6:

"the earliest books printed in Mexico and . . . many sets of periodicals and collections of fugitive pieces" (fol. 6v). Among other major purchasers at the Andrade sale was H. H. Bancroft: Fernández de Córdoba notes that the bookseller J. Whittaker of London bought more than three thousand volumes on his behalf (now at the Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley). 24

In the British Library archive of invoices, Asher 's invoice for purchases at the Andrade sale is immediately followed by three invoices from Trubner, also for Mexican books. The total cost was £308 16s. 2d. Although these invoices were stamped by the museum with the same date as Asher's, the purchases were all made in 1868. None of the books examined has the bookplate of the Mexican

Imperial Library and the most likely source is Fischer's own collection, some of which were sold at a preliminary sale in Paris on November 3^, 1868. 25 32 Geoffrey West

The auction of the bulk of Fischer's library took place at Puttick and

Simpson in London on June 1, 1869. Fischer had succeeded in becoming adviser to Maximilian, and following the emperor's execution, Fischer fled to Europe taking his library with him. These books were his, however he may

have acquired them even though the title page of the sale catalogue reads "Bibliotheca mejicana" without mentioning his name. 26 The museum again purchased heavily, this time through the bookseller Boone, but not on the scale

it had at the Andrade sale. This was in spite of Watts 's having succeeded for a second time in obtaining permission to spend up to £1,000 from his depart- mental grant. 27 Unlike the Andrade sale, the Fischer sale comprised almost exclusively material relating to Mexico or Latin America. The number of lots acquired by the museum was 125 out of 2,038 at a total cost of £452 9s.— this included 4 items out of 923 additional lots from two libraries, one of which had belonged to the philologist Carl Hermann Berendt. 28 The selection criteria were broadly similar to those employed in the Andrade sale. A further thirteen sixteenth-century imprints were acquired. 29 Collections of printed, and manuscript, historical documents again figured prominently: the most notable being lot 521 consisting of thirty-three volumes entitled "Documentos históricos mexicanos" and described in the catalogue as "an extraordinary collection of treatises, tracts and pamphlets on almost every subject that agitated the Spanish colonies during the three centuries succeeding the discovery of America." The documents date from 1604 to 1852 and the price paid was £67. Seven lots (nos. 652-658) were purchased consisting of funeral orations for religious and

secular figures, covering the period 1666 to 1864, at a total cost of £17 9s. 6d. Collections of ecclesiastical documents were also purchased, for example, two volumes of material from 1567 to 1773 relating to the Dominican order (lots 528-529). By comparison with the Andrade sale, the number of periodicals and of literary works available and acquired was considerably fewer. However, the Gazeta de México (Mexico, 1728-1739, 1784-1809), described as "the first regular newspaper ... in South America," was purchased in 2 lots (nos. 704-705) for £10 5s. Whittaker again acted for Bancroft at the sale. The sale of the library of José Fernando Ramirez, a statesman, historian, and bibliophile, took place in London at Puttick and Simpson, July 7-13, 30 1880. Having anticipated the fall of Maximilian, Ramirez moved to Bonn in

1 867 and lived there until his death in 1 87 1 . His books were purchased from his heirs and made their return crossing of the Atlantic to Mexico where they were sold on condition that they did not again leave the country. However, Father Fischer had a hand in the new owner's decision to send them back across the Atlantic, this time to London. 31 The number of lots in the sale was 1,290— of these 934 were Ramirez's books, the other 356 had belonged to another Mexican collector. The British Museum purchased 108 lots at a cost of £742 lid., including the commission paid to Henry Stevens who was acting for the museum. 32 Stevens also represented Bancroft who appears to have The Trade in Latin American Books 33 spent around £1,000. Other major purchasers included Ricardo Heredia and, most conspicuously in cash terms, Bernard Quaritch, a London bookseller who subsequently produced a catalogue of 526 items "chiefly from the Library 33 of . . . Ramirez." On the recommendation of the Department of Printed Books, the trustees approved the expenditure of £500 at the Ramirez sale. The justification was the prospect of acquiring early imprints and works on the "archaeology, history and philology" of Mexico. 34 However, the prices fetched after just two days of the sale resulted in a further £250 being agreed. 35 The museum purchased a further ten sixteenth-century imprints. These fetched the highest prices: the top being the £71 for Alfonso de Veracruz's Recognitio summularum bound with Dialéctica resolutio, both printed in Mexico by Juan Pablos in 1554 (lot 885). Ramirez's early books were not exclusively Mexican: he owned two works by St. Antoninus of Florence, one an incunable (lot 44), and the other an early example of the work of Juan Cromberger (lot 45). The museum pur- 36 chased both, but at prices lower than the early Mexican books. Otherwise, the museum concentrated on substantial seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Mexican imprints, inevitably religious works or histories. This was at the expense of the kinds of primary material (political pamphlets, and historical and ecclesiastical documents) that had been acquired at the Andrade and

Fischer sales. However, the catalogue lists fewer such lots. Prices for the Mexican material were high. However, they had been just as high at the Andrade sale: Zumárraga's Doctrina breve had then cost £120, while the four sixteenth-century books invoiced by Asher in December 1869 cost, with commission, £292 4s. 3d. 37 The Department of Printed Books' annual purchase grant had remained stable at £10,000 since 1858/1859, but the amount allocated initially in 1879/1880 was £7,000, a cut imposed by the Treasury to fund the library at the recently relocated departments of natural 38 history at South Kensington. Moreover, competition in 1880 was fierce. Stevens, for the museum, was outbid by £25 by Bernard Quaritch for the 1557 Juan Pablos imprint of Alfonso Gutierrez's Phisica speculatio. However, the museum eventually acquired the item when Quaritch discovered the work was 39 defective and returned it, enabling Stevens to buy it for the museum for £55.

After Fischer

Space does not permit detailed examination of the museum's Latin American acquisitions after 1880. However, one important purchase must be mentioned: the purchase from Maisonneuve for just £30 in 1891 of a single volume containing three of the first four books printed in Lima. This volume contains a catechism in Spanish, Quechua, and Aymara; a confessor's manual, similarly trilingual; and another catechism. 40 This volume had belonged to

Amédée Chaumette des Fosses, previously mentioned in the first section of this paper, and then to Pierre Leopold van Alstein (1792-1862), a collector 34 Geoffrey West

of linguistic books and an associate professor at the University of Ghent. His 41 library was sold at auction in Ghent in May-June 1863. The museum purchased some 150 lots in languages ranging from Basque to Yoruba, including Quechua and Otomi. 42 The museum did not then acquire the single volume of three Lima imprints, however. Its whereabouts between 1863 and 1891 are unclear. No survey of the market in Hispanic books in the late-nineteenth century can be complete without mentioning the sales of the library of Ricardo Heredia 43 that took place in Paris between 1891 and 1894. These consisted largely of rare books, predominantly Hispanic, many of which had belonged to other notable collectors, namely, Salva and Ramirez. Thus, the three sixteenth-century

Mexican imprints the museum acquired at the 1891 sale all had belonged previ- 44 ously to Ramirez.

Conclusion

What can one conclude about the collection development policies of the museum during the second half of the nineteenth century and were these different from those of their North American rivals? I would propose that early imprints were the top priority, what one might call "Monumenta typo- graphica," in the terminology of Quaritch. 45 Next came fundamental works of scholarship: on history in all its branches and on Native American languages. These included scientific periodicals that began in the nineteenth century. The Department of Printed Books' reports on the Ramirez sale exemplify this prior- 46 itization. Accounts of exploration and travel were also considered important.

Primary material, that is, collections of political pamphlets and of historical and ecclesiastical documents were worth investing in, but possibly only as far as funds remained. In spite of this reservation, this last category is the most surprising, although it does still fit with the museum's universal approach to collection building that had begun with Panizzi. There were after all precious few potential scholars to exploit this raw material. British scholars of Latin America were limited then to a select handful: Robert Southey, who worked on Brazil in the early-nineteenth century, and Sir Clements Markham, who specialized in Peru and voyages of exploration.

It is however the universalist policy of the museum that explains the differences with what the major North American collectors were acquiring. The focus of collectors such as Carter Brown and Bancroft was much narrower than the museum's, that is, the discovery, exploration, and history of North and South America. The museum's library was striving to cover vast areas of the globe. As the nineteenth century advanced, the demands for current material from the United States and from mainland Europe increased. Moreover, there was a stream of rare European material entering the market constantly after 1870. These various factors may explain the different sums available to the museum's library for the Andrade and Fischer sales on the one hand and The Trade in Latin American Books 35

the Ramirez sale on the other. This last showed initially a reduction of 50 percent. The pressure from U.S. collectors was growing too. After all, in spite of Britain's economic and political interests in the region, independent Latin America was geographically closer and politically and economically more immediate to the United States. In the course of the nineteenth century, the 47 latter's influence in the region gradually waned as the former's increased.

NOTES

1. In 1973 the British Museum library became part of the newly established British Library.

2. P. R. Harris, A History of the British Museum Library (London: British Library), pp. 144-147.

3. See the appended "Provenances of Books Printed in Spanish America Before 1601:

Now in the British Library."

4. See Geoff West, "Early Printed Books Containing Andean Languages in the British

Library," in Andean Studies: New Trends and Library Resources, ed. César Rodríguez. Papers of SALALM XLV, Los Angeles, California, May 27-31, 2000 (Austin, Tex.: SALALM, 2005), pp. 109-123.

5. Catalogue des livres imprimes et manuscrits composant la bibliothéque de feu M. Amédée Chaumette des Fosses (Paris: H. Labitte, 1842); Catalogue of Books and Manuscripts,

Recently Added to, or Selectedfrom the Stock of Thomas Rodd . . . (London, 1843).

6. See the useful "Notice sur M. Chaumette des Fosses," in Catalogue . . . Chaumette des

Fosses, pp. v-viii.

7. See Nigel Glendinning, "Spanish Books in England: 1800-1850," Transactions of the Cambridge Bibliographical Society 3 (1959-1963): 70-92.

8. See Wyman W. Parker, Henry Stevens of Vermont, American Rare Book Dealer in

London, J 845-1 886 (Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1963), pp. 50-62. It is Henry R. Wagner who mentions the probability of a letter from Rich to Brown. See Henry R. Wagner, "Hispanic Americana in the John Carter Brown Library," in Essays Honoring Lawrence C. Wroth (Portland, Maine:

Anthoensen, 1951), pp. 424-425.

9. Wagner reproduces the invoice in his "Hispanic Americana," pp. 430^455.

10. See Edwin Blake Brownrigg, introduction to Colonial Latin American Manuscripts and

Transcripts in the Obadiah Rich Collection: An Inventory and Index (New York: New York Public

Library, 1978), pp. xi-xv.

11. Catalogue of a Collection of Manuscripts, Principally in Spanish, Relating to America, in the Possession of O. Rich (London: printed by W. Bowden, [1845?]). It is not clear when the manuscripts were acquired from Ternaux-Compans by Rich. Wagner, "Henri Ternaux Compans: The First Collector of Hispanic-Americana," Revista interamericana de bibliografía (Review of inter-American bibliography) 4 (1954): 283-298. Brownrigg assumes that they were acquired by

Rich together with the books. Colonial Latin American Manuscripts, introduction, pp. xiii-xiv.

12. See Henry Stevens, Recollections ofJames Lenox and the Formation of His Library, revised and elucidated by Victor Hugo Paltsits (New York: New York Public Library, 1951), pp. 10-11.

13. Brownrigg, Colonial Latin American Manuscripts, p. xiv; Stevens, Recollections, p. 11.

14. On Asher, Panizzi, and the British Museum, see David Paisey, "Adolphus Asher (1800- 1853): Berlin Bookseller, Anglophile, and Friend to Panizzi," British Library Journal 23 (1997):

131-153. The reference to Ternaux-Compans is on pp. 142-143. 36 Geoffrey West

15. British Library Archives, DH 52/1 1 , Department of Printed Books Accessions Register,

September 21 , 1842. The two Guatemalan imprints were Diego Saenz, La Thomaciada al sol de la

Iglesia . . . (Guatemala: J. de Pineda Ybarra, 1667); and Guatemala por Fernando Séptimo el dia

12 de Diciembre de 1808 (Guatemala, 1808). The first imprint bears Ternaux's distinctive ram's head insignia.

16. British Library Archives, DH 52/24, Department of Printed Books Accessions Register, December 12, 1846. See also West, "Early Printed Books Containing Andean Languages."

17. The basic bibliography for this period is Felipe Teixidor, Ex libris y bibliotecas de México, Monografías bibliográficas mexicanas, no. 20 (Mexico: Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores, 1931), pp. 345-362, 457^-73; Juan B. Iguíniz, "El éxodo de documentos y libros mexicanos al extranjero," Boletín de la Biblioteca Nacional (Mexico: Universidad Nacional

Autónoma de México), 2a época, t. 4, no. 3 (1953): 3-27; Joaquín Fernández de Córdoba,

Tesoros bibliográficos de México en los Estados Unidos (Mexico: Editorial Cultura, 1959), pp. 4-15; and Howard L. Karno, "The Bookseller as Bibliographer," in Modernity and Tradition:

The New Latin American and Caribbean Literature, 1956-1994, ed. Nelly S. González. Papers of SALALM XXXIX, Provo, Utah, May 28-June 2, 1994 (Austin, Tex.: SALALM, 1996), pp. 235-237.

18. See Rafael Sala, Marcas de fuego de las antiguas bibliotecas mexicanas, Monografías bibliográficas mexicanas, no. 2 (Mexico: Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores, 1925).

19. Catalogue de la riche bibliothéque de D. José María Andrade . . . (Leipzig: List and Francke, 1869).

20. The invoices received on April 22 and December 7, 1869, can be consulted in the British Library Archives, DH 5/26 and DH 5/27.

21. Report of January 6, 1869 (British Library Archives, DH 2/10, Correspondence,

Trustees' Minutes and Reports of the Keepers of Printed Books, 1869, fol. 6r-v). His request was authorized in a minute of January 9 (fol. 7r).

22. The seven books are identified in the appendix as having been accessioned on April 22 and December 7, 1869.

23. The pamphlets acquired by the museum at the Andrade sale are briefly described by Colin Steele, "A Brief Survey of Other Mexican Pamphlet Collections," in Independent Mexico:

A Collection of Mexican Pamphlets in the Bodleian Library, ed. Colin Steele and Michael P.

Costeloe (London: Mansell, 1973), p. 91. 1 have not so far succeeded in identifying the proclamation printed in gold.

24. Fernández de Córdoba, Tesoros bibliográficos, pp. 9, 96-100; see also Teixidor, Ex libris, pp. 351-357.

25. Fernández de Córdoba, Tesoros bibliográficos, p. 11, n. 9. All of the invoices (British Library Archives, DH 5/26) were stamped by the British Museum and the books accessioned on April 22, 1869. The actual dates on two of the invoices are November 20 and December 10,

1868. The first bears the date August 7, 1868, thus predating the sale in Paris. Fischer most probably sold some of his books in advance. The long gap between the dates of the invoices and their authorization is probably explained by the books being sent on approval, and then being accepted or rejected. Each invoice shows a number of titles having been crossed through.

26. Bibliotheca mejicana. A Catalogue of an Extraordinary Collection of Books and Manuscripts, Almost Wholly Relating to the History and Literature of North and South America, Particularly Mexico (London: Puttick and Simpson, 1869).

27. Watts 's report dated May 22 stresses the opportunity to "acquire a first-rate collection of Mexican books" (British Library Archives, DH 2/10, Correspondence, Trustees' Minutes and

Reports of the Keepers of Printed Books, 1869, fol. 121r-v); the Principal Librarian's (J. Winter Jones) minute of May 29 agreed expenditure up to a limit of £1,000 (British Library Archives, ..

The Trade in Latin American Books 37

DH 2/10, Correspondence, Trustees' Minutes and Reports of the Keepers of Printed Books, 1869, fol. 127r).

28. Invoice (British Library Archives, DH 5/27) authorized January 6, 1870.

29. See the appendix for the date January 6, 1870.

30. José Fernando Ramírez, Bibliotheca mexicana; or, A Catalogue of the Library of Rare Books and Important Manuscripts Relating to Mexico and Other Parts of Spanish America (London: Puttick and Simpson, 1880).

3 1 See Teixidor, Ex libris, p. 47 1 ; Iguíniz, "El éxodo," p. 1 1 ; and Fernández de Córdoba,

Tesoros bibliográficos, pp. 11-13.

32. Invoice (British Library Archives, DH 5/42) authorized July 23, 1880.

33. See Teixidor, Ex libris, pp. 459-463; and Fernández de Córdoba, Tesoros bibliográ- ficos, pp. 13-15. The Quaritch catalogue was entitled A Rough List of Rare Works Relating to North and South America Chiefly from the Library of José Fernando Ramirez (London: Quaritch, 1880).

34. Report of George W. Porter in the absence of George Bullen, Keeper of Printed Books, dated June 24, 1880 (British Library Archives, DH 2/24, Correspondence, Trustees' Minutes and

Reports of the Keepers of Printed Books, 1880, vol. 1, fol. 119r). The authorization is given in the minute of June 26 (British Library Archives, DH 2/24, Correspondence, Trustees' Minutes and

Reports of the Keepers of Printed Books, 1880, vol. 1, fol. lOr).

35. Report of Bullen, July 9, 1880 (British Library Archives, DH 2/24, Correspondence,

Trustees' Minutes and Reports of the Keepers of Printed Books, 1880, vol. 1, fol. 120r); extra expenditure authorized in minute of July 10 (British Library Archives, DH 2/24, Correspondence,

Trustees' Minutes and Reports of the Keepers of Printed Books, 1880, vol. 1, fol. llr).

36. St. Antoninus, Suma de confesión (Salamanca: Printer of Antonius Nebrissensis, Gramática castellana, 1495), cost £5 10s.; the Spanish version, Summa de confession (Seville: Juan Cromberger, 1534), £4 (invoice, British Library Archives, DH 5/42, authorized July 23, 1880).

37. Invoices authorized April 22, 1869 (British Library Archives, DH 5/26) and December 7, 1869 (British Library Archives, DH 5/27), respectively.

38. In 1880/1881 the budget was £7,700 (Harris, A History, pp. 266, 341).

39. Report of Bullen, Keeper of Printed Books, December 9, 1880 (British Library Archives, DH 2/24, Correspondence, Trustees' Minutes and Reports of the Keepers of Printed

Books, 1880, vol. 1, fol. 130r-v), authorized in minute of December 11 (British Library Archives, DH 2/24, Correspondence, Trustees' Minutes and Reports of the Keepers of Printed Books, 1880,

vol. 1 , fol. 21r).

40. See West, "Early Printed Books Containing Andean Languages," pp. 119-120.

4 1 Catalogue des livres et manuscrits formant la bibliothéque de feu Mr. P. Leopold van Alstein (Gand: Imprimerie et Lithographie de C. Annoot-Braeckman, 1863).

42. Invoice of T. and W. Boone authorized December 29, 1863 (British Library Archives, DH5/18).

43. Catalogue de la bibliothéque de M. Ricardo Heredia, comte de Benahvis (Paris: Paul, Huard, and Guillemin, 1891-1894).

44. See the appendix for the date July 14, 1891.

45. Bernard Quaritch, A General Catalogue of Books Offered to the Public at the Affixed Prices, vol. 6 (London: Quaritch, 1887), pp. 3,531-4,057.

46. That is, the report of June 24, 1880 (see n. 34 above) and Bullen's of July 23 (British Library Archives, DH 2/24, Correspondence, Trustees' Minutes and Reports of the Keepers of

Printed Books, 1880, vol. 1, fol. 122r-123v). The latter draws the attention of the trustees to the acquisition of early imprints. .

38 Geoffrey West

47. I am grateful to my British Library colleagues Philip Harris, John Hopson (archivist), and Barry Taylor for their advice and comments on this article.

APPENDIX

Provenances of Books Printed in Spanish America Before 1601 Now in the British Library

Accession Date; 2 British Library Heading Imprint Short Titled Provenance 15 Shelfmark (Author, Etc.)

1753 C.58.e.9 Ore, Luis Gerónimo de Symbolo Catholico Sloane Lima: A. Ricardo, 1598 Indiano Godolphin

1753 C.54.f. 1 1 Molina, Alonso de Vocabulario en

e Sloane D.E: A. deSpinosa, 1571 lengua castellana y mexicana 1753 C.53.bb.6 Ribera Flórez, Dionysio de Relación de las

Sloane D.F.: P. Balli, 1600 exequias . .

Philippo II 1843-01-llp C.53.d.8 Lima, Concilio Provincial Tercero cathecismo Chaumette des Ciudad de los Reyes: y exposición de la Fossés 74— (Rodd) A.Ricardo, 1585 doctrina Christiana 1844-07-26p C.32.b.6 Cárdenas, Juan de la parte de los Southey D.F.: Ocharte, 1591 problemas y secretos maravillosos de las Indias

1 845-06- 14p C.54.g.9 Molina, Alonso de Arte de la lengua (Thorpe) D.F.: P. Ocharte, 1571 mexicana y Kingsborough castellana 1846-12-12p C.53.C.59 Lima, Concilio Provincial Confessionario para Ternaux-Compans Ciudad de los Reyes: los curas de indios (Asher) A. Ricardo, 1585 1846-12-12p C.58.a.l0 Rincón, Antonio del Arte mexicana

Ternaux-Compans D.E: P. Balli, 1595 (Asher) 1846-1 2d G.7636 Molina, Alonso de Vocabulario en Grenville D.E: A. de Spinosa, 1571 lengua castellana y Kingsborough mexicana Antonio de Uguina

1846-1 2d G. 1 1 725 Pedro, de Córdoba Doctrina Christiana

Grenville D.E: [J. Pablos], 1544 [Heber?] 1857-07-10p C.53.C.60 Domingo, de la Doctrina Christiana (Doyle) Anunciación en castellano y Colegio de Mexico [Juan de Ecija] mexicano D.E: P Ocharte, 1565 The Trade in Latin American Books 39

Accession Date; British Library Heading Imprint Short Title Provenance Shelfmark (Author, Etc.)

1 860-04- 12p C.32.a.22 Hawkins, Sir Richard Treslado de una carta

(Boone) [Lima: A. Ricardo], 1594 escrita en . . . Perico

[1 860-04- 12]p C.32.a.23 Valaguer de Salzedo, Relación de lo que (Boone) Pedro hizo Beltran de [Lima]: A. Ricardo, [1594] Castro y de la Cueva Andrade sale 1869-04-22p C.37.Í.13 Juan, de la Anunciación Sermonario en Andrade 4449 D.F.: A. Ricardo, 1577 lengua mexicana (Asher) 1869-04-22p C54.bb.20 Molina, Alonso de Vocabulario en Andrade 4452a [D.R: J. Pablos], 1555 lengua castellana y (Asher) mexicana 1869-04-22p C.37.e.8 Zumárraga, Juan Doctrina breve

Andrade 2369 (Asher) D.R: [J. Pablos], 1543 Convento de S. José— (colophon 1544) Tula (stamp) 1869-12-07p C.37.e.27 Charlier de Gerson, Jean Tripartito ... de

Andrade 2477 (Asher) D.F.: [J. Pablos], 1544 doctrina Christiana 1869-12-07p C.37.e.25 Christian Rule Regla Christiana

Andrade 2658 (Asher) D.R: [J. Pablos], 1547 1869-12-07p C.37.e.26 Denis, the Carthusian Compendio breve

Andrade 2666 (Asher) OR: [J. Pablos, 1544] (lsted.) 1869-12-07p C.37.e.28 Zumárraga, Juan Doctrina Christiana

Andrade 2369 (Asher) D.R: [J. Pablos], 1546 Fischer sale

1 870-0 l-06p C.37.e.36 Denis, the Carthusian Compendio breve

Bib. Mej. 1485 Mexico: J. Pablos, [1545] (2d ed.) (Boone)

1 870-0 l-06p C.37.f.3(l) Dominicans Haec sunt acta

Bib. Mej. 528 D.R: P. Ocharte, 1567 capituli generalis (Boone) Bononiae celebrati [1564] 1870-01-06 C.37.C.54 Elias, de San Juan Compendio de las

Bib. Mej. 151 Baptista [J. Zambrano] excelencias de la

(Boone) D.R: E. Martinez, 1599 bulla de la Sancta Cruzada N.d.,i.e. 1870-01-06 C.31.e.38 García de Palacio, D. Instrucion nauthica

Bib. Mej. 684 D.R: P. Ocharte, 1587 (Boone)

1870-01-06 C.38.C.54 Gilberti, Maturino Arte de la lengua de

Bib. Mej. 714 (Boone) [D.R: J. Pablos], 1558 Michuacan Pérez Gallardo, Basilio 40 Geoffrey West

Accession Date; British Librar} Heading Imprint Short Title Provenance Shelfmark (Author, Etc.)

1 870-0 l-06p C.37.f.27 Juan, de la Anunciación Doctrina Christiana

Bib. Mej. 83 (Boone) D.F.: P. Balli, 1575

1 870-0 l-06p C.37.f.21 Juan, de la Anunciación [Sermones] Bib. Mej. 85 (Boone) [D.F.: A. de Spinosa, 1575] 1870-01-06 4061.aa.21 Juan Baptista Advertencias para Bib. Mej. 152 D.F.: M. Ocharte, 1600; los confessores de (Boone) L. Ocharte Figueroa, 1601 los naturales, 2a Convento de Stgo. — (colophon) parte Tlatilulco

1 870-0 l-06p 4061.aa.44 Juan Baptista Confessionario en Bib. Mej. 152 (1) D.F.: Stgo. Tlatilulco, lengua mexicana y (Boone) 1599 castellana Bound with 4061.aa.44 Juan Baptista Advertencias para

(2) D.F.: M. Ocharte, 1600 los confessores de los naturales, la Parte (imperf.)

1 870-0 l-06p C.39.g.35 López de Hinojoso, Summa y Bib. Mej. 975 Alonso recopilación de

(Boone) D.F.: P. Balli, 1595 cirugia

1 870-0 l-06p C.58.g.3 Puga, Vasco de [Provisiones de su

Bib. Mej. 1425 D.F.: P. Ocharte, 1563 magestad] (Boone)

1 870-0 l-06p C.37.e.9 Zumárraga, Juan Doctrina Christiana

Bib. Mej. 467 D.F.: J. Pablos, 1550 en lengua española y (Boone) mexicana 1870-12-08p 4061.aa.21 Juan Baptista Advertencias para los (Asher) D.F.: M. Ocharte, 1600; confessores de los Tross L. Ocharte Figueroa, 1601 naturales, Ia-2a parte Andrade 4447 (colophon) Ramirez Ramirez sale 1880-07-23p C.38.i.7(l) Alphonsus [Gutiérrez] Recognitio

Ramirez 885 Mexico: J. Pablos, 1554 summularum (Stevens)

Conv. S. Juan Baptista— Tulancingo Bound with C.38.i.7(2) Aristotle Dialéctica resolutio

D.F.: J. Pablos, 1554 1880-07-23p C.38.f.7 Alphonsus [Gutiérrez] Speculum

Ramirez 886 D.F.: J. Pablos, 1556 coniugiorum (Stevens) (colophon 1557) 1880-07-23p C.36.e.2 Augustinians Constitutiones

Ramirez 724 Mexico: J. Pablos, 1556 fratrum heremitarum (Stevens) - —

The Trade in Latin American Books 41

Accession Date; British Librar) ' Heading Imprint Short Title

Provenance She Ifmark (Author, Etc.)

Bound with C.36.e.2 Augustinians Regula . . . patris

Constitutiones D.F.: J. Pablos, 1556 Augustini 1880-07-23p C.36.D.9 Augustinians Constitutiones

Ramirez 240 D.F.: P. Ocharte, 1587 ordinis fratrum (Stevens) heremitarum 1880-07-23p C.38.f.3 Diez Freile, Juan Sumario de las Ramirez 277 D.F.: Juan Pablos, 1556 quentas de plata y (Stevens) oro 1880-07-23p C.36.e.4 Dominicans Reglas y constitu-

Ramirez 719 D.F.: P. Ocharte, 1567 ciones de la sancta (Stevens) cofradia de los

Iuramentos . . . 1880-07-23p C36.D.11 Franciscans Forma y modo de

Ramirez 332 D.F.: P. Ocharte, 1589 fundar las cofradias

(Stevens) ... de S. Francisco 1880-07-23p C.36.b.8 Gilberti, Maturino Thesoro spiritual de Ramirez 836 D.F.: A. de Spinosa, 1575 pobres en lengua de (Stevens) Michuacan "Juan Miguel" Michoacán 1880-07-23p C.36.e.3 Molina, Alonso de Confessionario breue Ramirez 561 (1-2) D.F.: A. de Spinosa, 1565 + (Stevens) Confessionario mayor 1880-12-14p C.38.Í.23 Alphonsus [Gutiérrez] Phisica speculatio

(Stevens) D.F.: J. Pablos, 1557 Quaritch— Ramirez 888

Conv. S. Francisco— [Mexico City] Heredia sale

1891-07-14p K.8.f.3 Augustinians Ordinarium . . .

