Inventory and Monitoring Plan

Home , Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Pompano dolphinfish

Howland Island, Baker Island, and Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuges and Howland Island, Baker Island, and Jarvis Island Units of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument

September 2015

1 | Page

Howland Island, Baker Island, and Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuges, and Howland Island Unit, Baker Island Unit, and Jarvis Island Unit of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument

Inventory and Monitoring Plan

Signature Page

Action Signature /Printed Name Date

ein Kenyon (I&M Specialist)

Prepared By: Beth Flint (Supervisory Wildlife Biologist)

ared Underwood (I&M Zone Biologist) "IS/I

Reviewed By: 15 Superintendent - Operations

Reviewed By: Monuments Superintendent - Policy/Partners/Support

Reviewed By: IS" Region 1 I&M Coordinator

Reviewed By: T/2///S Refuge/and Monuiognt Supervisor

Reviewed By: RegionarRefuge Biologist/Division Chief

Approved By:

2 I P a g e Table of Contents

Signature Page ...... 2 Introduction ...... 4 Methods...... 6 Results ...... 8 Table 1-A, Howland Island ...... 10 Survey Profiles, Howland Island ...... 15 Table 1-B, Baker Island ...... 71 Survey Profiles, Baker Island ...... 76 Table 1-C, Jarvis Island ...... 136 Survey Profiles, Jarvis Island ...... 141 References ...... 197 Appendices Appendix A. Key Legal Mandates and Policies for Inventorying and Monitoring Activities on Units of the NWRS ...... 198 Appendix B. Criteria and Weights Used to Prioritize Surveys ...... 202 Appendix C-1. Prioritization Scores and Status, All Ranked Surveys, Howland Island ...... 206 Appendix C-2. Prioritization Scores and Status, All Ranked Surveys, Baker Island ...... 208 Appendix C-3. Prioritization Scores and Status, All Ranked Surveys, Jarvis Island ...... 210 Appendix D. Brief Description of Non-selected Survey ...... 212 Appendix E. Research Projects ...... 213 Appendix F. Environmental Action Statement (EAS) ...... 214 IMP Revision Signature Page ...... 216

3 | Page

Introduction

A. Scope and rationale

This inventory and monitoring plan (IMP) presents current and new, unmet I&M activities (surveys) for Howland Island National Wildlife Refuge (NWR), Baker Island NWR, and Jarvis Island NWR (Refuges) and the Howland Island Unit, Baker Island Unit, and Jarvis Island Unit (Units) of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument (PRIMNM; Monument). Most surveys in this IMP are refuge- or monument-specific, where they evaluate and refine efficacy of resource management actions and measure progress toward achieving resource management objectives identified in refuge planning documents. Some surveys also gather baseline data to develop practical and measurable objectives for restoration projects, or provide baseline data on biological integrity of the Refuges and Monument. The IMP also includes cooperative surveys addressing resource issues of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) at larger landscape scales beyond the refuge and monument boundaries (e.g., ecoregion) or needs of other agencies and organizations. For cooperative surveys, refuge and monument lands and waters are one of multiple sites including other refuges and monuments to address broad-scale resource information needs.

Key components of this IMP include a comprehensive list of surveys, prioritization of these surveys, surveys selected for implementation, status of protocols for surveys, a rationale for each survey including its connection with management objectives, and a signature page documenting IMP review and approval. Although the IMP also identifies surveys that would need to be conducted on the Refuge or Monument, the number of surveys implemented on an annual basis is contingent upon a number of factors, including available funding and staffing as well as support from partners.

B. Relationship of Refuges with Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument

On January 6, 2009, President George W. Bush signed Presidential Proclamation 8336 designating the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument (PRIMNM; Monument), which included the Howland Island, Baker Island, and Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuges (NWRs), as well as three pre-existing refuge areas and Wake Atoll (Code of Federal Regulations 2010). The purpose of establishing this Monument was to ensure the proper care and management of fish, wildlife, and other scientific and historic objects that are situated upon lands and in waters owned or controlled by the United States within approximately 50 nautical miles (nm) from the mean low water lines of its seven component islands/atolls. The President directed that the Secretary of the Interior shall have management responsibility for the Monument, including 12 nm out from the mean low water lines of the islands, in consultation with the Secretary of Commerce. The Secretary of Commerce, through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and in consultation with the Secretary of the Interior, shall have the primary responsibility for management of the Monument seaward of the area 12 nm from the mean low water lines of the islands, with respect to fishery-related activities regulated pursuant to the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (16 U.S.C. 1801 et seq.; MSFCMA), and any other applicable authorities. On January 16, 2009, the Secretary of the Interior delegated all of his management responsibilities for the Monument to the USFWS through Secretary’s Order 3284. This Order also directed the boundaries of Howland Island, Baker Island, and Jarvis Island NWRs be extended to 12 nm from the mean low water line of each island.

4 | Page

On September 29, 2014, President Barack Obama signed Presidential Proclamation 9173, which expanded the PRIMNM, including incorporating the waters and submerged lands of Jarvis Island (and Johnston and Wake Atolls) to the 200 nm seawater limit of the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) (Code of Federal Regulations 2014). The Monument Expansion did not change the boundaries associated with the Howland Island or Baker Island units or other parts of the PRIMNM. Presidential Proclamations 8336 and 9173 also directed the Secretary of the Interior to prepare management plans using applicable authorities for the proper care and management of the Monument. The extension of this IMP to consider the entire area of the Monument units around Howland, Baker, and Jarvis Islands supports this Presidential direction.

C. Refuge and Monument Purposes

The following are specific purpose statements for establishment of Howland Island NWR, Baker Island NWR, and Jarvis Island NWR identified in the biological ascertainment report at the time of transfer to the Service (USFWS 1973):

Howland Island NWR: “…the restoration and preservation of the complete ecosystem, terrestrial and marine. Special consideration must be given to the protection of nesting seabird populations.”

Baker Island NWR: “…the restoration and preservation of the complete ecosystem, terrestrial and marine. Priority must be given to allowing seabird nesting colonies to reestablish themselves on Baker so they would eventually reach the great numbers which were present there prior to human occupancy and abuse of the island during the past 125 years.”

Jarvis Island NWR: “…the preservation of the complete ecosystem, terrestrial as well as marine. Special emphasis to be given to the large seabird nesting colonies.”

A discussion of the Mission of the National Wildlife Refuge System, legal mandates, and policies relevant to I&M for refuges is provided in Appendix A.

Statutory authority for managing and associated resource management planning on refuges is derived from the National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 1966, which was significantly amended by the National Wildlife Refuge System Improvement Act of 1997 (Refuge Improvement Act, 16 U.S.C. 668dd-668ee). Section 4(a)(3) of the Refuge Improvement Act states, “With respect to the System [NWRS], it is the policy of the United States that – (A) each refuge shall be managed to fulfill the mission of the System, as well as the specific purposes for which that refuge was established…” As stated in 701 FW 2.8, surveys should be linked to refuge purpose(s), where applicable.

The purpose of the PRIMNM, as identified in Presidential Proclamation 8336, is to preserve the marine environment around the islands of Wake, Baker, Howland, and Jarvis Islands, Johnston Atoll, Kingman Reef, and Palmyra Atoll for the care and management of the historic and scientific objects therein (Code of Federal Regulations 2010).

5 | Page

D. Relationship of IMP to other plans

The Refuges’ and Units’ surveys address multiple goals and objectives identified in the Refuges’ Comprehensive Conservation Plans (CCPs) (USFWS 2008a, b, c). Resource information needs identified in the CCP objectives encompass a range of resource types and management questions. The CCP objectives direct acquisition and application of information to increase knowledge and support decisions regarding wildlife and habitat resource management. To address these needs, the CCPs call for a corresponding diversity of inventory and monitoring surveys. Each of the surveys listed in this IMP correspond to two or more CCP objectives (Tables 1a, b, c).

Many of the surveys additionally articulate with regional and national planning efforts. The USFWS Seabird Conservation Plan recognizes remote Pacific islands as providing important and varied breeding habitat, specifically Howland Island, Baker Island, and Jarvis Island as being important for ground nesting species (USFWS 2005). The U.S. Shorebird Conservation Plan identifies the U.S. Pacific Islands being of “critical importance for … bristle-thighed curlew and Pacific golden-plover”, and notes these islands provide wintering habitat essential to the maintenance of these and several other migratory shorebird species (Brown et al. 2000). The U.S. Pacific Island Regional Shorebird Conservation Plan identifies the determination of population size and trends for bristle-thighed curlews and other shorebirds and their habitats as a management priority (Engilis and Naughton 2004). Marine surveys in shallow (< 30 m), mesophotic (30 - 150 m) and deeper (> 150 m) depths are consistent with priorities identified in the NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program National Coral Reef Monitoring Plan (2014), the NOAA Mesophotic Coral Ecosystems Research Strategy (Puglise et al. 2009), and the NOAA Deep- Sea Coral and Sponge Research and Management Strategic Plan (2008), respectively.

An IMP is one of many potential CCP step-down plans that can be prepared for a refuge, as applicable (see Exhibit 1, 602 FW 4). As with any CCP step-down plan, the Project Leader may modify an IMP at any time if new information suggests this plan is inadequate or refuge resources would benefit from changes. This IMP will become a component of the management plan for the PRIMNM.

Methods A. Identify a Comprehensive List of Refuge and Monument Surveys

In May 2011, I&M Specialist Jean Kenyon began reviewing USFWS trip reports and NOAA cruise reports to assemble a list of historic and ongoing surveys conducted at Howland Island, Baker Island, and Jarvis Island NWRs. Survey narratives were developed and entered along with other key metadata into a distributed version of a PRIMR (Planning and Reporting of Inventory and Monitoring on Refuges) database developed by the Region 1 Data Manager Erin Stockenberg. In January 2013, a centralized, online version of PRIMR was deployed by the National I&M Initiative. Problems with data migration from the distributed to the centralized version in conjunction with additional required fields needed for complete PRIMR records for surveys delayed further substantial progress until January 2014. In April 2014, draft survey profiles for Howland Island (13), Baker Island (14) and Jarvis Island (13) NWRs were provided to Regional Office (RO) Program leads and other key regional staff by R1 I&M Coordinator Kevin Kilbride for a 2-week review and comment period.

6 | Page

In May 2014, Kenyon met with Beth Flint (Pacific Islands Refuges and Monuments Office [PIRAMO] Supervisory Wildlife Biologist) and Jared Underwood (I&M Zone Biologist) for two days to prioritize the surveys using a SMART (Simple Multi-Attribute Ranking Tool) application developed by biologists of the National I&M Initiative (see section B). During this prioritization meeting, team members identified six additional surveys for narrative development at each of the three Refuges as well as the value of dividing a contaminants survey at Baker Island into separate components given the complexity, urgency to address considering impacts to resources, and costs (Terrestrial and Marine). These survey profiles were developed by Kenyon and Flint and then entered into the PRIMR database. During a survey selection meeting in February 2015 (see section C), the need was expressed to expand the area addressed by the IMP beyond Refuge boundaries to include habitat within the boundaries of the PRIMNM surrounding each island. As a result, four additional surveys were entered into PRIMR by Kenyon, and extant surveys affected by this expansion were modified, as needed.

Initial Survey Instructions (ISIs) were prepared for all surveys, posted to the Region 1 I&M Fishnet site (intranet site accessible by FWS staff only), and linked to surveys in PRIMR by Kenyon.

B. Prioritize Refuge and Monument Surveys

In May 2014, a Survey Prioritization Team consisting of Kenyon, Flint, and Underwood prioritized the initial set of surveys using a pilot SMART application with 24 criteria developed by the National I&M Initiative. Benefits of the SMART tool include the following: transparency, consistent application of the criteria, and relative ease of writing the IMP process narrative. The tool enables weighting of criteria and it allows modification or elimination of criteria for flexibility while retaining a standard approach.

Two of the criteria (Surrogate Species and Controversy) were not considered to be relevant to the three Refuges and were eliminated from the application. Two other criteria (Threat and Protocol) were modified to improve clarity and applicability for the IMP. Several criteria pertaining to personnel capacity, costs, and security of funding were eliminated from the prioritization scoring because they were considered more relevant to the survey selection process than to informing resource management.

In July 2014, Kenyon and Flint met to prioritize the additional six surveys identified for development during the May meeting, using the SMART application abridged to 12 criteria. During this meeting, the need for an additional prioritization criterion (Long-term Data Set) was identified, subsequently developed, and applied by Kenyon, Flint, and Underwood to all the surveys. Following the development of another four survey narratives identified at a Survey Selection Team meeting in February 2015 (see section C), Kenyon, Flint, and Underwood applied the SMART criteria to these surveys in order to complete the survey prioritization (April 2015).

The final set of SMART criteria and their respective weights used to prioritize the surveys are presented in Appendix B. Outputs (survey scores) from the SMART prioritization are presented for Howland Island, Baker Island, and Jarvis Island NWRs and their Units in Appendices C-1, C-2, and C-3, respectively. For each refuge, surveys were prioritized (ranked) highest to lowest based upon their scoring outputs from the SMART tool application.

7 | Page

C. Select Refuge and Monument Surveys

A Survey Selection Team consisting of Susan White (Superintendent-Operations, PIRAMO), Matthew Brown (Superintendent-Policy/Partners/Support, PIRAMO) Beth Flint, Jared Underwood, and Jean Kenyon met in February 2015 to select surveys, which are approved for implementation through the IMP (701 FW 2.4A(4). Selection factors considered by the Team included survey priority, duration, staff time, and estimated costs in accordance with the I&M policy (701 FW 2.11C). During this meeting, the need was expressed to expand the area addressed by the IMP beyond Refuge boundaries to include habitat within the boundaries of the PRIMNM surrounding each Refuge. Four additional surveys were identified, developed, and entered into PRIMR (Pelagic Seabirds, Pelagic Fishes, Marine Mammals, and Marine Plankton). Selection Team members classified these latter surveys as “expected” in light of logistical constraints and estimated costs involved.

Results

A. Comprehensive List of Refuge and Monument Surveys

A total of 26, 28, and 25 surveys were entered into PRIMR for Howland Island NWR, Baker Island NWR, Jarvis Island NWR and their Monument units, respectively. The suite of surveys conducted at the three Refuges and their Monument units are highly similar due to the highly similar nature of the resources and the logistical challenges presented in implementing surveys at each location. Two surveys in the PRIMR record for Baker Island (Terrestrial Contaminants and Marine Contaminants) are not mirrored in the PRIMR records for Howland Island or Jarvis Island, which do not bear the heavy contaminants load incurred at Baker Island during WWII. The table below presents the number of surveys for each refuge and Monument unit in PRIMR according to whether they are conducted in the marine environment, terrestrial environment, or include observations in both environments. Excluding historic surveys, which have been completed and are not further included in the IMP, these surveys are color-coded by the environment(s) in which they are conducted in Appendices C-1, C-2, and C-3.

Refuge/Unit Environment in which Survey Observations are Made Terrestrial Marine Terrestrial and Total Marine Howland Island 7 17 2 26 Baker Island 8 18 2 28 Jarvis Island 6 17 2 25

B. Prioritized Refuge and Monument Surveys

Final SMART scores (survey priorities) are influenced by the weights given to the survey criteria, which are established by the Survey Prioritization Team as the first step of the prioritization process. The greatest weighting factor (0.11) was given to the number of CCP objectives met by the focus of the survey, and the lowest weighting factor (0.05) was given to both partner needs and the degree of current development of survey methods, data management, and reporting (Appendix B). For each Refuge and Monument unit, the distribution of surveys conducted in the marine, terrestrial, or both environments is spread fairly evenly across the range of prioritization scores (Appendices C-1, C-2, and C-3).

8 | Page

Prioritization outcomes for Howland and Baker (Appendices C-1 and C-2, respectively) varied slightly from those at Jarvis because the Phoenix Islands Protected Area (PIPA) was treated as a partner at Howland and Baker but not at Jarvis (Appendix C-3), thereby influencing the scores in the SMART criterion #5 (Appendix B).

C. Selected Refuge and Monument Surveys

Survey Selection Team members selected all but one of the surveys at each Refuge and Monument unit for inclusion in the IMP, based upon their relevance to informing management and other factors in accordance with the I&M Policy. The unselected survey, Cryptic Reef Fish, was classified as a “future” survey and is further discussed in Appendix D.

The table below presents the number of surveys for each Refuge in PRIMR according to their status. Historic surveys have been completed, and, therefore, they were not prioritized nor included in the IMP. Current surveys are either on-going or scheduled to begin in the year of IMP development because it is reasonably certain capacity will be available to conduct them (e.g., surveys conducted with operational or other FWS funds). Expected surveys are new surveys likely to be conducted during the life span of the IMP because the capacity to conduct them is anticipated (e.g., from partners or through grants). Future surveys have a low chance of being conducted during the life span of the IMP because the capacity to conduct the survey will be difficult to secure or the current methodology requires complete development or major refinement. Future surveys were prioritized, but they were not available for selection in the IMP (701 FW 2, Exhibit 1 @ page 4).

Refuge/Unit Status of Refuge Surveys in PRIMR Historic Current Expected Future Total Howland Island 3 17 5 1 26 Baker Island 3 18 6 1 28 Jarvis Island 2 17 5 1 25

Appendices C-1, C-2, and C-3 present the status of each prioritized survey for Howland Island, Baker Island, and Jarvis Island NWRs and their Monument Units, respectively.

Of the current surveys, 8 are cooperative surveys conducted in the marine habitat by the NOAA Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center, Coral Reef Ecosystem Division at each Refuge as part of its U.S. Pacific-wide Research and Monitoring Program (RAMP). Nine surveys (10 at Baker) are completely or partially implemented by USFWS staff; since 2000, most USFWS visits have been accomplished with transportation to the Refuges onboard a NOAA research vessel engaged in RAMP activities. With the exception of the Marine Contaminants survey at Baker, all of the Expected surveys target biotic aspects of the marine environment in Refuge and/or Unit waters.

In accordance with the I&M policy, the following Table and Survey Narratives are presented for each of the Refuges and associated Monument units.

9 | Page

Table 1A. Summary of Selected Surveys for Howland Island NWR and the Howland Island Unit of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument

Staff Avg. Ann Survey Survey Survey Mgmt. Obj. Survey Survey Survey Protocol Protocol Survey ID Number 2 Survey Area 6 Time Cos t Priority 1 Name/(Type) 3 Status 4 Id 5 Timing 9 Length 10 Coord. 11 Ci ta ti on 12 Status 13 (FTE) 7 (OPR) 8

I&M Specialist, February or Pacific FWS: 0.0, Ma rch/ Initial Ca l ci um Ca rbona te CCP / 3d. , 2010‐ Islands 1 FF01RHOW00‐020 Current Regional Other: $0 Recurring ‐‐ (none) Survey Accretion (CB) 2a., 4a. Indefinite I&M 0.08 every three Instructions Specialist yea rs (FWS liaison) TBD/ Beth Flint, Initial Pelagic Seabirds CCP / 2b., Recurring ‐‐ 2020‐ 2 FF01RHOW00‐027 Expected Regional N/A $0 Wildlife (none) Survey (CB) 3a., 4a. every three Indefinite Biologist Instructions yea rs Remote CCP / 1b., January Surveillance of 6a., 2b., through Beth Flint, Initial FWS: 2015‐ 3 FF01RHOW00‐010 Terrestrial and Current 3c., 5b., Entire station $175,850 December/ Wildlife (none) Survey 0.05 Indefinite Ma rine Systems 3a., 1a., Recurring ‐‐ Biologist Instructions (CB) 4a., 5a. every yea r Multiple management units: Wilderness February or Non‐avian CCP / 3d. , Inventory Unit Ma rch/ Beth Flint, Initial Terrestrial and 3c., 3a., FWS: 1977‐ 3 FF01RHOW00‐014 Current A and $1,613 Recurring ‐‐ Wildlife (none) Survey Ma rine Wildlife 1a., 3e., 0.01 Indefinite nearshore every three Biologist Instructions Observations (CB) 4a. waters of yea rs Wilderness Inventory Unit B I&M Specialist, February or Pacific Ma rch/ Initial Benthic Ma rine CCP / 3d. , Other: 2008‐ Islands 4 FF01RHOW00‐018 Current Regional $0 Recurring ‐‐ (none) Survey Cryptobi ota (CB) 2b., 4a. 0.08 Indefinite I&M every three Instructions Specialist yea rs (FWS liaison) 10 | Page

Single February or management Wildlife Hazards Ma rch/ Beth Flint, Initial CCP / 1a., unit: FWS: 1977‐ 5 FF01RHOW00‐015 and Signs of Current $1,613 Recurring ‐‐ Wildlife (none) Survey 4a., 5a. Wilderness 0.01 Indefinite Trespass (BM) every three Biologist Instructions Inventory Unit yea rs A

Data loggers, I&M time interval Specialist, va ri es Pacific among Initial CCP / 2b., Other: 2001‐ Islands 6 FF01RHOW00‐008 Oceanography (CB) Current Regional $0 instrument (none) Survey 2a., 4a. 0.07 Indefinite I&M types, Instructions Specialist January‐ (FWS December/ liaison) Recurring ‐‐ every yea r

TBD/ Beth Flint, Initial CCP / 2b., Recurring ‐‐ 2020‐ 7 FF01RHOW00‐024 Pelagic Fishes (CB) Expected Regional N/A $0 Wildlife (none) Survey 2a., 4a. every three Indefinite Biologist Instructions yea rs Single February or management CCP / 3b., Ma rch/ Beth Flint, Initial Seabird Col oni es unit: FWS: 1977‐ 8 FF01RHOW00‐004 Current 3a., 1a., $1,613 Recurring ‐‐ Wildlife (none) Survey (CB) Wilderness 0.05 Indefinite 4a. every three Biologist Instructions Inventory Unit yea rs A I&M Specialist, February or Pacific Ma rch/ Initial Cora l Community CCP / 3d. , Other: 2000‐ Islands 9 FF01RHOW00‐007 Current Regional $0 Recurring ‐‐ (none) Survey Structure (CB) 2b., 4a. 0.07 Indefinite I&M every three Instructions Specialist yea rs (FWS liaison)

11 | Page

February or Ma rch/ Beth Flint, Initial Pelagic Wildlife CCP / 3d. , FWS: 1977‐ 10 FF01RHOW00‐006 Current Regional $1,613 Recurring ‐‐ Wildlife (none) Survey (BM) 2b., 3e. 0.03 Indefinite every three Biologist Instructions yea rs Single February or management Ma rch/ Beth Flint, Initial Terrestrial Plant CCP / 1b., unit: FWS: 1977‐ 11 FF01RHOW00‐009 Current $1,613 Recurring ‐‐ Wildlife (none) Survey Observations (BM) 1a., 4a. Wilderness 0.02 Indefinite every three Biologist Instructions Inventory Unit yea rs A I&M Specialist, February or Non‐coral Pacific Ma rch/ Initial Targeted Marine CCP / 3d. , Other: 2000‐ Islands 12 FF01RHOW00‐003 Current Regional $0 Recurring ‐‐ (none) Survey Macroinvertebrate 2b., 4a. 0.03 Indefinite I&M every three Instructions s, Broadscale (CB) Specialist yea rs (FWS liaison) I&M Specialist, February or Pacific Algal Diversity and Ma rch/ Initial CCP / 3d. , Other: 2001‐ Islands 13 FF01RHOW00‐016 Benthic Current Regional $0 Recurring ‐‐ (none) Survey 2b., 4a. 0.07 Indefinite I&M Compos i ti on (CB) every three Instructions Specialist yea rs (FWS liaison) I&M Specialist, Pacific TBD/ Occurs Initial Deep‐sea Realm CCP / 3d. , Other: Islands 14 FF01RHOW00‐021 Expected Regional $0 one time 2020‐ 2020 (none) Survey (CI) 2b., 4a. 0.15 I&M only Instructions Specialist (FWS liaison) TBD/ Beth Flint, Initial Ma rine Mammals CCP / 2b., Recurring ‐‐ 2020‐ 15 FF01RHOW00‐025 Expected Regional N/A $0 Wildlife (none) Survey (CB) 3e., 4a. every three Indefinite Biologist Instructions yea rs 12 | Page

I&M Specialist, February or Pacific Reef Fish Diversity Ma rch/ Initial CCP / 3d. , Other: 2000‐ Islands 16 FF01RHOW00‐002 and Abundance Current Regional $0 Recurring ‐‐ (none) Survey 2b., 3c., 4a. 0.08 Indefinite I&M (CB) every three Instructions Specialist yea rs (FWS liaison) I&M Specialist, February or Pacific Initial Mesophotic Cora l CCP / 3d. , Other: Ma rch/ 2004‐ Islands 18 FF01RHOW00‐019 Current Regional $0 (none) Survey Ecosystems (CB) 2b., 4a. 0.1 Sporadic or Indefinite I&M Instructions Ad Hoc Specialist (FWS liaison) Single February or management Ma rch/ Beth Flint, Initial Terrestrial Hermit CCP / 1b., unit: FWS: 2015‐ 19 FF01RHOW00‐022 Current $1,613 Recurring ‐‐ Wildlife (none) Survey Cra bs (BM) 2b., 4a. Wilderness 0.04 Indefinite every three Biologist Instructions Inventory Unit yea rs A Single February or management Ma rch/ Beth Flint, Initial CCP / 3a., unit: FWS: 1977‐ 20 FF01RHOW00‐011 Shorebirds (BM) Current $1,613 Recurring ‐‐ Wildlife (none) Survey 4a. Wilderness 0.02 Indefinite every three Biologist Instructions Inventory Unit yea rs A TBD/ Beth Flint, Initial Ma rine Plankton CCP / 2b., Recurring ‐‐ 2020‐ 21 FF01RHOW00‐026 Expected Regional N/A $0 Wildlife (none) Survey (CB) 4a. every three Indefinite Biologist Instructions yea rs Single February or management FWS: Ma rch/ Beth Flint, Initial Terrestrial CCP / 1a., unit: 0.21, 2012‐ 22 FF01RHOW00‐017 Current $1,613 Recurring ‐‐ Wildlife (none) Survey Arthropods (CB) 4a. Wilderness Other: Indefinite every three Biologist Instructions Inventory Unit 0.04 yea rs A 13 | Page

1. The rank for each survey listed in order of priority. Surveys with the same prioritization score are given the same rank. 2. A unique identification number consisting of station organization code‐sequential number 3. Short titles for the survey name. Type of survey: Cooperative Inventory (CI), Baseline Monitoring (BM), Cooperative Baseline Monitoring (CB) 4. Surveys selected for the lifespan of this IMP (i.e., Current, Expected). 5. The management plan and objectives that justify the selected survey. 6. Refuge management unit names, entire refuge, or names of other landscape units included in survey. 7. Estimates of Service (FWS) and non‐Service (Other) staff time needed to complete the survey (1 work year = 2080 hours = 1 FTE). 8. Estimates of average annual FWS operations cost for conducting the survey during the years it is conducted (e.g., equipment, contracts, travel) but not including FWS staff time. For the 9 Current surveys conducted by FWS staff: subsidized costs to NOAA for berth space ($40,000) are split among 6 refuges visited during CRED RAMP cruise legs; travel, lodging, and per diem is spread among 3 refuges visited during leg 1; costs for equipment, gear, and consumables are spread among the 9 surveys. See PRIMR for details. 9. Timing and frequency of current survey field activities, based on transport on NOAA vessels engaged in RAMP (Reef Assessment and Monitoring Program) activities. If transport opportunities improve, frequency will increase. 10. The years during which the survey is conducted. 11. The name and position of the survey coordinator (the Refuge Biologist or other designated Service employee) for each survey. 12. Title, author, and version of the survey protocol (if there is no protocol to cite, enter None). 13. Stage of approval (Initial Survey Instructions, Complete Draft, In Review, or Approved) of the survey protocol. See PRIMR for document location.

14 | Page

Survey Profiles, Howland Island NWR and Howland Island Unit of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument

Survey Name: Calcium Carbonate Accretion ...... 16 Survey Name: Pelagic Seabirds ...... 18 Survey Name: Non-avian Terrestrial and Marine Wildlife Observations ...... 21 Survey Name: Remote Surveillance of Terrestrial and Marine Systems ...... 24 Survey Name: Benthic Marine Cryptobiota ...... 27 Survey Name: Wildlife Hazards and Signs of Trespass ...... 29 Survey Name: Oceanography ...... 31 Survey Name: Pelagic Fishes ...... 34 Survey Name: Seabird Colonies ...... 37 Survey Name: Coral Community Structure ...... 39 Survey Name: Pelagic Wildlife ...... 42 Survey Name: Terrestrial Plant Observations ...... 44 Survey Name: Non-coral Targeted Marine Macroinvertebrate Broadscale ...... 47 Survey Name: Algal Diversity and Benthic Composition ...... 49 Survey Name: Deep-sea Realm ...... 51 Survey Name: Marine Mammals ...... 53 Survey Name: Reef Fish Diversity and Abundance ...... 55 Survey Name: Cryptic Reef Fishes ...... 58 Survey Name: Mesophotic Coral Ecosystems ...... 60 Survey Name: Terrestrial Hermit Crabs ...... 62 Survey Name: Shorebirds ...... 64 Survey Name: Marine Plankton ...... 66 Survey Name: Terrestrial Arthropods ...... 69

15 | Page

Survey Name: Calcium Carbonate Accretion

Survey ID: FF01RHOW00-020

Priority Rank: 1

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Expand baseline information on marine community; Conserve, manage, and protect marine habitat.

In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Why is it important to conduct the survey? Describe how the survey results will be used to inform refuges management decisions. If survey results are used to trigger a management response, identify the management response and threshold value for comparison to survey results.

About 30% of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) is absorbed by the world's oceans. Ocean acidification is a process by which the carbonate chemistry of the oceans is changing due to absorption of an increasing concentration of atmospheric CO2. The carbon dioxide mixes with water, forming carbonic acid and lowering pH levels (acidification).This absorption and subsequent decrease in pH can slow the calcification rate for corals, mollusks, shellfishes, and other calcifying organisms in producing their carbonate skeletons. By degrading coral reef habitat, ocean acidification could disrupt the marine food web, reduce biodiversity, and potentially cause species to go extinct.

In 2009, the Federal Ocean Acidification Research and Monitoring Act was passed into law, acknowledging that the Earth's ocean chemistry is changing and the importance of understanding both the ecological and social impacts of these changes. Most of what is known about changes in carbonate chemistry is based on open-ocean observations. Less is known concerning the waters of near shore coral reefs and if the biogeochemical processes of near shore environments will result in rates of change different from those in the open ocean. To monitor rates of net calcium carbonate accretion to the benthos, the NOAA Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED) has deployed calcification accretion units (CAUs) at numerous shallow-water (< 30 meters) reef locations throughout the U.S. Pacific. These units allow for recruitment and colonization of crustose coralline algae (CCA), hard corals, and other calcifying benthic organisms. Total net accretion on coral reefs can be calculated by measuring the change in weight of CAUs deployed on the reef for periods of 2 to 3 years.

The data obtained from CAUs will enable a comparison of net calcification rates among islands and atolls and between archipelagos and form a baseline of accretion rates throughout U.S. Pacific coral reefs, allowing for future comparisons to determine possible consequences of increased ocean acidity and lowered saturation states of aragonite (the primary form of calcium carbonate used by marine organisms).

By measuring net accretion, the amount of calcium carbonate that is deposited on a coral reef in a given period of time can be determined. CRED scientists and partners have hypothesized that net accretion will vary based on island, region, and habitat and will change over time.

16 | Page

The coral reefs, other submerged lands, and water column lying within 3 nautical miles of the mean high water mark of Howland Island (Inventory Unit B) were identified in the Wilderness Review Inventory as meeting the requirements of a Wilderness Study Area (WSA-B); further evaluation of its wilderness values concluded it can be managed to preserve its wilderness character in perpetuity using a minimum requirements approach for all management activities. All management activities associated with survey activities (motorized marine vessel transportation to and from Howland; monitoring the marine ecosystem with the use of SCUBA equipment; mechanical equipment such as air compressors for SCUBA remains on the marine transport vessel) are conducted in such a manner as not to detract from the wilderness values identified in the Wilderness Inventory (i.e., naturalness, a condition that generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature with the imprint of man's work substantially unnoticeable).