Heredia (Cohn) D.F.: [J. Pablos], 1556 ordinis heremitarum Ramirez 614 1891-07-14p C.53.C.33 Franciscans Estatutos generales

Heredia 315 (Cohn) D.F.: P. Ocharte, 1585 de Barcelona para

Ramirez 307 ... la Orden de S. Conv. S. Juan Baptista Francisco Tulancingo (stamp)

1891-07-14p C.52.a.l5 Liturgies — Missals Cerimonial y Heredia 129 (Cohn) General rubricas generales

Ramirez 202 D.F.: P. Balli, 1579 Conv. N. S. de los— Remedios "Tepepan' » Tepanapa, Cholula . .

42 Geoffrey West

Accession Date; British Library Heading Imprint Short Title Provenance Shelfmark (Author, Etc.)

1891-10-13p C.53.C.26 Lima, Concilio Provincial Doctrina Christiana y (Maisonneuve) (1) Ciudad de los Reyes: catecismo para Alstein A. Ricardo, 1584 instrucción de los Chaumette des Fosses indios Bound with C.53.C.26 Lima, Concilio Provincial Confessionario para

(2) Ciudad de los Reyes: los curas de indios A. Ricardo, 1585 Bound with C.53.C.26 Lima, Concilio Provincial Tercero cathecismo y (3) Ciudad de los Reyes: exposición de la A. Ricardo, 1585 doctrina Christiana

1892-07-14p C.63.a.l Morales, Pedro de Carta para el . . Heredia2821 (Cohn) D.F.: A. Ricardo, 1579 Padre Everardo Salva 1325 Mercuriano

[Tragedia . . . Trium- pho de los sanctos]

1 893-06- 13p C.63.d.l4 Alciatus, Andreas Omnia emblemata Heredia 2780 (Cohn) D.F.: A. Ricardo, 1577 Ramírez 23 f 1895-01-12p 1560/1703 Alvarado, Francisco de Vocabulario en (not known) D.F: P Balli, 1593 lengua misteca Buenaventura de Castro— cura de Acatlán

1 895-06- 18p C.37.f.6 Rome- Church -Pius V Bulla confirmationis

Heredia 309 (Cohn) D.F: A. de Spinosa, 1568 . . . privilegiorum . . Ramírez 133 ordinum Mendicantium 1942-07-10? C.125.b.5 Oña, Pedro de Primera parte de Earl of Roden Ciudad de los Reyes: Arauca domado A. Ricardo, 1596

a. The accession date is the date of the stamp appearing in each book as part of the British Museum's ownership mark. The color of the stamp indicates the method of

acquisition; this is represented by the letter p=purchase or the letter d=donation following the day of the month. Thus, 1843-01-1 lp indicates a purchased item accessioned

on January 11, 1843.

b. The remainder of the provenance data consists of the previous owner and earlier owners when clearly identifiable. The number after the owner's name is that of the item in the relevant sale catalogue. The bookseller's name appears in round brackets. Names

of institutional owners are abbreviated and a further identifier is given following a dash, when necessary, for example, Conv. S. Juan Baptista— Tulancingo.

c. The headings are given in the form of the British Library's pre- 1975 catalogue, also known as the General Catalogue of Printed Books, with some minor modifications including the addition of accents. The Trade in Latin American Books 43

d. The form of the title is sufficient for identification purposes only. e. Abbreviations have been used in the imprint data for reasons of space (D.F.=Mexico City). f. Ex libris "J.L. Dampier, Stannary Court Library" probably inserted in error. 4. El color, la textura, el peso de la página: el arte del libro en América Latina

Lourdes Vázquez

Tu papel a elemento, eres matutino y nocturno, cereal, oceánico. '

Códices y pliegos

Antes de la llegada de los españoles las culturas indígenas de Mesoamérica poseían un sistema de escritura jeroglífica, en los cuales utilizaban caracteres y dibujos dispuestos en líneas. Estos caracteres organizados en escenas con diseños pintados de animales, plantas, pájaros, islas, montañas, ríos, árboles, playas, pirámides, edificios, cementerios, dioses, diosas, sacerdotes y gente común, que como personajes de una obra de teatro, o un performance, contaban historias. Los códices o libros pintados de los antiguos indígenas fueron nuestros primeros pliegos poéticos y constaban de "largas tiras que luego ple- gaban en dobleces en forma de biombo y les ponían tapas de madera en los 2 extremos" que servían de encuademación, "siendo su lectura variable pero 3 abriéndose siempre primero de un lado de la tira y después del lado contrario". El papel provenía de la corteza de árboles o piel de venado o jaguar que se preparaba y blanqueaba por ambos lados. Se guardaban como parte de los objetos sagrados en las casas de códices: nuestras primeras bibliotecas, que los escribas y otros funcionarios redactaban, organizaban y protegían. El escribidor y guardián era también el poeta y juglar de la comunidad que con una gran retentiva, reinterpretaba la historia vista y oída. Evidencia acerca de estos manuscritos se han encontrado en toda Mesoamérica. A la conquista de América, la corona española se subyugó ante la belleza y complejidad de estos libros; no obstante ello no fue excusa para la destrucción desaforada de la mayor parte de éstos, ya que fueron declara- dos libros herejes. Los pocos códices que sobrevivieron fueron enviados a la Corona por los propios conquistadores junto con el oro y las plumas, como parte del botín insospechado. Hoy día se encuentran en algunas de las bibliotecas más importantes de Europa. Los conquistadores se apoderaron del territorio americano y con la conquista llegó la Inquisición. Los primeros libros europeos traídos al nuevo mundo pudieran haber sido los libros devocionales o Libros de Horas, aunque es de conocimiento que pese a la Inquisición la entrada libre por puerto de

44 El arte del libro en América Latina 45

libros, así como el contrabando de libros y pliegos sueltos de "materias profa- 4 nas y fabulosas", se dio desde los primeros años de la dominación española. Los habitantes de estos virreinatos recibían por puerto libros de historia, filosofía y poesía, medicina, arquitectura y bellas artes, música, leyes, historias 5 para niños, coplas y naturalmente pliegos poéticos. La conquista nos trajo otro idioma y las distintas vertientes de la literatura popular, en forma de pliegos sueltos, conocida como literatura de cordel "por exponerse en forma incitante para su adquisición, en la vía pública, colgados de un cordel, en los puestos utilizados por sus distribuidores, quienes en tantas 6 ocasiones se encuentran físicamente 'privados de la vista'". Son precisamente estos pliegos poéticos los que rastreo. El pliego consta de un papel doblado o dividido en cuatro; aunque era regular utilizar cuatro hojas en grupo de dos o grupos de seis y doce hojas. Era común ilustrar los pliegos, pero también se produjeron pliegos sin ilustraciones. Se utilizaba la tipografía gótica, específicamente el gótico español. 7 El colofón o la descripción de lugar, impresor o fecha estaba ausente. Los bibliófilos coinciden en que los pliegos poéticos se inician en el año 1482 con 8 las composiciones poéticas del poeta Gómez Manrique. Las series numeradas 9 fueron introducidas en Valencia a fines del siglo XVI. La Corona española consideraba que estos libros prohibidos podían llegar a manos de los indios y distraerlos de su evangelización y vetó de forma conse- 10 cuente que se llevaran a las Indias "estos libros amenos e imaginativos". No obstante, mucho del conocimiento de los pobladores y conquistadores provi- ene tanto de la entrada libre, como del movimiento clandestino de libros prohibidos, entre éstos los pliegos poéticos. Los impresos venían empastados con otros impresos o enviados en macutos y cajas en los barcos camino a América que zarpaban de puertos. 11

Los impresores

No es mi intención en este trabajo hacer un recorrido de la historia de la imprenta en América Latina, pero es importante señalar algunos factores que contribuyeron a la producción de libros en América, en especial los pliegos poéticos. En 1525 se le otorgó a la casa de los impresores alemanes Jacobo 12 Cromberger de Sevilla, la concesión del comercio de libros en las Indias. Es de notar que Cromberger imprimía libros religiosos y gramaticales, pero su negocio más importante radicaba en la impresión de novelas de caballerías, amores infortunados o pliegos sueltos. Otros virreinatos traen sus impresores y al pasar el tiempo es de notar que los libros que ya se publican en territorio americano resaltan por su belleza, sus tintas rojas y negras, sus elaborados grabados, orlas de páginas e iniciales ornadas, compitiendo con las mejores obras de su clase producidas en Europa.

El orgullo de los conquistadores por realizar trabajos impresos de la más alta calidad se extendió por toda América. Paralelamente también los indígenas, 46 Lourdes Vázquez

grandes conocedores de los secretos del códice, siguieron diseñando y produciendo códices. Existe evidencia que "se siguieron confeccionando códices y otros documentos de tradición indígena, en los que se advierten comentarios en 13 caracteres en castellano o en lenguas indígenas" hasta el siglo XVIII. Quiero hacer aquí resaltar el magistral pliego escrito a mano desde el reino del Perú. Con dibujos del mismo autor, que a manera de carta escribió Felipe Guarnan Poma de Ayala, la Nueva crónica de buen gobierno (1585) con dibujos del 14 mismo autor. Por su páginas se despliega una infinita variedad caligráfica, que junto a sus ilustraciones presentan las fiestas, canciones, prácticas de superstición y religión, y demás costumbres indígenas, junto a las denuncias por las injusticias cometidas por los conquistadores.

Al correr del siglo XIX, la variedad de formas que el impreso desarrolla en América, gracias en parte al conocimiento de los innumerables impresores europeos radicados en América, así como sus innumerables discípulos, nos da 15 una riqueza y variedad ilimitada de formas. A saber: libros de folio, el libro de bolsillo, el libro en miniatura, gacetas, pliegos sueltos, afiches, panfletos, almanaques, estampas religiosas y hojas sueltas. A técnicas como el grabado en madera, que es tan popular en el diseño del libro, se le añadió el grabado en cobre o zinc, y a las litografías se les añadió color. El arte, el decorado, la pintura, las pastas, el lujo de las ediciones con filos de oro y grabados con viñetas de templos, ramos, ondas, caprichos, y ángeles, prolifera. Los impresos se encuadernan con vellum o piel con cintas de seda, y la tipografía para los títulos se realiza en brocados de oro. Se logra producir un papel sumamente blanco o de color sepia con bastante espesor: preferiblemente hecho a mano para ediciones de lujo o ediciones de tiradas cortas, o papel hecho a máquina con corte de tijera mecánica para tiradas grandes. Paralelamente, la inmensa tradición de la escuela mexicana con sus talleres de artes gráficas y con mae- stros como José Guadalupe Posada, que hasta su muerte trabajó día y noche en su prensa, produciendo un legado inmenso de pliegos, afiches, hojas sueltas y panfletos, diseñados con grabados en madera, ejercen una gran influencia en el diseño del libro de la región. El pliego poético se trabaja en hojas sueltas de corridos, sones, décimas, versos, coplas y aguinaldos con imagines, así como en la literatura litúrgica.

Lo moderno

La revolución industrial hizo posible que las nuevas imprentas, con su capacidad para producir más en menor tiempo, ampliaran su registro de posibilidades. La producción del libro se mecanizó y la fotografía hizo posible la 16 revolución del arte de la ilustración. Los libros ya no se encuadernan en piel y el proceso de encuademación a mano es sustituido por uno mecánico. El concepto de marketing o publicidad aparece por primera vez y el diseño del libro se vio seriamente afectado. Las distintas escuelas estéticas y artísticas y los distintos movimientos que componen el modernismo, a saber: el futurismo, El arte del libro en América Latina 47

el dadaísmo, el expresionismo, el constructivismo, el surrealismo, y el crea- cionismo, alteran el diseño del libro. La estética de la página y los principios de la publicidad escrita se renuevan. Cada movimiento explicita con ejemplos concretos cómo integrar la tipografía y las artes decorativas. Todos estos movimientos culturales, políticos y estéticos destacan nuevas formas de ilustrar libros, anunciar productos, diseñar carteles, hojas sueltas, periódicos, revistas, menus de restaurantes. ,7 Los poetas están a la cabeza de este movimiento. A través de manifiestos, lecturas de poesía combinadas con performance, cine, repartición de volantes, diseños de afiches y en especial las ediciones limitadas de los trabajos de los poetas en forma de pliegos poéticos, pajaritas de papel, paquetes y portafo- lios, se anuncia la muerte de los viejos valores y la bienvenida a una nueva dimensión estética. Un extraordinario ejemplo es el libro 5 metros de poesía (Perú, 1927) de Carlos Oquendo Amat. Altamente influenciado por los ismos europeos Oquendo Amat diseña un pliego en forma de acordeón cuyas páginas se despliegan horizontalmente, con claros paralelos cinematográficos. A los futuristas les debemos el rompimiento de la palabra con el texto. La palabra se convierte en un espectáculo lleno de energías. El concepto de menor es mejor se introduciría en el diseño de la página en blanco en respuesta a los diseños barrocos llenos de signos ornamentales, frisos y letras decorativas. Una tipografía libre y expresiva, junto con un lenguaje igualmente libre hacen al texto saltar de las páginas. El texto adquiere una dimensión propia, carente de simbolismos rococos y adornos barrocos. Con la palabra escrita se trabaja la intuición sensorial, revolucionando el concepto tipográfico. La retórica del texto simultáneo se convierte en lo esencial. Surge el poema concreto y se presenta en el espacio de la página en blanco, utilizando todos los elementos tipográficos posibles, haciendo bailar y saltar la letra en el papel. Se descubren nuevos modos de trabajar el papel: colages, frotagges, fotomontajes. Este movimiento hizo posible el que los poetas y los artistas se dieran a la tarea de fabricar su propia esencia en la escritura, convirtiéndose en artesanos del libro. Se experimenta con todo tipo de papel, tipografía y diseños, dando especial énfasis a la claridad y durabilidad de sus producciones. Los poetas, se convierten en publicistas, empresarios, promotores, editores, showmen, busi- nessmen y managers, atendiendo muy de cerca la producción de sus trabajos y abriéndose espacio en el mercado comercial. Cada vez que surge una escuela poética aparecen sellos editoriales en las habitaciones y cocinas de los poetas, subsidiadas por los propios poetas, sus amigos y familiares, o en casos conta- dos subvencionados por algún patron of the arts. Estas vías de respiro de las letras, históricamente han sido consideradas importantes fundaciones para dar luz a lo mejor de la poesía y la literatura en general. Estas editoriales surgen y desaparecen, pero el fenómeno es una parte permanente de la escena de todo el siglo veinte. 48 Lourdes Vázquez

Inventario

En la última mitad del siglo veinte, alrededor de toda América Latina y el Caribe se experimenta con todo tipo de papel, tipografías y arte acercando cada día más a escritores, poetas y artistas. La influencia de los ismos, así como la influencia genética de la producción de códices y pliegos poéticos permea el diseño del libro. Una apretada panorámica que he tratado de organizar en orden cronológico permite tener una visión más clara del fenómeno. Un buen ejemplo son los libros de Vicente Huidobro. Ha dicho Quirarte en su Poética y estética creacionistas,

Vicente Huidobro desarrolló toda su obra en ediciones limitadas que hoy se conservan en las mejores bibliotecas del mundo. Para desgracia de su memo-

ria, para beneficio de la poesía. Huidobro nació rico. Demos gracias a su for- tuna haber permitido la edición— en tiraje limitado y ediciones de lujo— de los treinta títulos que publicó en vida.

En 1946 el uruguayo Joaquín Torres García, fundador de la Asociación de Arte Constructivista Latinoamericana, publica su libro, ensayo, manifiesto 9 Nueva escuela de arte del lenguaje: pintura y arte constructivo} Esta pub- licación vino acompañada de exhibiciones, construcción de otros manifiestos y proclamas y un sinnúmero de encuentros. Escrito a mano, en caligrafía del propio autor, constituye un modelo de balance entre el texto y la página en blanco. La Serie Azul del poeta e impresor peruano Javier Sologuren, al igual que sus Detenimientos con linóleos originales de Fernando de Szyslo (Lima, 1948), así como el libro del nicaragüense Pablo Antonio Cuadra El Jaguar y la Luna (1959), son otros ejemplos que enriquecen el panorama del diseño del libro en América. Ernesto Cardenal, como ministro de cultura en los años de la revolución nicaragüense, experimenta con sus Talleres de Poesía Libre en las fábricas y talleres laborales y surgen las colecciones de Poesía Libre en papel manila y carton. México, hemos señalado ya, es uno de los países que más se destaca en el diseño del libro. Cabe señalar algunos ejemplos a la mano: Elias Nandino publica el pliego Décimas en la muerte de mi madre (1966) en papel Garamond usando tipos Bodoni de diez a cuarenta y ocho puntos; el poeta Octavio Paz, publica sus Discos visuales (1968), cuatro discos a dos colores que giran mul- tiplicando las posibilidades del verso y la metáfora; el taller Martín Pescador comienza sus impresos hechos a mano en los años sesenta publicando a autores como Carmen Bullosa y Roberto Bolaño. Iván Silén en Puerto Rico en los años sesenta escribe, diseña, publica, distribuye y pasquina los postes de Río Piedras y el Viejo San Juan con su afiche Alicia La Roja. Pedro Pietri, en Nueva York, hace otro tanto publicando su afiche Viejo San Juan in Spanglish. Ambos proyectos acompañados de lecturas, happenings y performances. El arte del libro en América Latina 49

En Colombia el pintor Ornar Rayo y la poeta Águeda Pizarro, desarrollan 20 en los años ochenta, la serie de poesía Embalaje en cartón corrugado y papel. Dicha serie se arma en el taller del pintor en Roldanillo, Colombia. Embalaje va ya por unos trescientos títulos en donde se han publicado en ediciones limitadas, lo mejor de la poesía escrita por mujeres en América Latina y el Caribe. En Chile surgen las Ediciones del Camaleón en donde se produce Coplas de Navidad (1983) de Nicanor Parra. En República Dominicana se producen los libros: Julia de Burgos, la nuestra de Chiqui Vicioso (1987) y Edades de asombro (1990) de Angela Hernández, ambos con grabados e ilustraciones 21 de Belkys Ramírez. Looking at Germán Perez's paintings: a poem by Julia Alvarez (1998) producido por Emigrantes Dominicanos en un Handmade in the USA publication. Un grupo de impresores y artistas del Taller Polvorín publica en Puerto Rico Oda a la tipografía (2000) de Pablo Neruda en una 22 estupenda edición de cincuenta ejemplares. Esta edición recibió mención de la Asociación Internacional de Críticos de Arte de Puerto Rico. Hasta hoy día, los artistas y escritores mexicanos y chícanos han continu- ado produciendo códices, por ejemplo la revista Biombo Negro ha publicado la novela negra de Francisco Hinojosa Nunca en Domingo (2001), en folios y a manera de un guión cinematográfico acompañado con caricaturas en blanco y negro, que evoca al poeta Carlos Oquendo Amat (Perú), ya mencionado en este trabajo. Otro buen ejemplo es el Codex espangliensis: from Columbus to the border patrol, una colaboración del escritor y "performero" chicano Guillermo Gómez Peña y el artista Enrique Chagoya. En este codex plegable el escritor y el artista interpretan la conquista y la problemática del cruce de fronteras a través de una serie de dibujos de deidades, diagramas y tablas adivinatorias con matices muy modernos, en donde la visión cíclica de la historia— propia de los indígenas— se dibuja a través de la palabra y la imagen. La poesía concreta se ha comprometido con el espacio produciendo un modo pictórico independiente y original. La página deja de ser un depósito para convertirse en una aliada del poeta metaforizando el espacio en el papel. La página es un ente activo y la estructura y decoro visual ofrece una forma única de trabajar la palabra. La poesía concreta ha extendido la posibilidad de trabajar el libro y de manejar el poema. En la última mitad del siglo veinte, han sido los poetas y artistas brasileños los vanguardistas de este movimiento, especialmente los hermanos Augusto y Harold de Campos, que junto a Décio Pignatari, 23 lanzaron la revista literaria Noigandrés, origen del Grupo Noigandrés. Este grupo originó uno de los movimientos internacionales de poesía concreta más importante del siglo. En Cuba, Ediciones Vigía lleva ya cerca de una década desarrollando una estética muy particular con la publicación de pliegos poéticos y paquetes, en 24 ediciones de doscientos ejemplares numerados y firmados por el autor. Otro ejemplo, es el del grupo de artistas y escritores que han trabajado durante los últimos treinta años en el Lower East Side (Loisaida), un espacio urbano en 50 Lourdes Vázquez

Manhattan, habitado mayormente por puertorriqueños y otras minorías. En sus calles la Galería Bullet Space produjo un libro, proyecto, manifiesto, mural happening y performance, Your house is mine (1988-1992). El editor y pro- ductor del proyecto Andrew Castrucci, incluyó trabajos de un sinnúmero de 25 artistas y poetas que han hecho de esa comunidad un baluarte de las artes. En especial, los nuyoricans, Juan Sánchez, Miguel Algarín, Pedro Pietri y Miguel Pinero. Your house is mine, produjo un libro con el mismo título, conjunta- mente con una serie de afiches para la calle y una tirada de 10,000 ejemplares del periódico Your house is mine.

Conclusiones

A lo que hago referenda en este ensayo es a una ínfima minoría de la producción de libros en América Latina, pero indudablemente una minoría que ha retomado el medio de la producción del libro creando una articulación personal e imaginaria. Esta minoría produce libros que se han convertido en elementos de una escuela artística y poética sofisticada, en donde se combinan tanto la tradición literaria, con la producción independiente de trabajos escritos. El libro como forma estética premeditada, en donde existe un control de su producción de principio a fin. A pesar de un craso reconocimiento de este medio las cofradías de poetas y artistas, así como sus ediciones limitadas, de artistas y/o ediciones privadas, han proliferado en todo el siglo, causando un impacto tanto en la actividad literaria como en el público lector.

NOTAS

1. Pablo Neruda, "Oda al libro".

2. José Luis Martínez, Origen y desarrollo del libro en Hispanoamérica (Madrid:

Fundación Germán Sánchez Ruipérez, 1984), p. 12.

3. José Alcina Franch, Códices mexicanos (España: Colecciones MAPFRE, 1992), p. 16.

4. Martínez, Origen y desarrollo, p. 24.

5. Irving Leonard, Los libros del conquistador (México: Fondo de Cultura Económica,

1996), p. 186.

6. Carlos Romero de Lecea, La imprenta y los pliegos poéticos (Madrid: Joyas

Bibliográficas, 1974), p. 27.

7. Carolina Lecocq Pérez, Pliegos de cordel en las bibliotecas de París (Madrid: Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores, 1988), pp. 29-32.

8. Lecea, La imprenta, p. 30.

9. Ibid., p. 61.

10. Martínez, Origen y desarrollo, p. 25.

11. Leonard, Los libros del conquistador, p. 153.

12. Martínez, Origen y desarrollo mexicanos, p. 25.

13. Alcina Franch, Códices mexicanos, p. 15.

14. Ver edición en Internet en http://www.kb.dk/elib/mss/poma/. Esta edición fue elab- orada por la Biblioteca Real de Dinamarca en donde se encuentra el original. El arte del libro en América Latina 51

15. Martínez, Origen y desarrollo, pp. 87-90.

16. Claire Badaracco, Trading Words: Poetry, Typography and Illustrated Books in the

Modern Literary Economy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), p. 3.

17. Vasili Kamenskii, Natalia Goncharova, Ezra Pound, F. T. Marinetti, Tristan Tzara,

Francisco Martinez Picabia, Vicente Huidobro, Vicente Alexaindre, Garcia Lorca, Rafael Alberti y los pintores Picasso, Dalí y Miró por mencionar algunos.

18. Vicente Huidobro, Poética y estética creacionistas, selección y prólogo Vicente Quirarte (México: Universidad Autónoma de México, 1994), p. 5.

19. Cecilia Buzio de Torres y Mari Carmen Ramírez, El taller Torres-García (Austin:

Archer M. Huntington Art Gallery, University of Texas, 1992), p. 167.

20. Águeda Pizarro, Editora Embalaje, entrevista por autora, New York, octubre 1999.

21. Daisy Coceo de Filippis, entrevista por autora, New York, diciembre 1999.

22. Entre los artistas que participaron de esta edición se encuentran Haydeé Landing, Consuelo Gotay, Edna Acosta, Neitan Budoff, Miriam Vázquez y Marta Rivera Melero.

23. Ver Grupo Noigandres en http://www.artbr.com.br/casa/noigand/.

24. Ver British Library, Hispanic Division Exhibition en http://www.bl.uk/collections/wes- teuropean/vigia.html.

25. Andrew Castrucci y Alejandra Rojas, entrevista por autora, New York, Galería Bullet, 22 de agosto de 2001. 5. The Map in the Book: Barbados

Alan Moss

My interest in maps was first sparked around 1990, when I acquired for sale what were represented to me as being two copies of the same map of Barbados, one of them, supposedly a "large paper" issue. I was not aware of it then, but they turned out to be examples of what is perhaps the most common of the early printed maps of Barbados— Nicolas Bellin's smaller Barbados map, which was first published in 1758. It is, in fact, one of the most complex of the

Barbados maps in terms of its publishing history. It took me four years until I felt that I had unravelled the matter sufficiently well to publish an article on it, in which I was able to demonstrate that there are two distinct streams of vari-

1 ants of the map, originating from different plates. It was my good fortune to have acquired simultaneously an example of each stream.

The starting point for the study of Barbados maps is the Barbados volume in the Map Collectors' series, Tony Campbell's The Printed Maps ofBarbados, 2 which lists sixty-four maps of Barbados published between 1657 and 1873. Campbell's excellent work builds on a much earlier article by E. M. Shilstone in the Journal of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society? I hope that my own research adds to and refines what Shilstone and Campbell were able to say. A report of my findings as they relate to the first thirty-three items in Campbell was published in 1999, also in the Journal of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society. 4

The observations I shall make are to a large extent generalizations from what I have learned while pursuing that research. It is significant that I have chosen to call my contribution to this panel "The Map in the Book," for that is indeed where the early printed maps of Barbados appeared: in books, rather than as single sheets. My approach to the study of maps is essentially "car- tobibliographical"— my interest lies in where the map appeared rather than with the content of the map, except in so far as the content throws light on the map's publishing history. This has meant that my favorite hunting grounds have not been map libraries per se, but rather libraries with strong holdings of seventeenth- to mid-nineteenth-century imprints. Perhaps the most fruitful of these has been the John Carter Brown Library, in Providence, Rhode Island, where I was a visiting fellow for an all-too-brief period. The earliest printed maps were woodcuts, but by the time Barbados was making its first appearance on maps this process had been superseded by copper engravings. But whether on wood or copper, the fact that the production

52 The Map in the Book: Barbados 53

of a map resulted in a plate that would survive after the book's type had been dispersed is critical to the study of maps. The plate represented an investment in time and money that could be utilized again at a later date, in another book.

Alterations, major or minor, might be made to the plate, but essentially it would be the "same" map when it reappeared.

The making of engravings is an important factor to recognize. In Campbell, several "issues" are listed for many of the sixty-four items, some of them iden- tical to the original issue, some of them not. One might ask at what point does a map become sufficiently different to merit a separate entry.

My view is that two issues of a map should be regarded as the "same" map only as long as they are produced from the same plate. This at least is a verifiable criterion, and its adoption would bring a degree of definition to the terminology. That this position is not universally accepted, however, can be seen from the fact that, on this basis, the variants of the Bellin map referred to above would merit six entries in Campbell, rather than the two that they receive. Maps produced from the same plate can vary. Alterations made to the plate are, of course, very revealing when it comes to tracing a map's publishing history. Often the changes will be simply utilitarian. For instance, notations may be added to the margins to indicate to the binder where the map is to be placed in the work. Also if the title goes through a number of editions, some of them perhaps octavo and some quarto, the varying locations are likely to be recorded on the plate itself. The ownership of a plate may change, in which case the imprint will usually be altered to reflect the new situation. When the address of the owner is indicated, this address can be a means of establishing the earliest and latest possible date of publication, with the help of works such as Sarah Tyacke's

5 London Map-Sellers, 1 660-1720. Tyacke was able to identify the period during which a map-seller operated from a given address by analyzing the content of their advertisements in the London Gazette for that period. Sometimes, of course, the differentiation may be accidental rather than deliberate. To return again to my Bellin maps, what initially caught my attention was that although the two copies were supposedly examples of the same map, they showed the same fort to be in different locations, and on one of them a parish boundary had been omitted. From the fact that both maps were accu- rate in a respect in which the other was not, I was able to deduce that neither could be a copy of the other, and that they must therefore depend on some other source, probably the original manuscript. When one finds antiquarian maps being offered for sale these days, they are mainly in single sheets. Because of their ability to stand alone, and in part as a result of their decorative character, early printed maps are often to be found separate from the book in which they originally appeared. This can be a source of much frustration for the cartobibliographer. Although it is exciting 54 Alan Moss

for a researcher to come across an issue of which he or she was previously

unaware, the researcher is now presented with the problem of finding a further

example, and this time in the book in which it was originally published. That maps are, in practice, frequently separated from their original place of publication can also pose a problem of a different kind; for the fact that a

map is not present in a particular copy of a book cannot be taken as a sure indi-

cation that it is not to be found in any copies of the book. Campbell felt sufficiently confident to state, for instance, that the map of Barbados that appeared in subsequent editions of Labat's Nouveaux voyage aux Isles d'Amerique was

not present in the first edition in 1722. The copy in the Main Library, University of the West Indies, Cave Hill, however, shows this not to be the case.

The only remedy for the researcher is to seek out as many copies as pos-

sible of a map and the books in which it appeared. Then the researcher must

hope that the sample is large enough to draw reliable conclusions.

I shall conclude by looking at some aspects of the relationship between

printed maps and maps in manuscript. Although I have been speaking almost

exclusively of printed maps, it is apparent that all early printed maps started life in manuscript. (Although maps almost always became known by the printed version, because of their wider dissemination.) The majority of those with more than a passing interest in Barbados maps, for example, would probably suggest that Richard Ligon's map that appeared in his True and Exact History of the Island of Barbados (1657) was the earliest map of the island. The Barbadian historian Peter Campbell, however, was prepared to assert that

it is based largely on a manuscript map that was the work of the surveyor John Swan, and was drawn in Barbados prior to 1641. 6 Peter Campbell maintains in his article that Ligon probably gained access to Swan's map in London,

where it had been sent by order of the governor of Barbados in 1641. In order to further demonstrate the danger of assuming a map to be roughly

contemporaneous with its first appearance in print, I will again make refer-

ence to the Barbados map in Labat's Nouveau voyage. It has been suggested that the map's emphasis on fortifications indicates that the purpose of Labat's voyage was primarily one of espionage. If any such sinister motivation existed

however, the map certainly cannot be cited as evidence for it, since the map in

Labat is clearly based on a manuscript map, now housed in the British Library, by a hand other than Labat's and dated 1702.

A final word of caution about manuscript maps is that it is not always obvious whether they predate or postdate the printed version of the map. The

manuscript could be the draft from which the printed map was prepared, or it

could be a copy made from the printed version, for whatever reason. I own a

manuscript version of what Tooley indicates to be the first map of St. Vincent

(by Bellin, 1763), and I would love to be able to claim that it precedes the printed version. None of my contacts in the map world has been able to help The Map in the Book: Barbados 55 me come up with a plausible reason for saying so, however. Any suggestions would be gratefully received.

NOTES

1. Alan Moss, "Notes on Two of the Early Printed Maps of Barbados," Journal of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society 41 (1993): 51-58.

2. Tony Campbell, The Printed Maps of Barbados from the Earliest Times to 1873, Map Collectors' series, no. 21 (London: Map Collectors' Circle, 1965).

3. E. M. Shilstone, "A Descriptive List of Maps of Barbados," Journal of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society 5 (February 1938): 57-84.

4. Alan Moss, "Further Notes on the Printed Maps of Barbados," Journal of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society 45 (December 1999): 41-55.

5. Sarah Tyacke, London Map-Sellers, 1660-1720 (Tring, England: Map Collector Pub- lications, 1978).

6. Peter Campbell, "Richard Ligon," Journal of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society 37, no. 3 (1985): 215-238. 6. Judging a Book by Its Cover: Cover Art of Editora Política

Sharon A. Moynahan Wendy Louise Pedersen

"Literature and art fit well into the whole revolutionary machine as a compo-

nent part. . . . They operate as powerful weapons for uniting and educating the people and for attacking and destroying the enemy." So said Mao Zedong in 1942. This philosophy was evident during China's Cultural Revolution, 1966-1976. 1

Mao Zedong's quote applies to art in all forms. The use of graphic art in book covers reveals a lot about the motives and goals of the publisher. While a poster imparts an immediate message that exhorts, consoles, and moti- vates to action or inaction, a book cover must entice a reader. Beth Feldman notes that visitors to bookstores and libraries are attracted to appealing covers. Commercial publishers agree that the jacket or cover is "the single most 2 important thing about the physical object that is a book." The cover must be a tickler but must also be true to the content. Someone who might pick up a cover promising a bodice ripper will soon tire of Castro's speech com- memorating the twenty-third anniversary of the Moneada Barracks Attack. A fervent revolutionary might never even pick up the same book. 3 Book covers that "sell" have some common traits: (1) the cover matches the thought inside;

(2) the cover is bold; (3) the cover stands out, even among other standouts; and (4) the cover is classy, simple, garish, outlandish, and "attention-getting with impunity."4 Color, typeface, the appearance of the spine, as well as the choice of photograph or graphic art on the cover are all part of the formula. Yet ulti-

5 mate success still depends on the content.

Considering the importance of art in a revolutionary society, especially one that puts a high value on literacy, and given the attraction of book covers for readers, a collection of book cover art reveals another facet of political propaganda. Such a collection, especially when coupled with the Sam L. Slick Collection of Latin American and Iberian Posters at the University of

New Mexico General Library, gives the student of art, history, communication, or political science the opportunity to compare and contrast approaches to getting "the message" to people. Getting this message across is of particular importance to Editora Política, the official publishing house of the Cuban Communist Party. For over thirty-five years, Editora Política has published

56 Cover Art of Editora Política 57

literary reprints, the works of the founders of Marxism and Leninism, the writings of revolutionaries such as Che Guevara, and the speeches of Castro. As a publishing house, Editora Política employs researchers, graphic artists, 6 and advertising publicists. In other words, it is a publishing house like its Western commercial counterparts, but with a message to deliver rather than a profit to make.

Publishers and designers agree that the cover or jacket's honesty is one of the most important factors in getting and keeping a reader. The collection of book covers at the University of New Mexico was designed at Editora Política during the economically turbulent times of the late 1980s and early 1990s and can be examined as art, as propaganda, and as a series of business decisions.

During this time the Soviet Union and its European satellite states moved from communism to capitalism. Castro would make the decision to keep the Cuban Revolution on track.

Cubans, Arts, and the 1980s

The Castro government has always accepted many art styles and not insisted on any particular style, such as socialist realism. Viewed as another component of social productivity, art production is considered integral to soci-

7 ety. It is "promoted and criticized like any other means of production." One important consequence of the revolution was the establishment of a system of free art education, which eventually led to a period of artistic flowering and international recognition for Cuban artists in the 1980s. 8 The incorporation of art education into the nation's vocational fabric had an effect not often enjoyed by artists: graduates were guaranteed employment in their fields as instructors, consultants, graphic designers, and even gallery directors. "Art thus [became] a career as serious as any other course of studies, and market pressures [were] removed to a great extent."9 José Ricardo notes that the revolution meant job security and a sense of social contribution for artists. Graphic artists of the 1980s were given paid vacations, sick leave, maternity leave, and retirement benefits. In addition, they were assured the knowledge that they were producing materials that contrib- uted to Cuba's new society, participating in the "gran obra de cultura que se lleva a cabo en el país." 10

The World Orders Changes

The Cuban economy between 1960 and 1989 was massively subsidized by Soviet financial assistance, which probably peaked at nearly $6 billion a year in the late 1980s. There were three types of economic assistance for Cuba: guaranteed markets for Cuba's main exports, sugar and nickel; long-term supply and delivery agreements with prices set on terms favorable to Cuba; and trade credits to support Cuba's ability to import other needed products. 11 The resulting high prices for sugar and low prices for petroleum allowed Cuba to 58 Sharon A. Moynahan and Wendy Louise Pedersen

maintain an acceptable international cash flow. However, the collapse of the Soviet Union brought changes. In 1990, Moscow's refusal to make a new five- year trade agreement with Cuba and insistence on yearly renegotiations her- alded the beginning of the end of the two nations' "special relationship." 12 The U.S. Department of State estimated that Cuba sustained a 35 percent decline in gross domestic production between 1989 and 1993, resulting from the loss of Soviet support. In October 1990, Castro announced that Cuba had entered a "special period in time of peace" and that the economy would function as if in time of war until the crisis had passed. 13 In that same year, the president of Cuba's National Association of Economists, Dr. Luis A. Cardet Hernando, said that "without exception no people [were] better prepared for hardship than the 14 Cubans. We lost all fear on January 1, 1959." Pamela Smorkaloff observes that the editorial and physical production of books in Cuba has been a process inconceivably antiquated by the standards of an industrialized nation. The U.S. economic blockade ensured that publishing work was performed mostly without modern equipment. Replacement parts were unavailable unless they could be fabricated by innovators (craftsmen who specialized in making parts for one thing out of something else entirely). "When one comes to know how books are produced in Cuba, how the industry was developed and the sacrifices involved— with appreciation for the work and the book which together constitute a vehicle for the transmission of knowledge and cultural values— there is little room or reason for objecting to the tone, more or less white, of the paper used or glossiness of the cover." 15 The blockade, coupled with shortages resulting from the end of Soviet support, resulted in severe truncation of possibilities for graphic design. Poster artist Felix Beltrán in a 2001 interview stated:

After the fall of the Soviet Union, Cuba had fewer resources. It used to be that the Soviet Union would send a cargo ship daily to Cuba filled with sup-

plies. Design became very difficult, and conditions were precarious. The scarceness of paper was brutal. When a certain color would run out, another

color was used in its place. I remember a poster that included the words "red" and "black," and since there wasn't any red ink the word "red" was printed 16 in green.

Covers Reveal Content and More

Grouping the covers by year tells a story not only of publishing but of economics and possibly of ideology. The early covers show a high degree of artistic sophistication, superb graphics, photo-realism, complex printing processes, and generous use of photography. During 1987 and 1988, heroes (especially Che Guevara) and Castro account for nine covers. In 1989, solidarity with other world struggles was a dominant theme. In these years, the covers were colorful, well crafted, and original. As the economy imploded, not only did the use of color and sophisticated reproduction techniques disappear, but ,

Cover Art of Editora Política 59

the artwork itself seemed to get rather monotonous and hackneyed. Was this because of the lack of political motivation, the inability to pay artists, or other factors? Also, the familiar motifs that characterized earlier covers, such as Che and other heroes, disappeared. During 1991, Castro appears only once, and he seems much older.

Organizing the Collection

Unlike the University of New Mexico General Library's large Sam Slick poster collection, and the collection of 1930s- 1940s era covers from Ediciones Botas of Mexico, this small group of book covers will not be put into a database. The small quantity, coupled with the limited searching pos-

sibilities, indicates that a web page capable of collecting images into a few broad categories will be adequate. Thumbnails will link the searcher to larger images. In the event that hundreds of these covers are acquired, a database

will be considered. The goal of the library is to make these images and those of the Slick poster collection available to a wide audience. Images offer exciting opportunities to researchers, and collecting and sorting images makes historic and artistic investigation simpler. Imagine checking out all those titles just to study the artwork. Then imagine finding that half of them have been rebound.

NOTES

1. Patricia Powell and Joseph Wong, "Propaganda Posters from the Chinese Cultural Revolution," 59, no. 4 (summer 1997): 277.

2. Betsy Goban of Little Brown, quoted in Beth Feldman, "Covers that Catch the Eye: A

Look at How Jackets Influence Prospective Young Readers," Publishers Weekly 238 (November 1 1991): 46.

3. Steve Sherman, "Retailers Speak from Experience about Book Covers that Sell," Publishers Weekly 226 (October 26, 1984): 86.

4. Sherman, "Retailers Speak," p. 85.

5. Sherman, "Retailers Speak," p. 84.

6. Editora Política, www.ceniai.inf.cu/politica/ewbpcc/editora.htm, accessed May 14, 2002.

7. Luis Camnitzer, New Art of Cuba (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994), p. 125.

8. Gerardo Mosquera, "The Infinite Island: Introduction to the New Cuban Art," in Contemporary Artfrom Cuba: Irony and Survival on the Utopian Island (New York: Arizona State

University Press, Delano Greenidge Editions, 1999), p. 24.

9. Camnitzer, New Art of Cuba, p. 163.

10. José G. Ricardo, La Imprenta en Cuba (La Habana: Editorial Letras Cubanos, 1989), p. 279.

11. "The Cuban Economy: Historical Background," Cubafacts, http://www.cubafacts.com/ Economy/econmain.htm, accessed May 24, 2002.

12. Susan Kaufman Purcell, "Collapsing Cuba," Foreign Affairs 71, no. 1 (1992): 130-146.

13. U. S. Department of State, http://www.state.gov/www/background_notes/cuba_0498_ bgn.html, accessed May 28, 2002. and Wendy Louise Pedersen 60 Sharon A. Moynahan

24-26. Graffiti," The Progressive 54, no. 6 (June 1990): 14. William Steif, "Grumbling and Print and Writers in Cuba: A Social History of 15. Pamela Maria Smorkaloff, Readers 1997), 175. Culture, 1830s-1990s (New York: Garland, p. Propaganda: Interview with Felix Beltrán," Trace: AIGA 16. Maggy Cuesta, "Postscript to 85. Journal of Design 1, no. 2 (2001): 7. A Poster is Worth 10,000 Words: Cuban Political Posters at the University of New Mexico

Claire-Lise Bénaud Sharon A. Moynahan

"Posters are usually designed to be produced in large quantities, and then dis- carded. However, scholars in all disciplines benefit when they are preserved." 1 Posters, a multilayered medium, offer a multitude of angles for research ranging from politics, history, culture, and art to production and distribution. But most importantly, the poster is a means of communication designed to reach the largest possible audience or, to quote Alejo Carpentier, "to bring culture to 2 the door of the masses in all aspects and at all levels." For this reason, the University of New Mexico General Library purchased the International Archives of Latin American Political Posters (I ALAPP) from Dr. Sam L. Slick in 2001. The University of New Mexico has a strong Latin

American visual art program and is interested in this genre. This purchase complements other graphic materials such as the Taller de Gráfica Popular collection and Latin American photographic materials.

Slick founded the IALAPP in 1976 while he was teaching at Sam Houston State University. Over a quarter of a century, Slick collected over 12,000 posters from Latin America's twenty-two countries. This archive documents contemporary Latin America, especially its politics, social problems, and popular graphic art. Slick also built an adjunct archive to the IALAPP, containing Spanish political posters from the post-Franco Era. Both archives, renamed the Sam L. Slick Collection of Latin American and Iberian Political Posters, were purchased by the University of New Mexico General Library. The collection has notable strengths; the most important is the Cuban segment. This paper will give a brief history of how Slick assembled the Cuban segment of the archive and will describe the breadth of this collection. It will describe how the library processed these posters and how the library plans to make them accessible. Credit goes to Teresa Eckmann, Ph.D. candidate in Latin American Studies and library fellow responsible for the cataloging and preservation of the collection, and Russ Davidson, curator of Latin American and Iberian collections for providing much of this information.

61 62 Claire-Lise Bénaud and Sharon A. Moynahan

Assembling the Archive

Davidson had known about Slick's Latin American poster archive for some twenty years. In 1999, he recruited Slick to participate in a panel on visual documentation on popular culture at SALALM in Nashville. At that time, Slick was thinking about retiring from academia and wanted to find a home for his poster collection. The timing was right in terms of his own interest in disposing of his collection. Davidson began to negotiate the acquisition of this collection at SALALM and purchased the collection for the UNM library. A phone conversation with Slick on May 2, 2002, conducted in prepa- ration for this paper, brought to light how he acquired these posters. Slick's many interesting stories provided a wealth of details about the posters. Unlike posters from other countries, 98 percent of the Cuban posters were obtained directly from Cuban government agencies. They were collected at three different times: in the late 1980s, in the early 1990s, and in 1996. In the late 1980s, Slick contacted the Cuban Interest Section in Washington, D.C., which plays the role of an embassy, since Cuba has no formal diplomatic relations with the United States. He obtained many posters through this agency. Then, in 1993, Rene Mederos, one of the premier Cuban artists, came to the United States to discuss Cuban revolutionary art. He went on tour, bringing with him some of his posters. He carried them in a beautiful, handmade, wooden poster box, which Slick still owns. The Cuban government had set up a delivery system for these posters and Slick had arranged in advance that the posters would be ultimately destined for his archive. Mederos went first to UCLA and then to New Orleans where he finally met Slick. Slick developed a close friendship with Mederos and they spent time together in Mississippi and Florida. By that time, art supplies were hard to find in Cuba, because the Soviet Union no longer subsidized the Cuban economy. Slick took Mederos to a Pearl Art Supply store and bought him brushes and paints. Mederos was saddened to realize that he had not had access to such a variety of art supplies while creating his art. Even though art supplies in Cuba were not plentiful, Mederos was productive and enjoyed a relatively comfortable life since artists were well regarded. Finally, in 1996, Slick went to Havana. On this occasion he purchased hundreds of posters. He met his friend Mederos, who introduced him to all his revolutionary artist friends who owned posters. Slick bought some $1,500 worth of posters before running out of money. Artists sold their posters for 1 to 2 dollars a piece. Many artists wanted to sell him posters, sometimes for as little as 50 cents, but he did not have any more cash. Had he known that there were so many posters to buy, he would have brought more money. Slick also went to government agencies to obtain posters. Getting authorization from party officials was not always a given, but he managed to walk out with many posters. Slick put them in poster tubes for the flight home. He encountered Cuban Political Posters at the University of New Mexico 63

some problems going through customs at the Jose Marti airport in Havana. Customs officers demanded receipts for the artwork, which Slick did not have. Finally, he found one receipt for some 20 posters he had purchased from a government agency and showed it. Fortunately, this satisfied customs officials, and he was able to take his posters with him.

The Golden Age of Cuban Posters

The Cuban posters are without a doubt the most interesting and valuable part of the collection. Production spans the decades from the early 1960s to the

1990s. The posters reflect the trials, tribulations, and successes of the Cuban Revolution. The collection contains 570 posters from Cuba with the majority being produced between 1975 and the 1980s. As examples of both graphic art and political propaganda, the Cuban posters are superb. Cuban artists developed a very specific style, often using two colors to create a flat design with a shadow. Paradoxically, American pop artists, like Andy Warhol, influenced them. The two most important artists represented in the collection are Rene Mederos and Daisy Garcia. Prior to the Cuban Revolution of 1956-1959, no tradition of poster production existed on the island. In the 1960s, many Cubans were illiterate and there were few televisions and radios. Fidel Castro used posters to coalesce the revolution. Posters are effective communication tools with a clear message and great impact. They helped shape political attitudes such as socialism, nation- alism, and world peace, as well as societal attitudes such as family harmony, safety, and ecology. As Cubans became literate, through the great literacy campaigns of the revolution, and television sets became more commonplace, posters lost much of their importance. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, because of shortages of paper and ink, poster art suffered. Poster production from the mid-1960s to the mid-1980s represents the golden age of Cuban poster art.

The Sponsors

Cuban posters were predominantly produced by artists working under the auspices of the following organizations that were established during the revolution:

• The Instituto Cubano de Arte e Industria (Cuban Institute of Cinematographic Art and Industry; ICAIC) produced film posters. This agency employed artists such as Azcuy, Bachs, Ñiko, Reboiro, Martinez, and Alfredo Rostgaard. ICAIC produced some of the most memorable posters. There are 70 posters from this agency, of which 30 are silk screens.

• The Comisión de Orientación Revolucionaria (Commission for Revolutionary Orientation; COR) was the internal propaganda agency 64 Claire-Lise Bénaud and Sharon A. Moynahan

of the Cuban Communist Party from 1959 to 1970. It was then replaced by the Dirección Orientación Revolucionaria (DOR). COR employed artists such as Félix Beltrán, Eufemia Alvarez, Marcos Pérez, and Roberto Figueredo.

• The Organización en Solidaridad con los Pueblos de Asia, Africa y América Latina (Organization in Solidarity with the People of Asia,

Africa, and Latin America; OSPAAAL) employed artists such as Alfredo Rostgaard, Fautino Pérez, Elena Serrano, and Rene Mederos.

The Consejo Nacional de Cultura (CNC) started in 1959 and became

the Ministerio de Cultura in 1976. This agency employed artists such as Fremez (José Gomez Fresquet), Rolando de Oraa, Aldo Méndez González, and Ricardo Reymena.

• The Continental Organization of Latin American Students (OCLAE) employed artists such as Raúl Pinas, Enríquez, Poilo, Herí (Herberto Echeverría del Pozo), G. Acost, Daisy García López, Mario Sandoval, Rene Mederos, and Ásela Bolado.

• The Union de Escritores y Artistas Cubanos (UNEAC) employed artists such as Roger Aguilar Labrada.

• The Casa de las Americas employed artists such as Umberto Peña.

• The Federación Cubana de Mujeres and the Instituto Cubano de Libros.

Physical Characteristics

The size of the posters varies widely— the smallest is an 8!^ -by- 12-inch flyer, and the largest is a highway billboard sign. Most posters, however, are within the range of a normal poster size: 22 to 30 inches wide by 30 to 45 inches long. The collection is not made up completely of posters. It also contains flyers, handbills, banners, bumper stickers, and a few broadsides. The printing quality ranges from simple and inexpensive to rich and complex with exciting artistic designs. Most posters were printed as offset prints by the hundreds. Around 100 posters are silk screens, which are usually published in small editions. The difference between the two methods of printing is that an offset print "involves the transfer of an inked image to an intermediary, such as the rubber cylinder on an offset press then to paper," while a silk screen is a "technique that makes use of a squeegee to force ink directly onto a piece of paper or canvas through a stencil containing the image." 3 The silk screens have a more saturated color than the offset prints and the ink is generally thick to the point that one can feel the texture on the paper. Silk screens are considered more valuable and may look less mechanical than offset prints. Posters were also published folded in magazines. Most posters are in very good to excellent Cuban Political Posters at the University of New Mexico 65

condition, and many posters are in virtually perfect condition. It is estimated that 7 to 8 percent of the posters are duplicate copies.

A Reflection of Cuban Politics and Society

Cuban posters fall under two basic categories: politics and culture. Numerous posters commemorate the anniversaries of specific events in Cuban history such as the Moneada Barracks Attack that took place on July 26, 1953, when 160 youths including Fidel Castro made an initial attempt to overthrow the Batista Regime; or the insurrection led by Castro on December 2, 1956, after sailing on the Granma from Mexico to Cuba with trained guerrilla soldiers. Some posters combine heroic figures with historic events such as the work displaying José Martí's portrait along with the text "Moneada." The popular icons of revolutionary leaders José Martí, Fidel Castro, and Che Guevara pervade Cuban posters. The Slick collection includes 135 posters produced for OCLAE and OSPAAAL that predominantly advocate solidarity with peoples who are involved in political, social, and economic struggles such as apartheid and human rights violations around the globe. Examples of these include posters expressing solidarity with Argentina in their claim over the Falkland Islands against Britain; with the Guatemalan guerilla movement; with the Nation Liberation Front in South Vietnam; and with struggles in Chile, Puerto Rico, and Grenada. Cuban artists also produced posters for other revolutionary gov- ernments (for example, the Sandinistas in Nicaragua). A long list of historic figures are celebrated such as Tupac Amaru of Peru, Amilcar Cabral of Guinea- Bissau, Patrice Lumumba of Zaire, Agustín Farabundo Marti of El Salvador, Augusto César Sandino of Nicaragua, Camilo Torres of Colombia, Maurice Bishop of Grenada, and Nelson Mandela of South Africa. In many of the solidarity posters, Cuban artists cleverly appropriate and manipulate U.S. cultural and political symbols such as the flag, the eagle, Richard Nixon, Uncle Sam, and the Statue of Liberty to express shared sentiments with the Third World against the foreign policies of the United States. OSPAAAL and OCLAE posters would be intriguing to a broad audience, but particularly to those interested in cultural studies and international relations. The artists are not always acknowledged, but they can be identified by the stylistic characteristics that pervade their works.

Many posters issued by COR were aimed directly at encouraging specific behaviors in the Cuban population and at shaping moral attitudes in support of the revolution. Daisy Garcia, a graphic Cuban artist who worked for COR and with whom Slick was in contact, is a good example. COR posters advocate acts of respect, consideration, and friendship, or warnings that one's neighbor is likely watching one's actions. Energy conservation is also an important subject, as is workplace safety and health. These posters could be of interest to sociologists, environmentalists, or health care workers. 66 Claire-Lise Bénaud and Sharon A. Moynahan

Database Creation, Cataloging, and Digitizing Database Creation

The prospect of organizing over 10,000 posters is thrilling. UNM is not the only institution collecting posters, so the first job was to see what was already out there. First to be examined was the Center for the Study of Political Graphics in Los Angeles. They had digitized their images and created a database. Grant funding far in excess of UNM's resources had enabled them to purchase a first-class image management program along with the staffing to run it. UNM would have to look for a more modest approach. Whenever an interesting site was discovered, whether for posters or other artwork, a message was sent asking, "How did you do that?" Responses were usually dis- couraging, since they required resources and programs UNM could not afford or that were somehow incompatible with other local initiatives or systems. Also considered were cataloging packages that would allow UNM to catalog each image and make it available as part of the online public catalog (OPAC). However, the library would not be digitizing every poster, and the "out of the box" package for images in the OPAC was far too expensive. Many of the websites that displayed posters did not use a searchable database, but rather frames and links to collect the posters into broad categories. With a collection that was already 12,000 posters and growing, this option would not suffice. The library decided to use Microsoft Access to create the database and later look for a good way to mount the database on the Internet. A member of the library's Information Technology Department worked with a team that included catalogers, the curator, the library fellow, and the photo archivist to assemble points of access and storage information. The team met several times as early work with the database pointed out several flaws and additional needs. Several decisions were made before the work began. Diacritics would be included, thumbnail images would link to larger images, and the database would be accessible via a hot link from the OPAC.

Cataloging

In September 200 1 , the library hired a graduate fellow with experience in curatorial artwork to process the collection. Every effort was made to make the work process efficient, requiring as little duplicate typing as possible and providing simple searchable access points with drop-down menus. The task was to make the searching easy enough for undergraduates yet specific enough to be of use to experienced researchers. To date, over 1,500 posters from Cuba, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Puerto Rico, and Panama have been cataloged. The template for each record includes the following elements:

• control number, which is automatically created

• title, which is usually taken from the most prominent text Cuban Political Posters at the University of New Mexico 67

artist

additional credits

issuing agency

country of creation

motif (for example, flag, guitar, gun, hand, harvest, machete, map, horse)

subject headings: currently, the list includes over four hundred headings,

in controlled vocabulary, which will be reconciled and compacted later

time period (in ten-year blocks) and exact date

condition: pristine, fine, good, or poor

dimensions

style (for example, abstract, animation, art deco, caricature, figurative,

minimalist, op art, photomontage, semiabstract, semifigurative)

medium/technique: silk screen, photo-offset, block printing, or woodcut

description that contains extensive and comprehensive notes

number of copies

year the poster was acquired

source

physical location: drawer and folder.

Digitizing

Digitizing was necessary to cut down on excessive handling and to make the collection accessible online. Digitizing a wide variety of sizes would be a challenge since the library did not own a scanner large enough for the task. The library's scanning experience with collections such as the Ediciones Botas Book Covers Collection and the Cuban Book Covers Collection involved items small enough to be laid on a desktop flatbed scanner. Although plans are being made for a state consortium for digitization, prospects for good scanning equipment are distant. Instead, selected posters were mounted on an easel and photographed. Whether or not these will prove to be of sufficient archival quality, the images are adequate for a web-based database.

The library has yet to choose a web interface. It is possible that delays mandated by funding and personnel shortages will work to the library's advantage. Every year there are better and more economical programming packages that will enable UNM to make this fabulous collection available to the research community. .

68 Claire-Lise Bénaud and Sharon A. Moynahan

Conclusion

The thematic and stylistic value of the Cuban collection is broad and of interest not only to art historians and political historians, but also to researchers interested in international relations, anti-U.S. movements, women and gender studies, environmental studies, health care, and many other topics. Poster art, in effect, is a popular art form that aims to reach and motivate a broad and diverse public. By making this rich collection available online, UNM library will facil- 4 itate research into "the world of mass production of works of art." A selection of these posters will be presented at the National Hispanic Cultural Center in Albuquerque, New Mexico, in the fall of 2004. The exhibit will include a bilingual catalog and an international symposium. This will complement the library's digital efforts and will celebrate this unique form of artwork.

NOTES

1 Gary Boulard, "When Ugly Politics Turn out Beautiful Works of Art," Art Business

News 26 (August 1999), front cover (full web text from OCLC First Search Full Text).

2. Alejo Carpentier, introduction to Cuba en la gráfica, by Reyna María Valdés (Milan,

Italy: Ediciones Gianni Costantino, 1991), p. 6.

3. Donald Saff and Deli Sacilotto, Printmaking: History and Process (New York: Holt,

Rinehart, and Winston, 1978), pp. 428-429.