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: February or March

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Twenty-five CAUs were first deployed at 5 sites (5 CAUs/ site) at Howland Island in 2010. In 2012, the CAUs were retrieved and replaced with fresh CAUs.

Additional cohorts of CAUs will be swapped out with each CRED monitoring cruise which, beginning in 2012, will take place at triennial intervals.

Each CAU consists of two polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plates (10 × 10 cm) separated by a 1-cm spacer. CAUs are installed on the benthos by pounding stainless steel rods into bare substrate and then bolting plate assemblies to those rods. It has been demonstrated that PVC encourages growth of CCA and recruitment of corals, and the net weight gain of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) on the surfaces of the CAUs can be used as an indicator of net calcification. In association with the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, CRED also will use CAUs to monitor what calcifying organisms are present. Photographs are taken of each CAU and analyzed to determine biotic composition.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Baseline Monitoring

University of California San Diego, Scripps Institute of Oceanography; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED);

Partner Coordinator is Rusty Brainard, Chief of the Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED).

17 | Page

Survey Name: Pelagic Seabirds

Survey ID: FF01RHOW00-027

Priority Rank: 2

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Increase baseline information on marine community; Develop baseline migratory bird and other species information

The surveys support an objective in the Howland Island NWR CCP pertaining to the goal of contributing to the recovery, protection, and management efforts for all native species with special consideration for seabirds…and species of management concern. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Seabird survivorship and reproductive success are closely linked to successful food foraging at sea. There is a lack of information about the at-sea distribution and abundance of seabirds in the oceanic waters protected within the Howland Island NWR and the adjacent Howland Island unit of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument (PRIMNM). Moreover, knowledge of the linkage between seabird distribution and the oceanographic environment is highly limited, which in turn limits understanding of why seabirds choose certain regions and hydrographic features in which to forage. Studies in the Eastern Tropical Pacific on several of the same seabird species that occur at Howland Island show the birds have a strong at-sea association with thermocline depth in the ocean. Foraging range, as reflected in seabird distribution, is pertinent to management because it dictates whether protected area boundaries are effectively incorporating foraging habitat. The foraging ranges of seabirds needed to protect and recover their populations was an important factor in establishing the boundaries of the PRIMNM in 2009 and in extending those boundaries further offshore at other units in the Monument (Johnston Atoll, Wake Atoll, Jarvis Island) in 2014. Improved understanding of the at-sea distribution of seabirds, its relationship to oceanographic conditions, and the complex inter-relationships of seabirds and pelagic fishes will help Monument managers develop comprehensive and effective management plans to effectively protect the marine life in these areas.

18 | Page

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: TBD

Frequency: Recurring -- every three to four years

Biotic Group Level 1: Aves (Birds)

Biotic Group Level 2: Charadriiformes (Alcids,Auks,Gulls,Oystercatchers,Plovers,Shore Birds)

Procelsterna cerulea (Blue-gray Noddy, Blue Noddy); Gygis alba (Angel Tern, White Tern); Anous stolidus (Brown Noddy); Onychoprion fuscatus (Spectacled Tern, Gray-backed Tern); Onychoprion fuscatus (Sooty Tern)

Biotic Group Level 2: Phaethontiformes (Tropicbirds)

Phaethon rubricauda (Red-tailed Tropicbird); Phaethon lepturus (White-tailed Tropicbird)

Biotic Group Level 2: Procellariiformes (Tube-nosed Swimmers)

Puffinus pacificus (Wedge-tailed Shearwater)

Biotic Group Level 2: Suliformes (Cormorants)

Fregata ariel (Lesser Frigatebird); Fregata minor (Great Frigatebird); Sula sula (Red-footed Booby); Sula leucogaster (Brown Booby); Sula dactylatra (Masked Booby)

Possible Methods:

Participants of a workshop conducted in 2011 (Pelagic Fish and Seabird Inter-Relationships in the Central Tropical Pacific: Methods and Approaches to Study and Management) identified at-sea surveys and satellite tracking as the primary methods for investigating ranges and abundances of birds at sea. Participants recommended using the methods applied in the Hawaiian Islands Cetacean and Ecosystem Assessment Surveys undertaken by the NOAA Fisheries Southwest Fisheries Science Center (PICEAS 2006).This suite of coordinated surveys collected line-transect data on seabird distribution and abundance, cetacean abundance and density, physical oceanographic parameters, and marine plankton. Coordinating these surveys enables investigating not only general seabird foraging distributions but also how these distributions relate to subsurface predators, prey assemblages, and oceanographic variables. Conducting the surveys concurrently onboard an appropriately outfitted vessel to the extent practicable also constrains costs (e.g., NOAA vessel, Alaska Maritime NWR vessel Tiglax, other charter vessel).

Workshop participants recommended that (1) the waters within Howland and Baker Island NWRs and the adjacent units of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument (PRIMNM) be surveyed in a single cruise; (2) surveys be conducted in 3- to 4-year cycles in order to maximize the chances of incorporating strong El Nino-Southern Oscillation events, and (3) surveys take place in the same months of the year in order to capture inter-annual variability.

Telemetry was identified by workshop participants as a method with high impact because it directly samples foraging distributions of seabirds and can be used to evaluate how much time animals spend in or out of the PRIMNM boundaries. However, such studies require that tags be deployed and recovered, meaning not only that researchers must be able to access islands but must also reside there for considerable lengths of time (1-2 months) to collect adequate information. Workshop participants considered this to be prohibitively difficult at Howland, Baker, and Jarvis Islands, such that ship-based surveys may be the only option in the near future.

19 | Page

Isotopic data can provide general information on foraging ranges, as nitrogen isotopes highlight the relative pelagic or coastal signature of seabirds. Blood plasma samples reflect recent foraging, while feather samples provide a foraging signal since the last molt. These data sources, particularly feather samples, can be readily collected ashore, giving at least a general sense of relative foraging ranges. Workshop participants thought that isotope studies only need to be conducted roughly every five or more years.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Baseline Monitoring

NOAA Fisheries; Phoenix Islands Protected Area; Alaska Maritime NWR

20 | Page

Survey Name: Non-avian Terrestrial and Marine Wildlife Observations

Survey ID: FF01RHOW00-014

Priority Rank: 3

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Develop baseline scientific information on marine mammal use; Expand baseline information on marine community; Develop baseline data and understand sea turtle use; Develop baseline migratory bird and other species information; Conserve, manage, and protect habitat for nesting seabirds

In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

There are no native land mammals at Howland Island. Human activities at Howland Island have resulted in various non-native species being introduced including the house cat (Felis catus), the Polynesian rat (Rattus exulans), and various ant and cockroach species. Feral cats were introduced in 1937 and finally eliminated in 1986. The rats were documented as early as 1854 and in many accounts were described as extremely abundant. Sometime after 1938, they were eliminated and have not been recorded since. The potential for re-introduction of rats and/or cats by illegal trespassers exists, given the limitations on active law enforcement in this remote area. Rats and cats have dramatically modified the distribution and diversity of breeding seabirds in the insular Pacific, thus necessitating continued surveillance for these introduced predators.

Few green turtles are known to forage in the waters surrounding Howland Island and nesting is not known to occur. However, data from the area are limited and use of Howland may be greater than currently documented. Although theoretically within the range for hawksbill turtles, little is known about their biology, foraging and nesting behavior, threats, and distribution surrounding Howland Island. Any data collected will help to inform understanding of the use of Howland resources by sea turtles.

Only anecdotal information exists on marine mammal use of the waters surrounding Howland Island. However, studies elsewhere in the Pacific indicate that waters surrounding small islands may support distinct local populations of marine mammals. Formal quantitative surveys of marine mammal distribution and abundance have not been undertaken at the refuge.

Given the infrequency of visits to Howland Island, knowledge of the diversity, abundance, and condition of non- avian wildlife is presently only available through these incidental observations.

Both Howland Island (Inventory Unit A) and the coral reefs, other submerged lands, and water column lying within 3 nmi of the mean high water mark of Howland Island (Inventory Unit B) were identified in the Wilderness Review Inventory as meeting the requirements of Wilderness Study Areas (WAS-A and WSA-B); further evaluation of

21 | Page their wilderness values concluded they can be managed to preserve their wilderness character in perpetuity using a minimum requirements approach for all activities. All management activities associated with survey activities (motorized marine vessel transportation to and from Howland; establishing temporary field camps; small motorboat operations used in deployment and demobilization of field camp operations; use of portable generators and solar power to operate communications and other equipment; control of invasive species using hand pulling or hand spraying; monitoring the marine ecosystem with the use of SCUBA equipment) are conducted in such a manner as not to detract from the wilderness values identified in the Wilderness Inventory (i.e., naturalness, a condition that generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature with the imprint of man’s work substantially unnoticeable). Monitoring for non-native wildlife, which may have been introduced through unlawful trespass, enables detection and control before populations become established and invasive, thus facilitating preservation of Howland's wilderness character.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: February or March

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Biotic Group Level 1: Arthropoda (arthropods);

Biotic Group Level 2: Decapoda (crabs,crayfishes,lobsters,prawns,shrimp);

Coenobita (No Common Name);

Biotic Group Level 1: Mammalia (mammals);

Biotic Group Level 2: Rodentia (rodents);

Rattus exulans (Polynesian rat);

Biotic Group Level 1: Reptilia (Reptiles);

Biotic Group Level 2: Squamata (Amphisbaenians,Lizards,Snakes);

Lepidodactylus lugubris (Mourning Gecko); Cryptoblepharus poecilopleurus (Oceanic Snake-eyed Skink);

Biotic Group Level 2: Testudines (terrapins,tortoises,Turtles);

Chelonia mydas (Green sea turtle); Eretmochelys imbricata (Hawksbill sea turtle);

Marine vessels capable of traveling the open ocean for extended periods are the only opportunity for access to Howland. Since the refuge was established in 1974, NOAA, the U.S. Coast Guard, the Environmental Contaminants Branch of the Ecological Services USFWS Office in Honolulu, the Army Corps of Engineers, and private vessels chartered by HAM radio operators visiting Howland under Special Use Permit have all provided transportation to Howland. In some years, sea conditions preclude landing on the island. Between 1973 and 2015, biologists have been able to land and record observations on 17 of the 19 trips staged to Howland, for durations ranging from several hours to 3 days. Observations of seabirds and migratory shorebirds have been prioritized, but narrative observations on the presence/absence and general condition of other wildlife are included when possible. These semi-quantitative observations may have included: mammals (dolphins, cats before their eradication in 1987), reptiles (green sea turtles, skinks), arthropods (land crabs, insects, spiders), molluscs (giant clams, shells of other species), and reef fishes (including eels). Because trips to the Refuge since

22 | Page it was established have been opportunistic, surveys have taken place erratically throughout the year (January, February, March, May, July, September, or November).

The Howland Island NWR CCP indicates that incidental observations of nearshore turtle use and of marine mammals will be strategies applied to achieve Objectives 3c and 3e, respectively. Also indicated is that recording "the numbers and distribution of…turtles and other terrestrial invertebrates" are desired conditions by which Objective 3a can be evaluated. To implement these strategies, incidental observations of turtles, marine mammals, and terrestrial invertebrates will be recorded in the course of conducting more systematic surveys such as those for seabirds and migratory shorebirds. Efforts will be made to acquire additional data (e.g., GIS coordinates, abundance estimates) for introduced animals (e.g., ants) that may have become highly invasive and may merit management actions to control.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Baseline Monitoring

Phoenix Islands Protected Area

23 | Page

Survey Name: Remote Surveillance of Terrestrial and Marine Systems

Survey ID: FF01RHOW00-010

Priority Rank: 3

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Provide off-site education and interpretation opportunities; Enhance law enforcement capabilities; Protect cultural resources; Protect and maintain wilderness values; Develop baseline data and understand sea turtle use; Develop baseline migratory bird and other species information; Increase baseline information on marine community; Increase baseline information on terrestrial habitat; Conserve, manage, and protect habitat for nesting seabirds

In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources. An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Current wildlife monitoring efforts at Howland Island National Wildlife Refuge are limited to a short visit of several days every 2-3 years. The infrequency and irregularity of opportunities to visit the Refuge has greatly limited our capacity to understand the status and trends of its avian, vegetative, and other wildlife resources. Howland Island serves as an important breeding epicenter for a large number of seabirds in the Central Pacific. To understand the patterns of seabird use we need to have a year-round monitoring presence. Since it is impractical to have human presence year-round based on current funding resources, automated wildlife monitoring methods can provide us with the data that we need for wildlife population trend estimates and detecting all seabird species using the site, with minimal human involvement.

Similarly, our knowledge of the amplitude and variability of basic meteorological and oceanographic parameters essential to understanding climate change and its impacts to Refuge resources is hampered by the current infrequency of monitoring. Additionally we have a poor understanding of the incidence of human trespass at this exceedingly remote and sensitive site.

Unauthorized visitors can have adverse ecological impacts including introduction of alien species, wildlife harassment, injury or death, and damage to cultural resources. Automated monitoring of underwater sounds to detect boat motors would improve our ability to design law enforcement programs that would enhance biosecurity. Currently we have no method for measuring the number of times per year that trespassers visit this extremely remote and fragile site.

Installation of a solar-powered remote surveillance system (RSS) that can transfer real-time data including visual imagery via satellite telemetry could help to fill substantial gaps in our knowledge of temporal trends in avian species presence/absence, density, and breeding cycles; vegetation condition (including presence of invasives); use of beaches by sea turtles; meteorological parameters (temperature, precipitation, wind speed and direction, barometric pressure) and oceanographic parameters (sea level, sea surface temperature, pH, and salinity). Given the infrequency of field camps at Howland, development of remote surveillance equipment would also be

24 | Page important in order to monitor the effects of using electronic calling devices, as suggested in the Howland NWR CCP, to attract nesting pairs of Phoenix petrels (Pterodroma alba) and Polynesian storm petrels (Nesofregetta fuliginosa). In conjunction with real-time remote surveillance, songmeters that record species-specific call information over the course of their deployment can capture an annual soundscape for determining species’ patterns of use.

Inclusion of a moored offshore buoy station and programmed patrolling autonomous surface craft such as wave gliders, equipped with a hydrophone, oceanographic and biochemical sensors (e.g., fluorometer), and image sensor that relayed via the island base station or satellites could also detect trespass events, cetacean activity, and multiple oceanographic parameters. The RSS would have potential for collaboration with multiple national entities, including NOAA, Coast Guard, Navy, and USGS-Biological Resources Division. The imagery and other associated data would also have value for web-based education & outreach.

Both Howland Island (Inventory Unit A) and the coral reefs, other submerged lands, and water column lying within 3 nautical miles of the mean high water mark of Howland Island (Inventory Unit B) were identified in the Wilderness Review Inventory as meeting the requirements of Wilderness Study Areas (WSA-A and WSA-B); further evaluation of their wilderness values concluded they can be managed to preserve their wilderness character in perpetuity using a minimum requirements approach for all management activities. The capacity of remote surveillance to detect unlawful trespass and its potential consequences (e.g., introduction of alien, invasive species) promotes maintenance of wilderness values. Conversely, technological parameters associated with establishment of a remote surveillance system for terrestrial and marine habitats (e.g., power source, other impacts to naturalness) would have to be consistent with maintaining wilderness values.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: January through December

Frequency: Recurring -- every year

The specific purpose statement for establishment of Howland Island NWR identified in the biological ascertainment report at the time of transfer to the Service is (USFWS 1973): "...the restoration and preservation of the complete ecosystem, terrestrial and marine. Special emphasis must be given to the protection of nesting seabird populations". Five songmeters and two trail cameras installed at Howland Island in February 2015 are the first phase of a remote surveillance system. Specially programmed songmeters that will record species-specific call information over the course of their deployment (2-3 years) are used to monitor seabird activity. The songmeters are located in important seabird roosting or nesting locations across the island in varied habitats, with one songmeter deployed close to the Earhart Light in an attempt to pick up any sounds produced by trespassing vessels. The ultimate goal is to capture the annual soundscape for the island and thereby be able to determine the patterns of use for each seabird species. The songmeters are fitted with solar panels and enough data capacity to continue sampling for up to 3 years until the data files can be collected. One of the solar-powered trail cameras overlooks a small channel in front of the Refuge sign to record signs of trespassers; the second camera overlooks a colony of Lesser Frigatebirds.

25 | Page

An appropriate sound-sampling scheme will prolong battery life while allowing sampling of rare nocturnal bird species’ sounds that occur infrequently and are unlikely to be detected during infrequent site visits. Similarly, the trail camera is programmed to record visual imagery at intervals that can be sustained during a deployment of several years. Collectively, these data will improve confidence about the species composition of nesting birds at Howland and the ability to design enforcement schemes to protect them. The archival data collected by the songmeters and trail cameras may also allow us to evaluate whether we need a greater law enforcement presence at Howland Island NWR.

As funds become available, solar-powered equipment with the capacity to telemeter visual information can be procured and installed. Capability to stream webcam will allow crowd-source monitoring surveillance as well as connecting people to the Monument and outreach. Temporal cycles of the presence, abundance, and nesting activity of seabirds would be the primary focus of this remote surveillance imagery. While patterns of seabird use are the primary target for remote terrestrial surveillance, additional visual information regarding migratory shorebirds, vegetative condition, weather patterns, sea turtle activity, and illegal human presence would also be captured. An offshore buoy station with sensors for sea level, sea surface temperature, pH, salinity, barometric pressure, wind speed, and wind direction can transmit high-resolution data daily via satellite telemetry. A hydrophone array may increase our ability to inventory marine mammals using the area, provide indices of other reef fish and crustacean behaviors and activity, and detect trespassing vessels.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Baseline Monitoring

U.S. Coast Guard; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; Phoenix Islands Protected Area

26 | Page

Survey Name: Benthic Marine Cryptobiota

Survey ID: FF01RHOW00-018

Priority Rank: 4

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Expand baseline information on marine community; Increase baseline information on marine community.

In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Why is important to conduct the survey? Describe how the survey results will be used to inform refuges management decisions. If survey results are used to trigger a management response, identify the management response and threshold value for comparison to survey results.

Existing knowledge shapes our understanding of ecosystems and determines our ability to identify what drives ecosystem function and promotes ecosystem resilience. Such information is critical to the successful conservation of the world’s biodiversity and increasingly underpins management, particularly the broad approach referred to as ecosystem-based management. Existing knowledge of biodiversity typically is biased among taxa, with some taxa far better known than others.

Coral reefs are built from the skeletal remains of organisms and reworked by processes such as dissolution, bioerosion, cementation, growth, and sedimentation that create a complex, 3D framework—the reef matrix. Much of the biomass and most of the biodiversity of reefs are found within the complex architecture of the reef matrix. This community of benthic organisms, collectively known as cryptobiota, is monitored to improve understanding of the diversity and community composition of reef ecosystems across spatial, environmental, and human impact gradients and the role that diversity plays in ecosystem organization, functioning, and resilience in a changing environment. The benthic marine cryptobiota community includes shrimps, crabs, worms, snails, hermit crabs, brittle stars, sponges, and tunicates to name a few. Representatives of virtually all of the phyla in the animal kingdom are a part of this community. With an increasing scarcity of trained invertebrate taxonomists, Autonomous Reef Monitoring Structures (ARMS) enable researchers to obtain information using molecular techniques, particularly for small, cryptic organisms that constitute the bulk of reef diversity.

27 | Page

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: February or March

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Cryptobiota are monitored with Autonomous Reef Monitoring Structures (ARMS). ARMS were developed by the NOAA Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED) in conjunction with the Census of Coral Reef Project of the Census of Marine Life. They are long-term collecting devices that mimic the structural complexity of coral reef habitats and attract colonizing invertebrates. A key innovation of this method is that ARMS sample biodiversity over a consistent surface area in a consistent manner at different locations. Thus, the use of ARMS is a systematic and comparable method for monitoring the benthic marine cryptobiota community across space and time. More than 500 ARMS have been deployed throughout the Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic Oceans.

ARMS are composed of nine gray, type 1 polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plates (23 x 23 cm) stacked in an alternating series of open and obstructed formats and attached to a base plate of 35 x 45 cm. The entire structure is affixed to the sea floor with four stainless steel stakes, weights, and zip ties. These structures typically are deployed on mid-depth (10 meters) fore-reef habitats in replicate sets of three ARMS at three sites (3 x 3) per island or location. They remain on the bottom for 2 to 3 years during which time they become colonized with marine organisms. ARMS were first deployed at Howland Island in 2008 at three Rapid Ecological Assessment (REA) monitoring sites (n = 9 ARMS), with subsequent retrieval and deployment of new units in 2010 and 2012. Beginning in 2012 surveys changed to triennial intervals due to restructuring of funding by the NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program.

Upon retrieval, ARMS samples are analyzed molecularly, and when possible, taxonomically. Genetic analysis of ARMS samples using 454 environmental sequencing protocols is currently under development through partnerships with the Smithsonian and California State University. In addition, genetic analysis using MicroArray technology is under development through a partnership with the Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Baseline Monitoring

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED); Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology; Smithsonian Institution;

Partner Coordinator is Rusty Brainard, Chief of the Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED).

28 | Page

Survey Name: Wildlife Hazards and Signs of Trespass

Survey ID: FF01RHOW00-015

Priority Rank: 5

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect cultural resources; Protect and maintain wilderness values; Conserve, manage, and protect habitat for nesting seabirds

Observations and mitigation of contaminants and wildlife hazards support the CCP objective of conserving, managing, and protecting habitat for nesting seabirds. Documenting incidental signs of trespass and the condition of the Earhart day beacon supports CCP objectives of protecting and maintaining wilderness values, and protecting cultural resources. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Fuel storage drums left behind by the U.S. military during the World War II era contained residual aviation and motor fuel. In 1986, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (ACOE), sponsored by funds from the Defense Environmental Restoration Program (DERP), organized an expedition to Howland (and Baker) Islands to dispose of the fuel by burning it on-site while in the drums. However, the Corps efforts did not completely consume the fuel, and the burning left toxic residues in many of the drums and surrounding soils. At Howland Island, there were only 10-15 of these drums. The total area affected by the drums and contaminated soil is estimated at 26 yd2. According to the Howland Island NWR CCP (Appendix G-2), in 1986 the ACOE completed their responsibilities under DERP, and no contaminant or hazardous waste materials from this era are currently known to exist on Howland. However, contaminated debris (e.g., leaking barrels, batteries) and adrift Fish Aggregation Devices (FADs) may wash ashore or be left by trespassers, necessitating surveillance and mitigation for these items.

Empty fuel and water drums are an entrapment hazard to roosting seabirds that may fall inside and be unable to escape. The drums have been turned over to prevent entrapment. Two cisterns from the guano-mining era in the interior of the island have also been entrapment hazards; sloping planks that seabirds can use to get out of the cisterns have been put in place and they are examined during each visit to ensure they are still in position.

Howland Island National Wildlife Refuge remains closed to public access. Documenting signs of probable trespass provides intelligence for law enforcement efforts in this remote region to reduce adverse ecological impacts from illegal human traffic including exploitation of marine resources, introduction of alien species, sewage pollution, fuel spills, trash disposal, harassment of wildlife, and damage to cultural resources (e.g., Earhart day beacon).

29 | Page

Howland Island (Inventory Unit A) was identified in the Wilderness Review Inventory as meeting the requirements of a Wilderness Study Area (WSA-A); further evaluation of its wilderness values concluded it can be managed to preserve its wilderness character in perpetuity using a “minimum requirements” approach for all activities. All management activities associated with survey activities (e.g., motorized marine vessel transportation to and from Howland; establishing temporary field camps; small motorboat operations used in deployment and demobilization of field camp operations; use of portable generators and solar power to operate communications and other equipment) are conducted in such a manner as not to detract from the wilderness values identified in the Wilderness Inventory (i.e., naturalness, a condition that generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature with the imprint of man’s work substantially unnoticeable). Although historic markers, monuments, and other signs of past human occupation exist on Howland Island, they do not detract from Howland meeting the naturalness criteria since they are a minor component of the landscape and are substantially unnoticeable in the area as a whole. Survey activities centered on monitoring and mitigating wildlife hazards, contaminants, trespass, and the condition of the Earhart day beacon, ensure continuation of wilderness values at Howland Island.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: February or March

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

No contaminant or hazardous waste materials are currently known to exist on Howland. Some human-generated debris remains from past occupations, but wind erosion, storm activity, and vegetative growth have covered these artifacts such that they do not conflict with wilderness naturalness values. An indirect human impact to the naturalness of Howland is the presence of marine debris that washes onto coral reefs and beaches. Removing and stockpiling this debris for eventual removal occurs when field camps are present on the island.

Surveillance for signs of trespass routinely occurs in the course of conducting biological surveys. Signs of trespass may include: remains of fire; bottles; fishing boats within refuge boundaries; planted invasive coconuts. The condition of the Refuge signage is noted and, as time and materials allow, refurbished to deter future trespass. The condition of the Earhart day beacon is also noted.

Trespass events have been found through text and photos posted on the Internet. Customized alerts can be created (e.g., www.google.com/alerts; www.gigaalert.com) that will provide notifications via email when key words or phrases appear in new content on the Internet. These alerts may provide evidence of trespass, which can then be shared with Service law enforcement personnel for follow-up.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Baseline Monitoring

None;

30 | Page

Survey Name: Oceanography

Survey ID: FF01RHOW00-008

Priority Rank: 6

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Increase baseline information on marine community; Conserve, manage, and protect marine habitat.

In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Coastal geomorphology, reef ecosystems, and pelagic species are shaped by a dynamic suite of oceanographic parameters including the directionality, frequency, and magnitude of seawater movement; seawater temperature; and seawater chemistry. The values of these parameters vary over time and space, and collectively define the physical environment that drives the composition and condition of both permanent and transient reef and open ocean biota. Establishing knowledge of the temporal patterns (diurnal, tidal, seasonal, annual, decadal, etc.) of these variables and their anomalies promotes improved understanding of the ranges of physical forcing (abiotic) factors that constantly shape marine biota and their multiple interactions. In light of the manifestations of atmospheric climate change to ocean conditions (i.e., increasing sea surface temperatures, sea level rise, ocean acidification), it is imperative to monitor the physical status of the ocean water column that supports coral reefs. Modeling has suggested that, in response to greenhouse-gas forcing associated with climate change, warming and decline in productivity around select Pacific islands will be mitigated by enhanced upwelling of cool waters in the equatorial undercurrent (EUC). If realized, these predictions help to identify potential refuges for coral reef communities from anticipated climate changes of the twenty-first century. Located within the stream of the EUC, Howland Island could become a refuge for marine productivity and coral reefs in an otherwise desolate tropical seascape. Prey availability for foraging seabirds is also tied to changing ocean conditions.

The oceanographic surveys and platforms implemented at Howland since 2001, which include long-term moored observing stations with data telemetry, subsurface instrumented moorings and shipboard sensors, are components of NOAA's Coral Reef Ecosystem Integrated Observing System (CREIOS). CREIOS operates in and around the coral reefs of the US-affiliated Pacific Islands. Locations presently include the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, the Territory of Guam, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), the Territory of American Samoa, and other U.S. Pacific Remote Island Areas, including Howland, Baker, and Jarvis Islands, and

31 | Page

Palmyra, Kingman, and Johnston Atolls. CREIOS, in turn, is part of the Pacific Islands Ocean Observing system (PacIOOS), one of 11 regional components of the U.S. Integrated Ocean Operating System (IOOS). The IOOS is a partnership among federal, regional, academic, and private sector parties that works to provide new tools and forecasts to improve safety, enhance the economy, and protect the environment.

In addition to locations serviced by CREIOS, the PacIOOS region includes the Pacific nations in Free Association with the U.S. (Republic of the Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, and Republic of Palau). PacIOOS works to develop the observational, modeling, data management, and outreach components of an end-to-end ocean observing system to generate products that help to ensure a safe, clean, and productive ocean and a resilient coastal zone for the U.S. Pacific. NOAA Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED), our USFWS partner in the Hawaii/Pacific zone that has taken the lead on oceanographic monitoring activities at Howland Island NWR since 2001, is a Regional Member of the PacIOOS Governing Council.

CREIOS allows for near real-time and long-term monitoring, modeling and reporting of biological and physical environmental conditions which influence coral reef ecosystems. Information from CREIOS serves to alert resource managers and researchers to environmental events considered significant to the health of the surrounding coral reef ecosystem, allowing managers to implement response measures in a timely manner, and allowing researchers to increase spatial or temporal sampling resolution, if warranted. In situ measurements are also used to ground-truth satellite observations. Long-term time series data provided by the coral reef observing system assist researchers and resource managers in distinguishing between natural and anthropogenic changes to the ecosystem.

The responsibility for protecting and understanding coral reef ecosystems is shared with NOAA. The Service and NOAA often participate in joint management activities throughout the Pacific; however, no active marine management activities have occurred at Howland.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: Data loggers, time interval varies among instrument types, January-December

Frequency: Recurring -- every year

The parameters of interest include: current direction and speed; surface and subsurface seawater temperature; salinity; nutrient and chlorophyll concentration. These parameters are assessed across a range of water depths at a number of sites and/or along transects near Howland Island.

Since 2001, a number of oceanographic surveys have been implemented, and a diversity of oceanographic systems that log data at prescribed intervals have been installed at Howland. Spatial surveys include: (1) shipboard CTDs (conductivity/temperature/depth) at select locations near the island to depths of 500m; (2)

32 | Page shallow-water (< 30 m) CTDs at multiple sites around the island; (3) shipboard acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) transects in the deepwater regions around the island to examine the horizontal and vertical structure of the prevailing ocean currents; (4) water samples from shallow and deep depths for analysis of nutrient and chlorophyll concentrations. These surveys/samples provide a "snapshot" of ocean conditions as they are only conducted during a 2-day period every two to three years. Oceanographic systems that transmit data via satellite and/or log data for downloading after instrument retrieval include subsurface temperature recorders (STRs). These data sets provide a more comprehensive time series of variable temperature conditions as the data are logged at prescribed intervals.

From 2002 to 2012, deployment and retrieval of instruments was at biennial intervals. Beginning in 2012, this changed to triennial intervals due to restructuring of funding by the NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Baseline Monitoring

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED);

Partner Coordinator is Rusty Brainard, Chief of the Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED).

33 | Page

Survey Name: Pelagic Fishes

Survey ID: FF01RHOW00-024

Priority Rank: 7

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Conserve, manage, and protect marine habitat; Increase baseline information on marine community

The surveys support objectives in the Howland Island NWR CCP pertaining to the goal of conserving, managing, and protecting native marine communities that are representative of remote tropical Pacific islands. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

As a feeding strategy, 90% of breeding seabird species in the central tropical Pacific (CTP) rely upon facilitated foraging, an interaction in which large pelagic fishes drive forage fish into surface waters, making them available to surface predators including seabirds. Tunas, primarily skipjack Katsuwonus pelamis and yellow-fin Thunnus albacares, are the main subsurface predators in the CTP, driving squid, mackerel, flying fish, and other prey fishes towards the surface, where they become accessible to tropical seabirds within their limited diving range (3 to 4 meters). Seabird foraging success is likely dictated not only by the presence of prey but also by the presence of subsurface predators.

Very little detailed work has been done examining the distribution of tunas and other pelagic fish in the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument (PRIMNM) region. The spatial and temporal scale over which subsurface predators and seabirds operate is critical to seabird survival and reproductive success, with implications for the effect of fisheries management on these attributes. If subsurface predators remain highly resident to an area and seabirds are able to forage within those same distances, the seabirds may reliably find facilitated foraging opportunities. This in turn implies that fisheries management at the Monument scale can have important influences on the biological integrity, environmental health, ecosystem resilience, and facilitated foraging. In contrast, if subsurface predators are not resident to an area, seabirds constrained by breeding activities onshore will be less likely to encounter opportunities for facilitated foraging. This alternative implies that fisheries management at the Monument scale may have reduced influence on the foraging success of seabirds. Thus, the residency of subsurface predators within protected areas gives insight into whether they can be effectively protected from fishing pressure, as well as whether or not the interaction between seabirds and subsurface predators can be similarly protected. Data on distributions of both tuna and seabirds are critical to understanding the overlap between seabirds and subsurface predators as well as evaluating if Monument boundaries are effectively capturing the ranges and critical areas of some of the populations they are aiming to protect.