4. Reyna María Valdés, Cuba en la gráfica (Milan, Italy: Ediciones Gianni Costantino,

1991), p. 7. 8. Tendencias interpretativas en torno a Fidel Castro

Enrique Camacho Navarro

Fidel Castro interpretado

Fidel Castro es uno de los líderes políticos más reconocidos a nivel mundial. Su representación ha marcado influencia en territorios que van más allá de la frontera marina que circunda a Cuba; ha llevado a la formación de símbolos de la Revolución por él encabezada. Su barba, su infatigable rebeldía, o hasta sus dotes de orador profundo, han servido de estímulo a la lucha revolucionaria. Sin embargo, su trayectoria política también ha sido tomada como ejemplo de un comportamiento oscuro, hasta el grado de calificarlo como dictatorial. Dentro de ese gran proceso integral de interpretación y recepción que se experimenta alrededor de su figura, ninguna persona se puede definir como verdaderamente neutral. Difícilmente se puede evadir la adopción de una postura hacia el personaje. La variedad de las visiones emitidas sobre él es de sumo interés. A lo largo de sus casi 50 años de presencia en la vida política, el guerrillero ha sido visto desde una infinidad de perspectivas. La vida y las acciones de Castro han sido objeto de interpretaciones en las que siempre se revela la presencia de cargas ideológicas, aunque éstas se han manifestado con niveles de la más distinta proporción. Ante tal panorama, luego de más de cuatro décadas de lucha revolucionaria en Cuba, dentro de un constante y abigarrado debate, y rom- piendo con las anquilosadas posturas originadas por la rígida dicotomía que prevaleció a causa de la Guerra Fría, se impone la tarea de conocer las formas de creación de las interpretaciones históricas, de desenmarañar las distintas y encontradas opiniones.

Resulta impresionante la cantidad de publicaciones que existen bajo el tema de Fidel Castro dentro de las bibliografías especializadas y en los más destacados acervos. Sin embargo, se debe resaltar que dentro de ese enorme caudal bibliográfico no existen materiales donde se muestre una preocupación por conocer las cuestiones que rodean a los textos dedicados al revolucionario. No ha existido una preocupación por identificar a los autores, por conocer cuáles son sus tendencias políticas, por analizar las peculiaridades de sus representaciones, por reflexionar sobre los criterios de selección de los aspectos predominantes. Pensando en esa tarea a realizar, en estas notas se analiza de forma breve la representación sobre Fidel Castro. Es fundamental trabajar en

69 70 Enrique Camacho Navarro ese sentido, sobre todo pensando en que dentro de ese complejo mundo de letras sobre la Cuba revolucionaria se encuentra de manera regular una inten- ción clara de apoyar a determinadas ideologías, a corrientes de pensamiento, a proyectos político sociales.

Cuba es uno de los casos más claros en donde la producción de textos en todos sus géneros ha servido como herramienta a favor o en contra de la Revolución. La intencionalidad de sumar adeptos es una realidad patente en cada obra sobre el tema cubano. Entre los que apoyan y los que atacan a Castro existe una frontera perfectamente delimitada. Ello se refleja en los espacios de las interpretaciones, donde cada "bando" marca de manera tajante su ale- jamiento con respecto a la interpretación "enemiga". Se evita la referencia a obras opuestas, y cuando se hace mención de ellas es para descalificarlas. Pese a tal comportamiento, se debe entender que no es posible desechar la menor muestra de información, cuando se supone que la intención es la de impulsar un más amplio conocimiento. Menos aún puede aceptarse que existe una única y "verdadera" interpretación, tal como algunos autores anuncian sus obras, y que por ello forman parte de la discusión sobre la posesión de la verdad, polémica que se ejemplifica adelante con los casos de Carlos Alberto Montaner y de Gabriel García Márquez como intérpretes de Castro.

Castro en negro

En un reciente libro que se publicó sobre la temática política de Cuba, Fidel Castro aparece interpretado como responsable de las atrocidades cometidas por el gobierno cubano contra los derechos humanos. Se trata de la obra de Carlos Alberto Montaner, Viaje al corazón de Cuba. 1 Este texto es un ejemplo de aquellos tipos de tratamiento que de forma común se hacen de la figura de Fidel sin considerar los períodos de cambios, poco o demasiado trascenden- tales, que el personaje ha tenido a través del tiempo. Se le resta importancia a la existencia de distintas facetas político sociales que inevitablemente influy- eron en algunos comportamientos específicos del dirigente revolucionario, y que explican la modificación de ciertas actitudes. En ese sentido se mueve la afirmación de que todo el camino revolucionario fue seguido por un claro interés de imponer el comunismo en la isla, lo cual se invalida precisamente con la revisión de los textos de 1959 y de los anteriores a ese año. No se niega el posterior carácter comunista de la Revolución, pero se debe precisar que su adopción fue la respuesta posterior a una fase específica de la historia, tal como lo significó la invasión apoyada por el gobierno de John F. Kennedy a Bahía de Cochinos (conocida también como Playa Girón). Fue sólo hasta después de la Segunda Declaración de La Habana cuando Fidel Castro manifestó abier- 2 tamente la adopción del camino comunista. El autor de Viaje al corazón de Cuba define la personalidad de Fidel Castro sin darle importancia a la existencia de esos cambios que bien pudieron ser motivados por la complejidad del proceso revolucionario o bien por el también complejo carácter del propio 1

Tendencias interpretativas en torno a Fidel Castro 7

Castro. Lo que se presenta en el caso de Montaner es que se van delineando las características de Castro a partir de atributos que se manejan como inmó- viles, estáticos. Se define una personalidad a la que en ningún momento se le conecta con la posibilidad de haber sido representativa de distintas motivacio- nes morales o ideológicas adjudicadas con el pasar de los años. Castro aparece en la pluma de Montaner como un dictador iberoamericano y, a partir de allí, el echar marcha atrás en la historia, a fin de presentar su trayectoria personal y política, lo que hace el intérprete de Castro es intentar la corroboración de que esa actitud dictatorial se mostró desde el inicio de su lucha política. En algunos casos el asunto se vuelve de lo más delicado, al forzar la representación y tipi- ficar a Castro como cabeza de una dictadura, apoyándose en la utilización de datos que se remontan a su niñez, a su adolescencia, o a los atributos destacados dentro de su entorno familiar. Para quien no sabe quién es Carlos Alberto Montaner, basta mencionar que se trata de la más importante figura del movimiento anticastrista en el exilio, lugar que ocupa luego de la muerte, en noviembre de 1997, del fundador 3 de la influyente Fundación Nacional Cubano Americana, Jorge Mas Canosa. Éste había creado su espacio de actuación primordial en los EE.UU. Por su parte, Montaner dirigiría el "frente" europeo, con sede en Madrid, desde donde sigue manifestando su permanente postura opositora. Al tener entre las manos Viaje al corazón de Cuba se entiende la fun- ción que también tienen las imágenes que se incluyen dentro del trabajo editorial, tal como sucede con el dibujo que ocupa la portada y contraportada, que 4 es firmado por el también exiliado cubano Tony Evora. Allí se percibe de inmediato cuál es la tendencia que distinguirá al material. Con una frondosa y colorida naturaleza como fondo aparece un auto seguido de un remolque. En el primero, y con la sensación de estar muy juntos entre sí o hasta podría decirse apretujados, se presentan las imágenes de Fidel y del "Che", que van en el frente, y Marx, en la parte posterior. Fidel es el único que muestra en su representación el paso del tiempo, ya que su cara no es la del joven revolucionario que cautivó a la población latinoamericana con su entrega en la lucha por el cambio social, sino que es la del viejo líder que ha estado más de 40 años en el poder y con 74 años de edad. En la portada aparecen el Marx adulto que impactó con sus teorías sociales y el Guevara maduro, muerto en Bolivia en 1967. Puede decirse que en el carro conducido por Fidel, que por cierto es de color rosa con la posible intención irónica de señalar el futuro optimista que se anuncia para Cuba, se resume la acusación de que el dirigente se acompaña sólo de símbolos muertos, de ideas que han sido superadas y que Montaner maneja como carentes de vigencia en nuestras actuales sociedades. El también viejo automóvil representado, de esos mismos que uno puede admirar en La Habana, y digo admirar en homenaje al increíble ingenio con el cual los cubanos han logrado mantener en uso a los clásicos Ford o Chevrolet de los años cuarentas, jala un reducido remolque que es ocupado por tres 72 Enrique Camacho Navarro

personas a través de quienes se quiere referir a algunos integrantes de la sociedad cubana. La idea quedaría así: se trata de Fidel manejando una Revolución en la que él decide el rumbo que deben aceptar sin reticencias los personajes remolcados. Aparecen un miliciano, una mujer en bikini y un hombre enfun- dado en una enorme cámara de llanta. El primero de ellos va armado, obvia- mente. Llama la atención que se trata de un hombre de color, miembro de uno de los sectores que han mostrado mucha aceptación al proceso revolucionario, pues históricamente se le había mantenido fuera de las expectativas de desarrollo ofrecidas al resto de la población. Con esa imagen se quiere denunciar al castrismo como un sistema que únicamente puede sostenerse a través del control militar. La mujer evidentemente alude a las denominadas "jineteras", mujeres quienes, además de revelar la famosa belleza de las cubanas, han sido tomadas como ejemplo de la descomposición social del castrismo y quienes, en busca de mejores condiciones de vida, se ofrecen al turista a cambio de la moneda de más circulación de la isla: el dólar. Su presencia es de tal par- 5 ticularidad en la Isla que se ha usado ya como tema literario detallado. La tercera presencia corresponde a la angustiante figura de los balseros que en 1994 ocuparon primeras páginas en todo el mundo por la temeridad mostrada en su intento de alcanzar el "sueño americano", prefiriendo arriesgar la vida y confiando en rudimentarias balsas en donde enormes cámaras infladles se convierten en elemento básico de la pretendida travesía entre las costas cuba- 6 nas y las de Florida. Su cara apesadumbrada y su delgado cuerpo contrastan con la esperanzadora "V" de la victoria que aparece en la mano izquierda. La motivación del cuadro es clara. El dibujo en su totalidad es una denuncia que, a través de elementos iconográficos, destaca problemas centrales de la Cuba castrista.

Ya en el interior del documento, es mediante la escritura que se amplía esa denuncia que se condensa a través de la representación iconográfica. Aparece la utilización de las imágenes escritas con la intención de fundamentar una postura política. Se representa a Fidel como un personaje que siempre ha tenido en mente la pertenencia total del poder, sin permitir la más mínima posibilidad de ser reemplazado. Sin embargo, aun cuando puede aceptarse como válida la crítica a su larga presencia de más de cuarenta años, no puede desconsiderarse la existencia de diferentes fases de su comportamiento. Debe explicarse cómo funcionaron otros factores en la trayectoria del personaje y en la configuración de las imágenes que se tienen a la vista del otrora héroe indiscutible. La propuesta de Montaner se anuncia con el objetivo de escribir una "sín- tesis total" o "contar la historia" con mayúsculas, a pesar de que es posible comprobar que se dejan fuera un sinfín de ángulos que él conoce muy bien pero que no incluye a fin de beneficiar las intenciones políticas de su visión.

Así sucede, por ejemplo, al guardar silencio sobre la injerencia norteamericana en la problemática cubana. A esa actitud debe responderse con una profunda reflexión y un cuestionamiento pertinente a su intento. Lo que más puede Tendencias interpretativas en torno a Fidel Castro 73

aceptarse es la presencia de una nueva visión, una más de las muchas que se han manifestado y que siguen produciéndose, sobre Fidel. El líder del exilio cubano ofrece "su" historia, mas en ningún momento puede ser creída como "La Historia". Sería imposible llegar a ésta, y mucho menos se podría acceder a ella cuando existen razones para entender que se trata de la presencia de una interpretación determinada por intereses políticos que ansian la caída de Castro, como siempre lo han mostrado los textos de 7 Montaner. Cada uno de sus libros es un documento que pretende preparar el momento que una gran parte de los exiliados de la Isla definen con la siguiente frase de esperanza: "el año que viene en La Habana", que es una expresión referente a la inminencia que le otorgan a la desaparición física o política de Fidel. No obstante, el trabajo de Carlos Alberto Montaner podría atenderse como un interesante aporte que estimula el conocimiento de otras interpretaciones y la reflexión en torno a ellas como parte de un proceso de elaboración histórica. Asimismo, puede promover también la creación de unas nuevas con- strucciones interpretativas que contribuyan de manera efectiva a alcanzar una mejor percepción de los sucesos cubanos. Adopta una importancia central la tarea de explicar el o los por qué del tipo de mirada que se hace del personaje. En ese sentido resalta la pertinen- cia de reflexionar sobre las formas usadas para describir los acontecimientos, practicando para ello el estudio de ciertos ejemplos. Para ilustrar más el plan- teamiento se puede seguir mencionando el caso de Viaje al corazón de Cuba.

En la parte que Montaner presenta bajo el subtítulo de "Retrato del joven Fidel

Castro", se palpa la preocupación por preparar el terreno para que el lector se acostumbre a un personaje ansioso de poder, a un líder acomodaticio al que se le relaciona hasta con actividades "gangsteriles". Se destaca ampliamente la negación a que Fidel haya alcanzado una presencia como intelectual, sos- teniendo que se trata únicamente de un "hombre de acción". Se toman como incompatibles ambas actitudes, muy a pesar de que Castro cabría perfectamente como intelectual, al considerar que, con su trayectoria como profesional o como político, fomenta el desarrollo de las ideas y la propuesta de una reflex- ión sobre el hombre y su futuro, partiendo de una crítica de las condiciones sociales en que vive.

Montaner pretende, por otra parte, motivar la admiración por la actitud mantenida tanto por la disidencia existente en la isla, así como por aquellos elementos que dan origen a los sectores anticastristas de dentro y fuera de Cuba. Sus intenciones políticas aparecen de manera abierta en las páginas de su libro. El móvil es la exaltación a aquellas manifestaciones contestatarias que son efectuadas desde el interior de Cuba y también por parte de las agrupaciones de exiliados que se sitúan en Miami, España y Puerto Rico, principalmente. Pero la actitud de Montaner no es, en absoluto, novedosa. Responde a un comportamiento que de manera recurrente se encuentra dentro de las interpretaciones políticas latinoamericanas, a saber, la producción de una escritura 74 Enrique Camacho Navarro

militante, combativa, de acción. En el caso puntual de la literatura dedicada a la figura de Castro, puede señalarse que esa situación se hace aun más visible de lo normal. Dentro del proceso de interpretación que existe alrededor del Comandante revolucionario, no se puede manifestar la presencia de alguna persona neutra. Aunque esta es una realidad palpable, no existe un estudio que ofrezca claridad sobre esa manifestación interpretativa que consiste en sumarse inevitablemente a alguna tendencia que ataca o favorece al personaje.

Fidel en blanco

Al hablar sobre la recepción de su imagen, se ha manifestado acertada- mente que Fidel Castro es un símbolo al cual se le sataniza o se le glorifica.

Difícilmente se puede hablar de una indiferencia, tal como lo esboza Clive

Foss en su introducción a la biografía que se publicó en el 2000 sobre el líder 8 cubano. Así como Montaner denigra la presencia del jefe revolucionario, existe una contraparte que favorece el perfil patriótico del Comandante, visión que se ilustra enseguida nada menos que a través de la producción de la pluma del afamado escritor Gabriel García Márquez. No es necesaria una present- ación amplia sobre él, sin embargo es de suma importancia mencionar que su presencia como defensor del régimen de Castro puede ser tomada como insu- 9 perable en el ámbito de la intelectualidad latinoamericana. 10 En el prólogo que se inserta en Mañana será demasiado tarde, donde se compilan discursos de Fidel Castro sobre la caída del socialismo soviético, así como sobre la presencia de América Latina en el contexto de un mundo globalizado, el "Gabo" presenta la imagen de un Fidel en permanente lucha, el de la convicción inquebrantable, el que resiste y se entrega pese al transcurso de los años. Se alaba la aptitud de Fidel como inmejorable orador, como poseedor de un carácter de acero que ejemplifica con la voluntad de terminar de un día para otro con su vieja tradición de fumador de habanos. En resumen, se presenta al dirigente cubano con un perfil sumamente positivo.

Se mantiene— dice García Márquez— en excelentes condiciones físicas con varias horas de gimnasia diaria y de natación frecuente, se restringe a una copita de whisky puro en sorbos casi invisibles, y ha logrado sobreponerse a

su debilidad por los espaguetis. . . . Sus cóleras homéricas pero momentáneas son ahora fábulas del pasado, y ha aprendido a disolver sus humores oscuros en una paciencia invencible. Total: una disciplina férrea.

Fidel es allí el trabajador incansable que ha sido señalado como un hombre que reitera de manera impertinente un mismo tema, pero al que en respuesta a las críticas García Márquez justifica diciendo que se trata de un modo de trabajar que revela una depuración de sus reflexiones. Para el Premio Nobel de Literatura se trata de un proceso de profundización en el manejo de determinados aspectos, tal como lo apunta con respecto a la preocupación de Castro por el tema de la deuda externa latinoamericana, la cual fue durante mucho tiempo una temática preferida por el dirigente cubano. Tendencias interpretativas en torno a Fidel Castro 75

Para el editor de Mañana será demasiado tarde, el escrito del colombiano representa "el mejor y más cercano retrato psicológico que se ha hecho del Comandante". Sin embargo, la situación es tomada de distinta manera por parte de los promotores de Viaje al corazón de Cuba, ya que para ellos Montaner es quien verdaderamente responde a la pregunta sobre "¿Cómo es

la psicología de Fidel Castro, el hombre que gobierna la Isla desde hace 40 años?" Aparece así una apreciación peculiar. Se manifiesta el afán de posesión o apropiación de la verdad; se insiste en la propiedad de la representación "real" del personaje o de una situación específica. Cada propuesta intentará imponerse como la acertada, como la clarificadora, sin pensar en que cada una de las representaciones hechas contiene su verdad. Se caracteriza a Fidel dependiendo de las simpatías u aversiones que los autores mantengan como resultado de su visión del mundo. Tanto Montaner como García Márquez justifican sus propias ideas políticas, utilizando como mecanismos de intermediación la representación "negra" o "blanca", respec- tivamente, de aquél. Mientras que para uno es importante destacar la presencia de Fidel como obstáculo del avance democrático, para el otro el imbatible espíritu de lucha es un elemento que justifica la excesiva permanencia de Castro en el poder. La traición, para el primero, y la entrega, para el segundo, pese a su polarizada ubicación se convierten en fundamentos a través de los cuales se apoya una posición ideológica. La batalla de las ideas se manifiesta mediante determinadas imágenes escritas en torno al famoso personaje. Se puede concluir que todas las interpretaciones sobre Fidel Castro responden a condiciones específicas y bien delimitadas. Mediante un proceso en el cual se manifiesta una intención de adaptar al personaje a ciertas circun- stancias, el intérprete construye, imagina, crea una visión que le resulta verdaderamente útil tanto a él como a un determinado proyecto político suscrito.

Atender los mecanismos de interpretación que giran en torno al polémico Fidel permitirá dar un salto que supere la pura interpretación política. Con su valor- ación se deberá aspirar a romper la ya oxidada tradición, heredada por influencia de la política de la Guerra Fría, de representar en blanco y negro al patriarca barbudo, quien pese a un largo transcurrir de los años sigue en movimiento como una activa, y siempre por demás atractiva, figura de contrastes.

NOTAS

1. Carlos Alberto Montaner, Viaje al corazón de Cuba (Barcelona: Plaza y Janes, 1999).

2. Sobre estos dos sucesos vividos a mediados de abril de 1961 se puede consultar a Fidel Castro, Playa Girón (La Habana: Comisión Nacional del Monumento a los Caídos en Playa

Girón, 1961); Playa Girón: derrota del imperialismo (La Habana: Ediciones R., 1962), 4 v.; así como 2 declaraciones de La Habana (Madrid: Editorial Ciencia Nueva, 1968) (Cuadernos Ciencia

Nueva). Una reciente versión, con el toque de la comunidad exiliada en Miami, se encuentra en el libro de Enrique Ros, Playa Girón: la verdadera historia (Miami, Fia.: Ediciones Universal, 1994) (Cuba y sus jueces). .

76 Enrique Camacho Navarro

3. Para más datos sobre la Fundación, véase el texto The Alternatives of Freedom: A Statement of Principles and Objectives for a Free and Democratic Cuba (Miami, Fla.: Cuban American National Foundation, 1992).

4. José Antonio Evora es un artista visual y músico que se encontraba en Praga durante la invasión soviética a la antigua Checoslovaquia. Contrario a la decisión cubana de apoyar ese hecho, decide entonces no regresar a Cuba y escapar a Austria. Vivió 22 años en Inglaterra y desde 1992 vive en Madrid. Veáse su libro Orígenes de la música cubana: los amores de las cuerdas y el tambor (Madrid: Alianza editorial, 1997). También aparece como ilustrador del libro de poemas de Carlos Verdecia, La escalera de incendios (Madrid: Cran, Servicios Artes Gráficas, 1995).

5. Jordi Sierra i Fabra, Cuba: la noche de la jinetera (Barcelona: Ediciones del Bronce, 1997).

6. Balseros, Historia oral del éxodo cubano del '94, entrevistas, trascripción y compi- lación por Felicia Guerra, traducción al inglés e introducción por Támara Alvarez-Detrell (Miami, Fia.: Ediciones Universal, 1997). Véase también Los balseros cubanos: un estudio a partir de las

salidas ilegales, Milagros Martínez . . . [et al.] (La Habana: Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1996).

7. Entre otras obras de Montaner están: Secret Report on the Cuban Revolution (Trad. Eduardo Zayas-Bazán) (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1981); Fidel Castro y la Revolución Cubana (Barcelona: Plaza y Janes, 1984); Víspera del final. Fidel Castro y la Revolución Cubana (Buenos Aires: Marymar, 1993); y Cuba hoy: la lenta muerte del castrismo. Con un preámbulo para españoles (Madrid: Fundación para el Análisis y los Estudios Sociales, 1995).

8. Clive Foss, Fidel Castro (United Kingdom: Sutton Publishing, 2000), p. xi.

9. La tesis de Stephanie Panichelli, García Márquez y la Revolución Cubana (Leuven: Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, 2000) (Graad van Licenciaat in de Taal-en Letterkunde), es un material importante para conocer la estrecha vinculación que existe a través del tiempo entre el escritor colombiano, su amigo Fidel y el proceso revolucionario.

10. Fidel Castro, Mañana será demasiado tarde (Prólogo de Gabriel García Márquez e introducción de Félix J. Alfonso) (Tafalla: Nafarroa, Txalaparta, 2000), pp. 7-20.

1 1 Sin que exista en Mañana será demasiado tarde alguna nota del editor sobre la fecha del material incluido como prólogo de García Márquez, debe aclararse que éste debió ser escrito en 1985, pues el propio escritor colombiano, al referirse a pasajes de la Revolución vividos en el año 1959, sostiene: "Han transcurrido 26 años desde entonces. Fidel Castro acaba de cumplir 61".

La única anotación del editor es en el sentido de que se trata de un artículo que tiene "unos años" y que es "prácticamente desconocido", idem, p. 8. Se toma como actual la presentación de García Márquez al considerar que aceptó su publicación suponiendo que la cree vigente para el año de su edición, es decir, el año 2000.

12. Así puede apreciarse en el libro editado por Rosa Alfonso, Fidel Castro y la deuda externa (La Habana: Editora Política, 1989). 9. ¿Qué aportan los estudios biográficos a la historiografía cubana actual?

Eliades Acosta

En 1946, cuando aún Jean Paul Sartre conmovía a sus lectores con ideas bril- lantes sobre el compromiso social del escritor con su época, solía reprochar a quienes consideraban que "todos los hombres eran iguales" basados en la concepción burguesa refrendada en la Declaración Universal de los Derechos Humanos, porque para sus autores "el individuo reside como un guisante en

una lata de guisantes: redondo, encerrado en si mismo, incomunicable . . (lo . ,

1 cual) excluye la percepción de realidades colectivas". No vivimos, precisamente, en una época en que tales críticas sean acep- tadas. Pocos, en nuestros días, se muestran dispuestos a aceptar que las realidades colectivas son más importantes, ni siquiera tan importantes como los individuos aislados. Y de la difuminación del facto social en la historia, con toda naturalidad, se ha pasado a la difuminación del propio tiempo histórico, tal y como lo deja escrito Lyotard: "Es imposible, en un mismo y único momento, atrapar el 'ahora' que de continuo se desvanece y es arrastrado por lo que denominamos flujo de la conciencia, vida, seres, acontecimientos y demás, de tal manera que es definitivamente tanto demasiado tarde como demasiado 2 pronto para aprender algo que podamos identificar como el 'ahora'". ¿Qué materia prima queda al historiador cuando se sitúan fuera de su alcance, por decreto de la ley postmoderna, lo social y lo propiamente histórico? ¿Hacia qué horizonte tienden las investigaciones historiográficas cuando todo estudio es obligado a comenzar y terminar en los individuos aislados? Lo que ha ocurrido con las concepciones historiográficas precedentes, demolidas y descalificadas en bloque por los enfoques hoy dominantes, me recuerda unas aguadas palabras de Victor Hugo en Los Miserables, "El carácter propio de la verdad consiste en no ser nunca extremado. ... No acerquemos la 3 llama donde sólo es preciso la luz".

En efecto: un primer vistazo al problema de los métodos historiográfi- cos aceptados hoy por el canon postmoderno permite contemplar un terreno asolado por las llamas, no iluminado por la luz. Donde se pretendió corregir los defectos y excesos de los grandes discursos historiográficos precedentes, los meta relatos o meta narrativas historiográficas al estilo, por ejemplo, de la ilustración o el materialismo histórico, se ha concluido instaurando, con toda unilateralidad, a la micro historia y al estudio de mentalidades, reverenciando de paso sus defectos y excesos.

77 78 Eliades Acosta

Los enfoques micro históricos de la Escuela italiana asociada a los trabajos de Cario Ginsburg y Giovanni Levi, o los estudios de mentalidades del medi- evalista francés Georges Duby no establecen, automáticamente, la superación de los puntos de vista precedentes que suelen partir del decisivo carácter de la base económica con respecto a la superestructura social. Pero pudiendo ejercer un saludable efecto, si se hubiesen propuesto complementar las unilaterali- dades o llenar los vacíos encontrados, no ha pasado de ser el dogma de turno que se impone tras desplazar a otros dogmas decadentes. No hay nada de incompatible en la conjunción posible de ambas posicio- nes historiográficas, y tampoco sería nueva tal complementación, como dem- uestra la lectura de obras como El 18 Brumario de Luis Bonaparte, de Carlos

Marx, o La Bruja, de J. Michelet, por mencionar dos del siglo XIX. Exagerar o elevar el rango de dogma las meta narrativas o las micro historias es cometer el mismo pecado. Si las primeras diluyen el rostro de lo humano, y en consecuencia, de lo verdaderamente histórico, en las estadísticas, las clases sociales y los estudios productivos, las segundas sacan de foco a los personajes, aislándolos del resto de los fenómenos de su tiempo en una especie de close-up narcisista, congelando en instantáneas lo que es movimiento vivo y continuo, incapaci- tándonos para relacionar el pasado con el presente.

En el caso concreto de las investigaciones historiográficas en Cuba, las promesas que portaban estos enfoques se han visto realizadas a medias, en primer lugar, porque a pesar de su declarado afán de complementariedad, y especialmente "de los indudables logros de las historias estructurales y mate- rialistas, tanto de historia social como marxista", todo ha concluido en la afir- mación de que "con las historias de vida se pueden narrar diferentes historias 4 de Cuba, basadas en las experiencias vividas". En segundo lugar, porque en el mejor espíritu de la postmodernidad que aposta por la supuesta desaparición de los grandes sujetos históricos, "las historias de vida serían infinitas repeticio- 5 nes o escalas en la historia de un constructor nuevo, el individuo global", con el que se pretende sustuir a los anteriores criterios rectores de las investigaciones, léase pueblos, estados, naciones. Así, de un plumazo, se liquida la relación entre los hombres y la sociedad, y entre los propios hombres. Puede que no esté de moda, pero debo decir, porque así lo creo, que para la mayoría de los historiadores cubanos, la historia de Cuba sostiene una visión del mundo que adquiere sentido en contacto con los demás hombres, nunca como descripción de historias personales de vida confinadas a estancos irrepe- tibles, sino como vida social que se realiza a través de la práctica social, y exige posturas concretas ante el pasado y el futuro. Para nosotros, los que creemos en el papel activo de los hombres en la historia, esta no es un estudio de gabinete ni el regodeo ante el hallazgo documental o la narración oral que nos permite reconstruir "historias de vida", ni las huellas de un imposible "individuo global" en el tiempo. En efecto, no queremos perder la conexión con la historia social, porque no renunciamos Estudios biográficos 79

a construir un mundo mejor, para lo cual son insustituibles las lecciones del pasado. Más que demostrar que se cometió una injusticia contra un hombre o una mujer en alguna remota región de Cuba hace doscientos años, tal y como se desprende de escudriñar declaratorias de herederos o traspaso de bienes, prefer- imos estudiar las causas de la injusticia social y luchar para que se erradiquen. Dicho en otras palabras, la historia la entendemos como responsabilidad y acción social, no como crónica rosa de un inexistente individuo globalizado, uno y el mismo al margen de la propia historia. En cuanto a la extraña invitación que se nos hace para construir un sin- número de pequeñas historias inconexas, que deberán sustituir a la historia, me remitiré a las palabras de Gianni Vattimo, al que espero nadie pueda reprochar nostalgias modernas en tiempo de postmodernidad, "El final de la ideología es también el triunfo de las ideologías, es decir, de las múltiples interpretaciones del mundo reconocidas como tales que hacen inevitable la elección y la 6 decisión individual". Pero a pesar de todo lo dicho, o quizás, precisamente por ello, los estudios biográficos juegan hoy un papel creciente en la historiografía cubana, como si se demostrase con ello que es posible encontrar un punto de equilibrio entre las meta narraciones y las micro historias, entre las clases y los individuos, entre los grandes sujetos y las pequeñas vidas. Y como diría el poeta Nicolás Guillen, "todo mezclado". Tras una época de escasa atención hacia lo biográfico y ninguna hacia los estudios genealógicos ellos han irrumpido con aires nuevos en el panorama historiográfico nacional, frecuentemente asociados a la labor conjunta de historiadores cubanos son sus colegas extranjeros. Los resultados han sido de desigual nivel, en dependencia de que se hayan adoptado estas metodologías de la investigación sin desechar el enfoque social, sino como su complemento. Tampoco asistimos al inicio de una tradición historiográfica, sino a su continuación lamentablemente trunca o desatendida en períodos anteriores por la absolutización dogmática de los principios metodológicos del materialismo histórico. En aquellos momentos era frecuente la disolución del rostro humano, concreto, del individuo identificable en los grandes procesos históri- cos dentro de las clases sociales en abstracto. La hiperbolización de categorías como "las clases populares", "los partidos" y "el progreso social", por sólo citar tres ejemplos, desterraban o minimizaban el importante rol jugado en todas las épocas históricas por determinados grupos sociales, como el de los estudiantes; o el de las tendencias o alas dentro de un mismo partido o movimiento, como fueron durante las luchas por la independencia los tabaqueros humildes de Tampa o Cayo Hueso y el grupo de sus patrones, al estilo de Martínez Ybor o Hidalgo Gato, también partidarios de la independencia. A propósito de esto último, sin investigar en la personalidad y el pensamiento del sector más pudiente del exilio partidario de la independencia de Cuba a fines 80 Eliades Acosta

del siglo XIX, no tendremos respuestas convincentes a fenómenos tales como la sucesión de Estrada Palma al frente del Partido Revolucionario Cubano a la muerte de Martí, la disolución ignominiosa del propio Partido, en diciembre de 1898, ni los rasgos de la República nacida el 20 de mayo de 1902, por cierto, bien distante de lo esperado por un pueblo que había luchado 30 años, sin des- canso, por su libertad, pero también por la justicia. Obras cardinales para explicar a los cubanos su pasado desde las pequeñas historias del hombre cotidiano, desde sus ascensos y caídas, pero sin arran- carlo artificialmente de su entorno social; obras que reconocían, a la vez, sus actuaciones dentro y a la luz de los movimientos de los grandes sujetos sociales, fueron los primeros frutos de la historiografía cubana posterior a 1959. Y si esa tradición resultó temporalmente relegada por los factores ya enuncia- dos, mayor relieve adquiere hoy, y mayor mérito sus promotores, entre los que mencionaré a Miguel Barnet por su Biografía de un cimarrón, o La canción de Rachel; Manuel Moreno Fraginals por su brillante El Ingenio; Juan Pérez de la Riva o Pedro Deschamps Chapeaux por sus investigaciones para escribir la historia de la gente sin historia, tanto de los chinos, como de los matrimo- nios interraciales, y Renée Méndez Capote, por su entrañable testimonios de Memorias de una cubanita que nació con el siglo (Bolsilibros Unión, 1964), por sólo citar a los más cercanos. Todos ellos partieron en sus obras, y plasma- ron en ellas para la cultura nacional, aquellas sabias palabras escritas por Marc

Bloch en 1943: "El buen historiador se parece al ogro de la leyenda. Ahí donde 7 olfatea carne humana sabe que está su presea". Es interesante constatar el hecho, que arroja mucha luz sobre el peso espe- cífico que ya ostenta lo biográfico en la historiografía cubana más reciente, de que este tipo de producción intelectual se va convirtiendo en uno de los campos de batalla ideológico, por excelencia, entre los defensores y detracto- res de la propia Revolución Cubana, y del rumbo que ha tomado la historia de la nación en los últimos 43 años. No es casual que en este terreno midan sus armas quienes intentan justificar o descalificar a los procesos históricos mediante la justificación o la descalificación de las vidas de los hombres que los encarnan. Y es aquí, en buen cubano "donde la muía tumbó a Genaro", o lo que es lo mismo, donde van a estrellarse y naufragar los enfoques micro históricos aislados, o los estudios de mentalidades asépticos, porque entramos de lleno en el reino de lo político y lo ideológico, o sea, de lo social. Una somera mirada a los cánones así lo confirma. Tomemos, por ejemplo, la bibliografía "Recent Work in Cuban Studies" publicada en el numero 30 de Cuban Studies, y del Cuban Research Institute de la FIU (University of Pittsburgh Press, 2000) y cuyo Editor es Lisandro Pérez. Allí, en el acápite dedicado a las Biografías, en Libros y Monografías encontramos 23 entradas, en Artículos y Ponencias, 10 entradas. De los primeros, apenas 3 son obras editadas en la Isla; de los segundos, 2, y ambas son ponencias presentadas en un mismo coloquio dedicado a Félix Várela y recogidas en el mismo número 1

Estudios biográficos 8

68 (abril-mayo de 1898) de la revista Cuadernos Americanos. Esto significa que, apenas el 15% de las obras o artículos biográficos reseñados y compilados para facilitar el acceso a los estudios cubanos más recientes toma en cuenta a la producción de la inmensa mayoría de los historiadores cubanos que residen en la Isla, que en este campo y en este año, es vasta y valiosa. Nadie pone en duda que se pueden hacer tantas historias de Roma como se deseen, pero espero que todos coincidamos en que no se puede hacer la historia de Roma sin escuchar a los historiadores romanos. Como contraparte, analicemos lo que recoge la Bibliografía Cubana del año 2000 compilada anualmente por el Departamento de Bibliografía Cubana de la Biblioteca Nacional José Martí, dirigido por la Dra. Araceli García- Carranza. En ella aparecen 17 obras biográficas y 3 biobibliográficas, estas últimas dedicadas a Rita Longa, Gilma Madera y Ángel Augier. En cuanto a las primeras, hay entre ellas dedicadas al esgrimista Ramón Fonst, a figuras del siglo XIX como Saco, Várela, Julian del Casal, Villaverde y La Avellaneda. También otras dedicadas a Cintio Vitier, Ernesto Guevara, Fernando Alonso, ítalo Calvino, Enrique Núñez Rodríguez, el Brigadier mambí José González Guerra, Dulce María Loynaz, Olga Benario y Alberto Yarini. Es obvio que el problema reseñado afecta no sólo al cabal conocimiento y estudio de la producción biográfica nacional, sino también a todas las esferas de la producción científica y literaria. La fragmentación de los estudios y las dificultades para acceder a los que crean los cubanos de dentro y de fuera de la Isla obligará, en un futuro no lejano, a estrechar vínculos entre todos los que editen o compilen repertorios bibliográficos relacionados con Cuba y sus naturales. Quizás un mejor conocimiento mutuo pueda contribuir, en no pequeña medida, a rebasar una situación anormal que se prolonga demasiado, y que se complica cada vez que se añaden nuevas medidas en el estéril afán de aislar a Cuba del resto de los países del mundo, y de los propios ciudadanos norteamericanos. El creciente interés hacia los estudios biográficos en Cuba constituye una saludable tendencia de la Historiografía nacional, y testimonia la voluntad existente entre los historiadores cubanos de enriquecer y complementar la visión del mundo desde la que han realizado sus obras durante todos estos años. A las ya habituales obras testimoniales del pasado más reciente, se vienen a sumar libros de entrevistas con protagonistas de hechos históricos, como los del periodista Luis Báez, entre ellos, Los que se fueron (Editorial José Martí, 1991), Los que se quedaron (Editora Política, 1993) y Secretos de Generales (Editorial Si-Mar, 1996) la complementación a la extensa literatura martiana con énfasis en su figura, su correspondencia y su entorno afectivo, como se aprecia en los 5 tomos de Destinatario: José Martí, de Luis García Pascual (Centro de Estudios Martianos, 1999), o el recién concluido diccionario biográfico de las figuras de amigos y colaboradores de Martí, del mismo autor Entorno martiano (Casa Editorial Abril, 2003), el Diccionario Martiano 82 Eliades Acosta

de Ramiro Valdés Galarraga (Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 2002) o la última biografía del Apóstal debida a Luis Toledo Sande con el título de Cesto de llamas (Editorial Pueblo y Educación, 1998). En el terreno de la historia militar, acaba de concluirse por investigadores del Centro de Estudios de la Historia Militar un diccionario biográfico con las fichas de todos los Capitanes Generales españoles que tuvieron mano en Cuba, y de los principales Generales de la Metrópoli que participaron también, por su valor las Guerras de Independencia; también la compilación de las biografías de todos los Oficiales del Ejército Libertador con el rango de coronel hacia arriba y los listados de todos los jefes, oficiales y soldados españoles muertos en campaña o por enfermedades, en este período. Para no sustraerme a esta apasionante tendencia, me encuentro trabajando sobre un diccionario biográ- fico de la Guerra Hispano-Cubano-Americana, que espero poder concluir antes de mi próxima reencarnación.

Merecen destacarse también, por su valor aportativo, el estudio concluido, pero inédito de César García del Pino "Mil criollos ilustres del XIX"; la investigación genealógica sobre 30 familias de los principales jefes insurrectos de 1868, sobre plantadores de Occidente y sobre Regidores de Cárdenas, La Habana y Matanzas, de Jorge Ibarra Cuesta; Reyita, sencillamente: testimonio de una negra cubana nonagenaria, de Daisy Ribiera Castillo (World Data Research Center, 1997). Más recientemente, De la Habana, de siglos y familias, de María Teresa Cornides (Caja Madrid, 2001), que recoge las biografías de 3 Duques, 47 Marqueses, 48 Condes, 3 Viscondes y 2 Barones criollos, y el Diccionario biográfico de las artes plásticas, de Ursulina Cruz Díaz (Editorial Puebla y Educación, 1999), que recoge en sus 400 páginas biografías de artistas cubanos y extranjeros, desde el siglo XIII hasta nuestros días. La Unión de Historiadores de Cuba (UNHIC) tiene entre sus planes inme- diatos la creación de una Sección de Genealogía e Investigaciones Biográficas para incentivar dichos estudios entre sus miembros. De manera colateral, pero no menos eficaz, actúan en esta misma dirección los Encuentros anu- ales sobre Historia Local y Regional, los que han permitido la conclusión de importantes estudios acerca de figuras históricas relevantes de todas las localidades de la nación. De los 169 Municipios del país, 150 ya han concluido la redacción de sus historias locales. Merece una especial mención, por su contenido y actualidad, el libro de Hernán Venegas La región en Cuba (Editorial Oriente, 2001). Historiadores alemanes como Michael Zeuske, de la Universidad de 8 Colonia, en su artículo "Dieciséis vidas y la historia de Cuba", y norteamericanos como Rebecca Scott (Universidad de Michigan) en su "Reclamando la muía de Gregoria Quesada: el significado de la libertad en los valles de Arimao 9 y del Caunao, Cienfuegos, Cuba (1 880-1 899)" han aplicado enfoques micro históricos al análisis de las relaciones raciales e interpersonales en la historia de Cuba, motivando a historiadores cubanos a profundizar en estos temas y Estudios biográficos 83

también a polemizar. Sostiene Zeuske, por ejemplo, tras estudiar 37 declaratorias de herederos de mambises afrocubanos de la provincia de Santa Clara, que por azares de la vida se hallaban en una caja vieja de un archivo de la región, y muy dañadas por las lluvias de 1994, que "fueron hombres jóvenes de familias afrocubanas libres los que formaron mayoritariamente los cuerpos de combate del Ejército Libertador, junto con hombres jóvenes blancos de la 10 población rural". Confrontado este punto de vista con testimonios escritos de participantes en nuestras contiendas libertarias, como es el caso del norteameri- cano Frederick Funston, quien alcanzaría los grados de Teniente Coronel del Ejército Libertador a las órdenes de Máximo Gómez y Calixto García, nos encontramos con las siguientes ideas:

Para asombro mío, casi nueve décimas partes de las fuerzas (mambisas) eran blancas, lo que se debía a que las tropas eran camagüeyanas, cuya región tenía un menor contingente de negros que ninguna otra provincia. Más tarde debía

yo observar algunas fuerzas organizadas al sur de la provincia de Santiago de Cuba, compuestas casi enteramente de negros. Tomándolas en su totalidad, había más blancos que negros en las fuerzas insurrectas.

Es posible que la verdad se halle a medio camino entre ambos puntos de vista, pero indudablemente, ambos debieron ser válidos en cada uno de los contextos en que fueron formulados, y ninguno puede pretender erigirse en verdad absoluta; en ello radica la importancia de la complementación de los enfoques a que hacíamos referencia al inicio. Pero no importa que se discrepe de un punto de vista como el ya señalado: lo importante para el desarrollo de la historiografía nacional radica precisamente en que los estudios biográficos, los enfoques micro históricos, y los estudios de mentalidades, han venido a mover las ideas y con ellas las sabias profundas del saber historiográfico entre nosotros, descongelando enfoques rancios rebasados por la propia vida y poniendo en movimiento, como en los justamente añorados años 60, lo que debe ser torrente vital, nunca agua estancada. Con estos enfoques y estudios se está revolucionando, para mejor, la his- toriografía nacional. Con ellos adquieren vigencia y nuevo brillo en nuestra pequeña isla del Caribe aquellas sabias palabras que Victor Hugo nos legase en su novela Los Miserables:

Todas las conquistas sublimes son, más o menos, premios al atrevimiento.

Para que la revolución se verifique no basta con que Montesquieu la presienta;

ni con que Diderot la predique; ni con que Beaumarchais la anuncie; ni con

que Condorcet la calcule; ni con que Aruet la prepare; ni con que Rousseau la premedite: es preciso que Dantón se atreva.

Sin perder el rumbo, ni fragmentar una visión histórica que es tan cara a la nación como el aire que respira, precisamente para que los cubanos nos 84 Eliades Acosta reconozcamos como lo que somos en un mundo fragmentado y dividido, eso precisamente aportan los estudios biográficos a la historiografía cubana actual: atrevimiento, o lo que es lo mismo, juventud y larga vida.

NOTAS

1. Jean Paul Sartre, Que es la literatura?

2. Jean Francois Lyotard, "Reescribir la modernidad", en Selección de ensayos (México:

Taurus, 2001), pp. 23-33.

3. Victor Hugo, Los Miserables, tomo 2, pp. 351-352.

4. Michael Zeuske, "Dieciséis vidas y la historia de Cuba", en Visitando la isla: temas de historia de Cuba (Madrid: Iberoamericana, 2002), p. 163.

5. Zeuske, "Dieciséis vidas", p. 190.

6. Gianni Vattimo, "La sabiduría del Superhombre", Debats 73 (verano 2001): 78.

7. Marc Bloch, Apología de la historia: o, el oficio del historiador (La Habana: Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, Instituto Cubano del Libro, 1971).

8. Zeuske, "Dieciséis vidas".

9. Rebecca Scott, "Reclamando la muía de Gregoria Quesada: el significado de la libertad en los valles de Arimao y del Caunau, Cienfuegos, Cuba (1880-1899)", en Espacios, silencios y los sentidos de la libertad (La Habana: Ediciones Unión, 2001).

10. Zeuske, "Dieciséis vidas", p. 187.

11. Frederick Funston, Memorias de un mambi yanquee (La Habana: Editorial La Rosa

Blanca), pp. 44-45.

12. Hugo, Los Miserables, tomo 3, p. 41. 10. Bibliotecas digitales en México

Víctor J. Cid Carmona

El propósito de este trabajo es dar a conocer los distintos proyectos de digitali- zación que, con el objeto de difundir y preservar materiales, se están llevando a cabo en México, tomando en consideración que, en la medida en que otras instituciones conozcan estos proyectos disminuya la posibilidad de duplicar esfuerzos.

Con el propósito de establecer el marco teórico a partir del cual se elab- ora este trabajo, a continuación se anotan algunos conceptos que sirven para definir y caracterizar a las bibliotecas digitales. Después se dan a conocer los resultados del análisis llevado a cabo para conocer:

¿Qué tipo de fuentes se están digitalizando?

¿A quién está dirigido el trabajo?

¿Qué características presenta cada producto?

¿Qué posibilidades se ofrecen para el uso de la información en cada caso?

¿Cómo se promueve el uso de cada biblioteca digital?

¿Cuáles son los elementos tecnológicos implicados en su desarrollo?

Definiciones, propósitos y características

La creación y desarrollo de bibliotecas digitales debe contribuir, en tér- minos generales, a un incremento de las cualidades y características de la información en ellas contenida, que posibiliten diferenciarla de la información disponible en bibliotecas tradicionales. Dichas características y cualidades están íntimamente relacionadas con el objeto y los fines de las instancias encargadas de su desarrollo y con los servicios que pretendan brindar a través de las mismas. La Association of Research Libraries (ARL) advierte sobre la existencia de diversas definiciones de biblioteca digital, además de usarse los términos de "biblioteca electrónica" y "biblioteca virtual" como sinónimos. 1 Sin embargo, se han determinado ciertos elementos comunes en las definiciones, que son los siguientes:

85 86 Víctor J. Cid Carmona

• la biblioteca digital no es una sola entidad;

• la biblioteca digital requiere de la tecnología para ligar los recursos de muchos;

• los enlaces entre las muchas bibliotecas y servicios informativos digitales deben ser transparentes a los usuarios finales;

• el acceso universal a las bibliotecas digitales y a los servicios informativos son una meta;

• las colecciones de las bibliotecas digitales no deben limitarse a una única forma de documento sustituto: deben extenderse a todos las formas de formatos digitales que no pueden representarse o distribuirse en formatos impresos. 2

Por otra parte, los propósitos de las bibliotecas digitales deben tender a:

• apresurar el desarrollo sistemático de: los medios para recoger, alma- cenar, y organizar la información y el conocimiento en forma digital;

• promover la entrega económica y eficiente de información a todos los sectores de la sociedad;

• animar los esfuerzos de trabajo cooperativos que incentiven la inversión de recursos en investigación, informática y redes de comunicación;

• consolidar la comunicación y la colaboración entre la investigación, los negocios, el gobierno, y las comunidades educativas;

• tomar un papel de liderazgo internacional en la generación y difusión del conocimiento en áreas de importancia estratégica;

• contribuir a promover oportunidades de aprendizaje para todos.

Respecto de las características de la biblioteca digital, destacan las relativas a:

• forma de estructurar sus servicios, estrechamente relacionada al diseño de interfaces para operar vía sistemas de telecomunicación;

• presencia de servicios en donde existe una separación física entre el bibliotecario y los usuarios, gran parte o todo el tiempo, durante el proceso de la prestación de servicios;

• posibilidad de enlazar diversos sistemas de servicios bibliotecarios y de información documental vía telecomunicaciones;

• creación de nuevos medios para clasificar y formar colecciones de documentos digitales que sirvan como instrumento para navegación y consulta de los contenidos de los documentos del acervo de la biblioteca; Bibliotecas digitales en México 87

• diseño, organización y presentación de servicios en donde los conocimien- tos relativos a las tecnologías de la información y las telecomunicaciones son un componente esencial para la construcción y operación de la biblioteca;

• transferencia de documentos digitales vía telecomunicaciones, que

permiten la disponibilidad inmediata del documento, pero también obligan a reconsiderar la idea del préstamo interbibliotecario, en el sentido de conciliar los derechos e intereses de autores y editores, con la necesidad de facilitar la libre circulación de pública de documentos e información;

• diseño de sistemas flexibles de administración orientados a la gestión de la información para facilitar el acceso y disponibilidad de datos e 4 información específica.

Metodología

Para realizar este estudio se llevaron a cabo búsquedas, localización y selección de las bibliotecas digitales mexicanas. Se utilizaron buscadores, listas de interés y se visitaron las páginas de las principales instituciones de inves- tigación y educación superior, cabe decir que ninguna de las herramientas uti- lizadas contenía la referencia a todas las bibliotecas digitales existentes, de tal suerte que las que aquí se incluyen constituyen en sí un esfuerzo integrador. Por otra parte, vía correo electrónico se estableció contacto con los responsables de las instituciones agrupadas en el Consejo Nacional para Asuntos Bibliotecarios de las Universidades Públicas Estatales (CONPAB), en la Asociación Nacional de Universidades e Instituciones de Educación Superior (ANUIES) y en la Red de Instituciones de Investigación Científica (SEP/CONACYT), con el objeto de conocer si contaban con proyectos y adel- antos en relación con las bibliotecas digitales.

Luego de reunir el grupo de bibliotecas a estudiar se accedió a cada una de ellas y se recabaron datos que posibilitaran la creación de tablas comparativas, que permiten presentar los resultados que más adelante se comentarán.

Las Bibliotecas seleccionadas

Al hacer la revisión de los sitios se pudo establecer que hay instituciones que dan a un apartado de su página web el título de "biblioteca digital" aunque más bien se trata de la página que agrupa los recursos electrónicos a los que la biblioteca tiene acceso, como son bases de datos, revistas en texto completo, etc. (dichas instituciones se incluyen aquí marcadas con un asterisco). Otras instituciones si ofrecen proyectos propios de digitalización.

De los proyectos localizados se seleccionaron 14 para el presente estudio, tomando en consideración las producidas por organismos con un sólido presti- gio dentro de la educación superior o bien, las desarrolladas por instituciones 88 Víctor J. Cid Carmona gubernamentales, también se consideraron la cobertura de títulos y la vigencia del proyecto. Los proyectos seleccionados corresponden a:

Archivo General de la Nación. México. Joyas documentales (AGN). http:// www.agn.gob.mx/agnjoyas/joyas.html.

Es uno de los apartados accesibles desde la página principal del Archivo, que ofrece bajo el encabezado: "Joyas del mes", una selección de documentos relacionados con hechos y personajes de la historia nacional; se tiene acceso a imágenes digitalizadas de los documentos o a la tran- scripción de los mismos.

Biblioteca digital de divulgación de la ciencia. Dirección General de Divulgación de la Ciencia. UNAM (BDDC). http://biblioteca.universum.unam.mx/digital/biblio_digital.html. Es parte del proyecto "Biblioteca Digital Trasnacional" producido por la Universidad de Texas A&M en México y un grupo de instituciones de educación superior e investigación mexicanas entre las que se encuentran: la Dirección General de Servicios de Cómputo Académico (UNAM), el Instituto Mexicano de Administración del Conocimiento, A. C, la Universidad de Colima, el Instituto de Investigaciones Eléctricas (HE), la Universidad de las Americas (Puebla), La Biblioteca Nacional, la Dirección General de Bibliotecas (UNAM), la Dirección General de Divulgación de la Ciencia y Texas A&M University. Incluye tesis, foto- grafías, audio y video, relacionados con diversos aspectos científicos.

Biblioteca Daniel Cosío Villegas. El Colegio de México (BDDCV). http://biblio.colmex.mx/recelec/bibdig.htm.

Incluye el texto completo de diversas obras que se agrupan en cuatro

apartados: (1) acervo de El Colegio de México, que incluye: (a) obras editadas por la Casa de España en México y textos publicados por miembros del Personal Académico de la Biblioteca, (b) documentos políticos fundamentales para la investigación en las áreas de ciencias sociales y humanidades, (c) textos de autores clásicos españoles en las áreas de filosofía, historia, literatura y sociología y (d) obras de consulta relevantes para la historia de México y obras de interés para las relaciones México- España; (2) textos universales; (3) bibliotecas digitales mexicanas; y (4) otras bibliotecas digitales.

Biblioteca digital. Dirección General de Bibliotecas. UNAM (BDDGB). http:// www.dgbiblio.unam.mx/. Agrupa obras de consulta, revistas en texto completo, bases de datos especializadas y vínculos a otras bibliotecas digitales, en su mayoría los accesos están restringidos a miembros de la comunidad universitaria.

Biblioteca digital. Instituto Latinoamericano de la Comunicación Educativa (BDILCE). http://omega.ilce.edu.mx:3000/. Bibliotecas digitales en México 89

Agrupa los textos que incluye en seis áreas temáticas: ( 1 ) arte, (2) ciencia y tecnología, (3) ciencias sociales, (4) historia, (5) libros de texto y (6) literatura. Es de llamar la atención que por los documentos que se incluyen,

sea útil para diversos grupos de usuarios, desde estudiosos de diversas áreas, hasta niños que deseen recrearse con un cuento. Se incluyen colecciones como Libros del Rincón (literatura para niños) y Fondo 2000 (textos de Plutarco, Rousseau, Miguel de Cervantes y Francisco de Quevedo entre otros). Entre las obras de historia se incluyen: Las Tablas Geográficas Políticas del Reyno de Nueva España, de Alejandro de Humboldt.

Biblioteca Digital Iberoamericana y Caribeña UCOL-UNESCO (BDLC). http://bdigital.ucol.mx/indice.htm. Se trata de un proyecto asociado a la Universidad de Colima, que cuenta con el apoyo de la UNESCO, sus objetivos son: (1) Recopilar una colección básica de 5000 a 6000 obras, representativas de la cultura de Iberoamérica y el Caribe, basadas en una selección de 150 a 200 obras que será realizada por la Biblioteca Nacional de cada país. Esta será publicada en Internet para que sea accesible a las instituciones y al público en general de la Región y del Mundo. (2) Realizar la descripción analítica e indización de un número significativo de sitios Web de la Región (de 20 a 35 sitios por cada país), seleccionados por las Bibliotecas Nacionales.

(3) Generar las capacidades técnicas y metodológicas para la digitali- zación y publicación en Internet de fondos documentales, habilitando así a las Bibliotecas Nacionales de Iberoamérica y del Caribe a convertirse en Bibliotecas Digitales o Virtuales, con miras a que otras bibliotecas de cada país se unan al esfuerzo para concebir creación de la Gran Biblioteca Digital Iberoamericana y del Caribe. (4) Crear una colección en CD-ROM de 5,000 obras digitalizadas para formar la Colección Digital Básica de la Cultura Iberoamericana y Caribeña. (5) Crear una Cátedra Regional UNESCO en Nuevas Tecnologías de Información. A la fecha se han digitalizado 245 títulos, procedentes principalmente de Chile, Brasil y México. 5

Biblioteca Digital. Sistema Tecnológico de Monterrey (BDSTM). http://biblioteca.itesm.mx/navegacion/home_main_top. htm. Se promociona el acceso a más de 7,000 publicaciones en constante actualización, 5,500 libros en texto completo adquiridos de un proveedor comercial. Información completa en texto e imagen de artículos sobre diversas áreas del conocimiento: negocios, ingeniería, ciencia y tec- nología, computación, economía, ciencias sociales, telecomunicaciones, educación, salud y ciencias médicas, entre otras. Se tiene previsto incluir 6 tesis, cursos y proyectos, ya sea en imagen, audio, video o multimedia. Biblioteca digital universitaria. Dirección General de Servicios de Cómputo Académico. UNAM (BDU). http://www.bibliodgsca.unam.mx/. 90 Víctor J. Cid Carmona

Es una colección de libros en texto completo, disponibles con la finalidad de contribuir a las actividades académicas y de investigación en diversas áreas, entre ellas: administración, astronomía, biología, computación, ecología, educación, física, genética, geografía e historia. Está formada por libros de propio acervo de la Dirección, y por ligas hacia textos completos que se consideran valiosos o interesantes por su contenido. 7 Entre las obras se cuentan: Algunas memorias de mis tiempos de Guillermo Prieto, Bestiario de Indias de Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdes y Notas sobre México y los Estados Unidos de Martín Luis Guzmán.

Biblioteca médica nacional digital (BMND). http://www.facmed.unam.mx/ bmnd/index.html.

Ofrece el acceso al texto completo de más de cien títulos de publicaciones periódicas especializadas en medicina y algunos libros, acceso a bases de datos de la especialidad disponibles comercialmente, el acceso a los catálogos de las bibliotecas que forman parte de la Facultad de Medicina de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México y el texto completo de varias publicaciones de la propia Facultad, como son: El Palacio de la Escuela de Medicina, Cirugía laparoscopica avanzada y Vademécum Radiológico.

Biblioteca jurídica virtual (BJV). http://www.bibliojuridica.org/.