Participants of a workshop conducted in 2011 (Pelagic Fish and Seabird Inter-Relationships in the Central Tropical Pacific: Methods and Approaches to Study and Management) identified the need to study tuna movement and distribution in the Central Pacific Ocean, particularly within the waters of the PRIMNM. They cautioned that although bird-pelagic fish interactions are likely to occur in relation to skipjack and yellowfin tuna,

34 | Page mahi-mahi (Coryphaena hippurus and C. equiselis) should also be considered. They also noted the lack of information on forage fish species in the region. Flying fish (family Exocoetidae) have been identified as one of the most important forage species for tuna and birds, but almost nothing is known of their ecology or distribution, and information that includes different species is often combined together because so little is known about them separately.

Timing: TBD

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Biotic Group Level 1: Osteichthyes (bony fishes)

Biotic Group Level 2: Perciformes (perch-like fishes)

Thunnus albacares (yellowfin tuna); Coryphaena hippurus (dolphinfish, dolphin); Katsuwonus pelamis (mushmouth, skipjack tuna, Arctic bonito, oceanic bonito, striped tuna, victor fish, skipjack); Coryphaena equiselis (pompano dolphin, pompano dolphinfish); Thunnus obesus (Bigeye tuna); Acanthocybium solandri (wahoo, ono)

Biotic Group Level 2: Beloniformes (needlefishes)

Exocoetus (flyingfishes)

Possible Methods:

Participants of a workshop conducted in 2011 (Pelagic Fish and Seabird Inter-Relationships in the Central Tropical Pacific: Methods and Approaches to Study and Management) recommended using a combination of conventional and electronic tagging to investigate both residence time and general movements of subsurface predators that drive facilitated foraging.

Conventional dart tags, which are inserted behind the second dorsal fin, require that the fish be recovered and the tag returned to scientists, thus also requiring considerable effort to publicize the tagging project and establish tag recovery procedures in the main locations where recoveries are likely to occur. Electronic tagging consists of sonic, archival, and satellite tags. Sonic tags are surgically implanted, and emit a coded radio signal that can be detected and stored by a receiver station if the tagged fish is within the detection range of the receiver (often about 800 meters). Fixed receivers help to determine residency time of animals in a given location. Archival tags are miniature data recorders that are surgically implanted and which measure a range of parameters that can be used to study both horizontal and vertical movements of tuna; as with conventional tags, the fish must be recovered and the tag returned for data to be extracted. Satellite tags record the same information as archival tags but do not need to be recovered. They are fixed on the fish back and after a pre-set time they will detach from the fish, float to the surface, and transmit the recorded information to an Argos satellite system which is then forwarded to the researcher.

35 | Page

Workshop participants suggested focusing electronic tagging studies on skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) since it is one of the key species in tuna-seabird interactions and because there are so few data on the fine-scale movement of this species. Given logistical constraints of operating at many of the PRIMNM islands, participants suggested that studies could be conducted in the Republic of Kiribati and Palmyra Atoll as proxies for Howland, Baker, and Jarvis Islands. Workshop participants cautioned that, for conventional tags, a critical restraint is the need for commercial fisheries to release and recover tags, and must be considered in choosing study sites.

The costs of tags very widely, but most tagging and tracking studies fall into the high cost category (greater than $200,000). In 2006, the Pacific Tuna Tagging Program (http://www.spc.int/tagging/) began activities concentrated over the equatorial Western and Central Pacific Ocean, tagging skipjack, yellowfin, and bigeye tuna with both conventional and electronic tags. The Program is a primary source of data that can be mined to discover the movements of tuna tagged in the central Pacific (tag/release date and position, tag recovery date and position); these data could help to inform habitat use by tuna within the waters of the Howland Island NWR and the adjacent Howland Island unit of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument (PRIMNM). Of close to 250,000 releases of tagged skipjack tuna since Program inception, ~17% have been recovered.

Flying fish are tropical planktivores and inhabit the upper few meters of the water surface throughout their lives. Although their taxonomy can be problematic, they are easily identified to genus. They are attracted to lights, and so can be captured alive at night, and they are readily flushed from the water by predators or ships and so can be visually sampled during the day. Flying fish research conducted by the NOAA Fisheries Southwest Fisheries Science Center, Ecosystems Studies Program can be used as a model for assessing diversity, distribution, and abundance of flying fishes in the PRIMNM. Their flying fish research consists of two parts: specimen collection during an hour-long evening station using dip nets and lights pointed into the water, and visual census of flying fish flushed by the ship while underway during the day using strip-transect methods. The daytime transects could be coordinated with other pelagic transect-based surveys (e.g., pelagic seabirds, marine mammals, marine plankton) to increase efficiencies, enable data integration, and constrain costs.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Baseline Monitoring

NOAA Fisheries; Phoenix Islands Protected Area; Alaska Maritime NWR

36 | Page

Survey Name: Seabird Colonies

Survey ID: FF01RHOW00-004

Priority Rank: 8

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Restore breeding populations for 2 seabird species; Develop baseline migratory bird and other species information; Conserve, manage, and protect habitat for nesting seabirds

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Howland Island NWR was established for the purpose of restoring and protecting the complete ecosystem, both terrestrial and marine, with special consideration given to the protection of nesting seabird populations. The Seabird Conservation Plan (2005) recognizes remote Pacific islands as providing important and varied breeding habitat, specifically Howland Island as being important for ground nesting species. Nesting seabird species have increased from 4 to 12 species since cats were eradicated from Howland Island in the late 1980s, and restoration potential exists for 7 more species.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: February or March

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

37 | Page

Biotic Group Level 1: Aves (Birds);

Biotic Group Level 2: Charadriiformes (Alcids,Auks,Gulls,Oystercatchers,Plovers,Shore Birds);

Procelsterna cerulea (Blue-gray Noddy, Blue Noddy); Gygis alba (Angel Tern, White Tern); Anous stolidus (Brown Noddy); Sterna lunata (Spectacled Tern, Gray-backed Tern); Sterna fuscata (Sooty Tern);

Biotic Group Level 2: Phaethontiformes (Tropicbirds);

Phaethon rubricauda (Red-tailed Tropicbird); Phaethon lepturus (White-tailed Tropicbird);

Biotic Group Level 2: Procellariiformes (Tube-nosed Swimmers);

Puffinus pacificus (Wedge-tailed Shearwater);

Biotic Group Level 2: Suliformes (Cormorants);

Fregata ariel (Lesser Frigatebird); Fregata minor (Great Frigatebird); Sula sula (Red-footed Booby); Sula leucogaster (Brown Booby); Sula dactylatra (Masked Booby);

Marine vessels capable of traveling the open ocean for extended periods are the only opportunity for access to Howland. Since the refuge was established in 1974, NOAA, the U.S. Coast Guard, the Environmental Contaminants Branch of the Ecological Services USFWS Office in Honolulu, the Army Corps of Engineers, and private vessels chartered by HAM radio operators visiting Howland under Special Use Permit have all provided transportation to Howland. In some years, sea conditions preclude landing on the island. Between 1973 and 2015, biologists have been able to land and record observations on 17 of the 19 trips staged to Howland, for durations ranging from several hours to 3 days. The spatial extent and level of detail of the seabird surveys at Howland Island have therefore been highly variable, including direct counts of adults, active nests (eggs or chicks), and phenology (chick stage) when possible. In most years, however, time constraints have limited seabird data to species presence/absence with estimated numbers of adults and/or nests. In some years additional activities have included nocturnal surveys for Procellariformes, mapping the extent of sooty tern colonies, and reading bands. Because trips to the Refuge since it was established have been opportunistic, surveys have taken place erratically throughout the year (January, February, March, May, July, September, or November).

The Seabird Conservation Plan (2005) identifies infrequent inventories such as these as insufficient to accurately detect or monitor populations, suggesting instead that a rigorous collection of population data is needed. With reliable and increasingly frequent expeditions to Howland Island, appropriate methods would be developed.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Cooperative Baseline Monitoring

Phoenix Islands Protected Area

38 | Page

Survey Name: Coral Community Structure

Survey ID: FF01RHOW00-007

Priority Rank: 9

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Expand baseline information on marine community; Increase baseline information on marine community.

In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Stony corals (Order Scleractinia) and related Anthozoans are key structural components of coral reef ecosystems, and provide shelter and food for other reef denizens. Before 1998, Howland had not been surveyed for corals. Documenting the diversity, distribution, percent cover, relative abundance, size structure, and health status (such as bleaching and other diseases) of the coral fauna provides data that underlie coral community structure. In 2000, coral monitoring activities were initiated on reefs to 100 feet deep at Howland Island by the NOAA Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (NOAA CRED) in association with USFWS as part of a larger multidisciplinary effort to assess and monitor coral reef ecosystems in the U.S. Pacific Islands. These surveys increased the number of reported scleractinian and hydrozoan species to 114 (see ServCat reference 29134) and provided information on percent cover, distribution, relative abundance, size structure, and health status. These surveys provide a baseline to evaluate status and trends as well as detect changes potentially caused by climate change and other stressors.

While the reefs of Howland Island have been spared many of the anthropogenic threats and impacts that afflict reefs located closer to human population centers, some threats such as climate change and ocean acidification are very widespread and challenge the ability of protected areas to limit their effects. Of the 114 anthozoan and hydrozoan coral species reported at Howland Island, one species (Acropora retusa) was listed as threatened in 2014 under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Monitoring multiple metrics that characterize coral community structure and health needs to continue in order to document trends in the composition and condition of corals throughout the Refuge.

39 | Page strengthening our capacity to examine coral reefs and ensure that our methods and metrics are consistent with other monitoring programs.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: February or March

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Biotic Group Level 1: Cnidaria (cnidarians,coelenterates);

Biotic Group Level 2: Anthoathecatae (athecate hydroids,hydromedusae);

Millepora (No Common Name);

Biotic Group Level 2: Antipatharia (black corals,thorny corals);

Cirrhipathes (No Common Name);

Biotic Group Level 2: Scleractinia (stony corals);

Halomitra (No Common Name); Psammocora (No Common Name); Acropora (No Common Name); Montipora (No Common Name); Pocillopora (No Common Name); Leptoseris (No Common Name); Pavona (No Common Name); Gardineroseris (No Common Name); Pachyseris (No Common Name); Coscinaraea (No Common Name); Fungia (No Common Name); Herpolitha (No Common Name); Podabacia (No Common Name); Porites (No Common Name); Montastraea (No Common Name);Favia (No Common Name); Favites (No Common Name); Goniastrea (No Common Name); Leptastrea (No Common Name); Cyphastrea (No Common Name); Hydnophora (No Common Name); Symphyllia (No Common Name); Tubastraea (No Common Name); Cycloseris (No Common Name);

Biotic Group Level 2: Zoanthidea (zoanthids);

Palythoa (No Common Name);

40 | Page included photoquadrats acquired along transect lines at 3 georeferenced sites, from which quantitative data were extracted using point-count software. With the retirement of Dr. Maragos in 2011, this methodology has not been applied but remains an irreplaceable, archived reference (see ServCat reference 12001) and should be replicated.

The NOAA CRED Reef Assessment Monitoring Program (RAMP) missions to the Refuge have taken place every 1-2 years (from 2000-2012); however, due to re-structured funding, NOAA has scaled back missions to every 3 years after 2012. During broad-scale surveys, towed divers record estimates of percent coral cover and the percentage of coral that is stressed (i.e., bleached, predated, diseased) during each of 10, 5-minute observation segments along GPS-referenced tow tracks. During site-specific surveys at GPS-referenced sites, methods have varied since 2000 in response to information needs and logistical constraints (i.e., shipboard berthing space for scientific personnel and small boat capacity). Methods have included: the use of photoquadrats along transect lines from which quantitative parameters are later extracted using computer-assisted image analysis; the line- intercept method along transect lines to estimate percent cover of coral and other benthic categories; in situ identification (to genus or species), enumeration, and size categorization of individual colonies along belt transects; and quantitative disease assessments (including bleaching).

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Baseline Monitoring

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED);

Partner Coordinator is Rusty Brainard, Chief of the Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED).

41 | Page

Survey Name: Pelagic Wildlife

Survey ID: FF01RHOW00-006

Priority Rank: 10

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Develop baseline scientific information on marine mammal use; Expand baseline information on marine community; Increase baseline information on marine community.

The surveys support several objectives in the Howland Island NWR CCP pertaining to native species communities. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

The estimated millions of seabirds breeding at national wildlife refuges in the central Pacific Ocean are primarily pelagic feeders that obtain the fish and squid they consume by associating with schools of large predatory fish such as tuna and billfish. While both the predatory fish and the birds are capable of foraging throughout their pelagic ranges (which encompass the tropical Pacific Ocean), the birds are most successful at feeding their young when they can find schools of predatory fish within easy commuting range of the breeding colonies. Recently fledged birds, which are inexperienced in this complex and demanding style of foraging, rely on abundant and local food resources to survive while they learn to locate and capture prey. Assessing pelagic seabird populations in conjunction with their use of the terrestrial habitat at Howland provides a more comprehensive picture of their abundance and activity status than terrestrial surveys alone.

Little is known of marine mammal use surrounding Howland Island, although it is known that some species are found in the vicinity. Only anecdotal information exists on marine mammal use of the waters surrounding Howland Island. Studies elsewhere in the Pacific, however, indicate that waters surrounding small islands may support distinct local populations of marine mammals. Given the remoteness of Howland and infrequency of access, formal surveys of marine mammal distribution and abundance have not been undertaken at the Refuge.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: February or March

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

During the transit from Johnston to Howland (4 days), Howland to Baker (< 1 day), and Baker to American Samoa (4 days), when possible the terrestrial team conducts pelagic bird and mammal transects 4-5 hours per day during daylight hours. They record all birds and mammals sighted as well as an index of flying fish density along the cruise track. They also record sea conditions, wind velocity, and wind direction from the ship's instruments each hour during observation periods.

42 | Page

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Baseline Monitoring

None;

43 | Page

Survey Name: Terrestrial Plant Observations

Survey ID: FF01RHOW00-009

Priority Rank: 11

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Increase baseline information on terrestrial habitat; Conserve, manage, and protect habitat for nesting seabirds

The surveys support objectives in the Howland Island NWR CCP pertaining to the goal of conserving, protecting, and managing native terrestrial habitats that are representative of remote tropical Pacific islands, primarily for the benefit of seabirds.

In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

A contemporary total of only 9 native and 7 introduced plant species have been recorded. Several plant species (Cordia subcordata, Tournefortia, and Scaevola) serve as important nesting and roosting habitat for the red- footed booby and cover for wintering bristle-thighed curlews. Great frigatebirds and white terns also prefer to nest above the ground on the few shrubs available. Tracking the general condition and diversity of vegetation that provides nesting habitat and shelter for seabirds and other migratory birds improves understanding of trends in seabird populations utilizing Howland Island. Additionally, detecting the presence of invasive plant species, which likely have been accidentally introduced, may serve as an indication of illegal trespass. If detected, removing the plant(s) by hand-pulling before a population becomes well established serves to preserve wilderness values of naturalness.

Howland Island (Inventory Unit A) was identified in the Wilderness Review Inventory as meeting the requirements of a Wilderness Study Area (WSA-A); further evaluation of its wilderness values concluded it can be managed to preserve its wilderness character in perpetuity using a “minimum requirements” approach for all activities. All management activities associated with survey activities (motorized marine vessel transportation to and from Howland; establishing temporary field camps; small motorboat operations used in deployment and demobilization of field camp operations; use of portable generators and solar power to operate communications and other equipment; control of invasive species using hand pulling or hand spraying) are conducted in such a manner as not to detract from the wilderness values identified in the Wilderness Inventory (i.e., naturalness, a condition that generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature with the imprint of man’s work substantially unnoticeable).

44 | Page

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: February or March

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Biotic Group Level 1: Plantae (plants);

Biotic Group Level 2: Boraginaceae (borage);

Tournefortia argentea (velvetleaf soldierbush); Cordia subcordata (kou);

Biotic Group Level 2: Fabaceae (legumes,peas);

Sophora tomentosa (yellow necklacepod, yellow sophora);

Biotic Group Level 2: Goodeniaceae (No Common Name);

Scaevola taccada (beach naupaka);

Biotic Group Level 2: Malvaceae (mallows);

Sida fallax (yellow `ilima);

Biotic Group Level 2: Nyctaginaceae (four o'clocks);

Boerhavia (spiderling);

Biotic Group Level 2: Poaceae (grasses);

Digitaria (crabgrass); Lepturus repens (Pacific Island thintail);

Biotic Group Level 2: Polygonaceae (buckwheat,knotweed);

Coccoloba uvifera (seagrape);

Biotic Group Level 2: Portulacaceae (purslane);

Portulaca lutea (native yellow purslane); Portulaca oleracea (purslane, pursley, wild portulaca, akulikuli-kula, common purslane, duckweed, garden purslane, little hogweed, little-hogweed);

Biotic Group Level 2: Surianaceae (No Common Name);

Suriana maritima (bay cedar, baycedar, guitar, bay-cedar);

Biotic Group Level 2: Zygophyllaceae (caltrop);

Tribulus cistoides (puncture vine, Jamaican feverplant);

45 | Page transportation to Howland. In some years, sea conditions preclude landing on the island. Between 1973 and 2015, biologists have been able to land and record observations on 17 of the 19 trips staged to Howland, for durations ranging from several hours to 3 days. The nature of the vegetative surveys has therefore been highly variable, commonly limited to a description of the general condition of the dominant plants. In some years more detailed observations have included: species inventory; photographs; phenological observations; seeds that have collected in the beach strand; percent cover estimates (by species) of plants within 4 or 5 permanent plots established by the Smithsonian Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Program in 1963; island-wide percent cover estimates of dominant plants; specimens collected and deposited in the Bishop Museum. Lichens and fungi are also looked for. Because trips to the Refuge since it was established have been opportunistic, surveys have taken place erratically throughout the year (January, February, March, May, July, September, or November).

To implement a strategy of CCP Objective 1b, all plant species will be recorded and photographed while conducting other surveys. Efforts will be made to acquire additional data (e.g., mapping with GPS, percent cover estimates) for invasive plants that merit management actions to control.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Baseline Monitoring

None;

46 | Page

Survey Name: Non-coral Targeted Marine Macroinvertebrate Broadscale

Survey ID: FF01RHOW00-003

Priority Rank: 12

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Expand baseline information on marine community; Increase baseline information on marine community.

In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Before the initiation of broadscale marine macroinvertebrate surveys at Howland Island by the NOAA Coral Reef Ecosystem Division in 2000, little was known of the diversity or abundance of conspicuous macroinvertebrates including urchins, sea cucumbers, giant clams, or crown-of-thorns seastars (COTS). These organisms are involved in key aspects of reef dynamics including grazing, bioerosion, sediment cycling, seawater filtration, and predation. Giant clams have been widely over-harvested in populated areas of the Pacific. Outbreaks of corallivorous COTS in other regions of the Pacific have resulted in substantial loss of live coral cover. Urchins and sea cucumbers are increasingly harvested and over-harvested near human population centers. Knowledge of the distribution and abundance of these targeted taxa provides an available baseline for describing the condition of unimpacted reefs and enhances understanding of their role in ecosystem function.

47 | Page

(i.e., naturalness, a condition that generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature with the imprint of man’s work substantially unnoticeable).

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: February or March

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Biotic Group Level 1: Echinodermata (echinoderms);

Biotic Group Level 2: Spinulosida (No Common Name);

Acanthaster planci (Crown-of-thorns seastar);

During broad-scale, shallow-water (< 30 meters) surveys, towed divers record the number (or estimated number for large aggregations) of non-cryptic sea urchins, sea cucumbers, giant clams, and crown-of-thorns seastars during each of 10, 5-minute observation segments along GPS-referenced tow tracks.

Surveys have been biennial since 2002, but beginning in 2012 changed to triennial intervals due to restructuring of funding by the NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Baseline Monitoring

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED);

Partner Coordinator is Rusty Brainard, Chief of the Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED).

48 | Page

Survey Name: Algal Diversity and Benthic Composition

Survey ID: FF01RHOW00-016

Priority Rank: 13

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Expand baseline information on marine community; Increase baseline information on marine community.

In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Before the initiation of algal surveys at Howland Island by the NOAA Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED) in 2001, little was known of the diversity or abundance of these photosynthesizing components of the reef biota. It was widely assumed that (1) high coral cover indicates a healthy reef ecosystem, (2) high coral cover is necessary for reef accretion, and (3) algae, particularly macroalgae, are detrimental to tropical reef environments. In contrast, these algal surveys have indicated that, while some healthy reefs are dominated by constructional coral species, others contain almost no coral (sometimes termed incipient reefs), whereas others rely on a mix of calcified algae, foraminifera, and coral. Many healthy tropical and subtropical reefs are dominated by algae (macroalgae, crustose coralline algae, and turf algae) rather than coral.

Nonetheless, a shift from a coral-dominated benthic community to an algal-dominated community over a relatively short time scale (phase shift) can be indicative of anthropogenic stress affecting the reef system. Documenting baseline levels of community composition, including the diversity and relative abundance of algal components, can assist in detecting a change in overall ecosystem health.

The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) provides a suite of methods that are appropriate for ecological monitoring of coral reefs depending on the questions to be addressed, the spatial scale of the surveys (broad-, medium-, and fine-scale), and the taxonomic resolution (community-, management-, or research- monitoring, with low, medium, and high taxonomic detail, respectively). The methods used by NOAA CRED in site-specific algal diversity and benthic composition surveys at Howland, and the metrics acquired, are consistent with those provided by the GCRMN for medium- to fine-scale spatial and taxonomic resolution. Towed-diver surveys are functionally equivalent to those described by the GCRMN manta tow protocol in providing broad spatial coverage at coarser levels of taxonomic resolution. I&M coral reef monitoring at Howland integrates with the GCRMN, strengthening our capacity to examine coral reefs and ensure that our methods and metrics are consistent with other monitoring programs.

49 | Page managed to preserve its wilderness character in perpetuity using a minimum requirements approach for all management activities. All management activities associated with survey activities (motorized marine vessel transportation to and from Howland; monitoring the marine ecosystem with the use of SCUBA equipment; mechanical equipment such as air compressors for SCUBA remains on the marine transport vessel) are conducted in such a manner as not to detract from the wilderness values identified in the Wilderness Inventory (i.e., naturalness, a condition that generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature with the imprint of man’s work substantially unnoticeable).

Recognition of the essential role these noncoral-dominated reef areas play to the overall health status and accretion of reef ecosystems will help to ensure that effective reef management measures are accomplished. The responsibility for protecting and understanding coral reef ecosystems is shared with NOAA. The Service and NOAA often participate in joint management activities throughout the Pacific; however, no active marine management activities have occurred at Howland.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: February or March

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Shallow-water (<30 meters) macroscopic marine algae (which are functionally categorized as macroalgae, turf algae, and coralline algae) are the population of interest. During broad-scale surveys, towed divers record estimates of percent algal cover during each of 10, 5-minute observation segments along GPS-referenced tow tracks. During site-specific surveys at GPS-referenced sites, methods have varied since 2001 in response to information needs and logistical constraints (i.e., shipboard berthing space for scientific personnel and small boat capacity). Methods have included: roving collections to compile species inventories (many species require microscopic examination to confirm identification; the use of photoquadrats along transect lines from which quantitative parameters are later extracted using computer-assisted image analysis; the line-intercept method along transect lines to estimate percent cover of algae and other benthic categories; and quantitative disease assessments of crustose coralline algae.

Surveys have been biennial since 2002, but beginning in 2012 changed to triennial intervals due to restructuring of funding by the NOAA Coral Reef Conservation

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Baseline Monitoring

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED);

Partner Coordinator is Rusty Brainard, Chief of the Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED).

50 | Page

Survey Name: Deep-sea Realm

Survey ID: FF01RHOW00-021

Priority Rank: 14

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Expand baseline information on marine community; Increase baseline information on marine community.

In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

In 2006, benthic habitat mapping using multi-beam sonar was conducted to a distance of ~ 12.6 kilometers (km) (6.8 nautical miles (nm)) off Howland Island by the NOAA Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED) in association with the Pacific Islands Benthic Habitat Mapping Center at the University of Hawaii. Bathymetric data show Howland to be a steep-sided, isolated island on the Tokelau Ridge that rises from the abyssal seafloor (4,000+ meters (m)). In 2009, with the establishment of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument, the boundary of Howland Island National Wildlife Refuge was extended from 3 nm to 12 nm (~22.2 km) from the mean low water line. Consequently, an even larger proportion of the marine habitat within Refuge boundaries now includes the mesopelagic (200 to 1000 m), bathypelagic (1000 to 4000 m) and potentially abyssopelagic (> 4000 m) depth zones. Moreover, extensive deep-sea habitat is contained within Monument waters beyond the Refuge boundaries.

Although some light penetrates as deep as the mesopelagic zone, it is insufficient for photosynthesis. Sunlight does not reach the bathypelagic or abyssopelagic zones. The general nature of animal life found in these zones is known to vary based on limited studies from other areas. The general types of life forms found in the mesopelagic zone are daytime visiting herbivores, detritivores feeding on dead organisms and fecal pellets, and carnivores feeding on the former types. Many forms of nekton live in the bathypelagic zone such as squid, large whales, and octopuses, but this zone is difficult for fish to live in since it is hard to find nutrients. Sponges, brachiopods, sea stars, and echinoids are common in the bathypelagic zone. Permanent inhabitants of the abyssopelagic zone must be able to withstand the immense pressures of the ocean depths, continuous cold, and scarcity of nutrients.

51 | Page alternatives to the standard platforms commonly used for research purposes today. Recent research in regions such as the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (PMNM) indicates that deep-sea coral and sponge beds exist in more than 1000 m of water and has led to the discovery of more than fifty new sponge and coral species. It is likely that comparable studies in Howland Island NWR would reveal currently undescribed species and biotic communities.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: TBD

Frequency: Occurs one time only

The populations of interest include both the abiotic nature of the deep-sea floor and the biotic communities within the mesopelagic, bathypelagic, and potentially abyssopelagic zones. The barrier to exploring the deep-sea realm has been both technological and financial; deep-sea submersibles typically cost $20,000-$60,000 per day. Mechanisms for further exploration of the deep-sea realm at Howland Island could potentially include manned deep-sea submersibles, unmanned remotely-operated vehicles (ROVs), autonomous underwater vehicles, ocean gliders, and deep sea drop cameras.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Inventory

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Ocean Exploration and Research; University of Hawaii, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST) - Hawaii Undersea Research Laboratory (HURL); National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Sanctuaries; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Regional Office; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED); National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Protected Species Division; Scripps Institute of Oceanography; Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

Partner Coordinator is Frank Parrish, Chief of the Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Protected Species Division.

52 | Page

Survey Name: Marine Mammals

Survey ID: FF01RHOW00-025

Priority Rank: 15

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Increase baseline information on marine community; Develop baseline scientific information on marine mammal use

The surveys support objectives in the Howland Island NWR CCP pertaining to goals of protecting native marine communities and of managing federally listed threatened and endangered species. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall use AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Little is known of marine mammal use of the waters within Howland Island NWR and the adjacent Howland Island unit of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument (PRIMNM). Formal quantitative surveys of marine mammal distribution and abundance have not been undertaken in this region. However, studies elsewhere in the Pacific indicate that waters surrounding small islands may support distinct local populations of marine mammals. Historic records document that sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) were caught near Howland Island in the nineteenth century. Effective conservation of marine mammal populations requires an understanding of abundance, population structure, habitat use, natural and anthropogenic threats, and estimates of reproduction and mortality rates. The Service shares responsibility with NOAA for managing marine resources, and the Marine Mammal Commission has encouraged the Service to generate partnerships with NOAA to help document baseline information.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: TBD

Frequency: Recurring -- every three to four years

53 | Page

Biotic Group Level 1: Mammalia (mammals)

Biotic Group Level 2: Cetacea (whales, cetaceans, marine mammals, dolphins, porpoises

Physeter catodon (=microcephalus)(Sperm whale); Balaenoptera physalus (Finback whale); Balaenoptera borealis (Sei whale); Orcinus orca (Killer whale); Peponocephala (melon-headed whales); Tursiops truncatus (Bottlenose Dolphin, Bottlenosed Dolphin)

Possible Methods:

Pelagic surveys for marine mammals can be achieved as components of cooperative efforts with other agencies or research organizations. The Protected Species Division of the NOAA Fisheries Southwest Fisheries Science Center and Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center have undertaken cetacean surveys in several regions of the U.S. Pacific (Hawaii, Palmyra and Kingman, American Samoa, Guam, CNMI) using a combination of visual and acoustic line transect surveys, photo-identification studies, and passive acoustic monitoring. Visual surveys to assess cetacean abundance and distribution are conducted from the flying bridge of a large research vessel; observers scan the water for cetaceans while the vessel moves along predetermined transect lines. When cetaceans are seen, the observers record data such as the species, location, general behavior, and estimates of numbers. Whenever possible, digital photos of encountered cetaceans are obtained to help confirm the species identification and document unique characteristics that enable identification of individual cetaceans. Simultaneously, observations of the underwater sound field along the survey track are made using a towed hydrophone array. Data on the location of acoustic detections can incorporated into GIS databases for comparison with corresponding visual detections.

Surveys using these methods could be conducted within the waters of Howland Island NWR and the adjacent Howland Island unit of the PRIMNM, and designed to operate concurrently with other pelagic surveys (e.g., Pelagic Fishes, Pelagic Seabirds. Marine Plankton) so as to enable data integration, increase efficiencies, and constrain costs. The NOAA Southwest Fisheries Science Center has conducted ecosystem surveys in the US Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) waters of Palmyra and Johnston Atolls and adjacent waters south of Hawaii in which line-transect data on cetacean abundance, photo-identification data for population structure, and biopsy samples for genetic studies of population structure are collected. Oceanographic sampling, net sampling, seabird distribution and abundance, and acoustic backscatter data of mid-water prey are concurrently conducted.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Cooperative Baseline Monitoring

NOAA Fisheries, Phoenix Islands Protected Area, Alaska Maritime NWR

54 | Page

Survey Name: Reef Fish Diversity and Abundance

Survey ID: FF01RHOW00-002

Priority Rank: 16

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Expand baseline information on marine community; Develop baseline data and understand sea turtle use; Increase baseline information on marine community.

In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Little information exists on the marine biota of the U.S. equatorial Pacific islands compared to more populated Pacific locations. Until recently, this region of the Pacific (10°N–10°S by 145°W–180°) was one of the most poorly investigated portions of the world’s oceans outside of the polar regions. Beginning in 2000, ecological surveys of the shallow coral reef habitats of the U.S. equatorial Pacific islands have been conducted by the NOAA Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED). Broad-scale surveys conducted by towed divers target large (>50 cm) fish whereas site-specific surveys record reef fish of all size classes. Incidental observations of sea turtles are also recorded. Still, limited data exist on the diversity of species in the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument.

The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) provides a suite of methods that are appropriate for ecological monitoring of coral reefs depending on the questions to be addressed, the spatial scale of the surveys (broad-, medium-, and fine-scale), and the taxonomic resolution (community-, management-, or research- monitoring, with low, medium, and high taxonomic detail, respectively). The methods used by NOAA CRED in site-specific reef fish surveys at Howland, and the metrics acquired, are consistent with those provided by the GCRMN for medium- to fine-scale spatial and taxonomic resolution. Towed-diver surveys are functionally equivalent to those described by the GCRMN manta tow protocol in providing broad spatial coverage for large (> 50 cm TL) species of reef-associated fish. I&M coral reef monitoring at Howland integrates with the GCRMN, strengthening our capacity to examine coral reefs and ensure that our methods and metrics are consistent with other monitoring programs.

55 | Page conducted in such a manner as not to detract from the wilderness values identified in the Wilderness Inventory (i.e., naturalness, a condition that generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature with the imprint of man’s work substantially unnoticeable).

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: February or March

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Biotic Group Level 1: Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fishes,rays,sharks);

Biotic Group Level 2: Carcharhiniformes (ground sharks);

Carcharhinus (gray sharks);

Biotic Group Level 1: Osteichthyes (bony fishes);

Biotic Group Level 2: Perciformes (perch-like fishes);

Scarus (parrotfishes); Halichoeres (wrasses); Sphyraena (barracudas); Holacanthus (angelfishes); Chaetodon (butterflyfishes); Apogon (cardinalfishes, common cardinalfishes); Kuhlia (flagtails); Epinephelus (groupers); Acanthurus (tangs, doctorfishes, common surgeonfishes, lancetfishes, surgeonfishes); Lutjanus (snappers, common snappers)

Biotic Group Level 2: Scorpaeniformes (mail-cheeked fishes,scorpion fishes,sculpins);

Scorpaena (scorpionfishes);

Biotic Group Level 2: Tetraodontiformes (cowfishes,filefishes,leatherjackets,puffers,triggerfishes,trunkfishes);

Diodon (porcupinefishes); Balistes (triggerfishes); Aluterus (filefishes);

The populations of interest are non-cryptic, diurnally-active, shallow-water (< 30 meters) bony and cartilaginous fishes associated with coral reef habitat. During broad-scale surveys, towed divers record the number (or estimated number in large schools), species, and size class of large (> 50 cm TL) fish observed during each of 10, 5-minute observation segments along GPS-referenced tow tracks. During site-specific surveys at georeferenced sites, free-swimming divers record the number (or estimated number in large schools), species, and size class of all fish observed within a defined space along transect lines OR, if using a stationary point count method, within a cylinder surrounding the stationary observer(s). Incidental observations of turtles are also recorded.

Surveys have been biennial since 2002, but beginning in 2012 changed to triennial intervals due to restructuring of funding by the NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Baseline Monitoring

56 | Page

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED);

Partner Coordinator is Rusty Brainard, Chief of the Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED).

57 | Page

Survey Name: Cryptic Reef Fishes

Survey ID: FF01RHOW00-023

Priority Rank: 17

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Expand baseline information on marine community; Increase baseline information on marine community.

In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Reef fish assemblages are amongst the most diverse vertebrate assemblages in the world. Limited studies on tropical and temperate reefs suggest that numerous small cryptic fishes inhabit the reef matrix but are not detected during standard visual surveys; visual censuses tend to underestimate fish densities and diversities, especially those of small, cryptic, and/or nocturnally-active species. The contribution of small, cryptic reef taxa to reef assemblages and reef processes is therefore largely unknown. Accurate estimates of overall reef fish diversity, abundance, biomass, and productivity require consideration not only of relatively conspicuous species that are reported from standard visual surveys but also of cryptic reef fish assemblages.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: TBD

Frequency: Occurs one time only

Biotic Group Level 1: Osteichthyes (bony fishes);

Biotic Group Level 2: Perciformes (perch-like fishes);

58 | Page

Blennius (blennies, blennies);

By their very nature, cryptic reef fishes are difficult to detect by strictly visual means, even when survey methods are modified to target their occurrence (Ackerman and Bellwood, 2000; Willis 2001). The use of toxicants or anaesthetics enables detection of species that inhabit reef interstices or burrows and which are usually not seen. In the limited studies that have been conducted on tropical and temperature reefs, census methods have relied upon the application of destructive explosives, toxicants, and ichthyocides, especially the use of rotenone, a nonspecific ichthyocide that asphyxiates all fish species when applied within small enclosed stations. Although rotenone is destructive, several studies have indicated that the effects are generally short-lived, as small reef fishes with high turnover rates recolonize defaunated areas quickly (Willis, 2001). Clove oil stuns fish, acting as an anesthetic and allowing collection for a short time. It is not as destructive as rotenone though in high doses it can kill small fish. The benefits of improving knowledge of biodiversity versus the negative effects of destructive sampling to acquire such information will need to be evaluated by Refuge staff before implementing such methods.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Inventory

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; Bishop Museum;

59 | Page

Survey Name: Mesophotic Coral Ecosystems

Survey ID: FF01RHOW00-019

Priority Rank: 18

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Expand baseline information on marine community; Increase baseline information on marine community.

In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Mesophotic coral ecosystems (MCEs) are light-dependent communities of corals, algae, sponges, and other organisms that exist at depths between approximately 30 meters (m) to 150 m. Little known until recently and understudied relative to shallower reefs, MCEs may contain significant coral reef ecosystem resources, including both diverse coral reefs and fish communities. Research in the U.S. Pacific Islands over the last few years has produced data to facilitate a better awareness of the distribution and potential significance of MCEs, but they are still relatively unknown and remain absent from most coral reef ecosystem monitoring programs and management considerations.

Efforts over the last decade to systematically map coral reefs in the U.S. Pacific Islands have revealed the presence of mesophotic coral reefs, most of which were previously unknown. Mesophotic coral reefs have been found in the Hawaiian and Mariana Archipelagos, American Samoa, and the U.S. Phoenix and Line Islands, although they have not thus far been documented at every island. In general, their distribution appears to be patchy and they are less common than coral reefs in shallow depths (< 30 m). MCEs have been hypothesized to serve as refugia for coral reef ecosystem organisms that may be subject to elevated levels of different types of stress on shallower reefs. Modeling has suggested that, in response to greenhouse-gas forcing associated with climate change, warming and decline in productivity around select Pacific islands will be mitigated by enhanced upwelling of cool waters in the equatorial undercurrent (EUC). If realized, these predictions help to identify potential refuges for coral reef communities from anticipated climate changes of the twenty-first century. Located within the stream of the EUC, Howland Island could become a refuge for marine productivity and coral reefs in an otherwise desolate tropical seascape.

The NOAA Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center’s Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED) has collected data on mesophotic coral reefs within the U.S. Pacific Islands since 2001. Video imagery has been collected by towed underwater camera sleds deployed from small boats and research ships in depths up to ~280 meters; however, very little data have been collected in mesophotic depths in the U.S. Phoenix and Line Islands. This is due in large part to the extremely steep bathymetry surrounding these islands that would require ships to operate in close proximity to navigation hazards when conducting camera-sled surveys at mesophotic depths. As of 2013, no mesophotic coral reefs have been observed by CRED at the U.S. Phoenix and Line Islands. A small number of

60 | Page observations of hard coral in depths > 30 m have been made at Howland Island (3 samples in 33–39 m) but no extensive reef areas were observed in the camera-sled tows conducted. However, insufficient sampling has been conducted to be able to conclude that no mesophotic reefs are present around Howland Island. The clear oligotrophic waters minimally influenced by terrigenous inputs suggest that more mesophotic corals would likely be found if additional surveys were conducted.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: February or March

Frequency: Sporadic or Ad Hoc

There are insufficient data to describe the location or density of mesophotic corals at Howland Island. The barrier to exploring MCEs has largely been technological. Deep-sea submersibles have been used to examine marine life at depths of 30–200 m in the tropical Pacific, but they typically cost $20,000-$60,000 per day, and are rarely deployed in remote tropical Pacific regions. Technical trimix dives conducted at 35–100 m on closed-circuit rebreathers from small boats supported by the NOAA ship Hi`ialakai have been used in the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (PMNM) since 2009 and at Johnston Atoll NWR in 2013 to identify the flora and fauna associated with differing MCE habitats. Mechanisms for further exploration of mesophotic depths at Howland Island could potentially include expanded sampling with towed camera sleds, closed-circuit rebreather technical dives, deep-sea submersibles, and remotely-operated vehicles (ROVs).

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Baseline Monitoring

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED); Bishop Museum; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Sanctuaries; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Service (NOS), National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science (NCCOS), the Center for Coastal Monitoring and Assessment (CCMA)- Biogeography Branch; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Ocean Exploration and Research;

Partner Coordinator is Rusty Brainard, Chief of the Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED).

61 | Page

Survey Name: Terrestrial Hermit Crabs

Survey ID: FF01RHOW00-022

Priority Rank: 19

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Increase baseline information on marine community; Increase baseline information on terrestrial habitat

The survey supports management objectives in the Howland Island NWR CCP (2008) to develop more complete information about the terrestrial ecosystem. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Land-crabs in the genus Coenobita play an influential role in shaping the species composition and structure of the terrestrial community in the tropical Central Pacific. They are the dominant herbivore and scavenger in terms of biomass and density on islands throughout the equatorial Pacific. Terrestrial hermit crabs have been shown to have significant impacts on plant establishment, distribution and abundance through their intense consumption of seeds and seedlings and their preferential predation of some species.

Their size and distribution may be an early indicator of some invasive species such as the Yellow Crazy Ant (Anoplolepis longipes). This aggressive ant species can exclude land hermit crabs from the interior of small oceanic islands, and regular monitoring of the Coenobita population at Howland may allow for early detection of invasive species. Rats also influence the size, abundance, and distribution of terrestrial hermit crabs, though rats have been eliminated from Howland Island.

Current wildlife monitoring efforts on Howland Island NWR is limited to a short visit of several days every 2-3 years. This infrequent and irregular level of monitoring does not allow for wildlife population trend estimates, but an index of crab population size repeated over many visits will allow us to detect dramatic changes. In addition, monitoring the species and quality of marine gastropod shells being used by these hermit crabs will provide an indirect indication of the availability of preferred shell types and may reflect changes occurring in the surrounding marine habitat.

62 | Page

Wilderness Inventory (i.e., naturalness, a condition that generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature with the imprint of man’s work substantially unnoticeable).

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: February or March

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Biotic Group Level 1: Arthropoda (arthropods);

Biotic Group Level 2: Decapoda (crabs,crayfishes,lobsters,prawns,shrimp);

Coenobita (No Common Name);

Coenobita perlatus and C. brevimanus are the species of interest. Estimated population size, and the species and condition of gastropod mollusk shells being used by the crabs, are the attributes of interest. Estimates of population size will be calculated using the Lincoln-Peterson mark-recapture index.

Animals in a sample area can be quickly and safely marked on the shell with a paint-pen and then the area sampled on subsequent nights to get a ratio of marked to unmarked animals. The type, size, and condition of gastropod shells being used by the crabs is derived through photographic documentation.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Baseline Monitoring

None;

63 | Page

Survey Name: Shorebirds

Survey ID: FF01RHOW00-011

Priority Rank: 20

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Develop baseline migratory bird and other species information

The surveys support an objective in the Howland Island NWR CCP pertaining to the goal of contributing to the recovery, protection, and management efforts for all native species with special consideration for seabirds, migratory shorebirds, federally listed threatened and endangered species, and species of management concern. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

The administration, management, and growth of the National Wildlife Refuge System are guided in part by the goal of developing and maintaining a network of habitats for migratory birds (601 FW 1). The United States Shorebird Conservation Plan (2000) identifies the U.S. Pacific Islands as being of critical importance for two species of Holarctic breeders, bristle-thighed curlew and Pacific golden-plover, both of which utilize Howland Island as wintering habitat. These two species are considered species of High Concern in the national conservation priority scheme for shorebirds (Engilis and Naughton 2004); of high concern in the Regional shorebird plan; and Birds of Conservation Concern, BCR 68 (USFWS 2002). Ruddy turnstone are also labeled as high concern in the Regional shorebird plan. Five additional migratory shorebird species have been documented at Howland Island. Documenting trends in the use of Howland Island by migratory shorebirds assists in gaining a more comprehensive understanding of the species' population status and migratory patterns.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: February or March

64 | Page

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Biotic Group Level 1: Aves (Birds);

Biotic Group Level 2: Anseriformes (Ducks,Geese,Screamers,Swans,Waterfowl);

Anas acuta (Northern Pintail);

Biotic Group Level 2: Charadriiformes (Alcids,Auks,Gulls,Oystercatchers,Plovers,Shore Birds);

Limosa lapponica (Bar-tailed Godwit); Calidris alba (Sanderling); Calidris melanotos (Pectoral Sandpiper); Calidris acuminata (Sharp-tailed Sandpiper); Tringa incana (Wandering Tattler); Numenius tahitiensis (Bristle-thighed Curlew); Arenaria interpres (Ruddy Turnstone); Pluvialis dominica (American Golden-Plover, American Golden Plover, Lesser Golden-Plover);

Biotic Group Level 2: Pelecaniformes (Herons,Ibises,Pelicans);

Bubulcus ibis (Western Cattle Egret, Cattle Egret);

Marine vessels capable of traveling the open ocean for extended periods are the only opportunity for access to Howland. Since the refuge was established in 1974, NOAA, the U.S. Coast Guard, the Environmental Contaminants Branch of the Ecological Services USFWS Office in Honolulu, the Army Corps of Engineers, and private vessels chartered by HAM radio operators visiting Howland under Special Use Permit have all provided transportation to Howland. In some years, sea conditions preclude landing on the island. Between 1973 and 2015, biologists have been able to land and record observations on 17 of the 19 trips staged to Howland, for durations ranging from several hours to 3 days. If sufficient time is available, direct counts of migratory shorebirds are done while walking the perimeter of the island. In some years additional observations are included from the interior of the island. Because trips to the Refuge have been opportunistic, surveys have taken place erratically throughout the year (January, February, March, May, July, September, or November).

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Baseline Monitoring

None;

65 | Page

Survey Name: Marine Plankton

Survey ID: FF01RHOW00-026

Priority Rank: 21

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Increase baseline information on marine community

The surveys support an objective in the Howland Island NWR CCP pertaining to the goal of conserving, managing, and protecting native marine communities that are representative of remote tropical Pacific islands. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall use AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Marine plankton are organisms whose horizontal (and vertical) positions are primarily determined by the surrounding currents. They are primarily divided into phytoplankton, zooplankton, and bacterioplankton, broadly representing producer, consumer, and recycler groups. They include a range of sizes, from microorganisms such as bacteria, diatoms, foraminifera, and ciliates to larger organisms such as jellyfish, ctenophores, and pelagic tunicates (salps). Plankton ecosystems represent the bottom few levels of a food chain on which all higher trophic levels are ultimately dependent.

Plankton abundance and distribution are strongly dependent on factors such as ambient nutrient concentrations, the physical state of the water column, and the abundance of other plankton. All plankton ecosystems are driven by the input of solar energy, confining primary production to surface waters experiencing abundant light. Although large areas of the tropical and sub-tropical oceans have abundant light, they experience relatively low primary production because they offer limited nutrients such as nitrate, phosphate, and silicate. This in turn results from large-scale ocean circulation and water column stratification. In such regions, primary production usually occurs at greater depth, although at a reduced level because of reduced light. Environmental variability at multiple scales influences the nutrient and light available for phytoplankton; as these organisms form the base of the marine food web, this variability in phytoplankton growth influences higher trophic levels. For example, at inter-annual time scales phytoplankton levels temporarily plummet during El Nino periods, influencing populations of zooplankton, fishes, sea birds, and marine mammals.

The effect of anthropogenic warming on the global population of phytoplankton is an area of active research. Changes in the vertical stratification of the water column, the rate of temperature-dependent biological reactions, and the atmospheric supply of nutrients are expected to have important impacts on phytoplankton productivity. Primarily by grazing on phytoplankton, zooplankton provides carbon to the planktonic food web, either respiring it to provide metabolic energy, or upon death as detritus. Organic material tends to be denser than seawater, and as a result it sinks into open ocean ecosystems, transporting carbon along with it. This process, known as the biological pump, is one reason that oceans constitute the largest carbon sink on Earth. Estimating chlorophyll concentrations in the ocean and their role in the ocean’s biological pump play a role in our ability to foresee and adapt to climate change.

66 | Page

The waters within the Howland Island NWR and the adjacent Howland Island unit of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument (PRIMNM) are an important part of the most widespread collection of marine- and terrestrial-life protected areas on the planet under a single country’s jurisdiction, sustaining many indigenous species of fish, seabirds, and marine mammals. All are ultimately dependent on the food web based on primary productivity in the sea. An improved understanding of the biodiversity, abundance, and distribution of planktonic communities and their spatial and temporal variability will also improve understanding of the abundances and distributions of the higher trophic level populations supported by these communities. Modeling has suggested that, in response to greenhouse-gas forcing associated with climate change, warming and decline in productivity around select Pacific islands will be mitigated by enhanced upwelling of cool waters in the equatorial undercurrent (EUC). If realized, these predictions help to identify potential refuges for coral reef communities from anticipated climate changes of the twenty-first century. Located within the stream of the EUC, Howland Island could become a refuge for marine productivity and coral reefs in an otherwise desolate tropical seascape.

Timing: TBD

Frequency: Recurring -- every three to four years

Biotic Group Level 1: Arthropoda (arthropods)

Biotic Group Level 2: Amphipoda (amphipods)

Hyperia (no common name)

Possible methods:

SeaWiFS (Sea-Viewing Wide Field-of-View Sensor) is a satellite-borne sensor whose primary mission is to quantify chlorophyll produced by marine phytoplankton, providing a proxy for primary productivity. The chief location for SeaWiFS data is NASA’s OceanColor website (http://oceancolor.gsfc.nasa.gov/cms/), which allows users to browse individual SeaWiFS images based on time and area selections. Data are provided at numerous temporal scales including daily, monthly, and seasonal images. Chlorophyll-a concentration can also be determined directly at sea from water samples taken at multiple depths with a benchtop fluorometer. Remote sensing via SeaWiFS enables greater temporal sampling than ship-based sampling.

At-sea plankton samples are generally acquired from plankton tows using various types of nets. A ParioVET is a small, fine mesh net that is lowered into the water to 70 meters when the ship is stopped and towed vertically to the surface. It is used primarily to sample ichthyoplankton (planktonic fish eggs). A Bongo net, named because it looks like a bongo drum, is towed obliquely through the water while the ship is underway from ~200 meters to the surface, effectively sampling the layer of water in which most plankton reside. A manta tow net is dragged just along the surface of the water while the ship is underway, as some plankton are specialized to live at the surface. The invertebrate (non-fish) fraction of plankton samples provides data on distribution and abundance of other zooplankton such as crustacean larvae.

67 | Page

Another method, generally used to study ichthyoplankton, is a Continuous Underway Fish Egg Sampler, or CUFES. While the ship is underway, water is pumped aboard from a fixed depth and sent through a concentrator, where it passes through a net and the plankton is diverted to a collector. While the CUFES is running, a data logger is recording the date, time, and position for each sample. The presence of fish eggs in these samples has been used to reflect spawning locations of the western stock of the Atlantic Bluefin tuna (Thynnus thynnus) in the Gulf of Mexico.

At-sea surveys for marine plankton could be coordinated with other pelagic surveys (e.g., pelagic seabirds, pelagic fishes, and marine mammals) to enable data integration, increase efficiencies, and constrain costs.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Baseline Monitoring

NOAA Fisheries; Phoenix Islands Protected Area; Alaska Maritime NWR

68 | Page

Survey Name: Terrestrial Arthropods

Survey ID: FF01RHOW00-017

Priority Rank: 22

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Conserve, manage, and protect habitat for nesting seabirds

In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

The entomologist Edward L. Caum visited Howland Island in 1924 and a number of other naturalists collected insects on subsequent trips. However, there are no published accounts or lists until Ashley Browne of the University of Hawaii visited in 1939 and published a short note listing 3 species of insects that were collected (Browne 1940). Recent observations, but not collections, during staff visits by Service biologists include house flies, small ants, moths, millers, butterflies, and spiders. Nonetheless, knowledge of the insect fauna at Howland Island NWR is poor because no formal surveys have taken place.

Maintaining the island free of invasive insects is critical for survival of seabirds, shorebirds, and other native biota. At several other remote Pacific NWRs, invasive insects have proved detrimental to populations of native plants and animals. At Rose Atoll NWR, the invasive scale insect Pulvenaria urbicola, tended by ants, is killing native Pisonia grandis trees. At Palmyra Atoll NWR, ants have also facilitated the rapid decline of Pisonia forests by protecting damaging scale insects from natural enemies such as parasitic wasps and predaceous beetles. At Johnston Atoll, USFWS employees on a research and monitoring cruise in late January 2010 found an infestation of yellow crazy ants (YCA, Anoplolepis gracilipes) affecting approximately 40 of 260-hectare Johnston Island.

The threat of the YCA spreading across the entire island and completely displacing ground-nesting seabirds is a critical conservation issue; as a result a strike team was deployed to Johnston in August 2010 with the primary mission of eradicating the YCA population before it could displace native seabird species. The rate of expansion and difficulty of controlling YCA at Johnston Atoll highlights the need for improved knowledge of native and alien insects at other remote Pacific Island NWRs so as to improve the capacity for early detection and rapid response. Strict quarantine protocols have been previously established and are mandatory for all visitors to Howland Island NWR in order to eliminate the threat of introducing invasive insects, other animals, and plants.

69 | Page of field camp operations; use of portable generators and solar power to operate communications and other equipment) are conducted in such a manner as not to detract from the wilderness values identified in the Wilderness Inventory (i.e., naturalness, a condition that generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature with the imprint of man’s work substantially unnoticeable).

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: February or March

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Although observations of insects noted during other survey work at Howland Island have been recorded, no systematic sampling had been undertaken before 2012. This survey will systematically use several types of collection methods, with each method targeting a different part of the insect fauna and covering as much area and diversity of habitat of the island as possible. Species distributions will be associated with micro-habitat preferences (e.g., host plant, substrate) to inform ecologically-based management plans by the refuge staff.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Baseline Monitoring

U.S. Geological Survey;

Partner Coordinators are Bob Peck and Paul Banko, USGS Research Wildlife Biologists.

70 | Page

Table 1‐B. Summary of Selected Surveys for Baker Island NWR and the Baker Island Unit of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument

I&M Specialist, February or Pacific CCP / 6b., Ma rch/ Initial Calcium Ca rbona te Other: 2010‐ Islands 1 FF01RBKI00‐026 Current 2a., 3d., Regional $0.00 Recurring ‐‐ (none) Survey Accretion (CB) 0.08 Indefinite I&M 4a. every three Instructions Specialist yea rs (FWS liaison) TBD/ Beth Flint, Initial Pelagic Seabirds CCP / 2b., Recurring ‐‐ 2020‐ 2 FF01RBKI00‐033 Expected Regional N/A $0.00 Wildlife (none) Survey (CB) 3a., 4a. every three Indefinite Biologist Instructions yea rs Multiple management units: February or Non‐avian CCP / 3d., Wilderness Ma rch/ Beth Flint, Initial Terrestrial and 3c., 3e., Inventory Unit FWS: $1,613.0 1977‐ 3 FF01RBKI00‐013 Current Recurring ‐‐ Wildlife (none) Survey Ma rine Wildlife 3a., 1a., A and 0.01 0 Indefinite every three Biologist Instructions Observations (CB) 4a. nearshore yea rs waters of Wilderness Unit B Remote CCP / 2b., January Surveillance of 1b., 3c., through Beth Flint, Initial FWS: $175,850 2015‐ 3 FF01RBKI00‐016 Terrestrial and Current 5b., 3a., Entire station December/ Wildlife (none) Survey 0.05 .00 Indefinite Ma rine Systems 6a., 1a., Recurring ‐‐ Biologist Instructions (CB) 4a. every yea r I&M Specialist, February or Pacific Ma rch/ Initial Benthic Ma rine CCP / 2b., Other: 2008‐ Islands 4 FF01RBKI00‐022 Current Regional $0.00 Recurring ‐‐ (none) Survey Cryptobi ota (CB) 3d., 4a. 0.08 Indefinite I&M every three Instructions Specialist yea rs (FWS liaison)

71 | Page

Single February or management Wildlife Hazards CCP / 1c., Ma rch/ Beth Flint, Initial unit: FWS: $1,613.0 1977‐ 5 FF01RBKI00‐010 and Signs of Current 1a., 5a., Recurring ‐‐ Wildlife (none) Survey Wilderness 0.01 0 Indefinite Trespass (BM) 4a. every three Biologist Instructions Inventory Unit yea rs A Data loggers, I&M time interval Specialist, va ri es Pacific CCP / 6b., among Initial Other: 2001‐ Islands 6 FF01RBKI00‐009 Oceanography (CB) Current 2b., 2a., Regional $0.00 instrument (none) Survey 0.07 Indefinite I&M 4a. types, Instructions Specialist January‐ (FWS December/ liaison) Recurring ‐‐ every yea r

TBD/ Beth Flint, Initial CCP / 2b., Recurring ‐‐ 2020‐ 7 FF01RBKI00‐030 Pelagic Fishes (CB) Expected Regional N/A $0.00 Wildlife (none) Survey 2a., 4a. every three Indefinite Biologist Instructions yea rs Single February or management CCP / 3b., Ma rch/ Beth Flint, Initial Seabird Col oni es unit: FWS: $1,613.0 1977‐ 8 FF01RBKI00‐002 Current 3a., 1a., Recurring ‐‐ Wildlife (none) Survey (CB) Wilderness 0.05 0 Indefinite 4a. every three Biologist Instructions Inventory Unit yea rs A I&M Specialist, February or Pacific CCP / 6b., Ma rch/ Initial Cora l Community Other: 2000‐ Islands 9 FF01RBKI00‐005 Current 2b., 3d., Regional $0.00 Recurring ‐‐ (none) Survey Structure (CB) 0.07 Indefinite I&M 4a. every three Instructions Specialist yea rs (FWS liaison)

72 | Page

February or Ma rch/ Beth Flint, Initial Pelagic Wildlife CCP / 2b., FWS: $1,613.0 1977‐ 10 FF01RBKI00‐014 Current Regional Recurring ‐‐ Wildlife (none) Survey (BM) 3d., 3e. 0.03 0 Indefinite every three Biologist Instructions yea rs Single February or management Ma rch/ Beth Flint, Initial Terrestrial Plant CCP / 1b., unit: FWS: $1,613.0 1977‐ 11 FF01RBKI00‐011 Current Recurring ‐‐ Wildlife (none) Survey Observations (BM) 1a., 4a. Wilderness 0.02 0 Indefinite every three Biologist Instructions Inventory Unit yea rs A I&M Specialist, February or Non‐coral Pacific Ma rch/ Initial Targeted Marine CCP / 2b., Other: 2000‐ Islands 12 FF01RBKI00‐004 Current Regional $0.00 Recurring ‐‐ (none) Survey Macroinvertebrate 3d., 4a. 0.03 Indefinite I&M every three Instructions s, Broadscale (CB) Specialist yea rs (FWS liaison) I&M Specialist, February or Pacific Algal Diversity and Ma rch/ Initial CCP / 2b., Other: 2001‐ Islands 13 FF01RBKI00‐012 Benthic Current Regional $0.00 Recurring ‐‐ (none) Survey 3d., 4a. 0.05 Indefinite I&M Compos i ti on (CB) every three Instructions Specialist yea rs (FWS liaison) I&M Specialist, Pacific TBD/ Occurs Initial Deep‐sea Realm CCP / 2b., Other: Islands 14 FF01RBKI00‐027 Expected Regional $0.00 one time 2020‐ 2020 (none) Survey (CI) 3d., 4a. 0.15 I&M only Instructions Specialist (FWS liaison) TBD/ Beth Flint, Initial Ma rine Mammals CCP / 2b., Recurring ‐‐ 2020‐ 15 FF01RBKI00‐031 Expected Regional N/A $0.00 Wildlife (none) Survey (CB) 3e., 4a. every three Indefinite Biologist Instructions yea rs 73 | Page

I&M Specialist, February or Pacific Reef Fish Diversity Ma rch/ Initial CCP / 2b., Other: 2000‐ Islands 16 FF01RBKI00‐007 and Abundance Current Regional $0.00 Recurring ‐‐ (none) Survey 3c., 3d., 4a. 0.08 Indefinite I&M (CB) every three Instructions Specialist yea rs (FWS liaison) I&M Specialist, February or Pacific Initial Mesophotic Cora l CCP / 2b., Other: Ma rch/ 2004‐ Islands 18 FF01RBKI00‐024 Current Regional $0.00 (none) Survey Ecosystems (CB) 3d., 4a. 0.1 Sporadic or Indefinite I&M Instructions Ad Hoc Specialist (FWS liaison) Single February or management Ma rch/ Beth Flint, Initial Terrestrial Hermit CCP / 2b., unit: FWS: $1,613.0 2015‐ 19 FF01RBKI00‐028 Current Recurring ‐‐ Wildlife (none) Survey Cra bs (BM) 1b. Wilderness 0.04 0 Indefinite every three Biologist Instructions Inventory Unit yea rs A Single February or management Ma rch/ Beth Flint, Initial CCP / 3a., unit: FWS: $1,613.0 1977‐ 20 FF01RBKI00‐015 Shorebirds (BM) Current Recurring ‐‐ Wildlife (none) Survey 4a. Wilderness 0.02 0 Indefinite every three Biologist Instructions Inventory Unit yea rs A Single Lee Ann management Woodward, TBD/ Occurs Initial Ma rine CCP / 1c., unit: FWS: $110,000 Conta mi na 21 FF01RBKI00‐019 Expected one time 2020‐ 2020 (none) Survey Contaminants (CI) 1d. Wilderness 0.81 .00 nts only Instructions Inventory Unit Specialist, B USFWS Single Lee Ann management Woodward, TBD/ Initial Terrestrial CCP / 1c., unit: $183,750 1978‐ Conta mi na 22 FF01RBKI00‐017 Current N/A Sporadic or (none) Survey Contaminants (CB) 1d. Wilderness .00 Indefinite nts Ad Hoc Instructions Inventory Unit Specialist, A 74 | Page USFWS

TBD/ Beth Flint, Initial Ma rine Plankton CCP / 2b., Recurring ‐‐ 2020‐ 23 FF01RBKI00‐032 Expected Regional N/A $0.00 Wildlife (none) Survey (CB) 4a. every three Indefinite Biologist Instructions yea rs Single February or management FWS: Ma rch/ Beth Flint, Initial Terrestrial CCP / 1a., unit: 0.21, $1,613.0 2012‐ 24 FF01RBKI00‐018 Current Recurring ‐‐ Wildlife (none) Survey Arthropods (CB) 4a. Wilderness Other: 0 Indefinite every three Biologist Instructions Inventory Unit 0.04 yea rs A

75 | Page

Survey Profiles, Baker Island NWR and Baker Island Unit of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument

Survey Name: Calcium Carbonate Accretion ...... 77 Survey Name: Pelagic Seabirds ...... 79 Survey Name: Non-avian Terrestrial and Marine Wildlife Observations ...... 82 Survey Name: Remote Surveillance of Terrestrial and Marine Systems ...... 85 Survey Name: Benthic Marine Cryptobiota ...... 88 Survey Name: Wildlife Hazards and Signs of Trespass ...... 90 Survey Name: Oceanography ...... 92 Survey Name: Pelagic Fishes ...... 95 Survey Name: Seabird Colonies ...... 98 Survey Name: Coral Community Structure ...... 100 Survey Name: Pelagic Wildlife ...... 103 Survey Name: Terrestrial Plant Observations ...... 105 Survey Name: Non-coral Targeted Marine Macroinvertebrate, Broadscale ...... 108 Survey Name: Algal Diversity and Benthic Composition ...... 110 Survey Name: Deep-sea Realm ...... 112 Survey Name: Marine Mammals ...... 114 Survey Name: Reef Fish Diversity and Abundance ...... 116 Survey Name: Cryptic Reef Fishes ...... 119 Survey Name: Mesophotic Coral Ecosystems ...... 121 Survey Name: Terrestrial Hermit Crabs ...... 123 Survey Name: Shorebirds ...... 125 Survey Name: Marine Contaminants ...... 127 Survey Name: Terrestrial Contaminants ...... 129 Survey Name: Marine Plankton ...... 131 Survey Name: Terrestrial Arthropods ...... 134

76 | Page

Survey Name: Calcium Carbonate Accretion

Survey ID: FF01RBKI00-026

Priority Rank: 1

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Increase understanding of impacts of global climate change; Conserve, manage, and protect marine habitat; Protect, enhance, and maintain wilderness values; Expand baseline information on marine community.

The surveys support management objectives, derived from the Baker Island NWR CCP (2008), to protect the marine habitat and expand baseline information on the marine community. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

77 | Page

The coral reefs, other submerged lands, and water column lying within 3 nautical miles of the mean high water mark of Baker Island (Inventory Unit B) were identified in the Wilderness Review Inventory as meeting the requirements of a Wilderness Study Area (WSA-A); further evaluation of its wilderness value concluded it can be managed to preserve its wilderness character in perpetuity using a minimum requirements approach for all activities. All management activities associated with survey activities (motorized marine vessel transportation to and from Baker; survey and monitoring of marine habitat including the use of SCUBA equipment; mechanical equipment such as air compressors for SCUBA remains on the marine transport vessel) are conducted in such a manner as not to detract from the wilderness values identified in the Wilderness Inventory (i.e., naturalness, a condition that generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature with the imprint of man's work substantially unnoticeable).