Producida por el Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas de la

Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Incluye el acceso al texto

completo de obras de: Ciencia política, derecho administrativo, civil, constitucional, financiero, mercantil, penal, procesal, internacional y del trabajo. Se incluyen también obras generales y de consulta. La biblioteca cuenta con un sistema de búsqueda de libros y artículos que facilita su localización dentro del acervo digital. Entre las obras más importantes se encuentran: Constitucionalismo iberoamericano del siglo XXI, Antología de estudios sobre la enseñanza del derecho, Filosofía del derecho contem- poránea en México y Archivo de la Suprema Corte. Inventario del Archivo del Tribunal de Guerra y Marina, 1816-1854.

Biblioteca virtual en salud (BVS). http://bvs.insp.mx/. Se plantea como una base de conocimiento científico y técnico en salud; registrado, organizado y almacenado en formato electrónico. Se trata de una red de fuentes de información en salud con una cobertura regional que abarca Latinoamérica y el Caribe. Entre sus objetivos se encuentran: promoción y mercadeo; modificación y actualización de productos y servicios tradicionales; producción de publicaciones elec- trónicas; desarrollo de herramientas de integración y localización de información; y desarrollo de otros componentes de la Biblioteca Virtual en Salud. 8 Algunas de las instituciones participantes son: Secretaría de Salud, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública, Centro de Información para Bibliotecas digitales en México 91

Decisiones en Salud, Organización Panamericana de la Salud, Centro Latinoamericano y del Caribe de Información en ciencias de la Salud, UNAM e IMSS. Se incluye documentación técnica y normativa relacionada con las instituciones de salud, boletines e informes relacionados con la práctica médica y acceso a bases de datos especializadas.

Biblioteca virtual. Universidad de las Américas-Puebla (BVUDLA). http:// biblio.udlap.mx/digital/desarrollo.html. Ofrece el acceso a una colección de telegramas del Ex-Presidente de México Porfirio Díaz, que en conjunto suman 663, 843 manuscritos y telegramas, muchos de ellos en clave, producidos entre 1876 y 1911. Se incluye también una colección de tesis de los estudiantes de la propia Universidad. Incluye, además, un museo virtual donde es posible acceder a fotografías de: Miguel Covarrubias, Frida Kahlo, Tina Modotti y Rosa Rolando. Incluye dos servicios: (1) Referencia virtual, dirigido a la comunidad universitaria con el fin de que puedan satisfacer de manera virtual

sus necesidades de información. (2) Reserva digital universitaria, sistema que ofrece al estudiante la información de las materias que cursa en un semestre determinado, brindándole la oportunidad de visualizar, revisar, seleccionar y guardar la información proporcionada por el maestro para el curso.

Biblioteca virtual. Universidad Iberoamericana (BVUIA). http://www.bib.uia.mx/ biblioteca/bibliotecadigital/dochtml/base_bdigital300.htm.

Ofrece el acceso a bases de datos, tutoriales, buscadores de Internet y sitios especializados sobre las siguientes disciplinas: arte, ciencia, derecho,

economía, educación, historia, ingeniería, literatura, religión, sociología y tecnología. Además se cuenta con un apartado "Publicaciones digitales" en el que se localizan fotografías históricas de la ciudad de México, libros en formato digital y enlaces a proyectos de publicaciones digitales de los que forma parte la Universidad.

Programa de Apoyo a Proyectos de Investigación e Innovación Tecnológica (PAPIIT). http://www.dgbiblio.unam.mx/papiit.html. Incluye los registros bibliográficos correspondientes a libros publicados por la Dirección General de Asuntos del Personal Académico DGAPA, dependiente de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, a través del Programa de Apoyo a Proyectos de Investigación e Innovación Tecnológica (PAPIIT). Cuenta con más de sesenta registros que incluyen una liga al texto completo en formato PDF de documentos en las áreas de: crítica y teoría literaria, filosofía, economía, historia, sociología, y botánica, entre otras. Ejemplos de las obras incluidas son: La historia de Texas en la Biblioteca Nacional de Mexico, 1528-1848 de Guadalupe Curiel e Impresos novohispanos en las bibliotecas publicas de los Estados Unidos de América de José Pascual Buxo. 92 Víctor J. Cid Carmona

Proyectos colectivos de bibliotecas digitales

En el proceso de revisión de los distintos proyectos se estableció que existen tres iniciativas para la creación colectiva de bibliotecas digitales. En dichos proyectos participa la Biblioteca Daniel Cosío Villegas. Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes, http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/portal/ECM/index.html. Se trata de un ambicioso proyecto de edición digital del patrimo- nio bibliográfico, documental y crítico de la cultura española e hispanoamericana que llevan a cabo la Universidad de Alicante con el apoyo financiero del Banco Santander Central Hispano. Las instituciones mexicanas que se han sumado al proyecto mediante la firma de un convenio

son: la Biblioteca Daniel Cosío Villegas de El Colegio de México, la Biblioteca Nacional de México, la Biblioteca Francisco Xavier Clavijero de la Universidad Iberoamericana y el Ateneo Español de México con la coordinación en aspectos tecnológicos a cargo de la Dirección General de Servicios de Cómputo Académico de la UNAM. La Biblioteca Cervantes aspira a recopilar las obras más destacadas de la tradición literaria española e hispanoamericana, también se integrarán los fondos documentales y bibliográficos relacionados con la historia de España e Hispanoamérica. Hasta este momento la Biblioteca Daniel Cosío Villegas ha incluido el texto completo de veinte obras producidas por la Casa de España en México, editadas entre de 1939 y 1942. Este año se espera incrementar en 30 el número de títulos por parte de la Biblioteca

Daniel Cosío Villegas. Las obras propuestas para integrarse al proyecto Cervantes abordan temas históricos, sociales y políticos del país, desde la época colonial hasta el presente, las instituciones aportarán documentos, libros y fotografías. Colecciones Mexicanas, http://www.coleccionesmexicanas.org/. Proyecto desarrollado de manera conjunta por la Biblioteca Daniel Cosío Villegas, la Biblioteca Nacional y la Biblioteca Francisco Xavier Clavijero de la Universidad Iberoamericana; con la coordinación de la Dirección General de Servicios de Cómputo Académico de la UNAM en lo que se refiere a los aspectos tecnológicos el objetivo es posibilitar el

acceso a diferentes acervos que se consideren relevantes para el estudio del país desde diferentes perspectivas, se pretende incluir obras, documentos y recursos que sirvan de base a estudiosos e investigadores, interesados en el estudio de México.

Hemeroteca virtual ANUIES. http://www.hemerodigital.unam.mx/ANUIES/ index.html. Se trata de una iniciativa de la Asociación Nacional de Universidades e Instituciones de Educación Superior, ofrece el texto completo de 11 títulos publicaciones periódicas de los siguientes organismos: Centro de Bibliotecas digitales en México 93

Investigación y Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, El Colegio de México, la Universidad Iberoamericana, el Instituto Politécnico Nacional, el Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México, la Universidad La Salle, La UNAM y la Universidad Pedagógica Nacional. Hasta ahora se han digitalizado los volúmenes correspondientes a los años comprendidos entre 1995-1999, sin que necesariamente todos los títulos dispongan de dicha cobertura.

Resultados

Del análisis llevado a cabo se desprende que:

1. Las instituciones participantes son en su mayoría del sector público. Más del 75%, 11 bibliotecas, forman parte de organismos del sector público, mientras que poco menos del 25%, 3 bibliotecas, se han pro-

ducido en el sector privado, como se muestra en la tabla A.

2. Las Instituciones responsables pertenecen al ámbito académico. Todos los proyectos existentes están vinculados a instituciones educativas y de investigación, aunque como se verá más adelante, la concepción, desarrollo, diseño y cobertura, son distintos en cada caso.

3. Los proyectos están dirigidos a satisfacer las necesidades de comunidades académicas. En relación a los principales grupos de usuarios de las bibliotecas seleccionadas, se ha determinado que poco más del 70% va dirigido a estudiantes e investigadores, miembros de comunidades educativas claramente identificadas: Universidad Iberoamericana, El Colegio de México, Universidad de las Amérícas-Puebla, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, entre otras; el 30% restante corresponde a tres grupos de usuarios no necesariamente ligados a comu-

nidades educativas: (1) el sector salud, (2) los estudiosos del derecho y (3) un público más general, aunque con cierta tendencia a asuntos relacionados con la historia nacional. Véase la tabla B.

4. Los contenidos se presentan por medio de listas, algunos de ellos incluyen servicios o vínculos a productos que las bibliotecas adquieren de manera comercial. Como ejemplos de los primeros puede verse la

página de la BVDCV y del AGN (figs. 1 y 2).

En un segundo grupo se incluyen las bibliotecas que muestran de muy diversas maneras: presentaciones o descripciones de la biblioteca o su contenido, por ejemplo: BDU (fig. 3); o bien enlaces a bases de datos, catálogos de otras bibliotecas, servicios, e índices de documentos y grupos documentales, como la BDSTM (fig. 4). El tercer modo de presentación de contenidos ofrece un listado de vínculos a datos sobre la biblioteca, colecciones y servicios, entre otros, a manera de 94 Víctor J. Cid Carmona

tabla de contenido. Ejemplos de ellas son: BDILCE, BJV y BVUDLA (figs. 5, 6 y 7).

Tabla A: Sectores que han desarrollado bibliotecas digitales

Bibliotecas Publico Privado

AGN X BDDC X BDDCV X BDDGB X BDILCE X BDLC X BDSTM X BDU X BMND X BVJ X BVS X BVUDLA X BVUIA X PAPIIT X

Tabla B: Principales grupos de usuarios de las bibliotecas digitales

Bibliotecas Salud Educativo y/o General Jurídico de investigación

AGN X X BDDC X BDDGB X BDILCE X BDLC X BDSTM X BDU X BMND X BJV X BVS X BVDCV X BVUDLA X BVUIA X PAPIIT X

¿Qué ofrecen las bibliotecas digitales?

A manera de resumen se pueden establecer las siguientes consideraciones: Bibliotecas digitales en México 95

1. En algunas de ellas se ofrece únicamente el acceso a diversos recursos de información (por ejemplo: AGN, BDDC, BDDCV, BDDGB, BDILCE, BDSTM, BDU, BJV y PAPIIT).

2. En otro grupo de ellas están disponibles tanto recursos de información como diversos servicios a los usuarios (por ejemplo: BMND, BVS, BDUDLA y BVUIA).

En lo que se refiere a la cobertura temática principal de las bibliotecas, en la tabla C se muestran las 15 categorías principales sobre las que es posible localizar información en las bibliotecas. De acuerdo con los datos de la tabla se puede concluir que la oferta documental de que se dispone es muy amplia, evidentemente será necesario incrementar cada vez más el número de documentos disponibles, así como, incluir nuevas categorías temáticas.

Tabla C: Areas temáticas (materias) que cubren las bibliotecas digitales

c3 c 03

=« ja S 3 *G .3 S a 3 .5 c3 v5 o o

§ tí osota a *9 ¿3 o *3 H3 « w

AGN X BDDC X X BDDCV X X X X X X X X X BDDGB X X X X X X X X X X BDILCE X X X X X X BDLC X X X X X X X X X X X BDSTM X X X X X X X X X X X X X BDU X X X X X X BMND X BVJ X BVS X BVUDLA X X X X X X X X X X X BVUIA X X X X X X X X X X X PAPIIT X X X X X

Reflexiones

Después de analizar el contenido y la forma de presentación de las bibliotecas digitales se considera oportuno señalar que sería deseable que, en la medida de lo posible, este tipo de proyectos consideraran la inclusión de los siguientes elementos: .

96 Víctor J. Cid Carmona

1 Una descripción sobre el contenido de la biblioteca y su objetivo.

2. Anotación de los lincamientos de desarrollo y las políticas de selección de los recursos incluidos.

3. Señalar la cobertura temática de la información disponible.

4. Definir el tipo de recursos a que se tiene acceso (bases de datos en texto

completo, documentos digitalizados, fotografía, video, audio, etc.).

5. Diferenciar con suma precisión entre "los accesos" a documentos, bases de datos, recursos informativos, etc. y "los servicios" que a través de la biblioteca digital se ofrecen a los usuarios.

6. Incluir la posibilidad de comunicación con el responsable de la biblioteca digital (dirección de correo).

7. Especificar oportunamente al usuario sobre las posibilidades de acceso "libre" o "restringido" a los diversos recursos y servicios.

8. En la medida de lo posible, considerar las habilidades y conocimiento de los usuarios de la biblioteca, con el fin de diseñar interfazes "amigables".

9. Dedicar un espacio en la biblioteca destinado a destacar la información que se va agregando: los nuevos productos, los accesos recientemente incorporados y los nuevos servicios.

En pocas palabras: deben plantearse como objetivo producir en el usuario la sensación de sentirse en una biblioteca, "su biblioteca", sin perder de vista las oportunidades que los entornos digitales ofrecen.

Tendencias

El desarrollo de las bibliotecas digitales en México se ha extendido rápi- damente, actualmente, es posible acceder a bibliotecas digitales con objetivos claramente definidos que ofrecen el acceso a muy diversos fondos documentales y servicios para sus usuarios y algunas instituciones están considerando la posibilidad de incluir documentos de trabajo, tesis y versiones electrónicas de sus órganos de difusión. En el caso de algunas instituciones de investigación y educación mexicanas, que aun no cuentan con bibliotecas digitales, se advierte un decidido interés por desarrollarlas o participar en grupos de trabajo conjunto con el mismo fin. Si bien es cierto que las bibliotecas seleccionadas para el presente estudio en términos generales cumplen satisfactoriamente con los fines propuestos, se observan diferencias notables tanto en la conceptualización como en el tipo de Bibliotecas digitales en México 97

recursos y servicios que se ofrecen, así como en los medios que utilizan para su desarrollo. En el caso de los proyectos cooperativos propuestos y desarrollados, se observa en ellos un decidido interés por contar con bibliotecas digitales con contenidos muy diversos, lo que constata la apertura y disposición por ofrecer nuevas posibilidades de acceso y uso de la información. En la medida de lo posible, las instituciones con proyectos más avanzados deben preocuparse

por la creación de nuevos proyectos conjuntos con instituciones que deseen colaborar con proyectos de bibliotecas digitales y algo muy importante deben proporcionar ayuda a las instituciones que inician sus proyectos a fin de fortal- ecer proyectos cooperativos que se beneficien tanto de los recursos como del

conocimiento adquirido en el proceso (fig. 8).

GRÁFICAS

K Biblioteca Digital - Netscape JjQlxJ

File View Communicator Help ; Edit Go

jl £ a 4 .¿. & ¿ Back Forward Reload Home Search Netscape Print Security Shop Stop "3' Bookmarks Location: I http: /Vbiblio. colmex. mx/recelec/bibdig HI What's Related .Jf' Jf¿. htm

(§ Instant Message §) Members §) WebMail (§ Connections §1 BizJoumal ¡§ SmartUpdate §1 Mktplace

Biblioteca Daniel Cosió Villegas

Biblioteca Digital Página de la Textos completos Recursos Biblioteca Comentarios y sugerencias sobre el contenido de esta página Electrónicos

(o sobre lo que debería contener) dirigirlos a [email protected]

Acervo de El Colegio de México Algunos Textos Universales Colección Declaración Universal de los Derechos Humanos Legislación Mexicana siglo XIX El Principe Maquiavelo(arch. ZIP) Documentos para el estudio del derecho mexicano. Los 4 libros clásicos Confucio Popoi vuh Legislación Mexicana .

Ordenada por los licenciados Manuel Dublán y José María La Biblia

El Código de Hammurabi Lozano. Las leves de Manu Justo Sierra El Ramavana y el Mahabharata Evolución Política del Pueblo Mexicano El libro de los muertos f Egipto)

Ario Garza Mercado El Corán Baqhavad Chita Normas de Estilo Bibliográfico cara Ensayos

Semestrales v Tesis El Arte de la Guerra Sun Tzu rf|Hj>: ¡Document: Done & ^ ép m vfr I Á

Fig. 1. Biblioteca digital. Biblioteca Daniel Cosío Villegas. Ofrece listados con los títulos de los documentos que incluye. —

98 Víctor J. Cid Carmona

- - : Archivo General de la Nación México ::.. Netscape

File Edit View Go Communicator Help

3. 4r *. (al c* tf Back roí ReloadHeload Home Searchbearch Netscape frmtPrint Securitybecurity Shopbhop btop

,J-' Bookmarks .^ Location: I http: //www. agn. gob mx/indice. html ^(¡¡¡T What's Related

BizJournal jl §1 Instant Message 0) Members §1 WebMail @) Connections [§) §1 SmartUpdate |f Mktplace

. n. *—————t-rr-ir i i i h h -a—i^—^—

ARCHIVO GENERAL DE LA NACIÓN • MÉXICO

• La muerte del General Emiliano Zapata (abril/2001)

Emiliano Zapata se inició en la lucha revolucionaria enarbolando la bandera agrarista cuyos ideales

se plasman en el Plan de Ayala.

• Juan Vicente de Gú'emes Pacheco de Padilla Horcacitas y Aguayo (mayo/2001) Segundo Conde de Revillagigedo

Durante su gobierno estableció el alumbrado público en la Ciudad de México, levantó el primer censo de Población del Reino de la Nueva España y solicitó apoyo del Rey para la creación del Archivo General del Virreinato (hoy Archivo General de la Mación).

• Fernando Maximiliano de Habsburgo (junio/2001)

El 19 de junio de 1867 murió fusilado en el Cerro de las Campanas, Querétaro, Fernando Maximiliano de Habsburgo. archiduque de Austria, quién gobernó de facto con el título de emperador de México rffM&= &_j£kJÉp m ^

Fig. 2. Biblioteca digital. Archivo General de la Nación. México. Presenta el título de los documentos que incluye acompañados de un breve comentario.

85 Biblioteca Digital Universitaria/DGSCA - Netscape -iPlxl

File Edit View Go Communicator Help 4' a 4 *. si t* Back Reload Home Search Netscape Print Security Shop Stop

Bookmarks Location: http: //www. bibliodgsca.unam.mx/ What's Related ;Sj|> J^ u §1 Instant Message §1 Members §1 WebMail §1 Connections §1 BizJournal §1 SmartUpdate §1 Mktplace

Dotal ONivr-

Publica tu libro Revistas lyuda

La Biblioteca Digital Universitaria BDU es una colección de libros en texto completo, diponible a través del web, con la finalidad de contribuir a las actividades de up mo académicas y de investigación de cualquier disciplina.

Nuestra colección está formada por libros de nuestro propio acervo y por ligas hacia textos completos que se consideran valiosos o interesantes en su contenido.

Esta publicación no puede ser reproducida, ni en todo, ni en parte, ni registrada en o transmitida por, un sistema de recuperación de información, en ninguna forma ni por ningún medie-, sin el permiso É 'crito d*! ***" Todos los derechos reservados. **"*> ?<"

=1 ífRH (Document: Done" -flfc ¿Ü áP É51 si, \ A

Fig. 3. Biblioteca digital Universitaria. Ofrece un texto inicial sobre su finalidad y contenido. Bibliotecas digitales en México 99

K Biblioteca Digital: menú principal - Netscape -iDlxl

File Edit View Go Communicator Help

¿ £ a ft J» IÉ1 3 tf a Back Forward Reload Home Search Netscape Print Security

Bookmarks Netsite: jhttp //biblioteca itesm .nWnavegacion/home_main_top.htm "T] What's Related ^f Jfo. (OT

[§ Instant Message §) Members §1 WebMail §1 Connections §1 BiaJoumal §í SmartUpdate §1 Mktplace

rr^^^"r"^^Tt •lifl.Mdatos111 11 1 1.1^» un mundo de información a un clic de distancia -SELECCIONA UNA- | u E3 recursos LLlim-LLl biblioteca Tus aportaciones, tus favoritos, tu agente, SELECCIONA UNA- y más. | EEE3por... Encuentra una revista, libro u otro recurso por tema o tipo. También obten recursos

asignados a clases impartidas en el Tec

Tut on ales (actualizado)

Recursos dados * El acceso remoto a Infolatina ha sido restaurado; agradecemos su paciencia. (25-abr-02) • de baja recientemente * ISI Emerging Markets ahora cuenta con acceso remoto. (25-abr-02)

Preguntas El problema de acceso remoto de EDRS ha sido solucionado (25-abr-02) Frecuentes El servicio lEEEXplore estuvo experimentando un problema con el acceso remoto; esto ha sido solucionado • Contactónos (18-abr-02)

Sobre la Biblioteca Digital

'fRHl JavaScript error: Type 'javascript:' into Location for details a, a áf si 7,

Fig. 4. Biblioteca digital. Sistema Tecnológico de Monterrey. Muestra el acceso a diversos recursos y servicios.

Bienvenido a la Biblioteca Digital - Netscape

File Edit View Go Communicator Help 3 ML Back Forward Reload Home Search Netscape Print Security Shop Stop 2

^"Bookmarks Location:! http: //omega. ilce. edu. mx: 30007 What's Jfc. H (fjFWhc Related

Instant Message |gl §) Members §] WebMail |j§ Connections fjg BizJoutnal §l SmartUpdate [§ Mktplace

Biblioteca dígita! ÍLCE

Historia

Literatura

Ciencias Sociales

mejores! Ciencia y tecnología [ del ano! Libros de tentó

s?R>=! )ocument: Done ^ -m, ^ m v^ Fig. 5. Biblioteca Digital. Instituto Latinoamericano de la Comunicación Educativa. Se incluyen los seis apartados que refieren a los documentos. 1

100 Víctor J. Cid Carmona

'•¡le Edit View Go Communicator Help

-Oí ¿- J fS (^ á 4 m Back Forward Reload Home Search Netscape Print Security Shop Stop ÜG T Bookmarks Location:! http://www.biblioiuridica.org/ jrj What's Relate* ^jf Jfc. gp

! §j Instant Message §1 Members (j§) WebMail :§ Connections [§ BizJournal [§j SmartUpdate §J Mktplace

fUlft CA IURÍD1CA 1KTU/U Presentación

Adquisiciones recientes Estantería de libros Publicaciones periódicas

Consulta de libros Consulta de artículos Consulta en obras colectivas f Consulta de documentos Instituciones participantes y créditos Sitios de interés

l'SS&OO secesos desde el S de sept-ernirre de 200

Fig. 6. Biblioteca jurídica virtual. Es posible acceder desde la página principal a diez apartados diferentes.

— - Biblioteca Digital Desarrollado por UDLA Netscape ! e Edit View Go Communicator Help

£ £ m A s, A ' «* l£ & ft Back Forward Reload Home Search Netscape Print Security Shop Stop 19 ,¿j Bookmarks Jk Netsite: http://biblio.udlap.mx/digital/desarrollo.html ^JQjir What's Related

§1 Instant Message [§ Members §1 WebMail §1 Connections §1 BizJournal §1 SmartUpdate [§l Mktplace

Bibliotecas Digitales

Desarrolladas por UDLA

Colección Telegramas "Porfirio Díaz" Acceso

Referencia Virtual Nu EVO Acceso

Reserva Digital tMmyjo Acceso

Tesis Digitales

Fig. 7. Biblioteca virtual. Universidad de las América-Puebla. Muestra los diferentes grupos documentales y servicios disponibles. .

Bibliotecas digitales en México 101

Biblioteca digital

Servicios Recursos electrónicos Acervo propio Recursos electrónicos de proveedores digitalizado en Internet

ACERVO

Fig. 8. Elementos para el desarrollo de bibliotecas digitales.

NOTAS

1 Association of Research Libraries, Definition and Purposes of a Digital Library. October 23, 1995, http://www.ifla.org/documents/libraries/net/arl-dlib.txt, consultado en Internet mayo 26, 2002.

2. Karen M. Drabenstott with the research assistance of Celeste M. Burman, Analytical

Review of the Library of the Future (Washington, D.C.: Council on Library Resources, 1994), p. 9.

3. Adaptado de: THE CAN-LINKED INITIATIVE. A Proposal for the Co-ordinated Development of a Distributed National Digital Library System in Canada, Prepared by a Group of Academic and Research Libraries. February, 1995, http://www.lib.uwaterloo.ca/documents/ CAN-LINKED/canlinked_II.html, consultado en Internet mayo 26, 2002.

4. Ramiro Lafuente López, Biblioteca digital y orden documental, Serie Monografías 27 (México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Centro Universitario de Investigaciones

Bibliotecológicas, 1999), pp. 45^16.

5. Asociación de Bibliotecas Nacionales de Iberoamérica y Programa Regional para el Fortalecimiento de la Cooperación entre Redes y Sistemas Nacionales de Información (INFOLAC), "Biblioteca Digital Iberoamericana y Caribeña. Información del proyecto", http:// bdigital.ucol.mx/indice.htm, consultado en Internet mayo 26, 2002.

6. Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, "Proyecto biblioteca digital", http://biblioteca.itesm.mx/cgi-bin/saltalibre7/proyecto/, consultado en Internet mayo 26, 2002.

7. Dirección General de Servicios de Cómputo Académico, UNAM, "Biblioteca digital universitaria", http://www.bibliodgsca.unam.mx/, consultado en Internet mayo 26, 2002.

8. "Biblioteca virtual en salud", http://bvs.insp.mx/, consultado en Internet mayo 26, 2002.

BIBLIOGRAFÍA

Archivo General de la Nación. México. "Joyas documentales", http://www.agn.gob.mx/ agnJoyas/joyas, html. Consultado en Internet mayo 26, 2002.

Asociación de Bibliotecas Nacionales de Iberoamérica y Programa Regional para el Fortalecimiento de la Cooperación entre Redes y Sistemas Nacionales de Información (INFOLAC). "Biblioteca Digital Iberoamericana y Caribeña". http://bdigital.ucol.mx/indice.htm. Consultado en Internet mayo 26, 2002.

Association of Research Libraries. Definition and Purposes ofa Digital Library. October 23, 1995. http://www.ifla.org/documents/libraries/net/arl-dlib.txt. Consultado en Internet mayo 26, 2002.

"Biblioteca médica nacional digital", http://www.facmed.unam.mx/bmnd/index.html. Consultado en Internet mayo 26, 2002. 102 Víctor J. Cid Carmona

"Biblioteca virtual en salud", http://bvs.insp.mx/. Consultado en Internet mayo 26, 2002.

"Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes", http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/portal/ ECM/index.html. Consultado en Internet mayo 26, 2002.

El Colegio de México. Biblioteca Daniel Cosío Villegas. "Biblioteca digital", http:// biblio.colmex.mx/recelec/bibdig.htm. Consultado en Internet mayo 26, 2002.

Dirección General de Asuntos del Personal Académico. Programa de Apoyo a Pro- yectos de Investigación e Innovación Tecnológica (PAPIIT). UNAM. http:// www.dgbiblio.unam.mx/papiit.html. Consultado en Internet mayo 26, 2002.

Dirección General de Bibliotecas. UNAM. "Biblioteca digital". http://www.dgbiblio.unam.mx/. Consultado en Internet mayo 26, 2002.

Dirección General de Divulgación de la Ciencia. UNAM. "Biblioteca digital de divul- gación de la ciencia", http://biblioteca.universum.unam.mx/digital/biblio_digi- tal.html. Consultado en Internet mayo 26, 2002.

Dirección General de Servicios de Cómputo Académico. UNAM. "Biblioteca digi-

tal universitaria", http://www.bibliodgsca.unam.mx/. Consultado en Internet mayo 26, 2002.

Drabenstott, Karen M., with the research assistance of Celeste M. Burman. Analytical Review of the Library of the Future. Washington, D.C.: Council on Library Resources, 1994.

"Hemeroteca Virtual ANUIES". http://www.hemerodigital.unam.mx/ANUIES/ index.html. Consultado en Internet mayo 26, 2002.

Hill, Graham, y Carole Moore. THE CAN-LINKED INITIATIVE. A Proposal for the Co-ordinated Development of a Distributed National Digital Library System in Canada, Prepared by a Group of Academic and Research Libraries. February, 1995. http://www.lib.uwaterloo.ca/documents/CAN-LINKED/canlinked_n.html.

Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas, UNAM. "Biblioteca jurídica virtual", http:// www.bibliojuridica.org/. Consultado en Internet mayo 26, 2002.

Instituto Latinoamericano de la Comunicación Educativa. "Biblioteca digital", http:// omega.ilce.edu.mx:3000/. Consultado en Internet mayo 26, 2002.

Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey. "Proyecto biblioteca digital", http://biblioteca.itesm.mx/cgi-bin/saltalibre7/proyecto/. Consultado en Internet mayo 26, 2002.

Lafuente López, Ramiro. Biblioteca digital y orden documental. Serie Monografías 27. México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Centro Universitario de Investigaciones Bibliotecológicas, 1999.

López Guzmán, Clara. Modelo para el Desarrollo de Bibliotecas Digitales especializadas. http://www.bibliodgsca.unam.mx/tesis/tes7cllg/tes7cllg.htm. Consultado en Internet mayo 26, 2002.

Universidad de las América-Puebla. "Biblioteca virtual", http://biblio.udlap.mx/digital/desarrollo.html. Consultado en Internet mayo 26, 2002.