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?brea

Timing: February or March

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Twenty CAUs were first deployed at 4 sites (5 CAUs/ site) at Baker Island in 2010. In 2012, the CAUs were retrieved and replaced with fresh CAUs. Additional cohorts of CAUs will be swapped out with each CRED monitoring cruise which, beginning in 2012, will take place at triennial intervals.

In association with the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, CRED also will use CAUs to monitor what calcifying organisms are present. Photographs are taken of each CAU and analyzed to determine biotic composition.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Baseline Monitoringbrea

University of California San Diego, Scripps Institute of Oceanography; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED)

Partner Coordinator is Rusty Brainard, Chief of the Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED).brea

78 | Page

Survey Name: Pelagic Seabirds

Survey ID: FF01RBKI00-033

Priority Rank: 2

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Increase baseline information on marine community; Develop baseline migratory bird and other species information

The surveys support an objective in the Baker Island NWR CCP pertaining to the goal of contributing to the recovery, protection, and management efforts for all native species with special consideration for seabirds…and species of management concern. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Seabird survivorship and reproductive success are closely linked to successful food foraging at sea. There is a lack of information about the at-sea distribution and abundance of seabirds in the oceanic waters protected within the Baker Island NWR and the adjacent Baker Island unit of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument (PRIMNM). Moreover, knowledge of the linkage between seabird distribution and the oceanographic environment is highly limited, which in turn limits understanding of why seabirds choose certain regions and hydrographic features in which to forage. Studies in the Eastern Tropical Pacific on several of the same seabird species that occur at Baker Island show the birds have a strong at-sea association with thermocline depth in the ocean. Foraging range, as reflected in seabird distribution, is pertinent to management because it dictates whether protected area boundaries are effectively incorporating foraging habitat. The foraging ranges of seabirds needed to protect and recover their populations was an important factor in establishing the boundaries of the PRIMNM in 2009 and in extending those boundaries further offshore at other units in the Monument (Johnston Atoll, Wake Atoll, Jarvis Island) in 2014. Improved understanding of the at-sea distribution of seabirds, its relationship to oceanographic conditions, and the complex inter-relationships of seabirds and pelagic fishes will help Monument managers develop comprehensive and effective management plans to effectively protect the marine life in these areas.

79 | Page

Timing: TBD

Frequency: Recurring -- every three to four years

Biotic Group Level 1: Aves (Birds)

Biotic Group Level 2: Charadriiformes (Alcids,Auks,Gulls,Oystercatchers,Plovers,Shore Birds)

Biotic Group Level 2: Phaethontiformes (Tropicbirds)

Phaethon rubricauda (Red-tailed Tropicbird); Phaethon lepturus (White-tailed Tropicbird)

Biotic Group Level 2: Procellariiformes (Tube-nosed Swimmers)

Puffinus pacificus (Wedge-tailed Shearwater)

Biotic Group Level 2: Suliformes (Cormorants)

Fregata ariel (Lesser Frigatebird); Fregata minor (Great Frigatebird); Sula sula (Red-footed Booby); Sula leucogaster (Brown Booby); Sula dactylatra (Masked Booby)

Possible Methods:

80 | Page

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Baseline Monitoring

NOAA Fisheries; Phoenix Islands Protected Area; Alaska Maritime NWR

81 | Page

Survey Name: Non-avian Terrestrial and Marine Wildlife Observations

Survey ID: FF01RBKI00-013

Priority Rank: 3

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Develop baseline scientific information on marine mammal use of Baker; Protect, enhance, and maintain wilderness values; Conserve, manage, and protect habitat for nesting seabirds; Develop baseline data and understand sea turtle use of Baker; Expand baseline information on marine community.; Develop baseline migratory bird and other species information

These incidental observations of other wildlife collectively support several objectives in the Baker Island NWR CCP. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

There are no native land mammals at Baker Island. Introduced rats, cats, and dogs have been removed from the island, but mice persist and their population size fluctuates with rainfall levels. The number and diversity of breeding seabirds at Baker rebounded following the eradication of predatory rats and cats. The potential for re- introduction of rats and/or cats by illegal trespassers exists given the limitations on active law enforcement in this remote area, thus necessitating continued surveillance for these introduced predators.

The green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) and the hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) have been observed foraging offshore at Baker, but nesting is not known to occur. However, data from the area are limited and use of Baker may be greater than currently documented. Any data collected will help to inform understanding of the use of Baker resources by sea turtles.

Little information exists on marine mammal use of the waters surrounding Baker Island. However, studies elsewhere in the Pacific indicate that waters surrounding small islands may support distinct local populations of marine mammals. Formal quantitative surveys of marine mammal distribution and abundance have not been undertaken at the refuge.

Inventory Unit A (terrestrial portion of Baker Island) did not meet the naturalness criteria for consideration as a Wilderness Study Area, as considerable evidence of human activities and military use of the island exists. Nonetheless, Baker Island has been and is managed as a wild, natural area due to its remote location and limited human presence. All terrestrial surveys are conducted using minimum tools necessary to manage refuge resources in order to preserve or improve wilderness values (establishing temporary field camps; small motorboat operations used in deployment and demobilization of field camp operations; use of portable generators and solar power to operate communications and other equipment; control of invasive species using hand pulling or hand spraying).

82 | Page

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?brea

Timing: February or March

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Biotic Group Level 1: Arthropoda (arthropods);

Biotic Group Level 2: Decapoda (crabs,crayfishes,lobsters,prawns,shrimp);

Coenobita (No Common Name);

Biotic Group Level 1: Mammalia (mammals);

Biotic Group Level 2: Cetacea (cetaceans,dolphins,marine mammals,porpoises,whales);

Tursiops truncatus (Bottlenosed Dolphin, Bottlenose Dolphin);

Biotic Group Level 2: Rodentia (rodents);

Mus musculus (house mouse);

Biotic Group Level 1: Reptilia (Reptiles);

Biotic Group Level 2: Squamata (Amphisbaenians,Lizards,Snakes);

Cryptoblepharus poecilopleurus (Oceanic Snake-eyed Skink); Lepidodactylus lugubris (Mourning Gecko);

Biotic Group Level 2: Testudines (terrapins,tortoises,Turtles);

Eretmochelys imbricata (Hawksbill sea turtle); Chelonia mydas (Green sea turtle)

Marine vessels capable of traveling the open ocean for extended periods are the only opportunity for access to Baker. Since the refuge was established in 1974, NOAA, the U.S. Coast Guard, the Environmental Contaminants Branch of the Ecological Services USFWS Office in Honolulu, the Army Corps of Engineers, and private vessels chartered by HAM radio operators visiting Baker under Special Use Permit have all provided transportation. In some years, sea conditions preclude landing on the island. Between 1973 and 2015, biologists have been able to land and record observations on 14 of the 17 trips staged to Baker, for durations ranging from several hours to 9 days. Observations of seabirds and migratory shorebirds have been prioritized, but narrative observations on the presence/absence and general condition of non-avian fauna are included when possible. These semi-quantitative observations may have included: mammals (dolphins, mice), reptiles (turtles, skinks, geckos), arthropods (land crabs, insects), molluscs (giant clams, shells of other species), and reef fishes (including eels). Because trips to the Refuge since it was established have been opportunistic, surveys have taken place erratically throughout the year (January, February, March, May, June, September, or November).

The Baker Island NWR CCP indicates that incidental observations of nearshore turtle use and of marine mammals will be strategies applied to achieve Objectives 3c and 3e, respectively. Also indicated is that recording "the presence/absence of…turtles and other terrestrial invertebrates" are desired conditions by which Objective 3a can be evaluated. To implement these strategies, incidental observations of turtles, marine mammals, and terrestrial invertebrates will be recorded in the course of conducting more systematic surveys such as those for seabirds and migratory shorebirds. Efforts will be made to acquire additional data (e.g., GPS coordinates,

83 | Page abundance estimates) for introduced animals (e.g., ants) that may have become highly invasive and may merit management actions to control.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Baseline Monitoringbrea

None; brea

84 | Page

Survey Name: Remote Surveillance of Terrestrial and Marine Systems

Survey ID: FF01RBKI00-016

Priority Rank: 3

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Conserve, manage, and protect habitat for nesting seabirds; Develop baseline migratory bird and other species information; Enhance law enforcement capabilities; Increase baseline information on marine community; Provide off-site education and interpretation opportunities; Protect, enhance, and maintain wilderness values; Increase baseline information on terrestrial habitat; Develop baseline data and understand sea turtle use of Baker.

Remote surveillance surveys would support a number of objectives in the Baker Island NWR CCP. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Current wildlife monitoring efforts at Baker Island National Wildlife Refuge are limited to a short visit of several days every 2-3 years. The infrequency and irregularity of opportunities to visit the Refuge has greatly limited our capacity to understand the status and trends of its avian, vegetative, and other wildlife resources. Baker Island serves as an important breeding epicenter for a large number of seabirds in the Central Pacific. To understand the patterns of seabird use we need to have a year-round monitoring presence. Since it is impractical to have human presence year-round based on current funding resources, automated wildlife monitoring methods can provide us with the data that we need for wildlife population trend estimates and detecting all seabird species using the site, with minimal human involvement.

Currently we have no method for measuring the number of times per year that trespassers visit this extremely remote and fragile site. Installation of a solar-powered remote surveillance system (RSS) that can transfer real- time data including visual imagery via satellite telemetry could help to fill substantial gaps in our knowledge of temporal trends in avian species presence/absence, density, and breeding cycles; vegetation condition (including presence of invasives); use of beaches by sea turtles; meteorological parameters (temperature, precipitation, wind speed and direction, barometric pressure) and oceanographic parameters (sea level, sea surface

85 | Page temperature, pH, and salinity). In conjunction with real-time remote surveillance, songmeters that record species- specific call information over the course of their deployment can capture an annual soundscape for determining species’ patterns of use.

The coral reefs, other submerged lands, and water column lying within 3 nautical miles of the mean high water mark of Baker Island (Inventory Unit B) were identified in the Wilderness Review Inventory as meeting the requirements of a Wilderness Study Area (WSA-A); further evaluation of its wilderness values concluded it can be managed to preserve its wilderness character in perpetuity using a minimum requirements approach for all activities. Inventory Unit A (terrestrial portion of Baker Island) did not meet the naturalness criteria for consideration as a Wilderness Study Area, as considerable evidence of human activities and military use of the island exists. Nonetheless, Baker Island has been and is managed as a wild, natural area due to its remote location and limited human presence. The capacity of remote surveillance to detect unlawful trespass and its potential consequences (e.g., introduction of alien, invasive species) promotes maintenance of wilderness values. Conversely, technological parameters associated with establishment of a remote surveillance system for terrestrial and marine habitats (e.g., power source, other impacts to naturalness) would have to be consistent with maintaining wilderness values.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?brea

Timing: January through December

Frequency: Recurring -- every year

The specific purpose statement for establishment of Baker Island NWR identified in the biological ascertainment report at the time of transfer to the Service is (USFWS 1973): "...the restoration and preservation of the complete ecosystem, terrestrial and marine. Priority must be given to allowing seabird nesting colonies to reestablish themselves on Baker so they would eventually reach the great numbers which were present there prior to human occupancy and abuse of the island during the past 125 years."

Five songmeters and two trail cameras installed at Baker Island in February 2015 are the first phase of a remote surveillance system. Specially programmed songmeters that will record species-specific call information over the course of their deployment (2-3 years) are used to monitor seabird activity. The songmeters are located in important seabird roosting or nesting locations across the island in varied habitats. The ultimate goal is to capture the annual soundscape for the island and thereby be able to determine the patterns of use for each seabird species. The songmeters are fitted with solar panels and enough data capacity to continue sampling for up to 3

86 | Page years until the data files can be collected. One of the solar-powered trail cameras overlooks the Refuge sign and lighthouse to pick up signs of trespassers.

As funds become available, solar-powered equipment with the capacity to telemeter visual information can be procured and installed. Capability to stream webcam will allow crown-source monitoring and surveillance as well as connecting people to the Monument and outreach. Temporal cycles of the presence, abundance, and nesting activity of seabirds would be the primary focus of this remote surveillance imagery. While patterns of seabird use are the primary target for remote terrestrial surveillance, additional visual information regarding migratory shorebirds, vegetative condition, weather patterns, sea turtle activity, and illegal human presence would also be captured. An offshore buoy station with sensors for sea level, sea surface temperature, pH, salinity, barometric pressure, wind speed, and wind direction can transmit high-resolution data daily via satellite telemetry. A hydrophone array may increase our ability to inventory marine mammals using the area, provide indices of other reef fish and crustacean behaviors and activity, and detect trespassing vessels.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Baseline Monitoring

U.S. Coast Guard; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; Phoenix Islands Protected Area

87 | Page

Survey Name: Benthic Marine Cryptobiota

Survey ID: FF01RBKI00-022

Priority Rank: 4

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Increase baseline information on marine community; Protect, enhance, and maintain wilderness values; Expand baseline information on marine community.

The surveys support management objectives, derived from the Baker Island NWR CCP (2008), to increase and expand baseline information on the marine community. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

88 | Page condition that generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature with the imprint of man's work substantially unnoticeable). Recognition of the essential role these noncoral-dominated reef areas play to the overall health status and accretion of reef ecosystems will help to ensure that effective reef management measures are accomplished. The responsibility for protecting and understanding coral reef ecosystems is shared with NOAA. The Service and NOAA often participate in joint management activities throughout the Pacific; however, no active marine management activities have occurred at Baker.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?brea

Timing: February or March

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

ARMS are composed of nine gray, type 1 polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plates (23 x 23 cm) stacked in an alternating series of open and obstructed formats and attached to a base plate of 35 x 45 cm. The entire structure is affixed to the sea floor with four stainless steel stakes, weights, and zip ties. These structures typically are deployed on mid-depth (10 meters) fore-reef habitats in replicate sets of three ARMS at three sites (3 x 3) per island or location. They remain on the bottom for 2 to 3 years during which time they become colonized with marine organisms. ARMS were first deployed at Baker Island in 2008 at two Rapid Ecological Assessment (REA) monitoring sites (n = 6 ARMS), with subsequent retrieval and deployment of new units in 2010 and 2012. Beginning in 2012 surveys changed to triennial intervals due to restructuring of funding by the NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Baseline Monitoringbrea

University of Hawaii, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST) - Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED);

Partner Coordinator is Rusty Brainard, Chief of the Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED)brea

89 | Page

Survey Name: Wildlife Hazards and Signs of Trespass

Survey ID: FF01RBKI00-010

Priority Rank: 5

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Survey and monitor refuge to document contamination; Conserve, manage, and protect habitat for nesting seabirds; Protect cultural resources; Protect, enhance, and maintain wilderness values

Observations and mitigation of contaminants and wildlife hazards support the CCP objective of conserving, managing, and protecting habitat for nesting seabirds. Documenting incidental signs of trespass and the condition of the day beacon supports CCP objectives of protecting and maintaining wilderness values, and protecting cultural resources. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Empty fuel and water drums are an entrapment hazard to roosting seabirds that may fall inside and be unable to escape. The drums have been turned over to prevent entrapment. Contaminated debris (e.g., leaking barrels, batteries) and adrift Fish Aggregation Devices (FADs) may wash ashore or be left by trespassers, necessitating surveillance and mitigation for these items.

Baker Island National Wildlife Refuge remains closed to public access. Documenting signs of probable trespass provides intelligence for law enforcement efforts in this remote region to reduce adverse ecological impacts from illegal human traffic including exploitation of marine resources, introduction of invasive species, sewage pollution, fuel spills, trash disposal, harassment of wildlife, and damage to cultural resources.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?brea

Timing: February or March

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

90 | Page

USFWS Environmental Contaminants Branch of the Ecological Services Office in Honolulu in an effort to determine the extent of contaminants on Baker Island. In 2001, ground penetrating radar was used to investigate several sites suspected of being either buried trenches of fuel drums or landfills, and soil samples were taken from the suspect landfill, offshore of the landfill, and at several sites where the fuel drums were found and/or burned in 1986. Samples (eels, snails, damselfish, soil) were collected in 2001 and 2004 to analyze for presence of contaminants, including PCBs. While the visible condition of rusting drums and other mechanical debris was noted during irregular visits, more comprehensive inventory, monitoring, and remediation of contaminants needs to be accomplished (see separate Terrestrial Contaminants survey).

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Baseline Monitoringbrea

None; brea

91 | Page

Survey Name: Oceanography

Survey ID: FF01RBKI00-009

Priority Rank: 6

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Increase baseline information on marine community; Increase understanding of impacts of global climate change; Protect, enhance, and maintain wilderness values; Conserve, manage, and protect marine habitat.

By continuing and expanding upon the partnership with NOAA to monitor coral reef ecosystems, the objective of conserving, managing, and protecting the marine habitat is supported. By conducting baseline global climate change investigations in the offshore and nearshore marine environment, the objective of understanding impacts of global climate change is supported, because coral ecosystems and foraging seabirds are both impacted by changing ocean conditions. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Coastal geomorphology, reef ecosystems, and pelagic species are shaped by a dynamic suite of oceanographic parameters including the directionality, frequency, and magnitude of seawater movement; seawater temperature; and seawater chemistry. The values of these parameters vary over time and space, and collectively define the physical environment that drives the composition and condition of both permanent and transient reef and open ocean biota. Establishing knowledge of the temporal patterns (diurnal, tidal, seasonal, annual, decadal, etc.) of these variables and their anomalies promotes improved understanding of the ranges of physical forcing (abiotic) factors that constantly shape marine biota and their multiple interactions. In light of the manifestations of atmospheric climate change to ocean conditions (i.e., increasing sea surface temperatures, sea level rise, ocean acidification), it is imperative to monitor the physical status of the ocean water column that supports coral reefs. Modeling has suggested that, in response to greenhouse-gas forcing associated with climate change, warming and decline in productivity around select Pacific islands will be mitigated by enhanced upwelling of cool waters in the equatorial undercurrent (EUC). If realized, these predictions help to identify potential refuges for coral reef communities from anticipated climate changes of the twenty-first century. Located within the stream of the EUC, Baker Island could become a refuge for marine productivity and coral reefs in an otherwise desolate tropical seascape. Prey availability for foraging seabirds is also tied to changing ocean conditions.

The oceanographic surveys and platforms implemented at Baker since 2001, which include long-term moored observing stations with data telemetry, subsurface instrumented moorings and shipboard sensors, are components of NOAA's Coral Reef Ecosystem Integrated Observing System (CREIOS). CREIOS operates in and around the coral reefs of the US-affiliated Pacific Islands. Locations presently include the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, the Territory of Guam, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), the Territory of

92 | Page

American Samoa, and other U.S. Pacific Remote Island Areas including Howland, Baker, and Jarvis Islands, and Palmyra, Kingman, and Johnston Atolls. CREIOS, in turn, is part of the Pacific Islands Ocean Observing System (PacIOOS), one of 11 regional components of the U.S. Integrated Ocean Operating System (IOOS). The IOOS is a partnership among federal, regional, academic, and private sector parties that works to provide new tools and forecasts to improve safety, enhance the economy, and protect the environment.

In addition to locations serviced by CREIOS, the PacIOOS region includes the Pacific nations in Free Association with the U.S. (Republic of the Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, and Republic of Palau). PacIOOS works to develop the observational, modeling, data management, and outreach components of an end-to-end ocean observing system to generate products that help to ensure a safe, clean, and productive ocean and a resilient coastal zone for the U.S. Pacific. NOAA Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED), our USFWS partner in the Hawaii/Pacific zone that has taken the lead on oceanographic monitoring activities at Baker Island NWR since 2001, is a Regional Member of the PacIOOS Governing Council.

The coral reefs, other submerged lands, and water column lying within 3 nautical miles of the mean high water mark of Baker Island (Inventory Unit B) was identified in the Wilderness Review Inventory as meeting the requirements of a Wilderness Study Area (WSA-A); further evaluation of its wilderness values concluded it can be managed to preserve its wilderness character in perpetuity using a minimum requirements approach for all activities. All management activities associated with survey activities (motorized marine vessel transportation to and from Baker; survey and monitoring of marine habitat including the use of SCUBA equipment; mechanical equipment such as air compressors for SCUBA remains on the marine transport vessel) are conducted in such a manner as not to detract from the wilderness values identified in the Wilderness Inventory (i.e., naturalness, a condition that generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature with the imprint of man’s work substantially unnoticeable).

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?brea

Timing: Data loggers, time interval varies among instrument types, January-December

Frequency: Recurring -- every year

Since 2001, a number of oceanographic surveys have been implemented, and a diversity of oceanographic systems that log data at prescribed intervals have been installed at Baker. Spatial surveys include: (1) shipboard

93 | Page

CTDs (conductivity/temperature/depth) at select locations near the island to depths of 500m; (2) shallow-water (< 30 m) CTDs at multiple sites around the island; (3) shipboard acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) transects in the deepwater regions around the island to examine the horizontal and vertical structure of the prevailing ocean currents; (4) water samples from shallow and deep depths for analysis of nutrient and chlorophyll concentrations. These surveys/samples provide a "snapshot" of ocean conditions as they are only conducted during a 2-day period every two to three years. Oceanographic systems that transmit data via satellite and/or log data for downloading after instrument retrieval include: (1) sea surface temperature (SST) buoys; (2) subsurface temperature recorders (STRs); (3) subsurface ADCP/CTD mooring. These data sets provide a more comprehensive time series of variable conditions as the data are logged at prescribed intervals.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Baseline Monitoringbrea

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED);

Partner Coordinator is Rusty Brainard, Chief of the Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED)brea

94 | Page

Survey Name: Pelagic Fishes

Survey ID: FF01RBKI00-030

Priority Rank: 7

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Conserve, manage, and protect marine habitat; Increase baseline information on marine community

The surveys support objectives in the Baker Island NWR CCP pertaining to the goal of conserving, managing, and protecting native marine communities that are representative of remote tropical Pacific islands. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall use AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Very little detailed work has been done examining the distribution of tunas and other pelagic fish in the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument (PRIMNM) region. The spatial and temporal scale over which subsurface predators and seabirds operate is critical to seabird survival and reproductive success, with implications for the effect of fisheries management on these attributes. If subsurface predators remain highly resident to an area and seabirds are able to forage within those same distances, the seabirds may reliably find facilitated foraging opportunities. This in turn implies that fisheries management at the Monument scale can have important influences on the ecosystem and facilitated foraging. In contrast, if subsurface predators are not resident to an area, seabirds constrained by breeding activities onshore will be less likely to encounter opportunities for facilitated foraging. This alternative implies that fisheries management at the Monument scale may have reduced influence on the foraging success of seabirds. Thus, the residency of subsurface predators within protected areas gives insight into whether they can be effectively protected from fishing pressure, as well as whether or not the interaction between seabirds and subsurface predators can be similarly protected. Data on distributions of both tuna and seabirds are critical to understanding the overlap between seabirds and subsurface predators as well as evaluating if Monument boundaries are effectively capturing the ranges and critical areas of the populations they are aiming to protect.

Participants of a workshop conducted in 2011 (Pelagic Fish and Seabird Inter-Relationships in the Central Tropical Pacific: Methods and Approaches to Study and Management) identified the need to study tuna movement and distribution in the Central Pacific Ocean, particularly within the waters of the PRIMNM. They cautioned that although bird-pelagic fish interactions are likely to occur in relation to skipjack and yellowfin tuna, mahi-mahi (Coryphaena hippurus and C. equiselis) should also be considered. They also noted the lack of

95 | Page information on forage fish species in the region. Flying fish (family Exocoetidae) have been identified as one of the most important forage species for tuna and birds, but almost nothing is known of their ecology or distribution, and information that includes different species is often combined together because so little is known about them separately.

The coral reefs, other submerged lands, and water column lying within 3 nautical miles of the mean high water mark of Baker Island (Inventory Unit B) were identified in the Wilderness Review Inventory as meeting the requirements of a Wilderness Study Area (WSA-B); further evaluation of its wilderness values concluded it can be managed to preserve its wilderness character in perpetuity using a minimum requirements approach for all management activities. All management activities associated with survey activities (motorized marine vessel transportation to and from Baker; monitoring the marine ecosystem with the use of SCUBA equipment; mechanical equipment such as air compressors for SCUBA remains on the marine transport vessel) are conducted in such a manner as not to detract from the wilderness values identified in the Wilderness Inventory (i.e., naturalness, a condition that generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature with the imprint of man's work substantially unnoticeable). What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: TBD

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Biotic Group Level 1: Osteichthyes (bony fishes)

Biotic Group Level 2: Perciformes (perch-like fishes)

Biotic Group Level 2: Beloniformes (needlefishes)

Exocoetus (flyingfishes)

Possible Methods:

96 | Page

The costs of tags very widely, but most tagging and tracking studies fall into the high cost category (greater than $200,000). In 2006, the Pacific Tuna Tagging Program (http://www.spc.int/tagging/) began activities concentrated over the equatorial Western and Central Pacific Ocean, tagging skipjack, yellowfin, and bigeye tuna with both conventional and electronic tags. The Program is a primary source of data that can be mined to discover the movements of tuna tagged in the central Pacific (tag/release date and position, tag recovery date and position); these data could help to inform habitat use by tuna within the waters of the Baker Island NWR and the adjacent Baker Island unit of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument (PRIMNM). Of close to 250,000 releases of tagged skipjack tuna since Program inception, ~17% have been recovered.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Baseline Monitoring

NOAA Fisheries; Phoenix Islands Protected Area; Alaska Maritime NWR

97 | Page

Survey Name: Seabird Colonies

Survey ID: FF01RBKI00-002

Priority Rank: 8

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Develop baseline migratory bird and other species information; Conserve, manage, and protect habitat for nesting seabirds; Restore breeding populations for 2 seabird species; Protect, enhance, and maintain wilderness values

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Baker Island NWR was established for the purpose of restoring and protecting the complete ecosystem, both terrestrial and marine, with priority to be given to allow seabird nesting colonies to re-establish themselves so eventually they would reach the great numbers which were present there prior to human occupancy and abuse of the island during the past 125 years. The Seabird Conservation Plan (2005) recognizes remote Pacific islands as providing important and varied breeding habitat, specifically Baker Island as being important for ground nesting species. The 11 nesting seabird species on Baker use all island habitats. Additionally, both the Phoenix petrel (Pterodroma alba) and the Polynesian storm-petrel (Nesofregatta fuliginosa) probably occurred at Baker Island prior to the introduction of rats, and may have the potential to re-establish nesting colonies.

Inventory Unit A (terrestrial portion of Baker Island) did not meet the naturalness criteria for consideration as a Wilderness Study Area, because there was considerable evidence of human activities. Nonetheless, Baker Island has been and is managed as a wild, natural area due to its remote location and limited human presence. All terrestrial surveys are conducted using minimum tools necessary to manage refuge resources in order to preserve or improve wilderness values (establishing temporary field camps; small motorboat operations used in deployment and demobilization of field camp operations; use of portable generators and solar power to operate communications and other equipment; control of invasive species using hand pulling or hand spraying).

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?brea

Timing: February or March

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Biotic Group Level 1: Aves (Birds);

98 | Page

Biotic Group Level 2: Charadriiformes (Alcids,Auks,Gulls,Oystercatchers,Plovers,Shore Birds);

Anous stolidus (Brown Noddy); Sterna fuscata (Sooty Tern); Gygis alba (Angel Tern, White Tern); Sterna lunata (Gray-backed Tern, Spectacled Tern); Procelsterna caerulea (No Common Name);

Biotic Group Level 2: Phaethontiformes (Tropicbirds);

Phaethon rubricauda (Red-tailed Tropicbird);

Biotic Group Level 2: Suliformes (Cormorants);

Fregata minor (Great Frigatebird); Sula dactylatra (Masked Booby); Sula sula (Red-footed Booby); Sula leucogaster (Brown Booby); Fregata ariel (Lesser Frigatebird);

Marine vessels capable of traveling the open ocean for extended periods are the only opportunity for access to Baker. Since the refuge was established in 1974, NOAA, the U.S. Coast Guard, the Environmental Contaminants Branch of the Ecological Services USFWS Office in Honolulu, the Army Corps of Engineers, and private vessels chartered by HAM radio operators visiting Baker under Special Use Permit have all provided transportation. In some years, sea conditions preclude landing on the island. Between 1973 and 2015, biologists have been able to land and record observations on 14 of the 17 trips staged to Baker, for durations ranging from several hours to 9 days. The spatial extent and level of detail of the seabird surveys at Baker Island have therefore been highly variable, including direct counts of adults, active nests (eggs or chicks), and phenology (chick stage) when possible. In most years, however, time constraints have limited seabird data to species presence/absence with estimated numbers of adults and/or nests. In some years additional activities have included nocturnal surveys for Procellariformes, mapping the extent of sooty tern colonies, and reading bands. Because trips to the Refuge since it was established have been opportunistic, surveys have taken place erratically throughout the year (January, February, March, May, June, September, or November).

The Seabird Conservation Plan (2005) identifies infrequent inventories such as these as insufficient to accurately detect or monitor populations, suggesting instead that a rigorous collection of population data is needed. With reliable and increasingly frequent expeditions to Baker Island, appropriate methods would be developed.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Cooperative Baseline Monitoringbrea

Phoenix Islands Protected Area brea

99 | Page

Survey Name: Coral Community Structure

Survey ID: FF01RBKI00-005

Priority Rank: 9

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Expand baseline information on marine community; Increase understanding of impacts of global climate change; Protect, enhance, and maintain wilderness values; Increase baseline information on marine community.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Stony corals (Order Scleractinia) and related Anthozoans are key structural components of coral reef ecosystems, and provide shelter and food for other reef denizens. Before 1998, Baker had not been surveyed for corals. Documenting the diversity, distribution, percent cover, relative abundance, size structure, and health status (such as bleaching and other diseases) of the coral fauna provides data that underlie coral community structure. In 2000, coral monitoring activities were initiated on reefs up to 100 feet deep at Baker Island by the NOAA Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (NOAA CRED) in association with USFWS as part of a larger multidisciplinary effort to assess and monitor coral reef ecosystems in the U.S. Pacific Islands. These surveys increased the number of reported scleractinian and hydrozoan species to 100 (see ServCat reference 29134) and provided information on percent cover, distribution, relative abundance, size structure, and health status. These surveys provide a baseline to evaluate status and trends as well as detect changes potentially caused by climate change and other stressors.

While the reefs of Baker Island have been spared many of the anthropogenic threats and impacts that afflict reefs located closer to human population centers, some threats such as climate change and ocean acidification are very widespread and challenge the ability of protected areas to limit their effects. Monitoring multiple metrics that characterize coral community structure and health needs to continue in order to document trends in the composition and condition of corals throughout the Refuge.

100 | Page taxonomic resolution. I&M coral reef monitoring at Howland integrates with the GCRMN, strengthening our capacity to examine coral reefs and ensure that our methods and metrics are consistent with other monitoring programs.

The coral reefs, other submerged lands, and water column lying within 3 nautical miles of the mean high water mark of Baker Island (Inventory Unit B) were identified in the Wilderness Review Inventory as meeting the requirements of a Wilderness Study Area (WSA-A); further evaluation of its wilderness values concluded it can be managed to preserve its wilderness character in perpetuity using a minimum requirements approach for all management activities. All management activities associated with survey activities (motorized marine vessel transportation to and from Baker; survey and monitoring of marine habitat including the use of SCUBA equipment; mechanical equipment such as air compressors for SCUBA remains on the marine transport vessel) are conducted in such a manner as not to detract from the wilderness values identified in the Wilderness Inventory (i.e., naturalness, a condition that generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature with the imprint of man’s work substantially unnoticeable).

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?brea

Timing: February or March

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Biotic Group Level 1: Cnidaria (cnidarians,coelenterates);

Biotic Group Level 2: Anthoathecatae (athecate hydroids,hydromedusae);

Millepora (No Common Name);

Biotic Group Level 2: Scleractinia (stony corals);

Montipora (No Common Name); Montastraea (No Common Name); Turbinaria (No Common Name); Psammocora (No Common Name); Tubastraea (No Common Name); Gardineroseris (No Common Name); Sandalolitha (No Common Name); Cladopsammia (No Common Name); Coscinaraea (No Common Name); Cycloseris (No Common Name); Herpolitha (No Common Name); Hydnophora (No Common Name); Favia (No Common Name); Cyphastrea (No Common Name); Fungia (No Common Name); Pachyseris (No Common Name); Lobophyllia (No Common Name);Pavona (No Common Name); Porites (No Common Name); Echinopora (No Common Name); Rhizopsammia (No Common Name); Leptastrea (No Common Name); Platygyra (No Common Name); Pocillopora (No Common Name); Leptoseris (No Common Name); Acropora (No Common Name); Astreopora (No Common Name); Symphyllia (No Common Name); Diploastrea (No Common Name); Halomitra (No Common Name); Acanthastrea (No Common Name); Favites (No Common Name);

Biotic Group Level 2: Zoanthidea (zoanthids);

Palythoa (No Common Name);

Shallow-water (< 30 meters) stony corals (order Scleractinia), octocorals, and hydrozoan corals are the population of interest. Between 2000 and 2004, coral surveys conducted by USFWS Coral Biologist Dr. James Maragos included photoquadrats acquired along transect lines at 3 georeferenced sites, from which quantitative data were

101 | Page extracted using point-count software. With the retirement of Dr. Maragos in 2011, this methodology has not been applied but remains an irreplaceable, archived reference (see ServCat reference 12001) and should be replicated.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Baseline Monitoringbrea

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED);

Partner Coordinator is Rusty Brainard, Chief of the Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED).brea

102 | Page

Survey Name: Pelagic Wildlife

Survey ID: FF01RBKI00-014

Priority Rank: 10

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Develop baseline scientific information on marine mammal use of Baker; Increase baseline information on marine community; Expand baseline information on marine community.

The surveys support several objectives in the Baker Island NWR CCP pertaining to native species communities. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

The estimated millions of seabirds breeding at national wildlife refuges in the central Pacific Ocean are primarily pelagic feeders that obtain the fish and squid they consume by associating with schools of large predatory fish such as tuna and billfish. While both the predatory fish and the birds are capable of foraging throughout their pelagic ranges (which encompass the tropical Pacific Ocean), the birds are most successful at feeding their young when they can find schools of predatory fish within easy commuting range of the breeding colonies. Recently fledged birds, which are inexperienced in this complex and demanding style of foraging, rely on abundant and local food resources to survive while they learn to locate and capture prey. Assessing pelagic seabird populations in conjunction with their use of the terrestrial habitat at Baker provides a more comprehensive picture of their abundance and activity status than terrestrial surveys alone.

Little is known of marine mammal use surrounding Baker, although it is known that some species are found in the vicinity. Only anecdotal information exists on marine mammal use of the waters surrounding Baker Island. Studies elsewhere in the Pacific, however, indicate that waters surrounding small islands may support distinct local populations of marine mammals. Given the remoteness of Baker and infrequency of access, formal surveys of marine mammal distribution and abundance have not been undertaken at the refuge.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?brea

Timing: February or March

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

During the transit from Johnston to Howland (4 days), Howland to Baker (< 1 day) and Baker to American Samoa (4 days), when possible the terrestrial team conducts pelagic bird and mammal transects 4 hours per day during daylight hours. They record all birds and mammals sighted as well as an index of flying fish density along the cruise track. They also record sea conditions, wind velocity, and wind direction from the ship's instruments each hour during observation periods.

103 | Page

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Baseline Monitoringbrea

None; brea

104 | Page

Survey Name: Terrestrial Plant Observations

Survey ID: FF01RBKI00-011

Priority Rank: 11

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect, enhance, and maintain wilderness values; Increase baseline information on terrestrial habitat; Conserve, manage, and protect habitat for nesting seabirds

The surveys support objectives in the Baker Island NWR CCP pertaining to the goal of conserving, protecting, and managing native terrestrial habitats that are representative of remote tropical Pacific islands, primarily for the benefit of seabirds. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Baker Island NWR was established for the purpose of restoring and protecting the complete ecosystem, both terrestrial and marine, with priority given to allowing nesting seabird colonies to reestablish themselves. A contemporary total of only 16 plant species have been recorded, several of which have been introduced. Collection of baseline biological information is essential to adequately understand and manage the refuge. Although it is known that the 11 nesting seabird species use all habitats on Baker, this information has only been obtained from the short duration, infrequent visits to the island. Although the Great Frigatebird and Red-footed Booby appear to be the only two exclusive shrub-nesting species, there has been no quantitative assessment of breeding species habitat associations. Additionally, detecting the presence of invasive plant species, which likely have been accidentally introduced, may serve as an indication of illegal trespass. If detected, removing the plant(s) by hand-pulling before a population becomes well established serves to preserve wilderness values of naturalness.

Inventory Unit A (terrestrial portion of Baker Island) did not meet the naturalness criteria for consideration as a Wilderness Study Area, as there is considerable evidence of human activities. Nonetheless, Baker Island has been and is managed as a wild, natural area due to its remote location and limited human presence. All terrestrial surveys are conducted using minimum tools necessary to manage refuge resources in order to preserve or improve wilderness values (establishing temporary field camps; small motorboat operations used in deployment and demobilization of field camp operations; use of portable generators and solar power to operate communications and other equipment; control of invasive species using hand pulling or hand spraying).

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?brea

Timing: February or March

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

105 | Page

Biotic Group Level 1: Plantae (plants);

Biotic Group Level 2: Arecaceae (No Common Name);

Cocos (coconut palm);

Biotic Group Level 2: Boraginaceae (borage);

Cordia subcordata (kou);

Biotic Group Level 2: Combretaceae (combretums);

Terminalia catappa (Indian almond, India almond, false kamani, tropical almond);

Biotic Group Level 2: Convolvulaceae (morningglories,morning-glories);

Ipomoea pes-caprae (bayhops); Ipomoea macrantha (No Common Name);

Biotic Group Level 2: Cyperaceae (sedges);

Fimbristylis cymosa (tropical fimbry);

Biotic Group Level 2: Euphorbiaceae (spurge);

Euphorbia hirta (pillpod sandmat);

Biotic Group Level 2: Fabaceae (legumes,peas);

Sophora tomentosa (yellow necklacepod, yellow sophora);

Biotic Group Level 2: Goodeniaceae (No Common Name);

Scaevola taccada (beach naupaka);

Biotic Group Level 2: Lamiaceae (mints);

Vitex negundo (Chinese chastetree, negundo chastetree);

Biotic Group Level 2: Lauraceae (laurels);

Cassytha filiformis (devil's gut);Biotic Group Level 2: Lecythidaceae (Brazil-nut);

Barringtonia asiatica (sea putat);

Biotic Group Level 2: Malvaceae (mallows);

Sida fallax (yellow `ilima); Abutilon indicum (monkeybush); Thespesia populnea (seaside mahoe, Portia tree);

Biotic Group Level 2: Nyctaginaceae (four o'clocks);

Boerhavia (spiderling);

Biotic Group Level 2: Phyllanthaceae (No Common Name);

106 | Page

Phyllanthus amarus (carry me seed);

Biotic Group Level 2: Poaceae (grasses);

Eragrostis tenella (Japanese lovegrass); Cenchrus echinatus (southern sandbur, se mbulabula, sandburr, konpeito-gusa, field sandbur, common sandbur, burgrass, vao tui tui); Eragrostis whitneyi (No Common Name); Digitaria (crabgrass); Setaria verticillata (rough bristle grass, hooked bristlegrass, bur bristlegrass, bristly foxtail); Lepturus repens (Pacific Island thintail); Cynodon (cynodon, Bermudagrass);

Biotic Group Level 2: Portulacaceae (purslane);

Portulaca oleracea (akulikuli-kula, common purslane, duckweed, garden purslane, little hogweed, little-hogweed, purslane, pursley, wild portulaca); Portulaca lutea (native yellow purslane);

Biotic Group Level 2: Surianaceae (No Common Name);

Suriana maritima (bay cedar, bay-cedar, guitar, baycedar);

Biotic Group Level 2: Zygophyllaceae (caltrop);

Tribulus cistoides (puncture vine, Jamaican feverplant);

Marine vessels capable of traveling the open ocean for extended periods are the only opportunity for access to Baker. Since the refuge was established in 1974, NOAA, the U.S. Coast Guard, the Environmental Contaminants Branch of the Ecological Services USFWS Office in Honolulu, the Army Corps of Engineers, and private vessels chartered by HAM radio operators visiting Baker under Special Use Permit have all provided transportation. In some years, sea conditions preclude landing on the island. Between 1973 and 2015, biologists have been able to land and record observations on 14 of the 17 trips staged to Baker, for durations ranging from several hours to 9 days. The nature of the vegetative surveys has therefore been highly variable, commonly limited to a description of the general condition of the dominant plants. In some years more detailed observations have included: species inventory; photographs; phenological observations; island-wide percent cover estimates of dominant plants; specimens collected and deposited in the Bishop Museum. Lichens and fungi are also looked for. Because trips to the Refuge since it was established have been opportunistic, surveys have taken place erratically throughout the year (January, February, March, May, June, September, or November).

The Baker Island NWR CCP indicates that “document presence/absence of island vegetation” will be used as a strategy to achieve Objective 1b, “within 15 years of CCP approval, conduct monitoring to determine vegetation species presence/absence and distribution on Baker Island.” To implement this strategy, all plant species will be recorded and photographed in the course of conducting more systematic surveys such as those for seabirds and migratory shorebirds. Efforts will be made to acquire additional data (e.g., mapping with GPS, percent cover estimates) for introduced plants that may have become highly invasive and may merit management actions to control.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Baseline Monitoringbrea

None; brea

107 | Page

Survey Name: Non-coral Targeted Marine Macroinvertebrate, Broadscale

Survey ID: FF01RBKI00-004

Priority Rank: 12

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect, enhance, and maintain wilderness values; Increase baseline information on marine community; Expand baseline information on marine community.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Before the initiation of broadscale marine macroinvertebrate surveys at Baker Island by the NOAA Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED) in 2000, little was known of the diversity or abundance of conspicuous macroinvertebrates including urchins, sea cucumbers, giant clams, or crown-of-thorns seastars (COTS). These organisms are involved in key aspects of reef dynamics including grazing, bioerosion, sediment cycling, seawater filtration, and predation. Giant clams have been widely over-harvested in populated areas of the Pacific. Outbreaks of corallivorous COTS in other regions of the Pacific have resulted in substantial loss of live coral cover. Sea urchins and sea cucumbers are increasingly harvested and over-harvested near population centers. Knowledge of the distribution and abundance of these targeted taxa provides an available baseline for describing the condition of unimpacted reefs and enhances understanding of their role in ecosystem function.

108 | Page manner as not to detract from the wilderness values identified in the Wilderness Inventory (i.e., naturalness, a condition that generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature with the imprint of man’s work substantially unnoticeable).

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?brea

Timing: February or March

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Biotic Group Level 1: Echinodermata (echinoderms);

Biotic Group Level 2: Spinulosida (No Common Name);

Acanthaster planci (crown-of-thorns seastar);

Surveys have been biennial since 2002, but beginning in 2012 changed to triennial intervals due to restructuring of funding by the NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Baseline Monitoringbrea

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED);

Partner Coordinator is Rusty Brainard, Chief of the Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED).brea

109 | Page

Survey Name: Algal Diversity and Benthic Composition

Survey ID: FF01RBKI00-012

Priority Rank: 13

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Increase baseline information on marine community; Protect, enhance, and maintain wilderness values; Expand baseline information on marine community.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Before the initiation of algal surveys at Baker Island by the NOAA Coral Reef Ecosystem Division in 2001, little was known of the diversity or abundance of these photosynthesizing components of the reef biota. It was widely assumed that (1) high coral cover indicates a healthy reef ecosystem, (2) high coral cover is necessary for reef accretion, and (3) algae, particularly macroalgae, are detrimental to tropical reef environments. In contrast, these algal surveys have indicated that, while some healthy reefs are dominated by constructional coral species, others contain almost no coral (sometimes termed incipient reefs), whereas others rely on a mix of calcified algae, foraminifera, and coral. Many healthy tropical and subtropical reefs are dominated by algae (macroalgae, crustose coralline algae, and turf algae) rather than coral.

The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) provides a suite of methods that are appropriate for ecological monitoring of coral reefs depending on the questions to be addressed, the spatial scale of the surveys (broad-, medium-, and fine-scale), and the taxonomic resolution (community-, management-, or research- monitoring, with low, medium, and high taxonomic detail, respectively). The methods used by NOAA CRED in site-specific algal diversity and benthic composition surveys at Baker, and the metrics acquired, are consistent with those provided by the GCRMN for medium- to fine-scale spatial and taxonomic resolution. Towed-diver surveys are functionally equivalent to those described by the GCRMN manta tow protocol in providing broad spatial coverage at coarser levels of taxonomic resolution. I&M coral reef monitoring at Baker integrates with the GCRMN, strengthening our capacity to examine coral reefs and ensure that our methods and metrics are consistent with other monitoring programs.

110 | Page

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?brea

Timing: February or March

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Shallow-water (< 30 meters) macroscopic marine algae (which are functionally categorized as macroalgae, turf algae, and coralline algae) are the population of interest. During broad-scale surveys, towed divers record estimates of percent algal cover during each of 10, 5-minute observation segments along GPS-referenced tow tracks. During site-specific surveys at GPS-referenced sites, methods have varied since 2001 in response to information needs and logistical constraints (i.e., shipboard berthing space for scientific personnel and small boat capacity). Methods have included: roving collections to compile species inventories (many species require microscopic examination to confirm identification); the use of photoquadrats along transect lines from which quantitative parameters are later extracted using computer-assisted image analysis; the line-intercept method along transect lines to estimate percent cover of algae and other benthic categories; and quantitative disease assessments of crustose coralline algae.

Surveys have been biennial since 2002, but beginning in 2012 changed to triennial intervals due to restructuring of funding by the NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Baseline Monitoringbrea

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED);

Partner Coordinator is Rusty Brainard, Chief of the Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED).brea

111 | Page

Survey Name: Deep-sea Realm

Survey ID: FF01RBKI00-027

Priority Rank: 14

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Expand baseline information on marine community; Increase baseline information on marine community; Protect, enhance, and maintain wilderness values

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

In 2006, benthic habitat mapping using multi-beam sonar was conducted to a distance of ~ 13.5 kilometers (km) (7.3 nautical miles (nm)) off Baker Island by the NOAA Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED) in association with the Pacific Islands Benthic Habitat Mapping Center at the University of Hawaii. Bathymetric data show Baker to be a steep-sided, isolated island on the Tokelau Ridge that rises from the abyssal seafloor (4,000+ meters (m)). In 2009, with the establishment of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument, the boundary of Baker Island National Wildlife Refuge was extended from 3 nm to 12 nm (~22.2 km) from the mean low water line. Consequently, an even larger proportion of the marine habitat within Refuge boundaries now includes the mesopelagic (200 to 1000 m), bathypelagic (1000 to 4000 m) and potentially abyssopelagic (> 4000 m) depth zones. Moreover, extensive deep-sea habitat is contained within Monument waters beyond the Refuge boundaries.

Worldwide, the vast majority of ocean research has yielded information about the upper few hundred meters of the ocean’s water column and the marine environments along coastlines, due to the relative accessibility and proximity of these water regions. Although research ships are the most recognizable platforms for accessing isolated sites, the development of technological innovations is now providing researchers with unprecedented access. Some of these innovations include mobile observation systems (manned submersibles, unmanned remotely-operated vehicles, autonomous underwater vehicles, and ocean gliders). These cutting-edge

112 | Page technologies are alternatives to the standard platforms commonly used for research purposes today. Recent research in regions such as the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (PMNM) indicates that deep- sea coral and sponge beds exist in more than 1000 m of water and has led to the discovery of more than fifty new sponge and coral species. It is likely that comparable studies in Baker Island NWR would reveal currently undescribed species and biotic communities.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?brea

Timing: TBD

Frequency: Occurs one time only

The populations of interest include both the abiotic nature of the deep-sea floor and the biotic communities within the mesopelagic, bathypelagic, and potentially abyssopelagic zones. The barrier to exploring the deep-sea realm has been both technological and financial; deep-sea submersibles typically cost $20,000-$60,000 per day. Mechanisms for further exploration of the deep-sea realm at Baker Island could potentially include manned deep- sea submersibles, unmanned remotely-operated vehicles (ROVs), autonomous underwater vehicles, ocean gliders, and deep sea drop cameras.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Inventorybrea

University of Hawaii, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST) - Hawaii Undersea Research Laboratory (HURL); National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED); National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Ocean Exploration and Research; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Sanctuaries; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Regional Office; Scripps Institute of Oceanography; Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

Partner Coordinator is Frank Parrish, Chief, NOAA Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Protected Species Division.

113 | Page

Survey Name: Marine Mammals

Survey ID: FF01RBKI00-031

Priority Rank: 15

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Increase baseline information on marine community; Develop baseline scientific information on marine mammal use

The surveys support objectives in the Baker Island NWR CCP pertaining to goals of protecting native marine communities and of managing federally listed threatened and endangered species. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall use AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Little is known of marine mammal use of the waters within Baker Island NWR and the adjacent Baker Island unit of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument (PRIMNM). Formal quantitative surveys of marine mammal distribution and abundance have not been undertaken in this region. However, studies elsewhere in the Pacific indicate that waters surrounding small islands may support distinct local populations of marine mammals. Historic records document that sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) were caught near Baker Island in the nineteenth century. Effective conservation of marine mammal populations requires an understanding of abundance, population structure, habitat use, natural and anthropogenic threats, and estimates of reproduction and mortality rates. The Service shares responsibility with NOAA for managing marine resources, and the Marine Mammal Commission has encouraged the Service to generate partnerships with NOAA to help document baseline information.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: TBD

Biotic Group Level 1: Mammalia (mammals)

114 | Page

Biotic Group Level 2: Cetacea (whales, cetaceans, marine mammals, dolphins, porpoises

Frequency: Recurring -- every three to four years

Possible Methods:

Surveys using these methods could be conducted within the waters of Baker Island NWR and the adjacent Baker Island unit of the PRIMNM, and designed to operate concurrently with other pelagic surveys (e.g., Pelagic Fishes, Pelagic Seabirds. Marine Plankton) so as to enable data integration, increase efficiencies, and constrain costs. The NOAA Southwest Fisheries Science Center has conducted ecosystem surveys in the US Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) waters of Palmyra and Johnston Atolls and adjacent waters south of Hawaii in which line-transect data on cetacean abundance, photo-identification data for population structure, and biopsy samples for genetic studies of population structure are collected. Oceanographic sampling, net sampling, seabird distribution and abundance, and acoustic backscatter data of mid-water prey are concurrently conducted.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Cooperative Baseline Monitoring

NOAA Fisheries; Phoenix Islands Protected Area; Alaska Maritime NWR

115 | Page

Survey Name: Reef Fish Diversity and Abundance

Survey ID: FF01RBKI00-007

Priority Rank: 16

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Increase baseline information on marine community; Develop baseline data and understand sea turtle use of Baker; Expand baseline information on marine community; Protect, enhance, and maintain wilderness values

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Little information exists on the marine biota of the U.S. equatorial Pacific islands compared to more populated Pacific locations. Until recently, this region of the Pacific (10°N–10°S by 145°W–180°) was one of the most poorly investigated portions of the world’s oceans outside of the polar regions. Beginning in 2000, ecological surveys of the shallow coral reef habitats of the U.S. equatorial Pacific were conducted by the NOAA Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED). Broad-scale surveys conducted by towed divers target large (>50 cm) fish whereas site-specific surveys record reef fish of all size classes. Incidental observations of sea turtles are also recorded. Still, limited data exist on the diversity of species in the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument.

The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) provides a suite of methods that are appropriate for ecological monitoring of coral reefs depending on the questions to be addressed, the spatial scale of the surveys (broad-, medium-, and fine-scale), and the taxonomic resolution (community-, management-, or research- monitoring, with low, medium, and high taxonomic detail, respectively). The methods used by NOAA CRED in site-specific reef fish surveys at Baker, and the metrics acquired, are consistent with those provided by the GCRMN for medium- to fine-scale spatial and taxonomic resolution. Towed-diver surveys are functionally equivalent to those described by the GCRMN manta tow protocol in providing broad spatial coverage for large (> 50 cm TL) species of reef-associated fish. I&M coral reef monitoring at Baker integrates with the GCRMN, strengthening our capacity to examine coral reefs and ensure that our methods and metrics are consistent with other monitoring programs.

116 | Page equipment such as air compressors for SCUBA remains on the marine transport vessel) are conducted in such a manner as not to detract from the wilderness values identified in the Wilderness Inventory (i.e., naturalness, a condition that generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature with the imprint of man’s work substantially unnoticeable).

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?brea

Timing: February or March

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Biotic Group Level 1: Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fishes,rays,sharks);

Biotic Group Level 2: Carcharhiniformes (ground sharks);

Carcharhinus (gray sharks);

Biotic Group Level 1: Osteichthyes (bony fishes);

Biotic Group Level 2: Perciformes (perch-like fishes);

Scarus (parrotfishes); Halichoeres (wrasses); Kuhlia (flagtails); Chaetodon (butterflyfishes); Apogon (cardinalfishes, common cardinalfishes); Epinephelus (groupers); Sphyraena (barracudas); Holacanthus (angelfishes); Acanthurus (tangs, doctorfishes, common surgeonfishes, lancetfishes, surgeonfishes); Lutjanus (snappers, common snappers)

Biotic Group Level 2: Scorpaeniformes (mail-cheeked fishes,scorpion fishes,sculpins);

Scorpaena (scorpionfishes);

Biotic Group Level 2: Tetraodontiformes (cowfishes,filefishes,leatherjackets,puffers,triggerfishes,trunkfishes);

Balistes (triggerfishes); Diodon (porcupinefishes); Aluterus (filefishes);

Surveys have been biennial since 2002, but beginning in 2012 changed to triennial intervals due to restructuring of funding by the NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

117 | Page

Coop Baseline Monitoringbrea

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED);

Partner Coordinator is Rusty Brainard, Chief, NOAA Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center Coral Reef Ecosystem Division.brea

118 | Page

Survey Name: Cryptic Reef Fishes

Survey ID: FF01RBKI00-029

Priority Rank: 17

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect, enhance, and maintain wilderness values; Expand baseline information on marine community; Increase baseline information on marine community.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?brea

Timing: TBD

Frequency: Occurs one time only

Biotic Group Level 1: Osteichthyes (bony fishes);

119 | Page

Biotic Group Level 2: Perciformes (perch-like fishes);

Blennius (blennies, blennies);

The term ‘cryptic fishes’ refers to the assemblage of small, benthic fishes that have cryptic coloration, behavior, and/or occur in cryptic habitats (e.g., in crevices, under overhangs) and thus are usually difficult to reliably detect. By their very nature, cryptic reef fishes are difficult to detect by strictly visual means, even when survey methods are modified to target their occurrence (Ackerman and Bellwood, 2000; Willis 2001). The use of toxicants or anaesthetics enables detection of species that inhabit reef interstices or burrows and which are usually not seen. In the limited studies that have been conducted on tropical and temperature reefs, census methods have relied upon the application of destructive explosives, toxicants, and ichthyocides, especially the use of rotenone, a nonspecific ichthyocide that asphyxiates all fish species when applied within small enclosed stations. Although rotenone is destructive, several studies have indicated that the effects are generally short-lived, as small reef fishes with high turnover rates recolonize defaunated areas quickly (Willis, 2001). Clove oil stuns fish, acting as an anesthetic and allowing collection for a short time. It is not as destructive as rotenone though in high doses it can kill small fish. The benefits of improving knowledge of biodiversity versus the negative effects of destructive sampling to acquire such information will need to be evaluated by Refuge staff before implementing such methods.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Inventorybrea

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; Bishop Museum brea

120 | Page

Survey Name: Mesophotic Coral Ecosystems

Survey ID: FF01RBKI00-024

Priority Rank: 18

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Expand baseline information on marine community; Increase baseline information on marine community; Protect, enhance, and maintain wilderness values

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Efforts over the last decade to systematically map coral reefs in the U.S. Pacific Islands have revealed the presence of mesophotic coral reefs, most of which were previously unknown. Mesophotic coral reefs have been found in the Hawaiian and Mariana Archipelagos, American Samoa, and the U.S. Phoenix and Line Islands, although they have not thus far been documented at every island. In general, their distribution appears to be patchy and they are less common than coral reefs in shallow depths (< 30 m). MCEs have been hypothesized to serve as refugia for coral reef ecosystem organisms that may be subject to elevated levels of different types of stress on shallower reefs. Modeling has suggested that, in response to greenhouse-gas forcing associated with climate change, warming and decline in productivity around select Pacific islands will be mitigated by enhanced upwelling of cool waters in the equatorial undercurrent (EUC). If realized, these predictions help to identify potential refuges for coral reef communities from anticipated climate changes of the twenty-first century. Located within the stream of the EUC, Baker Island, and could become a refuge for marine productivity and coral reefs in an otherwise desolate tropical seascape.

121 | Page close proximity to navigation hazards when conducting camera-sled surveys at mesophotic depths. As of 2013, no mesophotic coral reefs have been observed by CRED at the U.S. Phoenix and Line Islands. A small number of observations of hard coral in depths > 30 m have been made at Baker Island (2 samples in 90–93 m) although no extensive reef areas were observed in the tows conducted. However, insufficient sampling has been conducted to be able to conclude that no mesophotic reefs are present around Baker Island. The clear oligotrophic waters minimally influenced by terrigenous inputs suggest that more mesophotic corals would likely be found if additional surveys were conducted.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?brea

Timing: February or March

Frequency: Sporadic or Ad Hoc

There are insufficient data to describe the location or density of mesophotic corals at Baker Island. The barrier to exploring MCEs has largely been technological. Deep-sea submersibles have been used to examine marine life at depths of 30–200 m in the tropical Pacific, but they typically cost $20,000-$60,000 per day, and are rarely deployed in remote tropical Pacific regions. Technical trimix dives conducted at 35–100 m on closed-circuit rebreathers from small boats supported by the NOAA ship Hi`ialakai have been used in the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (PMNM) since 2009 and at Johnston Atoll NWR in 2013 to identify the flora and fauna associated with differing MCE habitats. Mechanisms for further exploration of mesophotic depths at Baker Island could potentially include expanded sampling with towed camera sleds, closed-circuit rebreather technical dives, deep-sea submersibles, and remotely-operated vehicles (ROVs).

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Baseline Monitoringbrea

University of Hawaii, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST) - Hawaii Mapping Research Group Bishop Museum; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Service (NOS), National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science (NCCOS), the Center for Coastal Monitoring and Assessment (CCMA)- Biogeography Branch; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Ocean Exploration and Research; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED);

Partner Coordinator is Rusty Brainard, Chief of the Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED).brea

122 | Page

Survey Name: Terrestrial Hermit Crabs

Survey ID: FF01RBKI00-028

Priority Rank: 19

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Increase baseline information on marine community; Increase baseline information on terrestrial habitat

The survey supports management objectives in the Baker Island NWR CCP (2008) to develop more complete information about the terrestrial ecosystem. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Their size and distribution may be an early indicator of some invasive species such as the Yellow Crazy Ant (Anoplolepis longipes). This aggressive ant species can exclude land hermit crabs from the interior of small oceanic islands, and regular monitoring of the Coenobita population at Baker Island may allow for early detection of invasive species. Rats also influence the size, abundance, and distribution of terrestrial hermit crabs, though rats have been eliminated from Baker Island.

Current wildlife monitoring efforts on Baker Island NWR are limited to a short visit of several days every 2-3 years. This infrequent and irregular level of monitoring does not allow for wildlife population trend estimates, but an index of crab population size repeated over many visits will allow us to detect dramatic changes. In addition, monitoring the species and quality of marine gastropod shells being used by these hermit crabs will provide an indirect indication of the availability of preferred shell types and may reflect changes occurring in the surrounding marine habitat.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?brea

Timing: February or March

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Biotic Group Level 1: Arthropoda (arthropods);

123 | Page

Biotic Group Level 2: Decapoda (crabs,crayfishes,lobsters,prawns,shrimp);

Coenobita (No Common Name);

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Baseline Monitoringbrea

None; brea

124 | Page

Survey Name: Shorebirds

Survey ID: FF01RBKI00-015

Priority Rank: 20

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Develop baseline migratory bird and other species information; Protect, enhance, and maintain wilderness values

The surveys support an objective in the Baker Island NWR CCP pertaining to the goal of contributing to the recovery, protection, and management efforts for all native species with special consideration for seabirds, migratory shorebirds, federally listed threatened and endangered species, and species of management concern. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

The administration, management, and growth of the National Wildlife Refuge System are guided in part by the goal of developing and maintaining a network of habitats for migratory birds (601 FW 1). The United States Shorebird Conservation Plan (Brown 2000) identifies the U.S. Pacific Islands as being of critical importance for two species of Holarctic breeders, bristle-thighed curlew and Pacific golden-plover, both of which utilize Baker Island as wintering habitat. Of the nine migratory shorebird species recorded from Baker Island, five (ruddy turnstone, bar-tailed godwit, sanderling, bristle-thighed curlew, and Pacific golden plover) are considered species of High Concern in the national priority scheme for shorebirds (Engilis and Naughton 2004). Baker Island provides crucial wintering habitat and may also serve as a rest stop for arctic-breeding shorebirds going farther south in the Pacific Islands. In addition, the bristle-thighed curlew and Pacific golden plover are recognized in the Birds of Conservation Concern in BCR 68 (USFWS 2002). Documenting trends in the use of Baker Island by migratory shorebirds assists in gaining a more comprehensive understanding of the species' population status, trends, and migratory patterns.

Inventory Unit A (terrestrial portion of Baker Island) did not meet the naturalness criteria for consideration as a Wilderness Study Area, because there was considerable evidence of human activities. Nonetheless, Baker Island has been and is managed as a wild, natural area due to its remote location and limited human presence. All terrestrial surveys are conducted using minimum tools necessary to preserve or improve wilderness values (establishing temporary field camps; small motorboat operations used in deployment and demobilization of field camp operations; use of portable generators and solar power to operate communications and other equipment; control of invasive species using hand pulling or hand spraying).

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?brea

Timing: February or March

125 | Page

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Biotic Group Level 1: Aves (Birds);

Biotic Group Level 2: Charadriiformes (Alcids,Auks,Gulls,Oystercatchers,Plovers,Shore Birds);

Pluvialis dominica (American Golden Plover, American Golden-Plover, Lesser Golden-Plover); Numenius tahitiensis (Bristle-thighed Curlew); Limosa lapponica (Bar-tailed Godwit); Larus atricilla (Laughing Gull); Calidris melanotos (Pectoral Sandpiper); Tringa incana (Wandering Tattler); Calidris alba (Sanderling); Arenaria interpres (Ruddy Turnstone); Charadrius semipalmatus (Semipalmated Plover); Calidris acuminata (Sharp-tailed Sandpiper);

Marine vessels capable of traveling the open ocean for extended periods are the only opportunity for access to Baker. Since the refuge was established in 1974, NOAA, the U.S. Coast Guard, the Environmental Contaminants Branch of the Ecological Services USFWS Office in Honolulu, the Army Corps of Engineers, and private vessels chartered by HAM radio operators visiting Baker under Special Use Permit have all provided transportation to Baker. In some years, sea conditions preclude landing on the island. Between 1973 and 2015, biologists have been able to land and record observations on 14 of the 17 trips staged to Baker for durations ranging from several hours to 9 days. If sufficient time is available, direct counts of migratory shorebirds are done while walking the perimeter of the island. In some years additional observations are included from the interior of the island. Because trips to the Refuge have been opportunistic, surveys have taken place erratically throughout the year (January, February, March, May, June, September, or November).