Universidad Iberoamericana. "Biblioteca virtual", http://www.bib.uia.mx/biblioteca/ bibliotecadigital/dochtml/base_bdigital300.htm. Consultado en Internet mayo 26, 2002. 11. Mexicoarte: una alternativa electrónica para conocer la historia del arte de México

Elsa Barberena

Introducción

Si queremos conocer sobre el arte y la arquitectura de México en bases de datos bibliográficas nos enfrentamos con la situación de encontrarnos, la mayoría de las veces, con investigaciones extranjeras analizadas en revistas internacionales. Varios son los factores que obstaculizan esta falta de presencia de investigaciones nacionales. Entre ellos están: la ausencia de análisis de revistas mexicanas y por consecuencia de bases de datos, la falta de continuidad de algunas de ellas, el que se publiquen en español, y el que no todos los historiadores del arte publican sus investigaciones en publicaciones internacionales, como sí lo hacen los médicos, los físicos, los matemáticos, los astrónomos mexicanos. Con esta inquietud y convencida de la riqueza cultural del arte de México. Me propuse elaborar una base de datos bibliográfica que detallara la informa- ción, le diera significado y por consiguiente proporcionara conocimiento. Esta base se llama Mexicoarte y forma parte del portal Mex@rte. Por otra parte existe el fenómeno de la aparición de revistas electrónicas de arte y arquitectura mexicanas en la red. Estas son por orden alfabético: Anales del Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas de la UNAM, Arqueología mexicana, Arquine, Artes de México, Curare, México desconocido y Saber ver, también incluidas en el portal Mex@rte. A continuación presento la estrategia de búsqueda de cada una de esta revistas con el fin de ofrecer nuevas metodologías disponibles para la investig- ación en historia del arte. Aunque se ha avanzado en la difusión del arte mexicano a través de estas revistas, el análisis de la información no está normalizado y el apoyo al conocimiento no es del todo satisfactorio.

Características de la revista electrónica

Existimos en un mundo con un desarrollo desigual. Mientras nos encam- inamos hacia un futuro digital, vivimos en un presente de impresos. Esto que se constata en los países desarrollados se ahonda más en los países en vías de desarrollo.

103 104 Elsa Barberena

La revista es comunicación y en nuestros días es también comunicación electrónica que utilizan los investigadores cada día más. Se empezó con el correo electrónico para una comunicación individual, después se utilizó la habilidad adicional de las computadoras para comunicarse en grupos, a través de las "listas de interés". Algunos de estos grupos involucrados en la comunicación electrónica han formulado discusiones de tópicos específicos como seminarios y conferencias electrónicos, que en principio producían simplemente notas, pero que poco a poco intervinieron los editores que aconsejaban a los investigadores producir artículos o ensayos en su especialidad, lo que originó la revista electrónica. La revista electrónica supone un abaratamiento muy importante de la edición puesto que posibilita la difusión de un mayor volumen de información,

1 y como ya se ha mencionado, la revista es comunicación. Además propor- ciona actualidad y disponibilidad a varios usuarios las 24 horas al día y los 365 días del año, desde la oficina o la casa. Joaquín Aguirre define de manera muy clara las funciones de la revista electrónica:

Como "medio de edición" permite 1) que los investigadores tengan un mayor control sobre los procesos editoriales; ... 2) evitar las limitaciones de espacio

que suelen imponer las editoriales. ... 3) que el material sea modificable o

ampliable. . . .

Como "medio de difusión" permite: 1) solventar el problema de las bajas tiradas ... 2) saltar las barreras de la distribución deficiente ... 3) que no existan "números atrasados" ni devoluciones ... 4) la distribución no requiere ningún proceso por parte de los editores. Son los lectores los que acceden a la información y no la información la que ha de llegar a los lectores ... 5) la red

incorpora sus propios mecanismos de publicidad. . . . Como "medio de comu-

nicación" permite: 1) el contacto directo e inmediato con los lectores ... 2) una mayor facilidad para la localización de especialistas en campos afines.

Las desventajas están básicamente en su conservación, ya que en las humanidades el acceso a los ejemplares vigentes no tiene tanta importancia como el acceso a los números atrasados. El archivar documentos de manera electrónica es costoso y no se tiene la certeza de consultarlos en el futuro, ya que el equipo "hardware" y los programas "software" cambian. Algunos autores opinan que si los productos electrónicos se parecen a los impresos pierden su característica de efímeros que les dio origen, dado que al aumentar el volumen de información, por la inclusión de los comités editoriales, el arbitraje y la paginación formal harán inevitable el aumento de costo y la lentitud de acceso vía electrónica.

Por otra parte si los productos electrónicos no logran algo de la formalidad de los impresos, fallarán al no convertirse en contribuciones de tipo académico. La historia del arte de México 105

Descripción de las revistas electrónicas de arte y arquitectura mexicanas

La pregunta ¿Dónde están las versiones en línea de las revistas de arte? La información acerca de libros, tesis revistas se encuentra, pero es necesario contar con los objetos de información por ellos mismos. Y aunque algunos editores están aterrorizados en incluir sus revistas en línea, es la única manera de encontrarnos en el centro del proceso de aprendizaje y no en la periferia. En México la revista impresa y la electrónica coexisten. Este documento provee una revisión de la revista electrónica como un fenómeno de comunica- ción académica; además, es una descripción de las revistas sobre artes plásticas y arquitectura mexicanas disponibles actualmente en la red. Para los propósitos de este documento son siete las revistas electrónicas a analizar; todas ellas publicadas en México en forma impresa y electrónica. Se describirán sus prácticas editoriales, contenido, modo de aparición, etc.

Anales del Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas

Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de

México. Anales del Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas. Vol. 1 (1937)— vol. 21 (1999). http://esteticas.unam.mx/anales.html. Correo electrónico: [email protected]. Consultado en Internet mayo 2002.

Anales del Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas publica semes- tralmente en español, pero también en otros idiomas, artículos de investigación, noticias y documentos acerca de cualquier tema de la historia del arte de México, Latinoamérica y en última instancia universal. Asimismo, en la revista aparecen reseñas e información bibliográfica, y resúmenes en español y en inglés.

Consejo editorial: Gustavo Curiel, Alberto Dallal, Elena Estrada de Gerlero, Leticia Staines y María Teresa Uriarte. Coordinador: Arnulfo Herrera. Los colaboradores son investigadores del Instituto y académicos del arte universal. Al buscarlos por Internet, únicamente se despliegan los números por volumen, fecha, título y autor. Se encuentran "indizados" en la base de datos Mexicoarte por volumen, fecha, título, autor, época y temas.

Arqueología mexicana

Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes (CONACULTA), Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH) y Editorial Raíces. Arqueología mexicana. http://www.arqueomex.com. Correo electrónico: arqueomex@ arqueomex.com. Consultado en Internet mayo 2002. .

106 Elsa Barberena

A lo largo de sus 55 números, la revista Arqueología mexicana ha ofrecido a sus lectores una gran cantidad de información referente a

diversas épocas, espacios y culturas de Mesoamérica. . . Con motivo de su séptimo aniversario en el año 2000 y porque resaltaba la ausencia de resúmenes generales sobre los diferentes periodos del México antiguo se inicia una serie de artículos titulada Tiempo Mesoamericano. ... En estos textos se ofrece una visión

de conjunto del desarrollo histórico del área . . . , así como de los principales sucesos y características de las regiones y culturas que definen a cada uno de los periodos. Preclásico (Temprano, Medio y Tardío), Clásico (Temprano y Tardío), Posclásico (Temprano y Tardío) y la Conquista. Aunque los artículos aparecerán de manera autónoma, forman parte de un todo, ya que cada periodo es parte de una secuencia.

Los asesores son arqueólogos de renombre universal. La publicación en

Internet tiene índices general (1993-2002), por autor, geográfico, sitios, culturas, épocas, temático, gráfico.

Dada la variedad de la información de sus índices, no se consideró necesario incluir esta publicación en la base de datos Mexicoarte.

Ar-quine

Miquel Adria. Arquine. http://www.arquine.com. Correo electrónico: edito- [email protected]. Consultado en Internet mayo 2002. El director es un arquitecto de renombre. En la publicación en Internet se pueden consultar breves resúmenes tanto de las noticias como de los diversos números anteriores y del actual, éste con su editorial; de las fotografías de las obras con los nombres de sus arquitectos, análisis de logros arquitectónicos individuales, y por último información sobre suscripciones. Existen planes para ampliar los presentes iconos e incluir ligas, lecturas, escuelas, libros. No tiene índice. En un futuro próximo se incluirá en la base de datos Mexicoarte.

Artes de México

Alberto Ruy Sánchez L. Artes de México, http://artesdemexico.com. Correo elec- trónico: [email protected]. Consultado en Internet mayo 2002.

En 1988 renace Artes de México como un proyecto cultural inus- itado. A través de una revista de gran calidad, que es al mismo tiempo un libro de arte, se exploran los más apasionantes aspectos de la cultura mexicana dedicando un número entero a cada tema. La revista había sido fundada en 1953 por la misma persona que

años después fundaría el Museo de Arte Moderno de la ciudad

de México, Miguel Salas Anzures. Con él, encargado del diseño, estaba un joven que llegaría a ser uno de los más notables artistas .

La historia del arte de México 1 07

mexicanos de la segunda mitad del siglo, Vicente Rojo. Por más de una década ambos fueron motor y orientación de Artes de México. Después, la publicación tuvo varias épocas, pasó por manos diferentes conservando siempre una fuerte fascinación sobre su público, hasta desaparecer en 1980.

El Consejo de Asesores es representativo de la cultura mexicana. El índice a la primera época, nos. 1-60, 1953-1965, se publica en 1982 por el Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas. Incluye texto (pp. 13-102) e imágenes (pp. 103— 295). La autora es Elsa Barberena. El índice por tema, título, autor y artista se encuentra en la base de datos Mexicoarte desde 1953 hasta la fecha.

Curare

Curare A.C. Curare, la época nos. 1-5, 2a época nos. 6-12, 3a época nos. 13- 16. http://www.laneta.apc.org/curare. Consultado en Internet mayo 2002.

Curare: Voz caribe. Veneno vegetal, de acción paralizante, con

el que los indígenas del Amazonas cubren sus flechas. El curare fue utilizado como anestésico y analgésico a principios del siglo XX. Curare: Del latín curare, por cuidar o sanar.

Curare: Nombre propio. Asociación civil fundada en 1991 en

la ciudad de México, dedicada a la crítica, la investigación histórica y el apoyo al arte contemporáneo independiente que se realiza en México. Su nombre se deriva de las dos definiciones anteriores. Curare, Espacio Crítico para las Artes, fue creado en Mayo de 1991, por un grupo de críticos e historiadores del arte de la ciudad de México, que habían colaborado previamente en varios proyectos

curatoriales. . .

En octubre de 1 99 1 , Curare publicó su primer Boletín Trimestral

realizado de manera artesanal. ... En septiembre de 1993 . . . esta

publicación fue adoptada por el periódico La Jornada, en forma

de una inserción extraordinaria, trimestral, que conservó el nombre de Curare. ... A principios de 1995 ... se publicó internamente. Luego en otoño de 1996 ... se convirtió en revista semestral y se sigue distribuyendo vía suscripciones y también en las librerías de galerías y museos.

La publicación en Internet tiene los siguientes botones activados: que es Curare, archivo Curare, revista Curare, publicaciones y nuestros enlaces.

México desconocido

Miguel Sánchez-Navarro Redo. México desconocido. http://www.mexico- desconocido.com. mx. Editorial: México Desconocido, S.A. de C.V. Correo electrónico: [email protected]. Consultado en Internet mayo 2002. 108 Elsa Barberena

Desde 1976, México desconocido ha sido una empresa mexicana que a través de sus publicaciones promueve la riqueza cultural y natural del país. Los artículos son preparados por especialistas que han visitados ... los lugares más recónditos del país para darlos a conocer a sus lectores.

La publicación incluye las épocas prehispánica, colonial, siglo XIX, siglo XX y personajes. El índice en Internet registra tema, autor y artista. Dada la variedad de la información en dicho índice, no se consideró necesario incluirla en la base de datos Mexicoarte.

Saber ver

Fausto Zerón Medina. Saber ver. http://www.saberver.com/. Editorial: Prensa de Arte S.A. de C.V. Correo electrónico: [email protected]. Consultado en Internet mayo 2002. El responsable es un conocido historiador mexicano. Los asesores son artistas e historiadores de arte, principalmente mexicanos.

En el portal de arte de Saber ver existen las posibilidades de ver el contenido de los números anteriores y el texto completo del último número captu- rado en Internet que no es necesariamente el último número publicado. Existen también botones de artículos, búsqueda, opinión y secciones. Debido a ello, esta publicación no se incluye en la base de datos Mexicoarte.

La Evaluación de los sitios en Internet

La evaluación de los sitios en Internet es similar a la de las obras de consulta:

• Objetivo. ¿Cuál es el contenido? ¿Describe el responsable la intención

de crear la página web? ¿Es útil el índice?

• Autoridad. ¿Quién ensambló la página? ¿Quién suministró la infor- mación? ¿El responsable es una persona, una institución, una orga- nización? ¿Se puede confiar del responsable? ¿Es reconocido? ¿Tiene objetividad?

• Alcance. ¿Está actualizada la información? ¿Cubre la página todo el material que pretende? ¿Qué tanto material abarca?

3 • Audiencia. ¿A quién está dirigida?

Además de estos criterios hay que incluir los tópicos siguientes en la evaluación:

• calidad y profundidad de la información;

• organización del material;

• material gráfico—fotos, ilustraciones; .

La historia del arte de México 109

• facilidad de navegación;

• calidad de los sitios, si existen enlaces para ellos;

4 • calidad de los enlaces, si los enlaces no funcionan son inútiles.

Objetivos — 1 Anales del Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas describe el objetivo de la publicación, pero no la intención de crear la página web. El índice

es útil hasta cierto punto ya que únicamente se despliegan los números por volumen, no por número, fecha, título y autor y no por época ni por temas.

2. Arqueología mexicana—no describe el objetivo de la publicación ni la intención de crear la página web. El índice es útil y cubre desde su inicio hasta la fecha.

3. Arquine—no describe el objetivo de la publicación ni la intención de crear la página web. No tiene índice y la información contenida en los 12 iconos (cuatro en construcción y uno que repite la información) que es breve sin indicaciones del número al que se refiere, con excepción del icono: números anteriores.

4. Artes de México—describe el objetivo de la publicación sin especificar su intención en la creación de la página web. No tiene índice. Se dis- tingue por sus iconos en movimiento que se relacionan con los cinco sentidos.

5. Curare—describe el objetivo de la publicación sin especificar su inten- ción en la creación de la página web. No tiene índice. El archivo Curare es de interés ya que registra nombres de artistas nacionales y extranjeros que trabajan en México que han donado duplicados y originales de sus archivos personales.

6. México desconocido—no describe su objetivo en el apartado de publicaciones, sino en el de viajes: ¿Quiénes somos? El índice contiene variedad de información en las diferentes épocas del arte mexicano sin corresponder algunos de sus enlaces a su actualización.

7. Saber ver—no se describe el objetivo de la publicación ni la intención de crear la página web. No existe propiamente un índice sino un botón de búsqueda que enlaza a otros ocho botones.

Autoridad

1 . Anales del Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas—la institución diseño la página web. El consejo editorial está formado por investigadores del Instituto. .

110 Elsa Barberena

2. Arqueología mexicana—las instituciones que diseñaron la página web son ampliamente reconocidas en su especialidad.

3. Arquine—el responsable es un arquitecto de renombre.

4. Artes de México—se especifica el responsable de la impresión de la publicación pero no el que diseñó la página web. El director general responsable es un escritor mexicano reconocido.

5. Curare—es producto de un grupo de críticos e historiadores del arte de la ciudad de México.

6. México desconocido—se especifica el responsable de la impresión de la publicación pero no el que diseñó la página web. El presidente del consejo y ejecutivo es un conocido empresario mexicano.

7. Saber ver—se nombra al que diseño la página web. El director es un historiador mexicano distinguido.

Alcance

1. Anales del Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas—la información está

actualizada, no obstante el último volumen publicado es de 1999.

2. Arqueología mexicana—la información está actualizada con el último número publicado que corresponde al 55, mayo-junio [2002].

3. Arquine—la información está actualizada con el que corresponde al 19, sin fecha.

4. Artes de México—no está actualizada la información. El último número que aparece es el no. 47 de 2001 y el último publicado es el 59 de 2002.

5. Curare—está actualizada con el último número que corresponde al 16,

sin aparecer la fecha.

6. México desconocido—está actualizada.

7. Saber ver—no está actualizada.

Audiencia

1 Anales del Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas—la publicación está dirigida a los investigadores, profesores y estudiantes.

2. Arqueología mexicana—la publicación está dirigida tanto a los investigadores, profesores y estudiantes como al público en general.

3. Arquine—la publicación está dirigida a los arquitectos, profesores y estudiantes de arquitectura. La historia del arte de México 111

4. Artes de México— la publicación está dirigida al público interesado en

la comunicación a través de los cinco sentidos: escuchar, ver, tocar, probar y oler.

5. Curare—la publicación está dirigida a los críticos e investigadores del arte contemporáneo independiente que se realiza en México.

6. México desconocido—la publicación está dirigida al público en general interesado en la riqueza cultural y natural de México.

7. Saber ver—la publicación está dirigida al público en general interesado no solamente en el arte de México, sino en el universal.

Otros tópicos de evaluación

Calidad Organización Material Facilidad Calidad Calidad

gráfico navegación sitios enlaces

Anales del Instituto E B B B B Arqueología mexicana E E E E E E Arquine E B E B - - Artes de México E E E B E E Curare B B - B B - México desconocido B B E R B R Saber ver B R E R B B

E=excelente B=bueno R=regular

-=no tiene

NOTAS

1. Alfonso López Yepes. "Innovación en la comunicación científica y académica: las revistas electrónicas'*. Scire 5, no. 2 (julio/diciembre 1999): 15-16.

2. Michael E. Stoller. "Electronic Journals in the Humanities: A Survey and Critique". Library Trends 40. no. 4 (spring 1992): 648, 663. 666.

3. William A. Katz, Introduction to Reference Work, vol. 1, 7th ed. (New York: Mcgraw-

Hill. 1997). p. 4.

4. John Cosgrove. "Information about Authors on the Internet: Sixteen Great Web Sites'". Acquisitions Librarian 23 (2000): 82-83. 12. Course-Integrated Information Literacy: Tales of Success Foretold

Anne C. Barnhart-Park

The instruction program at Lafayette College is similar to programs found at most academic institutions. Library instruction takes place, at the request of professors, in fifty-minute sessions. The librarians try to tailor these sessions to the course content as much as possible and to take advantage of each available "teaching moment." In 1993, Lafayette College adopted a First- Year Seminar (FYS) program, and the faculty voted to include library orientation sessions in the course. The faculty members are encouraged to include two library sessions for the FYS program— one focused on library resources and the other focused on critical use of the Internet. Approximately thirty-six FYS courses are taught per year. Not all faculty agree to have sessions, but through the FYS program between 75 to 80 percent of first-year students receive some library instruction. A little more than half (53.5 percent for fall 2001) receive two sessions and the remaining students receive one. While this program is relatively successful, it does have its drawbacks. The FYS library sessions are very task-oriented, and many students seem unable to apply those skills to other classes or assignments. The majority of library instruction at Lafayette College occurs within the FYS program, but the librarians also teach occa- sional bibliographic-instruction sessions to upper-level classes. These are typically assignment-driven and respond to a desire of the professor to teach the students a specific database (MLA, PAIS, LexisNexis, etc.); these sessions usually involve a demonstration of the database and a brief exercise. Some of these classes are in Spanish for upper-level language students. While these classes have their value, the librarians at Lafayette College wanted to move beyond this task-based model of bibliographic instruction. Instead of creating library sessions that responded to particular assignments, the librarians wanted to integrate the concepts of information literacy into semester-long courses. While some schools have introduced for-credit library courses, offering a semester-long library course for credit was not an option for Lafeyette College, because of the structure of the college with its

4-4 course load (students take 4 courses per semester) and with its high number of engineering majors (more than 20 percent of the student body majors in engineering). Therefore, the librarians needed to find faculty partners who were willing to restructure their courses to include information literacy. In

112 3

Course-Integrated Information Literacy 1 1

2001, the librarians lobbied for and were granted special funds to offer faculty "Information Literacy Initiative Grants." Faculty members were sent a letter describing the grants and asked to submit proposals. The $1,000 stipend attached to the grant encouraged professors to consider reworking their courses to include information literacy. Because of the heavy bibliographic-instruction teaching load in the fall of all the FYS courses, the librarians decided not to offer the grants until spring semester. However, after talking with a professor last summer, I decided that his fall course modern Latin American poetry would be a good pilot course. For the proposal, professors were asked to explain how they would incor- porate information literacy components in their classes. They needed to talk with a librarian partner before submitting their proposal in order to have worked out some of the course details. The librarians decided to target upper- level courses since they already see many of the first-year students in the FYS program. During the 2001-2002 academic year, five Information Literacy Initiative Grants were awarded: Spanish 435— modern Latin American poetry; Economics 365— econometric analysis; English 205— literary questions; Government 321— Congress and legislative process; and VAST 255— plague, progress and bioterrorism (VAST, "Values and Science and Technology," courses are taught by various faculty members; this one was taught by a biol- ogy professor).

As stated previously, I had the opportunity to work with the pilot course for the Information Literacy Initiative Grant program. Spanish 435 was a seminar course required for all seniors majoring in Spanish. The professor and I decided that the students would have in-depth database training, hoping to teach them the intricacies of MLA and the Handbook of Latin American Studies online. The professor also wanted the students to become very familiar with the reference section of the library. He wanted the students to explore this area intensely, learning how to use reference materials to gain a deeper understanding of the poems. The students were required to write a research paper and to give a presentation at the end of the semester. The professor and I agreed to have the students record in a research journal their explorations in the reference area, as well as their progress and usage of databases and other resources they used in their research. We instructed the students to record in their journals not only what resources they used but how they used them (search strings and terms) and why they selected those resources. If a selected resource was not helpful, the professor and I wanted them to analyze why it was not a helpful resource and to brainstorm in their journals about other possible sources. We explained to them that by reflecting on their research they would become more efficient as the semester progressed.

The class had a library session during the first week of the semester, and the students were introduced to many of the reference materials they were expected to use. These ranged from language usage guides to mythology dictionaries 114 Anne C. Barnhart-Park

to art encyclopedias. The students were asked to annotate the poems in their research journal: they were instructed to pick a certain number of terms from the poems (proper nouns and any other terms they deemed important) and look each term up in at least two different sources. They were told that the goal was for them to become comfortable with different reference materials and to understand that different sources would have different levels of explanation for the terms. They were instructed to do this exercise in their research journal and, in addition to recording what they found, to record their thought processes. According to the professor, the following class discussion was a success. The professor and I collected the students' journals the first week of

September and reviewed their annotations. Most students were not as self- reflective about the research process as we had hoped, but we wrote encouraging little notes and returned the journals to the students. The professor was pleased with the level of knowledge the students had about the poems and decided that the annotation exercise (modified to make it less arduous) would be required for each poem in order to stimulate class discussions. The professor and I were optimistic. In the beginning of October, we collected the research journals to give midterm grades to the students. The professor was hopeful that the journals would be done well since the class discussions had been fairly good. We were both dismayed at the work the students did. We did not understand why the students were doing such a poor job especially when the research journal was worth 10 percent of their semester grade. We had hoped they would be critical of their sources and of themselves, but most of their work evidenced little or no critical thought. One student when annotating the proper name of the mythological figure "Pan" from a poem by Darío used the Enciclopedia universal ilustrada and wrote: "Porción de masa de harina y agua de figura a veces chata y redonda, a veces alargada, etcétera, que después de fermentada y cocida en horno sirve de principal alimento al hombre." She had not bothered to consider whether her annotation made sense with relation to the poem, nor had she bothered to turn a few more pages and stumble onto a more appropriate definition. The professor and I were both very discouraged. We made lengthy notes in the journals and returned them back to the students. The professor made an announcement in class that everyone would have received an F in their research journal, so he was willing to wipe the slate clean and only consider the work they did from that point on in their journals.

At the end of October, I suggested to the professor that we review the student journals again. He did not want to collect them since most students were working on their final projects, and he felt that they needed their journals for this work. This course was taught in the fall of 2001 at a small liberal arts college located seventy miles from Manhattan. It was hard to stay focused. Unfortunately, the professor had started to feel fairly demoralized about the class and I was unable to convince him to collect the journals. I also became Course-Integrated Information Literacy 115

discouraged as students came to ask for help with their final projects, and their questions betrayed a lack of previous work or thought. Even after having dis-

cussed MLA, students still did not seem to know how to find articles on their topics. Many would come and ask me the same sorts of questions repeatedly, showing that they simply did not care to learn. The students grew to resent the

work for the class and refused to learn how to do it. I grew weary of fighting

them, so instead of teaching them, it became easier to do the searches for them. The professor did not collect the research journals again.

This pilot course was definitely not a raging success for information lit-

eracy. But, it was a success as far as alerting the professor and me to potential

problems for the program. For starters, the professor and I were not flexible enough. We did not pay attention to what was working and adapt our strategies accordingly. We stuck with our ideas and tried to inflict learning on the students. The second obstacle was the timing of the class. For many students in the class, this was the last Spanish course they would take to fulfill their major. As seniors, many of the students complained about the workload and did not see the long-term benefits of learning information literacy skills. The two students who took the information literacy component seriously were two who had applied to graduate school and therefore appreciated that these skills were relevant to their futures. This led the librarians to determine that students should be targeted earlier in their college careers. Most students do not want to learn information literacy for learning's sake; but, most do want to know how to get better grades and spend less time doing research. The librarians decided that courses that serve as an introduction to the major would work better as information literacy courses. Also, the professor and I did not communicate enough with each other. We became wrapped up in our own semesters and did not communicate often enough about the class. We discussed and planned a great deal over the summer and the first two weeks of the semester, but throughout the course we did not reevaluate and plan things together. This fed another problem: the librarian was not involved enough in the course. The librarian was more of an add-on than an integrated part of the course. Since this was the first attempt to move from bibliographic instruction to information literacy, the professor and I did not know how much to change the old

model. This is something else that was adjusted for the spring semester. We also needed to rethink the whole research journal concept. Both faculty members and librarians really liked the idea in theory, but they needed to find a better practical application. Collecting notebooks from the students meant having to decipher their writing and it meant that the students would be without their journals for a certain period of time. We did not want to be restricted when we reviewed them.

In the spring semester, I worked with a 200-level English course taught by Professor Bill Carpenter. This course, called literary questions, serves as an introduction to the English major. Between semesters, Professor Carpenter and 116 Anne C. Barnhart-Park

I talked about the Spanish class and I told him my impressions of the course. He was very interested in the idea of a research journal but did not want to have the same problems I had the previous semester. We decided to try using electronic research journals, so the students, the professor, and the librarian could always access them. This proved to be more successful than we had anticipated. Using Blackboard course management software, we created a site for the course. While we used several features of the software, I want to focus on the research journals. We used the Group Pages function to create research journals.

Professor Carpenter was called out of town during the first week of classes.

This gave me the opportunity to meet the students as a coinstructor right at the beginning of the semester in their classroom. I gave them an orientation to the course and to the course's Blackboard website. I explained to them that they were enrolled in an information literacy course and that this meant there would be special requirements. I did not tell them that they were guinea pigs; I just presented it as another aspect of the syllabus. I showed them where to find their research journal and assigned them all to post a test message by Wednesday.

The research journal was worth 15 percent of their grade, and I told them that they were expected to post three times per week. Professor Carpenter and I had decided to put this much emphasis on the research journals in order to make sure the students took them seriously. I also explained to them that the professor and I were going to randomly read about five (of fifteen) research journals per week. As it turned out, reading the journals was so easy and enjoyable that we both ended up reading and posting comments on each journal once a week. This helped the students stay interested in them as well. One of my reference colleagues made a handout of sample journal entries; we photocopied this and gave it to the students so they would know what we expected of them.

Since Professor Carpenter was going to miss the second day of class, I was the students' primary instructor then, too. I met with the students in the library and gave them an introduction to MLA. Instead of just showing them how to use the database, I helped them analyze the records to see what sorts of information they could determine about the source from the MLA record.