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Baseline Monitoringbrea

None; brea

126 | Page

Survey Name: Marine Contaminants

Survey ID: FF01RBKI00-019

Priority Rank: 21

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Survey and monitor refuge to document contamination; Remediate contaminated areas of Baker

Baker Island was the staging area for the Tarawa-Makin operation in World War II (WWII). The base was established on September 1, 1943. Beaching landing craft on Baker Island proved difficult. Eleven of the 23 Mechanized Landing Craft were sunk or damaged beyond repair. In March 1944, the military started evacuation of Baker Island as it was no longer necessary for bombing operations or air travel. In December 1944, a Coast Guard LORAN (LOng Range Aide to Navigation) Station was commissioned and in July 1945 the last military forces left Baker Island. The Coast Guard detachment under Navy command assumed administration until the island was abandoned in May 1946.

An offshore WWII military dump site, known to contain barrels and other debris, is located off the northwest quadrant of Baker Island. Marine monitoring of the reefs off Baker Island between 2000 and 2004 by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) suggested changes in the reef habitat and corals at site BAK-5P, close to a WWII dumpsite, that were not documented at the other two Baker permanent transect marine monitoring sites or at the other 13 Rapid Ecological Survey marine sites at Baker. The differences in reef habitat included dark filamentous cyanobacteria covering the substrate at BAK-5P and a shift in the size class distribution of branching Acropora corals that has been interpreted as a coral dieback. It is thought that the barrels and other debris may be rupturing and releasing toxic compounds that are poisoning the coral and other reef biota. Cables, anchors, and chains are found at depths of less than 30 meters near BAK-5P that are apparently left over from the WWII era when the area served as an offshore ship anchorage and boat landing. The degradation of these metal objects released nutrients (e.g., iron) into the environment and it can fuel the growth of invasive species.

The purpose of this study would be to determine if the coral dieback is due to contamination from the nearby underwater dump and if it is contaminating other biota. Specific scientific objectives would include: (1) Locate and characterize the dumps and debris (e.g., sunken landing craft) offshore Baker Island; (2) Determine if the dumps and debris areas are contaminated, and with what compounds; (3) Core representative corals for use in establishing contamination history; (4) Determine if indicator species of fish, algae, and invertebrates are contaminated; (5) Determine if contamination found in the biota is correlated to the soil/sediment; (6) Model direct and food chain exposure and risk to marine birds, protected marine mammals, and endangered and threatened sea turtles; and (7) Survey for phase shifts or increase in specific species around contaminated areas.

Baker Island NWR is slowly being evaluated for inclusion on the National Priority List (NPL) as directed by the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA) (EPA ID HI6143690075). The evaluation is due to the large amounts of fuel, debris, and dumps left behind by the military and Coast Guard when they abandoned the island. This evaluation has been conducted over many years and exceeds U.S.

127 | Page

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) specifications. EPA has allowed the extended evaluation due to the remoteness of the site. To date a Site Investigation (SI) has been conducted (Foster Wheeler 1998). The SI was found to be inconclusive and additional investigation is needed for the soil exposure and surface water pathways (October 2000 EPA letter to USFWS).

A Contaminants Assessment Process (CAP) was completed for Baker Island NWR in October 2006. A CAP is an information gathering process and initial assessment of a USFWS NWR in relation to environmental contaminants. The CAP for the refuge identified a nearshore military dump as a potentially contaminated area. Although this Marine Contaminants Survey is included in this PRIMR database for the purpose of comprehensively capturing the range of legacy, current/ongoing, and needed surveys to assess progress in achieving CCP goals and objectives, further inventory of marine contaminants at Baker NWR is likely beyond the scope of the Inventory & Monitoring Initiative.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?brea

Timing: TBD

Frequency: Occurs one time only

The investigation could be conducted by underwater submersibles to locate and mark the dumps and debris. Samples of sediment, biota, and corals would be collected by divers. Hawaii Undersea Research Lab (HURL) submersibles would first be deployed in a systematic search around reef monitoring site BAK-5P to locate the military dump and any other local debris. All objects found would be marked with GPS. Three permanent marine monitoring transects would be surveyed (BAK-5P, 11P, 16P) as well as a transect immediately through or adjacent to the located military dump using standard coral community survey methods. Coral samples would be drilled from five massive coral heads from selected sites around Baker Island. Accreted skeleton of coral has been shown to incorporate 14C as well as minor and trace elements (including Mg, Na, U isotopes, Pu isotopes, 210Pb, Pb, Cd, Zn) and anthropogenic contaminants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) relative to the chemical and isotopic composition of seawater from which the layers were formed. Consequently, coral skeletal growth bands are known to preserve an inherent, high resolution record of water column conditions and environmental change. One aim of this study would be to use contamination deposition in aged coral sections as an assessment tool. The advantage of using living coral is that the coral polyps integrate conditions in the surrounding water. The levels and deposition patterns of contaminants laid down in hard coral sections can then be used to accurately observe and quantify changes in contaminants migration, availability, and uptake over time. For comparative purposes, a minimum of two coral cores from a remote background location (e.g., Howland Island) would also be collected. Marine sediment would be collected by divers (estimated number of 30, dependent on what debris is found) and analyzed for contaminants for comparison with present-day concentrations of contaminants in corals.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Inventorybrea

State of Hawaii Department of Aquatic Resources; Oceanic Institute; U.S. Coast Guard; University of Hawaii, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST) - Hawaii Undersea Research Laboratory (HURL); U.S. Navy;

128 | Page

Survey Name: Terrestrial Contaminants

Survey ID: FF01RBKI00-017

Priority Rank: 22

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Survey and monitor refuge to document contamination; Remediate contaminated areas of Baker

Debris from past human occupation is scattered throughout the island and in offshore waters. Most of this debris is left from the U.S. military and Coast Guard occupation of the island from 1942-46. Thousands of fuel storage drums, cylinders of pressurized gases, piles of old batteries, cans of waste materials, paints, kerosene, oils, grease, and unidentified substances were left behind by the U.S. military and Coast Guard after occupation during the WWII era. Beginning in 1978, the Service and Coast Guard visited the island and reported several large ditches containing “hundreds” of corroded and leaking 55-gallon drums. In 1987, the Army Corps of Engineers (ACOE), which was sponsored by funds from the Defense Environmental Restoration Program, organized an expedition to Howland and Baker Islands to dispose of the fuel by burning it on-site while in the drums. However, ACOE efforts did not completely consume the fuel, and the burning left toxic residues in many of the drums and surrounding soils. No sampling or cleanup of the remaining ash was done following the waste/fuel burn (ACOE 1987). Another large source of contamination is rusting steel and iron from various machine parts and drums.

In general, insufficient time has been spent on Baker Island to adequately quantify the extent and severity of contamination. A Site Investigation is used by EPA to determine if areas of the island or surrounding waters are unacceptably contaminated. If so, the responsible parties for the contamination, i.e., Navy, Army, and the Coast Guard will have the responsibility to clean up the site under Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA). The Site Investigation conducted by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) contractor (Foster Wheeler Environmental Corporation) in 1998 was inconclusive and unacceptable to EPA and the USFWS. The USFWS now has the responsibility to determine if Baker meets CERCLA criteria. Further and follow-up monitoring is required by the USFWS before National Priority List (NPL) determination can be made.

A Contaminant Assessment Process (CAP) was conducted for Baker Island NWR in October 2006. A CAP is an information gathering process and initial assessment of a USFWS NWR in relation to environmental contaminants. Although this Terrestrial Contaminants survey is included in this PRIMR database for the purpose of comprehensively capturing the range of legacy, current/ongoing, and needed surveys to assess progress in achieving CCP goals and objectives, further inventory of terrestrial contaminants at Baker NWR is likely beyond the scope of the Inventory & Monitoring Initiative.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?brea

Timing: TBD

Frequency: Sporadic or Ad Hoc

129 | Page

The type, quantity, and spatial distribution of environmental contaminants from past military activity and human occupation need to be evaluated for inclusion on the National Priority List (NPL) as directed by the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA). The need for evaluation is due to the large amounts of fuel, debris, and dumps left behind by the military and the Coast Guard when they abandoned the island after WWII. Although the USFWS is responsible for monitoring and reporting in a timely fashion, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has allowed an extended evaluation period due to the remoteness of the site. As stated in Objective 1c of the Baker Island CCP, " Within 10 years of the CCP approval, monitor approximately 100 acres of known contamination and survey remainder of island to determine if contamination level is above the EPA threshold value for designation on the NPL under CERCLA."

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Baseline Monitoringea

U.S. Navy; U.S. Coast Guard; brea

130 | Page

Survey Name: Marine Plankton

Survey ID: FF01RBKI00-032

Priority Rank: 23

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Increase baseline information on marine community

The surveys support an objective in the Baker Island NWR CCP pertaining to the goal of conserving, managing, and protecting native marine communities that are representative of remote tropical Pacific islands. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall use AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

131 | Page

The waters within the Baker Island NWR and the adjacent Baker Island unit of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument (PRIMNM) are an important part of the most widespread collection of marine- and terrestrial-life protected areas on the planet under a single country’s jurisdiction, sustaining many indigenous species of fish, seabirds, and marine mammals. All are ultimately dependent on the food web based on primary productivity in the sea. An improved understanding of the biodiversity, abundance, and distribution of planktonic communities and their spatial and temporal variability will also improve understanding of the abundances and distributions of the higher trophic level populations supported by these communities. Modeling has suggested that, in response to greenhouse-gas forcing associated with climate change, warming and decline in productivity around select Pacific islands will be mitigated by enhanced upwelling of cool waters in the equatorial undercurrent (EUC). If realized, these predictions help to identify potential refuges for coral reef communities from anticipated climate changes of the twenty-first century. Located within the stream of the EUC, Baker Island could become a refuge for marine productivity and coral reefs in an otherwise desolate tropical seascape.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: TBD

Frequency: Recurring -- every three to four years

Biotic Group Level 1: Arthropoda (arthropods)

Biotic Group Level 2: Amphipoda (amphipods)

Hyperia (no common name)

Possible methods:

132 | Page

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Baseline Monitoring

NOAA Fisheries; Phoenix Islands Protected Area; Alaska Maritime NWR

133 | Page

Survey Name: Terrestrial Arthropods

Survey ID: FF01RBKI00-018

Priority Rank: 24

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Conserve, manage, and protect habitat for nesting seabirds; Protect, enhance, and maintain wilderness values

In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

The entomologist Edward L. Caum visited Baker Island in 1924, and a number of other naturalists collected insects on subsequent trips but there are no published accounts or lists. Recent observations of insects during visits by Service biologists include house flies, small ants, moths and millers, butterflies, and spiders. Nonetheless, knowledge of the insect fauna at Baker Island NWR is poor because no formal surveys have taken place.

The threat of the YCA spreading across the entire island and completely displacing ground-nesting seabirds is a critical conservation issue; as a result a strike team was deployed to Johnston in August 2010 with the primary mission of eradicating the YCA population before it could displace native seabird species. The rate of expansion and difficulty of controlling YCA at Johnston Atoll highlights the need for improved knowledge of native and alien insects at other remote Pacific Island NWRs so as to improve the capacity for early detection and rapid response. Strict quarantine protocols have been previously established and are mandatory for all visitors to Baker Island NWR in order to eliminate the threat of introducing invasive insects, other animals, and plants.

134 | Page and demobilization of field camp operations; use of portable generators and solar power to operate communications and other equipment; control of invasive species using hand pulling or hand spraying).

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?brea

Timing: February or March

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Although observations of insects noted during other survey work at Baker have been recorded, no systematic sampling had been undertaken before 2012. This survey will systematically use several types of collection methods, with each method targeting a different part of the insect fauna and covering as much area and diversity of habitat of the island as possible. Species distributions will be associated with micro-habitat preferences (e.g., host plant, substrate) to inform ecologically-based management plans by the refuge staff.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Baseline Monitoringbrea

Bishop Museum; U.S. Geological Survey;

Partner Coordinators are Bob Peck and Paul Banko, USGS Research Wildlife Biologistbrea

135 | Page

Table 1‐C. Summary of Selected Surveys for Jarvis Island NWR and the Jarvis Island Unit of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument

I&M Specialist, Ma rch, April, Pacific or May/ Initial Ca l ci um Ca rbona te CCP / 4a., Other: 2010‐ Islands 1 FF01RJRS00‐019 Current Regional $0 Recurring ‐‐ (none) Survey Accretion (CB) 3d., 2a. 0.1 Indefinite I&M every three Instructions Specialist yea rs (FWS liaison) Remote CCP / 4a., January Surveillance of 1a., 6a., through Beth Flint, Initial FWS: 2015‐ 2 FF01RJRS00‐006 Terrestrial and Current 3c., 2b., Entire station $175,850 December/ Wildlife (none) Survey 0.05 Indefinite Ma rine Systems 1b., 5b., Recurring ‐‐ Biologist Instructions (CB) 3a. every yea r Multiple Ma rch, April, Non‐avian management CCP / 4a., or May/ Beth Flint, Initial Terrestrial and units: Jarvis FWS: 1976‐ 2 FF01RJRS00‐014 Current 3d., 1a., $1,613 Recurring ‐‐ Widlife (none) Survey Ma rine Wildlife Island (WSA‐A) 0.01 Indefinite 3c., 3a., 3e. every three Biologist Instructions Observations (BM) and nearshore yea rs waters I&M Specialist, Ma rch, April, Pacific or May/ Initial Benthic Ma rine CCP / 4a., Other: 2008‐ Islands 3 FF01RJRS00‐017 Current Regional $0 Recurring ‐‐ (none) Survey Cryptobi ota (CB) 3d., 2b. 0.08 Indefinite I&M every three Instructions Specialist yea rs (FWS liaison) TBD/ Beth Flint, Initial Pelagic Seabirds CCP / 4a., Recurring ‐‐ 2020‐ 4 FF01RJRS00‐026 Expected Regional N/A $0 Wildlife (none) Survey (CB) 2b., 3a. every three Indefinite Biologist Instructions yea rs

136 | Page

Ma rch, April, Single Wildlife Hazards or May/ Beth Flint, Initial CCP / 4a., management FWS: 1976‐ 5 FF01RJRS00‐012 and Signs of Current $1,613 Recurring ‐‐ Wildlife (none) Survey 5a., 1a. unit: Jarvis 0.01 Indefinite Trespass (BM) every three Biologist Instructions Island (WSA‐A) yea rs I&M January Specialist, through Pacific Initial CCP / 4a., Other: December/ 2001‐ Islands 6 FF01RJRS00‐008 Oceanography (CB) Current Regional $0 (none) Survey 2a., 2b. 0.09 Recurring ‐‐ Indefinite I&M Instructions every three Specialist yea rs (FWS liaison) Single Ma rch/ CCP / 4a., Beth Flint, Initial Seabird Col oni es management FWS: Recurring ‐‐ 1976‐ 7 FF01RJRS00‐009 Current 1a., 3b., $1,613 Wildlife (none) Survey (BM) unit: Jarvis 0.05 every three Indefinite 3a. Biologist Instructions Island (WSA‐A) yea rs TBD/ Beth Flint, Initial CCP / 4a., 2020‐ 8 FF01RJRS00‐023 Pelagic Fishes (CB) Expected Regional N/A $0 Recurring ‐‐ Wildlife (none) Survey 2a., 2b. Indefinite every yea r Biologist Instructions I&M Specialist, Ma rch, April, Pacific or May/ Initial Cora l Community CCP / 4a., Other: 2000‐ Islands 9 FF01RJRS00‐007 Current Regional $0 Recurring ‐‐ (none) Survey Structure (CB) 3d., 2b. 0.07 Indefinite I&M every three Instructions Specialist yea rs (FWS liaison)

137 | Page

Ma rch, April, or May/ Beth Flint, Initial Pelagic Wildlife CCP / 3d., FWS: 1976‐ 10 FF01RJRS00‐004 Current Regional $1,613 Recurring ‐‐ Wildlife (none) Survey (BM) 2b., 3e. 0.03 Indefinite every three Biologist Instructions yea rs Ma rch, April, Single or May/ Beth Flint, Initial Terrestrial Plant CCP / 4a., management FWS: 1976‐ 11 FF01RJRS00‐013 Current $1,613 Recurring ‐‐ Wildlife (none) Survey Observations (BM) 1a., 1b. unit: Jarvis 0.02 Indefinite every three Biologist Instructions Island (WSA‐A) yea rs I&M Specialist, Ma rch,April, Non‐coral Pacific or May/ Initial Targeted Marine CCP / 4a., Other: 2000‐ Islands 12 FF01RJRS00‐003 Current Regional $0 Recurring ‐‐ (none) Survey Macroinvertebrate 3d., 2b. 0.04 Indefinite I&M every three Instructions s, Broadscale (CB) Specialist yea rs (FWS liaison) I&M Specialist, Ma rch, April, Pacific Algal Diversity and or May/ Initial CCP / 4a., Other: 2001‐ Islands 13 FF01RJRS00‐015 Benthic Current Regional $0 Recurring ‐‐ (none) Survey 3d., 2b. 0.07 Indefinite I&M Compos i ti on (CB) every three Instructions Specialist yea rs (FWS liaison) I&M Specialist, Pacific TBD/ Occurs Initial Deep‐sea Realm CCP / 4a., Other: Islands 14 FF01RJRS00‐020 Expected Regional $0 one time 2020‐ 2020 (none) Survey (CI) 3d., 2b. 0.15 I&M only Instructions Specialist (FWS liaison)

138 | Page

I&M Specialist, Ma rch, April, Pacific Reef Fish Diversity or May/ Initial CCP / 4a., Other: 2000‐ Islands 15 FF01RJRS00‐002 and Abundance Current Regional $0 Recurring ‐‐ (none) Survey 3d., 3c., 2b. 0.1 Indefinite I&M (CB) every three Instructions Specialist yea rs (FWS liaison) TBD/ Beth Flint, Initial Ma rine Mammals CCP / 4a., Recurring ‐‐ 2020‐ 16 FF01RJRS00‐024 Expected Regional N/A $0 Wildlife (none) Survey (CB) 2b., 3e. every three Indefinite Biologist Instructions yea rs I&M Specialist, Ma rch, April, Pacific Initial Mesophotic Cora l CCP / 4a., Other: or May/ 2004‐ Islands 18 FF01RJRS00‐018 Current Regional $0 (none) Survey Ecosystems (CB) 3d., 2b. 0.17 Sporadic or Indefinite I&M Instructions Ad Hoc Specialist (FWS liaison) Ma rch, April, Single or May/ Beth Flint, Initial Terrestrial Hermit CCP / 4a., management FWS: 2015‐ 19 FF01RJRS00‐021 Current $1,613 Recurring ‐‐ Wildlife (none) Survey Cra bs (BM) 2b., 1b. unit: Jarvis 0.04 Indefinite every three Biologist Instructions Island (WSA‐A) yea rs Single Ma rch/ Beth Flint, Initial CCP / 4a., management FWS: Recurring ‐‐ 1976‐ 20 FF01RJRS00‐010 Shorebirds (BM) Current $1,613 Wildlife (none) Survey 3a. unit: Jarvis 0.02 every three Indefinite Biologist Instructions Island (WSA‐A) yea rs TBD/ Beth Flint, Initial Ma rine Plankton CCP / 4a., Recurring ‐‐ 2020‐ 21 FF01RJRS00‐025 Expected Regional N/A $0 Wildlife (none) Survey (CB) 2b. every three Indefinite Biologist Instructions yea rs Ma rch, April, Single FWS: or May/ Beth Flint, Initial Terrestrial CCP / 4a., management 0.21, 2012‐ 22 FF01RJRS00‐016 Current $1,613 Recurring ‐‐ Wildlife (none) Survey Arthropods (CB) 1a. unit: Jarvis Other: Indefinite every three Biologist Instructions Island (WSA‐A) 0.04 yea rs 139 | Page

8. Estimates of average annual FWS operations cost for conducting the survey during the years it is conducted (e.g., equipment, contracts, travel) but not including FWS staff time. For the 9 Current surveys conducted by FWS staff: subsidized costs to NOAA for berth space ($40,000) are split among 6 refuges visited during CRED RAMP cruise legs; travel, lodging, and per diem is spread among 3 refuges visited during leg 3; costs for equipment, gear, and consumables are spread among the 9 surveys. See PRIMR for details. 9. Timing and frequency of current survey field activities, based on transport on NOAA vessels engaged in RAMP (Reef Assessment and Monitoring Program) activities. If transport opportunities improve, frequency will increase. 10. The years during which the survey is conducted. 11. The name and position of the survey coordinator (the Refuge Biologist or other designated Service employee) for each survey. 12. Title, author, and version of the survey protocol (if there is no protocol to cite, enter None). 13. Stage of approval (Initial Survey Instructions, Complete Draft, In Review, or Approved) of the survey protocol. See PRIMR for document location.

140 | Page

Jarvis Island NWR and Jarvis Island Unit of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument

Survey Name: Calcium Carbonate Accretion ...... 142 Survey Name: Non-avian Terrestrial and Marine Wildlife Observations ...... 144 Survey Name: Remote Surveillance of Terrestrial and Marine Systems ...... 147 Survey Name: Benthic Marine Cryptobiota ...... 150 Survey Name: Pelagic Seabirds ...... 152 Survey Name: Wildlife Hazards and Signs of Trespass ...... 155 Survey Name: Oceanography ...... 157 Survey Name: Seabird Colonies ...... 160 Survey Name: Pelagic Fishes ...... 162 Survey Name: Coral Community Structure ...... 165 Survey Name: Pelagic Wildlife ...... 168 Survey Name: Terrestrial Plant Observations ...... 170 Survey Name: Non-coral Targeted Marine Macroinvertebrate, Broadscale ...... 173 Survey Name: Algal Diversity and Benthic Composition ...... 175 Survey Name: Deep-sea Realm ...... 177 Survey Name: Reef Fish Diversity and Abundance ...... 179 Survey Name: Marine Mammals ...... 182 Survey Name: Cryptic Reef Fishes ...... 184 Survey Name: Mesophotic Coral Ecosystems ...... 186 Survey Name: Terrestrial Hermit Crabs ...... 188 Survey Name: Shorebirds ...... 190 Survey Name: Marine Plankton ...... 192 Survey Name: Terrestrial Arthropods ...... 195

141 | Page

Survey Name: Calcium Carbonate Accretion

Survey ID: FF01RJRS00-019

Priority Rank: 1

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Expand baseline information on marine community; Conserve, manage, and protect marine habitat.

The surveys support management objectives, derived from the Jarvis Island NWR CCP (2008), to protect the marine habitat and expand baseline information on the marine community. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

142 | Page

The coral reefs, other submerged lands, and water column lying within 3 nautical miles of the mean high water mark of Jarvis Island (Inventory Unit B) were identified in the Wilderness Review Inventory as meeting the requirements of a Wilderness Study Area (WSA-B); further evaluation of its wilderness values concluded it can be managed to preserve its wilderness character in perpetuity using a minimum requirements approach for all management activities. All management activities associated with survey activities (motorized marine vessel transportation to and from Jarvis; monitoring the marine ecosystem with the use of SCUBA equipment; mechanical equipment such as air compressors for SCUBA remains on the marine transport vessel) are conducted in such a manner as not to detract from the wilderness values identified in the Wilderness Inventory (i.e., naturalness, a condition that generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature with the imprint of man's work substantially unnoticeable).

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: March, April, or May

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Forty CAUs were first deployed at 6 sites at Jarvis Island in 2010. In 2012, the CAUs were retrieved and replaced with fresh CAUs. Additional cohorts of CAUs will be swapped out with each CRED monitoring cruise which, beginning in 2012, will be at triennial intervals.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Baseline Monitoring

University of California San Diego, Scripps Institute of Oceanography; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED);

Partner Coordinator is Rusty Brainard, Chief of the Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED).

143 | Page

Survey Name: Non-avian Terrestrial and Marine Wildlife Observations

Survey ID: FF01RJRS00-014

Priority Rank: 2

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Develop baseline scientific information on marine mammal use; Expand baseline information on marine community; Develop baseline data and understand sea turtle use; Develop baseline migratory bird and other species information; Conserve, manage, and protect habitat for nesting seabirds; Protect and maintain wilderness values

These incidental observations of other wildlife collectively support several objectives in the Jarvis Island NWR CCP. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

There are no native land mammals at Jarvis Island. Human activities at Jarvis Island have resulted in various non- native animals being introduced including the Polynesian rat (Rattus exulans), the house cat (Felis catus), and the house mouse (Mus musculus). The rats were documented as early as 1854 and in many accounts were described as extremely abundant. Sometime after 1938, they disappeared and have not been recorded since. Cats were introduced to Jarvis sometime during period between 1935 and 1942. Cats were finally removed in 1990, and since then there has been a remarkable recovery of almost the entire seabird community.

House mice are abundant during wetter years as a result of available forage. The potential for re-introduction of rats and/or cats by illegal trespassers exists given the limitations on active law enforcement in this remote area, thus necessitating continued surveillance for these introduced predators.

Terrestrial arthropods and mollusks are very poorly known. Although very little information is available on sea turtle populations at Jarvis, both the threatened green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) and the endangered hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) have been observed and photographed foraging in the shallow water near the island.

Only anecdotal information exists on marine mammal use of the waters surrounding Jarvis Island. However, studies elsewhere in the Pacific indicate that waters surrounding small islands may support distinct local populations of marine mammals. All of the northern Line Islands appear to support resident populations of Melon- headed whales.

Given the infrequency of visits to Jarvis Island, knowledge of the diversity, abundance, and condition of non-avian wildlife is presently only available through these incidental observations.

144 | Page

Both Jarvis Island (Inventory Unit A) and the coral reefs, other submerged lands, and water column lying within 3 nautical miles of the mean high water mark of Jarvis Island (Inventory Unit B) were identified in the Wilderness Review Inventory as meeting the requirements of Wilderness Study Areas (WAS-A and WSA-B); further evaluation of their wilderness values concluded they can be managed to preserve their wilderness character in perpetuity using a minimum requirements approach for all activities. All management activities associated with survey activities (motorized marine vessel transportation to and from Jarvis; establishing temporary field camps; small motorboat operations used in deployment and demobilization of field camp operations; use of portable generators and solar power to operate communications and other equipment; control of invasive species using hand pulling or hand spraying; monitoring the marine ecosystem with the use of SCUBA equipment) are conducted in such a manner as not to detract from the wilderness values identified in the Wilderness Inventory (i.e., naturalness, a condition that generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature with the imprint of man’s work substantially unnoticeable). Monitoring for non-native wildlife, which may have been introduced through unlawful trespass, enables detection and control before populations become established and invasive, thus facilitating preservation of Jarvis's wilderness character.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: March, April, or May

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Biotic Group Level 1: Arthropoda (arthropods);

Biotic Group Level 2: Decapoda (crabs,crayfishes,lobsters,prawns,shrimp);

Coenobita (No Common Name);

Biotic Group Level 1: Mammalia (mammals);

Biotic Group Level 2: Cetacea (cetaceans,dolphins,marine mammals,porpoises,whales);

Tursiops truncatus (Bottlenose Dolphin, Bottlenosed Dolphin);

Biotic Group Level 1: Reptilia (Reptiles);

Biotic Group Level 2: Squamata (Amphisbaenians,Lizards,Snakes);

Lepidodactylus lugubris (Mourning Gecko);

Biotic Group Level 2: Testudines (terrapins,tortoises,Turtles);

Eretmochelys imbricata (Hawksbill sea turtle); Chelonia mydas (Green sea turtle)

145 | Page

These semi-quantitative observations may have included: mammals (dolphins, mice, cats, and rats before and after their eradication), reptiles (turtles, geckos), arthropods (land crabs, insects), molluscs (giant clams, shells of other species), and reef fishes. In 2010 baited cards were deployed in representative vegetation types to collect and inventory ant species. Because trips to the Refuge since it was established have been opportunistic, surveys have taken place erratically throughout the year (February, March, April, June, October, or November).

The Jarvis Island NWR CCP indicates that incidental observations of nearshore turtle use and of marine mammals will be strategies applied to achieve Objectives 3c and 3e, respectively. Also indicated is that recording "the numbers and distribution of…turtles and other terrestrial invertebrates" are desired conditions by which Objective 3a can be evaluated. To implement these strategies, incidental observations of turtles, marine mammals, and terrestrial invertebrates will be recorded in the course of conducting more systematic surveys such as those for seabirds and migratory shorebirds. Efforts will be made to acquire additional data (e.g., GPS coordinates, abundance estimates) for introduced animals (e.g., ants) that may have become highly invasive and may merit management actions to control.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Baseline Monitoring

None;

146 | Page

Survey Name: Remote Surveillance of Terrestrial and Marine Systems

Survey ID: FF01RJRS00-006

Priority Rank: 2

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Provide off-site education and interpretation opportunities; Enhance law enforcement capabilities; Protect and maintain wilderness values; Develop baseline data and understand sea turtle use; Develop baseline migratory bird and other species information; Increase baseline information on marine community.; Increase baseline information on terrestrial habitat; Conserve, manage, and protect habitat for nesting seabirds

Remote surveillance surveys would support a number of objectives in the Jarvis Island NWR CCP.

In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Current wildlife monitoring efforts at Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge are limited to a short visit of several days every 2-3 years. The infrequency and irregularity of opportunities to visit the Refuge has greatly limited our capacity to understand the status and trends of its avian, vegetative, and other wildlife resources. Jarvis Island serves as an important breeding epicenter for a large number of seabirds in the Central Pacific. To understand the patterns of seabird use we need to have a year-round monitoring presence. Since it is impractical to have human presence year-round based on current funding resources, automated wildlife monitoring methods can provide us with the data that we need for wildlife population trend estimates and detecting all seabird species using the site, with minimal human involvement.

147 | Page use of beaches by sea turtles; meteorological parameters (temperature, precipitation, wind speed and direction, barometric pressure) and oceanographic parameters (sea level, sea surface temperature, pH, and salinity). In conjunction with real-time remote surveillance, songmeters that will record species-specific call information over the course of their deployment can capture an annual soundscape for determining species’ patterns of use.

Inclusion of a moored offshore buoy station and programmed patrolling autonomous surface craft such as wave gliders equipped with a hydrophone, oceanographic and biochemical sensors (e.g., fluorometer), and image sensor that relayed via the island base station or satellites could also detect trespass events, cetacean activity, and multiple oceanographic parameters. The RSS would have potential for collaboration with multiple national entities, including NOAA, Coast Guard, Navy, and USGS-Biological Resources Division. The imagery and other associated data would also have value for web-based education & outreach.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: January through December

Frequency: Recurring -- every year

The specific purpose statement for establishment of Jarvis Island NWR identified in the biological ascertainment report at the time of transfer to the Service is (USFWS 1973): "…the preservation of the complete ecosystem, terrestrial as well as marine. Special emphasis to be given to the large seabird nesting colonies.”

Eight songmeters, three trail cameras, and an underwater hydrophone installed at Jarvis Island in April 2015 are the first phase of a remote surveillance system. Specially programmed songmeters that will record species- specific call information over the course of their deployment (2-3 years) are used to monitor seabird activity. The songmeters are located in important seabird roosting or nesting locations across the island in varied habitats. The ultimate goal is to capture the annual soundscape for the island and thereby be able to determine the patterns of use for each seabird species. The songmeters are fitted with solar panels and enough data capacity to continue sampling for up to 3 years until the data files can be collected. One of the solar-powered trail cameras overlooks the Refuge sign to pick up signs of trespassers. The hydrophone, installed near the landing, will record underwater sounds indicative of trespassing vessels.

148 | Page

An appropriate sound-sampling scheme will prolong battery life while allowing sampling of rare nocturnal bird species’ sounds that occur infrequently and are unlikely to be detected during infrequent site visits. Similarly, the trail camera is programmed to record visual imagery at intervals that can be sustained during a deployment of several years. Collectively, these data will improve confidence about the species composition of nesting birds at Howland and the ability to design enforcement schemes to protect them. The archival data collected by the songmeters, trail cameras, and hydrophone may also allow us to evaluate whether we need a greater law enforcement presence at Jarvis Island NWR.

As funds become available, solar-powered equipment with the capacity to telemeter visual information can be procured and installed. Capability to stream webcam will allow crowd-source monitoring and surveillance as well as connecting people to the Monument and outreach. Temporal cycles of the presence, abundance, and nesting activity of seabirds would be the primary focus of this remote surveillance imagery. While patterns of seabird use are the primary target for remote terrestrial surveillance, additional visual information regarding migratory shorebirds, vegetative condition, weather patterns, sea turtle activity, and illegal human presence would also be captured. An offshore buoy station with sensors for sea level, sea surface temperature, pH, salinity, barometric pressure, wind speed, and wind direction can transmit high-resolution data daily via satellite telemetry. An expanded hydrophone array may increase our ability to inventory marine mammals using the area and provide indices of other reef fish and crustacean behaviors and activity.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Baseline Monitoring

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; U.S. Coast Guard;

149 | Page

Survey Name: Benthic Marine Cryptobiota

Survey ID: FF01RJRS00-017

Priority Rank: 3

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Expand baseline information on marine community; Increase baseline information on marine community.