We also talked about what the records did not tell them. I gave them their first "information literacy" assignment to be completed one week later as a research journal entry. I gave each student one of three assignments that asked them to use MLA and Humanities Abstracts to figure out a reasonable paper topic for a specific subject. Two of the assignments focused on poets they would be reading. The third assignment was the most successful. Since one of the semester texts was The Free Wheelin ' Bob Dylan, I asked the students to find articles about popular musicians. They had the freedom to approach this assignment as they wished. Some searched "popular musician" but others plugged in names of musicians. This led to the amusing yet poignant question posed by one student in his research journal: "A search for 'Tom Petty' produced no results. Course-Integrated Information Literacy 117

Doesn't anybody write about Tom Petty?" The day the assignment was due we had an interesting class discussion on the politics of information and academia addressing the Tom Petty question. The next information literacy assignment required the students to index articles for MLA and Humanities Abstracts (articles in recent issues not yet included in the database). This exercise forced the students to physically go and retrieve an article from the library's stacks. This was a hard step for students to make. At Lafayette College, articles can be found in print, fiche, film, or electronic form. While Professor Carpenter and I anticipated students to have difficulties finding journal articles and indexing them, through their research journals we learned of other challenges they encountered. One student shared her initial reaction to finding a scholarly journal: "I was shocked by two things, the appearance of the scholarly journals, and the number of them that were not of use to me. For some reason, in my mind, I pictured them as thick magazines, similar to National Geographic, don't ask me why. They are not that at all. They are huge, clumsy books with spines that creak from lack of use." This exercise worked well as students were obligated to think like an indexer. Unfortunately, MLA would not provide me with an indexer's thesaurus to use for this exercise, so the students had to search MLA and Humanities Abstracts for similar articles and borrow their descriptors. (This exercise could be done better for a Latin American studies course using HAPI and the HAPI thesaurus.) This exercise inspired class discussions on the arbitrariness of indexes. When given the assignment, the students were told that they could skim the articles to index them because many indexers do not have the time to read every word of every article when assigning descriptors. One student challenged the validity of descriptors based on merely skimming the article and wrote in her journal:

To be honest, by skimming the article, I am not sure if I have a great enough

grasp on what the author is trying to convey through her work. In order to

adequately describe this work in MLA, I feel as though I really should go back

and read the article. ... I think that my having to read it over to have a confi-

dent "take" on the article is proving a point in and of itself. This is a relatively

short article, and I still felt as though skimming it was not enough to properly

or adequately describe it. I am sure that the people who site [sic] sources do not have an infinite amount of time to determine what many articles are about,

and I am assuming that most of the time, they just search for frequently used

terms or "themes." Perhaps this is why we get so many bogus responses to searches that we perform.

The least successful assignment was the Literature Online (LION) assignment. This assignment involved asking the students to use the database Literature Online without any formal instruction. Typically students are shown how to use a database and not encouraged to use help screens to learn on their 118 Anne C. Barnhart-Park

own. The goal for this instructionless exercise was to have the students learn a new database and to build their confidence in their own abilities to learn how

to use a database. The timing of this exercise was poor because it came near spring break and had no real follow-up in the class. The LION assignment also

failed because it was paired with an assignment asking the students to write

about The Big Sleep and The Big Lebowski, and there are no articles on the latter. The lack of articles led to greater frustration and disappointment with the resource. The goal of the exercise was not obvious to the students after doing the assignment. Perhaps having the students come up and demonstrate what they learned would have been good for the class discussion. Another information literacy exercise involved analyzing footnotes and bibliographies of articles. The students were asked to compare sources cited by articles and look for commonly cited authors or journals. Again, the students' observations were surprisingly astute:

The first thing I noticed in studying the references is that people sure do cite

themselves a lot. I don't understand that. How can quote [sic] something else you said once help you to prove what you are saying now? How can you back

yourself up? My second general observation is that people who write for certain journals (The Shakespeare Quarterly, The British Journal of Aesthetics) tend to refer to other articles that have been published in the same journal. Is that just coincidence? Or do people do that on purpose to make the journal more likely to publish them?

The footnote/bibliography exercise was paired with citation searching. Using AH Search via FirstSearch, students were instructed to expand their research by looking for articles that cited ones they already had found. For the most part, the students appreciated these exercises. Some of the students did not find many commonalities in their bibliographies or chose oft-cited articles and this led to a frustration with the exercise. Some students indicated that these exercises happened too late in the semester. These students complained that they had already done the majority of their research before the professor and I introduced these topics, and therefore they did not receive much benefit from them. Information literacy was a topic that informed many of the class discussions. Often research journal entries would inspire a subsequent class discussion. While these discussions were enjoyable to both the professor and me, we did not realize how valued they were by the students until we saw the results of the anonymous survey they took at the end of the semester.

In addition to the standard course evaluation, Professor Carpenter and I created an anonymous survey using Blackboard for the students to take at the end of the semester. In this survey the students were asked to evaluate the information literacy components of the course. Eleven of the fifteen students completed the survey (two others attempted to take it but because of server problems their feedback was not included; see the appendix for the survey Course-Integrated Information Literacy 1 19

results). The survey showed that the students appreciated most of the exercises and were able to see the long-term benefits from them. The survey also showed that the students would like more class discussions and group research work.

Using this survey, the professor and I will plan better future courses, working on the timing of certain exercises, so they are matched better to other written assignments and class discussions. The research journals made the course successful for the professor and me, allowing us to track the progress of the students and see how effective the class was. Through the journals problems could be seen right away. For example, students were having difficulty locating New Criticism articles using MLA. Why were the students having problems? The dates! New Criticism was in vogue in the 1950s and MLA online began in the early 1960s. Through their research journals we discovered that they needed to be shown the Periodical Contents Index and the print version of MLA. The research journals also showed the progress of the students. One could compare the February 7, 2002, journal entry of one student: "At this point I think it would still be quicker and easier for me to seek out hardcopies and search those bibliographies, but I guess avoiding that is the whole point of this assignment now isn't it?" to the same student's journal two months later: "I am happy to say that researching has been made tons easier since learing [sic] how to use MLA and HA" (April

8, 2002). There were several elements that made the English 205 class more successful with regards to information literacy than the Spanish 435 class. The students were not burned out on their majors by this point. Most were still excited about being an English major instead of thinking that they had done their time and deserved an easy course. Since the students were at an earlier point in their majors, they could see the intrinsic value of learning the research skills. Also, the exercises were structured so that they built on each other creating a more cohesive whole. Perhaps the most important difference was the use of the electronic research journals. This allowed the professor and me to provide the students with more specific and timely feedback. This kept the students interested in using the journals. Their enthusiasm helped the professor and me to maintain a high level of energy. (It's hard not to be energetic when reading this May 2, 2002, entry: "One thing that I really wanted to comment on is how fast I have become. One of my friends needed help looking up something, and within seconds, I had helped him find a scholarly source.")

In the fall 2002 semester, I will work with both professors again. The Spanish professor wants to try working with a 300-level course this time (even though he is not allowed to get a second stipend), and we will be using electronic research journals. The English professor will teach the same class, and we are going to continue the information literacy content— hopefully learning from the students' comments and research journals, so we can make it even more worthwhile. 120 Anne C. Barnhart-Park

APPENDIX

Survey Results— English 205 (May 2002)

Please comment on the usefulness of the following exercises. Think about how each exercise helped you or did not help you become more critical about research, research skills, and information. For the first part, please grade them on a scale of 1-5 with 5 being "very useful" and 1 being "worthless." For the second part, please answer the questions.

Research Journal Responses %

1 (Worthless) 9% 2 9% 3 36% 4 18% 5 (Very Useful) 27%

Using MLA to find a paper topic (this was the first exercise you did--you searched Emily Dickinson, Gwendolyn Brooks or a popular musician) Responses %

1 (Worthless) 0% 2 18% 3 9% 4 45% 5 (Very Useful) 27%

Indexing exercise (MLA and Humanities Abstract) Responses %

1 (Worthless) 9% 2 0% 3 45% 4 27% 5 (Very Useful) 18%

LION Exercise (learning a new database without a demonstration) Responses %

1 (Worthless) 9% 2 18% 3 36% 4 9% 5 (Very Useful) 27%

Examining and comparing the bibliographies and footnotes of articles Responses %

1 (Worthless) 9% 2 9% 3 55% 4 9% 5 (Very Useful) 18% 1

Course-Integrated Information Literacy 1 2

Citation searching (AH Search) Responses %

1 (Worthless) 0% 2 36% 3 36% 4 18% 5 (Very Useful) 9%

Information literacy question on the midterm Responses %

1 (Worthless) 0% 2 18% 3 9% 4 36% 5 (Very Useful) 36%

Class discussions on the politics of information Responses %

1 (Worthless) 0% 2 9% 3 9% 4 27% 5 (Very Useful) 55%

For you, which exercise was the most beneficial? Why?

1. Class discussions are always very useful, especially when the instructor draws

upon his/her own interactions with how he/she tried to get something published. I learn best through personal account.

2. I thought that the first exercise that we used to find paper topics was extremely

helpful because it was a good introduction into the use of databases and it covered many aspects of them and questions that were sure to arise during research.

3. I really liked the first assignment about the popular musician or Gwendolyn brooks.

It opened up our course to discussion quite well, as we all had something to say;

even if some of us were just a bit scared of the whole research process.

4. Using MLA to find a paper topic and the indexing assignment. I found MLA to be the most popular database for my own use. The assignment gave me a really good

feel for it. The indexing assignment displayed that these databases do not need anyone special to document them, but more importantly what to look for with the descriptors.

5. I found that using MLA to find a paper topic was most useful. It introduced me to MLA and HumAbs and gave me a better sense of what they are and how to use them.

6. Searching MLA was most useful because that is where I find most of my informa-

tion, and that leads to other things, so I really liked that.

7. I particularly thought that the research journals were the most helpful for my

understanding of databases available on campus and how to research literary criti-

cism. I enjoyed being able to express my feelings and emotions towards the current 122 Anne C. Barnhart-Park

discussion in class openly and freely in my research journals and obtaining direct

feedback from the professor easily. I also liked how we had class discussions about

various topics in literature, including the politics of why certain information is published, which are not usually talked about in English classes.

8. I don't know, usually the internet itself was more useful than the library First Searches.

9. I think the research journal was the most beneficial exercise because it forced me to keep track of my thoughts and my researching progress. There are many times

I think I am going to remember something so I don't write it down, but I don't

always remember. By logging my research in the journal I have a road map for

future use. It also helped me sort through thoughts and note things that might oth-

erwise have been forgotten. As for the library exercises, they were all beneficial

in one way or another because I knew nothing about doing research before this

class. I am so grateful to be able to take this knowledge with me through the rest of my studies.

10. Researching MLA. We used this database the most frequently throughout the

course, thus I feel it was the most beneficial.

11. I thought the first exercise or the indexing was the most beneficial because I had no idea how to do anything. This enabled me to get more familiar with the programs of MLA and Humanities Abstract which were crucial to writing papers. The oth-

ers I didn't use as much because they were geared more towards the details of the programs which were helpful but not as crucial.

For you, which exercise was the least beneficial? Why?

1. The MLA topic one. I didn't really have a clue what was going on. As the course progressed, my understanding grew.

2. I thought the indexing assignment was okay in showing the importance of key-

words and descriptors, but having to write out full indexes seemed somewhat tedious.

3. I don't even remember the AH search, But i didn't like the LION assignment. I

don't feel like I really learned the ins and outs of the data base [sic]. I pretty much

just found stuff about what i needed to by clicking around and figuring it out. I

didn't use the pop ups at all.

4. Learning how to use LION. I did not mind teaching myself how to use it, but it

did not produce as many articles for topics I searched on other databases. I found

this database a little harder to work with and, overall, not as helpful as other databases.

5. The research journal. I didn't find it necessary to record what i researched, and i

did not find that i went back to check previous research strategies. It was more of a nuisance to me than anything else.

6. Using LION was least beneficial because I just got frustrated, and didn't know

what to do, and I wasn't comfortable with the sight.

7. The exercise I found least beneficial was the footnotes exercise. I did find it inter-

esting as to see how many critics cite similar resources, but I didn't really feel that ..

Course-Integrated Information Literacy 123

that knowledge helped my understanding of literature and criticism as much as the research journals and learning different databases did.

8. LION.

9. Like I said, all the exercises were beneficial, but if I have to choose one that was

least beneficial I would say it was the indexing assignment. I see that I now know the subtle differences between the MLA and HA database setups, but I'm not sure

that I got too much else out of that assignment.

10. Researching LION, since we did not use LION at all after that assignment.

11. The bibliography one. I think its [sic] a good idea, however, I didn't find any that

were really that similar so it didn't help me that much.

What do you think we should have spent more time on?

1 Comapring [sic] footnotes and bibliographies. If i had figured out how useful this

was earlier and spent more time on it, I wouldn't have been as stressed in this class.

2. Emphasizing search tips is important. We discussed some strategies, but more could have been helpful.

3. Really, I was surprised that we had so few literacy assignments. I think we had them just enough to learn the system.

4. Hmm ... I think we did a very good job learning how to reseach [sic] on the

Internet. I do not feel lost anymore.

5. I think the class was well balanced. I don't have many suggestions for improve-

ment as i thought that the time spent covering different material was fine.

6. Looking at other sights [sic], and not just concentrating mostly on MLA because there are so many sights [sic] out there that we have no idea how to use or know if they even existed.

7. I would undoubtedly say that we spent the most time on research journals than any

other subject, as each student had to write one three times a week at least.

8. Spend a class in the library doing the reseaching [sic] together in groups for simi-

lar topics.

9. I don't know. I think that maybe the last few exercises should have been done a bit

sooner, because by the time we got to them, I had already finished a good deal of

research for my final paper. It may have been beneficial for me to know how to use

the AH Search before I began researching.

10. Citation searching.

1 1 Finding articles in the library ! For the last paper we had to find 1 5 in the library and

I wish I was [sic] more familiar with all the intricacies like if we have the journal

it doesn't mean we have the year etc.

What additional information literacy topics do you think we should have included?

1. If you had shown us examples of how you might go aobut [sic] doing this, we

would have a better idea of how to research. I felt that we could have utilized the

SMART classroom a little more; I know that would have helped me a bunch. .

124 Anne C. Barnhart-Park

2. While using online search bases was covered in deatail [sic], we could have had

more tips on searching within the Lafayette library itself.

3. Maybe each person can go out and choose their own topic entirley [sic] and write a

mini 4-5 page paper incorporatingtghe [sic] sources- even if it's just a comparison

of the sources, about the assignment of finding the sources, etc.

4. Not sure.

5. I think that the class covered information literacy thoroughly and sufficiently.

6. Finding out ways to get sources that exist from before the 1990's because that can be very limiting.

7. I think we could have discussed to greater lengths the Gale books, such as

Shakespearean criticism, as I found them difficult to easily use for research.

8. Don't know.

9. I really can't answer this since I am ignorant to all topics other than those that were introduced in class.

10. Not sure.

11. I'm not sure. I don't know anything else besides what was taught so I don't think I really have the information to comment.

Have you applied the skills you've learned in this class to your work in other classes this semester? If so, how?

1 No, but i do plan to use these skills in the future.

2. Yes. My searches on databases for science articles for example, are much more

effective because I can use the same strategies of keywords with "ands" and "ors"

as well as descriptors. While i learned them in MLA and HumAb, they are still applicable to other databases.

3. Yes, i am much faster at the computer, and much more knowledgeable in my research. Other classes beware!

4. Yes. I needed to find articles for art exhibition reviews on Frank Stella. I used MLA and HA to search and found plently [sic] of articles.

5. Yes. In research for a paper for my government law class. Although i did not

end up using the information i got, i did use what i learned in class to get the

information [sic].

6. Yes . . . using the databases has helped me, and I also look at what I read differ-

ently, and I try and look for why things are written the way they are. It is hard to be

a passive reader, at least that is what I find.

7. I have used my skills with the databases in locating articles for other papers in my classes and have found that my ability to find reliable sources quickly has greatly improved.

8. No need too [sic], only other papers were for History classes, and we only had to use the books assigned for readings.

9. This is my only class this semester, but looking back to semesters past, I can see

how these would have been wonderful skills to know. I am sure I will have the chance to hone them in future classes. Course-Integrated Information Literacy 1 25

10. Yes, I have used MLA for research in other classes, and I am sure that I will continue to do so throughout my college experience.

11. Yes! I had a huge paper worth 30% of my grade in International Relations.

Although I didn't really search MLA and Hum. Abstracts I was familiar with the

type of searching (truncation and stuff) so it made it much easier.

Have you noticed a difference in how you approach research and information now as opposed to last semester?

1. Oh yeah. I feel a lot more comfortable using the library. It's not a big scary build-

ing anymore. I still don't know how to use the manual MLA index (from the time before electronic).

2. Definitely. I was not nearly as familiar with the online databases. Even when I

did do them, they were very basic searches. I find that I am much better at finding

articles that are more specific to my topic. I do not need to get a lot of sources and

read through to tell which are good; I can determine that through my searches.

3. I definitley [sic] used to just prod around and try to stumble on things. Now i have

more than a shot in the dark. I no longer feel so helpless.

4. This is the first semester I really had to do extensive research like this, so I don't

have much to compare it to. However, unless I had a class that taught me about

these databases I do not believe I would be using them.

5. Not so much this semester, but i believe that i will in my writing classes next

semester (i didn't have a lot of research based classes).

6. Yes! I am much more knowledgable [sic] now, I do believe. Now I have learned

to NOT do research at the last possible minute, and I have learned to use the

Interlibrary loans. I never used that before. It is so much better doing research

early because it takes so much pressure off.

7. I definitely see a difference in how I research topics. At the beginning of the

semester, I had no idea as to how to use the many different databases available

for English research. Now I feel that I have gained an extensive amount of experience and knowledge through the use of MLA and HA to find helpful articles for future papers.

8. No, only when forced to does the research approach change, the internet is very

effective for topic relavent [sic] searches.

9. It is not as frightening, and it is a lot more accessible [sic].

10. Definitely. I had no idea an online library search was even available. This course has really broadened my research horizons.

11. Last semester I didn't have to do all that much research. However, I definitely didn't even realize there was such a thing as MLA so that will help tremendously for my next couple of years.

Any additional comments:

1 . Early in the semester I felt unable to grasp what doing the research was all about.

Perhaps this was hindered by the lack of interest in the course content early in the

semester. But as the semester progressed, I felt that I began learning more and

became more interested in participating. But it seemed to [sic] late to save my 126 Anne C. Barnhart-Park

grade. I didn't fully grasp what the research journal was all about and as a result i

left it alone for large periods of time. The second half of the course had much more

that caught my interest and i began to enjoy being involved in these discussion

[sic]. Even if for some reason I didn't raise my hand on a given day, I tried to be actively (internally) involved in what was going on.

2. I have to admit, the information literacy was not my favorite part of the class.

When I think of English classes, I assume we'll just be discussing works, and not

including so much research. Looking back though, I think that the information

literacy excercises. [sic] taught me information that is just as valuable as what I

learned in literary discussions in the class. I learned skills that I will use throughout my college career.

3. Great semester. Good luck with the classes to come!

4. Anne rocks ! Thanks for all your helpful knowledge. Keep up the great work. Thank you Professor Carpenter for incorporating these exercises into our class. Literary questions taught me many new ways to think and research.

5. [No Response.]

6. [No Response.]

7. I really enjoyed the layout of the class and felt that the method in which we learned databases made perfect sense and was very logical. By letting the students explore

the databases on their own time rather than telling them what is on the database and how to find certain information, the students gained a better understanding of

the resources through experience. I also really enjoyed the freedom of the research

journals and feel that this course was one of my best that I will take at Lafayette.

Thanks for making it so enjoyable and thought-provoking.

8. None.

9. Thank you for helping me to aquire [sic] the knowledge that will be the foundation for the future of my education.

10. Although I was not a fan of the literacy/library aspect of this course, I respect the

importance and I did learn some valuable information.

11. Not really. Thanks for a great semester! Contributors

Eliades Acosta, Biblioteca Nacional José Martí

Elsa Barberena, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México

Anne C. Barnhart-Park, Lafayette College

Claire-Lise Bénaud, University of New Mexico

Enrique Camacho Navarro, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México

Víctor J. Cid Carmona, El Colegio de México

Karen B. Graubart, Cornell University

Alan Moss, Alan Moss Ltd.

Sharon A. Moynahan, University of New Mexico

Wendy Louise Pedersen, University of New Mexico

Laura D. Shedenhelm, University of Georgia

Lourdes Vázquez, Rutgers University

Geoffrey West, British Library

127

Conference Program

Saturday, June 1, 2002

8:30 a.m.-5:00 p.m. Registration

9:00 a.m.-9:00 p.m. Committee Meetings

Sunday, June 2, 2002

8:00 a.m.^:30 p.m. Registration

10:00 a.m.-5:00 p.m. Book Exhibits

9:00-9:30 a.m. Opening Session

Opening Denise A. Hibay President, SALALM 2001-2002 New York Public Library

Welcome Sarah E. Thomas University Librarian Cornell University Library

Debra A. Castillo Latin American Studies Program Cornell University

José Toribio Medina Eileen Oliver, Chair Award

Welcome and David Block Announcements Local Arrangements Chair Cornell University

Rapporteur: Laura D. Shedenhelm University of Georgia

9:30-10:30 a.m. Keynote Address George Reid Andrews, University of Pittsburgh "Black History in Latin America, 1900-2000"

10:30-11:30 a.m. Official Opening of Book Exhibits

129 1 30 Conference Program

1 1 :30 a.m.-12:45 p.m. Theme Panel I: New Approaches to Latin American History Moderator: Denise A. Hibay, New York Public Library Rapporteur: John Wright, Brigham Young University

Raymond Craib, Cornell University "Spatial Histories: Locating Geography in History"

Karen B. Graubart, Cornell University "Hybrid Thinking: Ethnicity and Colonial Latin American History"

Pablo Piccato, Columbia University "Sources and Debates in the Cultural History of Mexico"

12:45-2:00 p.m. Lunch

2:00-3: 15 p.m. Theme Panel II: New Traditions and Old Innovations in the Training of Latin Americanists Moderator: Pamela Graham, Columbia University Rapporteur: Mary Jo Zeter, Michigan State University

Anne C. Barnhart-Park, Lafayette College "Course-Integrated Information Literacy: Tales of Success Foretold"

César Rodríguez, Yale University "The Library's Role in the Training of Latin Americanist

Historians at Yale"

Walter Brem, University of California, Berkeley "La Tarea del Historiador: The Professionalization of Mexican History"

Theme Panel III: A Multimedia Approach to the Study of Latin American History Moderator: Ramón Abad, Instituto Cervantes Rapporteur: Peter Bushnell, University of Florida

Laura D. Shedenhelm, University of Georgia Libraries "Revolutions on the Radio: People and Issues Related to

Revolutionary Movements in Latin America, Audio Gleanings from the Peabody Awards Collection"

Dr. Jerry Carlson, City University Television "Latin American Film as Cultural Archive"

Gayle Williams, University of Georgia Libraries "History in the Making: Coverage of the Cuban Revolutions

and Its Aftermath in the UGA Libraries Peabody Awards Collection"

3: 15^:00 p.m. Coffee Break with Book Dealers 1

Conference Program 1 3

3:30-5:30 p.m. Latin American Film Clips: Documenting the Conquest, Slavery, Argentina and Indigenous Groups Selections from the Latin American Video Archive (LAVA)

Christina Ibarra, Filmmaker Dirty Laundry: A Homemade Telenovela

Jesse Lerner, Filmmaker SubCine: Independent Latino Film and Video Collective Ruins

3:30-4:30 p.m. Committee Meetings

4:30-5:30 p.m. Committee Meetings

7:00-9:00 p.m. Host Reception

Monday, June 3, 2002

8:30 a.m.-5:00 p.m. Registration

9:00 a.m.- 4:30 p.m. Book Exhibits

9:00-10:30 a.m. Theme Panel IV: Latin American Feminism in Historical Perspective: Dos Juanas y una Flor Moderator: Marian Goslinga, Florida International University Rapporteur: Virginia García, Instituto de Estudios Peruanos

Marian Goslinga, Florida International University "Sor Juana and Her Closet"

Olga Espejo, University of Miami "Flora Tristan y el Perú"

Nelly González, University of Illinois "Una de las Juanas de América: Juana Manuela Gorriti"

Library Panel I: Capturing History Moderator: Fernando Acosta-Rodríguez, New York Public Library Rapporteur: Don Gibbs, University of Texas, Austin

Esther Caldas Bertoletti, Ministerio da Cultura do Brasil "Projeto Resgate: preservando e facilitando a pesquisa nos documentos do Brasil Colonia"

Dr. Roberto Rodríguez Rojas, Biblioteca Dr. Manuel Gallardo, San Salvador "La Historia inédita de Centroamérica"

Mark L. Grover, Brigham Young University "Moving Towards a Latin American Library Organization: Marietta Daniels Shepard Before SALALM" 132 Conference Program

10:15-1 1 :00 a.m. Coffee Break with Book Dealers

1 1 :00 a.m.-12:30 p.m. Theme Panel V: Historia del libro: Algunas visiones Moderator: Hortensia Calvo, Duke University Rapporteur: Paulo Figueroa, University of Alberta

Geoffrey West, British Library "Atlantic Crossings: The Trade in Latin American Books in Europe in the Nineteenth Century"

Lourdes Vázquez, Rutgers University "La Biblioteca de Babel: las colaboraciones entre artistas y poetas"

Alan Moss, Alan Moss Books "The Map in the Book: Barbados"

Library Panel II: New Directions in Library Cooperation Moderator: Dan Hazen, Harvard University Rapporteur: Catherine Marsicek, Florida International University

Elda Aparecida Sampaio Mulhollan, Pontificia Universidade Catoloica do Rio de Janeiro "PERGAMUM: Integrated Library System and Network"

Eliades Acosta, Biblioteca Nacional José Martí "National Libraries and International Cooperation"

Carlos Delgado, University of California, Berkeley "Large Scale Exchange Agreements: The Case of University of California, Berkeley and the National Library of Cuba"

Discussant: Dan Hazen, Harvard University "International Cooperation and the Development of Research Collections in the United States"

12:30-1:45 p.m. Lunch

1 :45-3: 15 p.m. Library Panel III: The Digital Library Moderator: Rhonda Neugebauer, University of California, Riverside Rapporteur: Orchid Mazurkiewicz, University of California, Los Angeles

Víctor J. Cid Carmona, El Colegio de México "Bibliotecas digitales en México"

John C. Storm, Brigham Young University "The Library vs. the Internet in Latin American Research" Conference Program 133

Elsa Barberena and Maricela Jimenez, UNAM "Mexicoarte: una alternativa electrónica para conocer la historia del arte de México"

Library Panel IV: A Behind the Scenes Look at Collection Building and Management Moderator: Carlos R. Delgado, University of California, Berkeley Rapporteur: Geoffrey West, British Library

Martín García-Cambeiro, Librería Garcia-Cambeiro "Argentina y Libreria Garcia Cambeiro: una realcion de casi un siglo"

Luis A. Retta, Libros Montevideo "Libros de Cuba y Paraguay: una búsqueda permanente"

Scott Van Jacob, University of Notre Dame "Where Angels Fear to Tread: Building from Scratch a Southern Cone History Rare Book and Manuscript Collection at the University of Notre Dame"

Carlos R. Delgado, University of California, Berkeley "Invoice Control for Latin American Imprints: A Model"

3:15-3:45 p.m. Coffee Break with Book Dealers

3:45-4:45 p.m. Committee Meetings

3:45-5:00 p.m. Workshop I: Library of Congress Table of Contents Project: A Demonstration for Libreros Don Panzera, Library of Congress David Williamson, Library of Congress

7:00 p.m.-12:00 Libreros Reception

Tuesday, June 4, 2002

8:30 a.m.-2:30 p.m. Registration

9:00 a.m.-2:00 p.m. Book Exhibits

9:00-10: 15 a.m. Library Panel V: Ephemera Matters: The Value of Pamphlets for Research Library Collections Moderator: Angela Carreño, New York University Rapporteur: Sarah Leroy, University of Pittsburgh

Maria Angela Leal, Catholic University of America

"Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Brazilian Pamphlets at the Oliveira Lima Library" 1

134 Conference Program

Dan Hazen, Harvard University "Disclosing Hidden Treasures: Harvard's Project to Digitize Latin American Pamphlets"

Fernando Acosta-Rodriguez, New York Public Library "Current Approaches to the Management of Pamphlet Collections"

Theme Panel VI: Cuban History in Word and Image Moderator: Darlene Waller, University of Connecticut Rapporteur: Patricia Figueroa, Brown University

Enrique Camacho Navarro, UNAM "Tendencias interpretativas en torno a Fidel Castro"

Claire-Lise Bénaud, University of New Mexico Sharon A. Moynahan, University of New Mexico

"A Poster is Worth 10,000 Words: Cuban Political Posters at the University of New Mexico"

Eliades Acosta, Biblioteca Nacional José Martí

"Retrato de familia: ¿Qué aportan los estudios biográficos a la biografía cubana actual?"

10:15-1 :00 a.m. Coffee Break with Book Dealers

10:45 a.m.-12:00 Workshop II: International Governmental Organization Resources Moderator: Joseph Holub, University of Pennsylvania Rapporteur: Marian Goslinga, Florida International University

Marina Schreiber, Inter-American Development Bank "Inter-American Development Bank"

Rene Gutierrez, Columbus Memorial Library, Organization of American States "Organization of American States"

Joseph Holub, University of Pennsylvania "The United Nations"

12:15-1:30 p.m. Lunch

1:30-2:30 p.m. Town Hall

2:30-3:00 p.m. Business Meeting and Closing Session

3:00-5:00 p.m. Executive Board

^.¡j'GHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY

3 1197 22669 5036