The surveys support management objectives, derived from the Jarvis Island NWR CCP (2008), to increase and expand baseline information on the marine community. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

150 | Page

(i.e., naturalness, a condition that generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature with the imprint of man's work substantially unnoticeable).

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: March, April, or May

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

ARMS are composed of nine gray, type 1 polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plates (23 x 23 cm) stacked in an alternating series of open and obstructed formats and attached to a base plate of 35 x 45 cm. The entire structure is affixed to the sea floor with four stainless steel stakes, weights, and zip ties. These structures typically are deployed on mid-depth (10 meters) fore-reef habitats in replicate sets of three ARMS at three sites (3 x 3) per island or location. They remain on the bottom for 2 to 3 years during which time they become colonized with marine organisms. ARMS were first deployed at Jarvis Island in 2008 at three Rapid Ecological Assessment (REA) monitoring sites (n = 9 ARMS), with subsequent retrieval and deployment of new units in 2010 and 2012. Beginning in 2012 surveys changed to triennial intervals due to restructuring of funding by the NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Baseline Monitoring

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology;

Partner Coordinator is Rusty Brainard, Chief of the Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED).

151 | Page

Survey Name: Pelagic Seabirds

Survey ID: FF01RJRS00-026

Priority Rank: 4

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Increase baseline information on marine community; Develop baseline migratory bird and other species information

The surveys support an objective in the Jarvis Island NWR CCP pertaining to the goal of contributing to the recovery, protection, and management efforts for all native species with special consideration for seabirds…and species of management concern. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Seabird survivorship and reproductive success are closely linked to successful food foraging at sea. There is a lack of information about the at-sea distribution and abundance of seabirds in the oceanic waters protected within the Jarvis Island NWR and the adjacent Jarvis Island unit of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument (PRIMNM). Moreover, knowledge of the linkage between seabird distribution and the oceanographic environment is highly limited, which in turn limits understanding of why seabirds choose certain regions and hydrographic features in which to forage. Studies in the Eastern Tropical Pacific on several of the same seabird species that occur at Jarvis Island show the birds have a strong at-sea association with thermocline depth in the ocean. Foraging range, as reflected in seabird distribution, is pertinent to management because it dictates whether protected area boundaries are effectively incorporating foraging habitat. The foraging ranges of seabirds needed to protect and recover their populations was an important factor in establishing the boundaries of the PRIMNM in 2009 and in extending those boundaries further offshore at other units in the Monument (Johnston Atoll, Wake Atoll, Jarvis Island) in 2014. Improved understanding of the at-sea distribution of seabirds, its relationship to oceanographic conditions, and the complex inter-relationships of seabirds and pelagic fishes will help Monument managers develop comprehensive and effective management plans to effectively protect the marine life in these areas.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

152 | Page

Timing: TBD

Frequency: Recurring -- every three to four years

Biotic Group Level 1: Aves (Birds)

Biotic Group Level 2: Charadriiformes (Alcids,Auks,Gulls,Oystercatchers,Plovers,Shore Birds)

Biotic Group Level 2: Phaethontiformes (Tropicbirds)

Phaethon rubricauda (Red-tailed Tropicbird); Phaethon lepturus (White-tailed Tropicbird)

Biotic Group Level 2: Procellariiformes (Tube-nosed Swimmers)

Puffinus pacificus (Wedge-tailed Shearwater)

Biotic Group Level 2: Suliformes (Cormorants)

Fregata ariel (Lesser Frigatebird); Fregata minor (Great Frigatebird); Sula sula (Red-footed Booby); Sula leucogaster (Brown Booby); Sula dactylatra (Masked Booby)

Possible Methods:

Workshop participants recommended that (1) a single cruise cover the federally protected waters of Jarvis Island, Palmyra Atoll, Kingman Reef, and Johnston Island (2) surveys be conducted in 3- to 4-year cycles in order to maximize the chances of incorporating strong El Nino-Southern Oscillation events, and (3) surveys take place in the same months of the year in order to capture inter-annual variability.

Telemetry was identified by workshop participants as a methodology with high impact because it directly samples foraging distributions of seabirds and can be used to evaluate how much time animals spend in or out of the PRIMNM boundaries. However, such studies require that tags be deployed and recovered, meaning not only that researchers must be able to access islands but must also reside there for considerable lengths of time (1-2 months) to collect adequate information. Workshop participants considered this to be prohibitively difficult at Howland, Baker, and Jarvis Islands, such that ship-based surveys may be the only option in the near future.

153 | Page collected ashore, giving at least a general sense of relative foraging ranges. Workshop participants thought that isotope studies only need to be conducted roughly every five or more years.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Baseline Monitoring

NOAA Fisheries; Alaska Maritime NWR

154 | Page

Survey Name: Wildlife Hazards and Signs of Trespass

Survey ID: FF01RJRS00-012

Priority Rank: 5

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect cultural resources; Protect and maintain wilderness values; Conserve, manage, and protect habitat for nesting seabirds

Observations and mitigation of contaminants and wildlife hazards supports the CCP objective of conserving, managing, and protecting habitat for nesting seabirds. Documenting signs of trespass and the condition of the day beacon supports CCP objectives of protecting and maintaining wilderness values, and protecting cultural resources. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

The most recent human activity at Jarvis Island that resulted in possible environmental contamination occurred between 1974 and 1980. The NORPAX Line Islands Monitoring Experiment included an automated weather station at Jarvis that consisted of various meteorological and oceanographic sensors, a small hut housing the electronics box, a 100 watt FSK radio transmitter, radio and sensor towers, wind generators, solar panels, primary and secondary batteries, and power control circuits. Power for the station was stored in 18-volt lead-acid batteries and radio transmission powered by 12 volt batteries. At least some of these batteries and some of the other metallic objects were left behind on Jarvis at the end of this research.

Other periods of human occupation at Jarvis include an 18 month occupation of Jarvis from 1 July 1957 to 31 Dec 1958 by a party of oceanographers from Scripps Institution of Oceanography during the International Geophysical Year. They left a house in 1958, which was burned in 1977 with the assistance of Coast Guard personnel and is no longer standing. Panalā’au colonists occupied the island from 1935 to 1942 and as many as 80 guano miners at any given time worked there from 1858 to 1879. The east end of Jarvis was shelled by a Japanese submarine in 1942. A large storm from the north in 1958 washed away practically all evidence of the guano miners and the Panalā’au colonists from the Millersville landing area.

According to the Jarvis Island NWR CCP, the Army Corps of Engineers (ACOE) completed their responsibilities under the Defense Environmental Restoration Program (DERP), and no contaminant or hazardous waste materials are currently known to exist on Jarvis (Appendix G-2). However, contaminated debris (e.g., leaking barrels, batteries) and adrift Fish Aggregation Devices (FADs) may wash ashore or be left by trespassers, necessitating surveillance and mitigation for these items.

Given the potential impact to wildlife, both older and newer human debris (the latter an indicator of trespass) are routinely searched for during the infrequent visits to Jarvis. Empty fuel and water drums are an entrapment hazard

155 | Page to roosting seabirds that may fall inside and be unable to escape. The drums have been turned over to prevent entrapment.

Jarvis Island NWR remains closed to public access. Documenting signs of probable trespass provides intelligence for law enforcement efforts in this remote region to reduce adverse ecological impacts from illegal human traffic including exploitation of marine resources, introduction of alien species, sewage pollution, fuel spills, trash disposal, harassment of wildlife, and damage to cultural resources.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: March, April, or May

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

No contaminant or hazardous waste materials are currently known to exist on Jarvis Island. Some human- generated debris remains from past occupations, but wind erosion, storm activity, and vegetative growth have covered these artifacts such that they do not conflict with wilderness naturalness values. An indirect human impact to the naturalness of Jarvis is the presence of marine debris that washes onto coral reefs and beaches. Removing and stockpiling this debris for eventual removal occur when field camps are present on the island.

Surveillance for signs of trespass or human debris that may pose a hazard to wildlife routinely occurs in the course of conducting biological surveys. Signs of trespass may include: remains of fire; bottles; fishing boats within refuge boundaries; and planted invasive coconuts. The condition of the Refuge signage is noted and, as time and materials allow, refurbished to deter future trespass. The condition of the day beacon is also noted.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Baseline Monitoring

None;

156 | Page

Survey Name: Oceanography

Survey ID: FF01RJRS00-008

Priority Rank: 6

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Increase baseline information on marine community; Conserve, manage, and protect marine habitat.; Protect and maintain wilderness values

By continuing and expanding upon the partnership with NOAA to monitor coral reef ecosystems, the objective of conserving, managing, and protecting the marine habitat is supported. Additionally, the Ecological Acoustic Recorder (EAR), which acoustically records underwater sounds including vessel traffic in the vicinity of the refuge, supports the objective of enhancing law enforcement capabilities.

In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Coastal geomorphology, reef ecosystems, and pelagic species are shaped by a dynamic suite of oceanographic parameters including the directionality, frequency, and magnitude of seawater movement; seawater temperature; and seawater chemistry. The values of these parameters vary over time and space, and collectively define the physical environment that drives the composition and condition of both permanent and transient reef and open ocean biota. Establishing knowledge of the temporal patterns (diurnal, tidal, seasonal, annual, decadal, etc.) of these variables and their anomalies promotes improved understanding of the ranges of physical forcing (abiotic) factors that constantly shape marine biota and their multiple interactions. In light of the manifestations of atmospheric climate change to ocean conditions (i.e., increasing sea surface temperatures, sea level rise, ocean acidification), it is imperative to monitor the physical status of the ocean water column that supports coral reefs. Modeling has suggested that, in response to greenhouse-gas forcing associated with climate change, warming and decline in productivity around select Pacific islands will be mitigated by enhanced upwelling of cool waters in the equatorial undercurrent (EUC). If realized, these predictions help to identify potential refuges for coral reef communities from anticipated climate changes of the twenty-first century. Located within the stream of the EUC, Jarvis Island could become a refuge for marine productivity and coral reefs in an otherwise desolate tropical seascape. Prey availability for foraging seabirds is also tied to changing ocean conditions.

The oceanographic surveys and platforms implemented at Jarvis since 2001, which include long-term moored observing stations with data telemetry, subsurface instrumented moorings and shipboard sensors, are components of NOAA's Coral Reef Ecosystem Integrated Observing System (CREIOS). CREIOS operates in and around the coral reefs of the US-affiliated Pacific Islands. Locations presently include the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, the Territory of Guam, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), the Territory of American Samoa, and other U.S. Pacific Remote Island Areas, including Howland, Baker, and Jarvis Islands, and Palmyra, Kingman, and Johnston Atolls. CREIOS, in turn, is part of the Pacific Islands Ocean Observing system

157 | Page

(PacIOOS), one of 11 regional components of the U.S. Integrated Ocean Operating System (IOOS). The IOOS is a partnership among federal, regional, academic, and private sector parties that works to provide new tools and forecasts to improve safety, enhance the economy, and protect the environment.

In addition to locations serviced by CREIOS, the PacIOOS region includes the Pacific nations in Free Association with the U.S. (Republic of the Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, and Republic of Palau). PacIOOS works to develop the observational, modeling, data management, and outreach components of an end-to-end ocean observing system to generate products that help to ensure a safe, clean, and productive ocean and a resilient coastal zone for the U.S. Pacific. NOAA Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED), our USFWS partner in the Hawaii/Pacific zone that has taken the lead on oceanographic monitoring activities at Jarvis Island NWR since 2001, is a Regional Member of the PacIOOS Governing Council.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: January through December

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

The parameters of interest include: current direction and speed; surface and subsurface seawater temperature; salinity; pH; nutrient and chlorophyll concentration, dissolved inorganic carbon, and subsurface acoustic activity. These parameters are assessed across a range of water depths at a number of sites and/or along transects near Jarvis Island.

Since 2001, a number of oceanographic surveys have been implemented, and a diversity of oceanographic systems that log data at prescribed intervals have been installed at Jarvis. Spatial surveys include: (1) shipboard CTDs (conductivity/temperature/depth) at select locations near the island to depths of 500m; (2) shallow-water (<

158 | Page

30 m) CTDs at multiple sites around the island; (3) shipboard acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) transects in the deepwater regions around the island to examine the horizontal and vertical structure of the prevailing ocean currents; (4) water samples from shallow and deep depths for analysis of nutrient, chlorophyll, and dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) concentrations. These surveys/samples have provided a "snapshot" of ocean conditions as they are only conducted during a 3-4 day period every two to three years. Oceanographic systems that transmit data via satellite and/or log data for downloading after instrument retrieval include (1) sea surface temperature (SST) buoys; (2) subsurface temperature recorders (STRs); (3) subsurface ADCP/CTD mooring, and (4) Ecological Acoustic Recorder (EAR). These data sets provide a more comprehensive time series of variable temperature conditions as the data are logged at prescribed intervals.

From 2002 to 2012, deployment and retrieval of instruments was at biennial intervals. Beginning in 2012 this changed to triennial intervals due to restructuring of funding by the NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Baseline Monitoring

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED); Sea Education Association

Partner Coordinator is Rusty Brainard, Chief of the Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED).

159 | Page

Survey Name: Seabird Colonies

Survey ID: FF01RJRS00-009

Priority Rank: 7

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Restore breeding populations for 2 seabird species; Develop baseline migratory bird and other species information; Conserve, manage, and protect habitat for nesting seabirds; Protect and maintain wilderness values

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Jarvis Island NWR was established for the purpose of restoring and protecting the complete ecosystem, both terrestrial and marine, with special emphasis to be given to the large seabird nesting colonies. The Seabird Conservation Plan (2005) recognizes remote Pacific islands as providing important and varied breeding habitat, specifically Jarvis as being important for ground nesting species. The 15 nesting seabird species on Jarvis use all island habitats. The Polynesian storm-petrel (Nesogregatta fuliginosa) may now be able to flourish on Jarvis Island due to the removal of mammalian predators from the island. The Phoenix petrel does not currently occupy Jarvis though it is thought that they did historically.

Jarvis Island (Inventory Unit A) was identified in the Wilderness Review Inventory as meeting the requirements of a Wilderness Study Area (WSA-A); further evaluation of its wilderness values concluded it can be managed to preserve its wilderness character in perpetuity using a “minimum requirements” approach for all management activities. All management activities associated with survey activities (motorized marine vessel transportation to and from Jarvis; establishing temporary field camps; small motorboat operations used in deployment and demobilization of field camp operations; use of portable generators and solar power to operate communications and other equipment) are conducted in such a manner as not to detract from the wilderness values identified in the Wilderness Inventory (i.e., naturalness, a condition that generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature with the imprint of man’s work substantially unnoticeable).

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: March

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

160 | Page

Biotic Group Level 1: Aves (Birds);

Biotic Group Level 2: Charadriiformes (Alcids,Auks,Gulls,Oystercatchers,Plovers,Shore Birds);

Procelsterna cerulea (Blue Noddy, Blue-gray Noddy); Gygis alba (Angel Tern, White Tern); Anous stolidus (Brown Noddy); Sterna lunata (Gray-backed Tern, Spectacled Tern); Sterna fuscata (Sooty Tern);

Biotic Group Level 2: Phaethontiformes (Tropicbirds);

Phaethon rubricauda (Red-tailed Tropicbird);

Biotic Group Level 2: Procellariiformes (Tube-nosed Swimmers);

Nesofregetta fuliginosa (Polynesian Storm Petrel); Puffinus nativitatis (Christmas Shearwater); Puffinus lherminieri (Audubon's Shearwater); Puffinus pacificus (Wedge-tailed Shearwater);

Biotic Group Level 2: Suliformes (Cormorants);

Fregata ariel (Lesser Frigatebird); Fregata minor (Great Frigatebird); Sula sula (Red-footed Booby); Sula leucogaster (Brown Booby); Sula dactylatra (Masked Booby);

Marine vessels capable of traveling the open ocean for extended periods are the only opportunity for access to Jarvis. Since the refuge was established in 1974, NOAA, the U.S. Coast Guard, the Environmental Contaminants Branch of the Ecological Services USFWS Office in Honolulu, the Scripps Institute of Oceanography, and private vessels chartered by HAM radio operators visiting Jarvis under Special Use Permit have all provided transportation. In some years, sea conditions preclude landing on the island. Between 1973 and 2015, biologists have been able to land and record observations on 21 of the 24 trips staged to Jarvis, for durations ranging from several hours to 8 days. The spatial extent and level of detail of the seabird surveys at Jarvis Island have therefore been highly variable, including direct counts of adults, active nests (eggs or chicks), and phenology (chick stage) when possible. In most years, however, time constraints have limited seabird data to species presence/absence with estimated numbers of adults and/or nests. In some years additional activities have included nocturnal surveys for Procellariformes, mapping the extent of sooty tern and other breeding seabird colonies, and reading bands. Because trips to the Refuge since it was established have been opportunistic, surveys have taken place erratically throughout the year (February, March, April, June, October, or November).

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Baseline Monitoring

161 | Page

Survey Name: Pelagic Fishes

Survey ID: FF01RJRS00-023

Priority Rank: 8

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Conserve, manage, and protect marine habitat; Increase baseline information on marine community

The surveys support objectives in the Jarvis Island NWR CCP pertaining to the goal of conserving, managing, and protecting native marine communities that are representative of remote tropical Pacific islands. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Participants of a workshop conducted in 2011 (Pelagic Fish and Seabird Inter-Relationships in the Central Tropical Pacific: Methods and Approaches to Study and Management) identified the need to study tuna movement and distribution in the Central Pacific Ocean, particularly within the waters of the PRIMNM. They cautioned that although bird-pelagic fish interactions are likely to occur in relation to skipjack and yellowfin tuna, mahi-mahi (Coryphaena hippurus and C. equiselis) should also be considered. They also noted the lack of

162 | Page information on forage fish species in the region. Flying fish (family Exocoetidae) have been identified as one of the most important forage species for tuna and birds, but almost nothing is known of their ecology or distribution, and information that includes different species is often combined together because so little is known about them separately.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: TBD

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Biotic Group Level 1: Osteichthyes (bony fishes)

Biotic Group Level 2: Perciformes (perch-like fishes)

Biotic Group Level 2: Beloniformes (needlefishes)

Exocoetus (flyingfishes)

Possible Methods:

163 | Page

The costs of tags vary widely, but most tagging and tracking studies fall into the high cost category (greater than $200,000). In 2006, the Pacific Tuna Tagging Program (http://www.spc.int/tagging/) began activities concentrated over the equatorial Western and Central Pacific Ocean, tagging skipjack, yellowfin, and bigeye tuna with both conventional and electronic tags. The Program is a primary source of data that can be mined to discover the movements of tuna tagged in the central Pacific (tag/release date and position, tag recovery date and position); these data could help to inform habitat use by tuna within the waters of the Island NWR and the adjacent Island unit of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument (PRIMNM). Of close to 250,000 releases of tagged skipjack tuna since Program inception, ~17% have been recovered.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Baseline Monitoring

NOAA Fisheries; Alaska Maritime NWR

164 | Page

Survey Name: Coral Community Structure

Survey ID: FF01RJRS00-007

Priority Rank: 9

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Expand baseline information on marine community; Increase baseline information on marine community.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Stony corals (Order Scleractinia) and related Anthozoans are key structural components of coral reef ecosystems, and provide shelter and food for other reef denizens. Before 2000, Jarvis had not been surveyed for corals. Documenting the diversity, distribution, percent cover, relative abundance, size structure, and health status (such as bleaching and other diseases) of the coral fauna provides data that underlie coral community structure. Beginning in 2000, 3 permanently marked transects were established to monitor coral and and were resurveyed by the USFWS through 2006.In 2000. In 2000, additional coral monitoring activities were initiated on reefs to 100 feet deep at Jarvis Island by the NOAA Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (NOAA CRED) in association with USFWS as part of a larger multidisciplinary effort to assess and monitor coral reef ecosystems in the U.S. Pacific Islands. These surveys increased the number of reported scleractinian and hydrozoan species to 72 (see ServCat reference 29134) and provided information on percent cover, distribution, relative abundance, size structure, and health status. Surveys have also been conducted by Scripps Institute of Oceanography (J. Smith and S. Sandin labs). These surveys provide a baseline to evaluate status and trends as well as detect changes potentially caused by climate change and other stressors.

While the reefs of Jarvis Island have been spared many of the anthropogenic threats and impacts that afflict reefs located closer to human population centers, some threats such as climate change and ocean acidification are very widespread and challenge the ability of protected areas to limit their effects. Monitoring multiple metrics that characterize coral community structure and health needs to continue in order to document trends in the composition and condition of corals throughout the Refuge.

165 | Page those described by the GCRMN manta tow protocol in providing broad spatial coverage at coarser levels of taxonomic resolution. I&M coral reef monitoring at Jarvis integrates with the GCRMN, strengthening our capacity to examine coral reefs and ensure that our methods and metrics are consistent with other monitoring programs.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: March, April, or May

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Biotic Group Level 1: Cnidaria (cnidarians,coelenterates);

Biotic Group Level 2: Alcyonacea (soft corals);

Sinularia (No Common Name);

Biotic Group Level 2: Anthoathecatae (athecate hydroids,hydromedusae);

Distichopora (No Common Name); Stylaster (No Common Name); Millepora (No Common Name);

Biotic Group Level 2: Scleractinia (stony corals);

Fungia (No Common Name); Psammocora (No Common Name); Acropora (No Common Name); Montipora (No Common Name); Pocillopora (No Common Name); Leptoseris (No Common Name); Pavona (No Common Name); Coscinaraea (No Common Name); Porites (No Common Name); Favia (No Common Name); Favites (No Common Name); Goniastrea (No Common Name); Hydnophora (No Common Name);Echinophyllia (No Common Name); Tubastraea (No Common Name); Cladopsammia (No Common Name); Pachyseris (No Common Name);

Shallow-water (< 30 meters) stony corals (order Scleractinia), octocorals, and hydrozoan corals are the population of interest. Between 2000 and 2006, coral surveys conducted by USFWS Coral Biologist Dr. James Maragos included photoquadrats acquired along transect lines at 3 georeferenced sites, from which quantitative data were extracted using point-count software. With the retirement of Dr. Maragos in 2011, this methodology has not been applied but remains an irreplaceable, archived reference (see ServCat reference 12001) and needs to be replicated.

166 | Page

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Baseline Monitoring

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED); Scripps Institute of Oceanography

Partner Coordinator is Rusty Brainard, Chief of the Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED).

167 | Page

Survey Name: Pelagic Wildlife

Survey ID: FF01RJRS00-004

Priority Rank: 10

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Develop baseline scientific information on marine mammal use; Expand baseline information on marine community; Increase baseline information on marine community.

The surveys support objectives in the Jarvis Island NWR CCP pertaining to native species communities. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

The estimated millions of seabirds breeding at national wildlife refuges in the central Pacific Ocean are primarily pelagic feeders that obtain the fish and squid they consume by associating with schools of large predatory fish such as tuna and billfish. While both the predatory fish and the birds are capable of foraging throughout their pelagic ranges (which encompass the tropical Pacific Ocean), the birds are most successful at feeding their young when they can find schools of predatory fish within easy commuting range of the breeding colonies. Recently fledged birds, which are inexperienced in this complex and demanding style of foraging, rely on abundant and local food resources to survive while they learn to locate and capture prey. Assessing pelagic seabird populations in conjunction with their use of the terrestrial habitat at Jarvis provides a more comprehensive picture of their abundance and activity status than terrestrial surveys alone.

Little is known of marine mammal use surrounding Jarvis, although it is known that some species are found in the vicinity. Only anecdotal information exists on marine mammal use of the waters surrounding Jarvis Island. Studies elsewhere in the Pacific, however, indicate that waters surrounding small islands may support distinct local populations of marine mammals, and all of the northern Line Islands appear to support resident populations of Melon-headed whales. Given the remoteness of Jarvis and infrequency of access, formal surveys of marine mammal distribution and abundance have not been undertaken at the refuge, highlighting the importance of such efforts as can be made.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: March, April, or May

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

During the transit from Pago Pago to Jarvis (4 days) and Jarvis to Palmyra (1 day), when possible the terrestrial team conducts pelagic bird and mammal transects 4 to 5 hours per day during daylight hours. They record all birds and mammals sighted as well as an index of flying fish density along the cruise track. They also record sea

168 | Page conditions, wind velocity, and wind direction from the ship's instruments each hour during observation periods. In some years, the team remains at Palmyra and returns to Honolulu by plane, and in some years the team remains onboard for the transit from Palmyra to Honolulu (4 days), in which case pelagic transects are also conducted.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Baseline Monitoring

None;

169 | Page

Survey Name: Terrestrial Plant Observations

Survey ID: FF01RJRS00-013

Priority Rank: 11

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Increase baseline information on terrestrial habitat; Conserve, manage, and protect habitat for nesting seabirds; Protect and maintain wilderness values

The surveys support objectives in the Jarvis Island NWR CCP pertaining to the goal of conserving, protecting, and managing native terrestrial habitats that are representative of remote tropical Pacific islands, primarily for the benefit of seabirds. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Jarvis Island NWR was established for the purpose of restoring and protecting the complete ecosystem, both terrestrial and marine, with special emphasis to be given to the large seabird nesting colonies. A contemporary total of only 7 native and 4 introduced plant species have been recorded. Collection of baseline biological information is essential to adequately understand and manage the refuge. Although it is known that the 13 nesting seabird species use all habitats on Jarvis, this information has only been obtained from the short duration, infrequent visits to the island. Red-footed booby, great frigatebirds, and white terns prefer to nest above the ground on the few shrubs available, and the plant community provides cover for wintering bristle-thighed curlew. Additionally, detecting the presence of invasive plant species, which likely have been accidentally introduced, may serve as an indication of illegal trespass. If detected, removing the plant(s) by hand-pulling before a population becomes well established serves to preserve wilderness values of naturalness.

Jarvis Island (Inventory Unit A) was identified in the Wilderness Review Inventory as meeting the requirements of a Wilderness Study Area (WSA-A); further evaluation of its wilderness values concluded it can be managed to preserve its wilderness character in perpetuity using a “minimum requirements” approach for all management activities. All management activities associated with survey activities (motorized marine vessel transportation to and from Jarvis; establishing temporary field camps; small motorboat operations used in deployment and demobilization of field camp operations; use of portable generators and solar power to operate communications and other equipment; control of invasive species using hand pulling or hand spraying) are conducted in such a manner as not to detract from the wilderness values identified in the Wilderness Inventory (i.e., naturalness, a condition that generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature with the imprint of man’s work substantially unnoticeable).

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: March, April, or May

170 | Page

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Biotic Group Level 1: Plantae (plants);

Biotic Group Level 2: Aizoaceae (fig-marigold,iceplants,ice plants);

Sesuvium portulacastrum (cencilla, shoreline seapurslane);

Biotic Group Level 2: Cyperaceae (sedges);

Fimbristylis cymosa (tropical fimbry);

Biotic Group Level 2: Malvaceae (mallows);

Sida fallax (yellow `ilima); Abutilon indicum (monkeybush);

Biotic Group Level 2: Nyctaginaceae (four o'clocks);

Boerhavia (spiderling);

Biotic Group Level 2: Poaceae (grasses);

Lepturus repens (Pacific Island thintail); Eragrostis whitneyi (No Common Name);

Biotic Group Level 2: Portulacaceae (purslane);

Portulaca lutea (native yellow purslane);

Biotic Group Level 2: Zygophyllaceae (caltrop);

Tribulus cistoides (Jamaican feverplant, puncture vine);

Marine vessels capable of traveling the open ocean for extended periods are the only opportunity for access to Jarvis. Since the refuge was established in 1974, NOAA, the U.S. Coast Guard, the Environmental Contaminants Branch of the Ecological Services USFWS Office in Honolulu, the Scripps Institute of Oceanography, and private vessels chartered by HAM radio operators visiting Jarvis under Special Use Permit have all provided transportation. In some years, sea conditions preclude landing on the island. Between 1973 and 2015, biologists have been able to land and record observations on 21 of the 24 trips staged to Jarvis, for durations ranging from several hours to 8 days. The nature of the vegetative surveys has therefore been highly variable, commonly limited to a description of the general condition of the dominant plants. In some years more detailed observations have included: species inventory; photographs; phenological observations; percent cover estimates by species along transects; samples collected. Lichens and fungi are also looked for. Because trips to the Refuge since it was established have been opportunistic, surveys have taken place erratically throughout the year (February, March, April, June, October, or November).

The Jarvis Island NWR CCP indicates that “document presence/absence of island vegetation” will be used as a strategy to achieve Objective 1b, “within 15 years of CCP approval, conduct monitoring to determine vegetation species presence/absence and distribution on Jarvis Island.” To implement this strategy, all plant species will be recorded and photographed in the course of conducting more systematic surveys such as those for seabirds and migratory shorebirds. Efforts will be made to acquire additional data (e.g., mapping with GPS, percent cover estimates) for introduced plants that may have become highly invasive and may merit management actions to control.

171 | Page

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Baseline Monitoring

None;

172 | Page

Survey Name: Non-coral Targeted Marine Macroinvertebrate, Broadscale

Survey ID: FF01RJRS00-003

Priority Rank: 12

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Expand baseline information on marine community; Increase baseline information on marine community; Protect and maintain wilderness values

The surveys support management objectives, derived from the Jarvis Island NWR CCP (2008), to increase and expand baseline information on the marine community.

In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Before the initiation of broadscale marine macroinvertebrate surveys at Jarvis Island by the NOAA Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED) in 2000, little was known of the diversity or abundance of conspicuous macroinvertebrates including urchins, sea cucumbers, giant clams, or crown-of-thorns seastars (COTS). These organisms are involved in key aspects of reef dynamics including grazing, bioerosion, sediment cycling, seawater filtration, and predation. Giant clams have been widely over-harvested in populated areas of the Pacific. Outbreaks of corallivorous COTS in other regions of the Pacific have resulted in substantial loss of live coral cover. Sea urchins and sea cucumbers are increasingly harvested and over-harvested near population centers. Knowledge of the distribution and abundance of these targeted taxa provides an available baseline for describing the condition of unimpacted reefs and enhances understanding of their role in ecosystem function.

173 | Page mechanical equipment such as air compressors for SCUBA remains on the marine transport vessel) are conducted in such a manner as not to detract from the wilderness values identified in the Wilderness Inventory (i.e., naturalness, a condition that generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature with the imprint of man’s work substantially unnoticeable).

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: March, April, or May

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Biotic Group Level 1: Echinodermata (echinoderms);

Biotic Group Level 2: Spinulosida (No Common Name);

Acanthaster planci (crown-of-thorns seastar);

Surveys have been biennial since 2002, but beginning in 2012 changed to triennial intervals due to restructuring of funding by the NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Baseline Monitoring

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED);

Partner Coordinator is Rusty Brainard, Chief of the Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED).

174 | Page

Survey Name: Algal Diversity and Benthic Composition

Survey ID: FF01RJRS00-015

Priority Rank: 13

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Expand baseline information on marine community; Increase baseline information on marine community.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Before the initiation of algal surveys at Jarvis Island by the NOAA Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED) in 2001, little was known of the diversity or abundance of these photosynthesizing components of the reef biota. It was widely assumed that (1) high coral cover indicates a healthy reef ecosystem, (2) high coral cover is necessary for reef accretion, and (3) algae, particularly macroalgae, are detrimental to tropical reef environments. In contrast, these algal surveys have indicated that, while some healthy reefs are dominated by constructional coral species, others contain almost no coral (sometimes termed incipient reefs), whereas others rely on a mix of calcified algae, foraminifera, and coral. Many healthy tropical and subtropical reefs are dominated by algae (macroalgae, crustose coralline algae, and turf algae) rather than coral.

The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) provides a suite of methods that are appropriate for ecological monitoring of coral reefs depending on the questions to be addressed, the spatial scale of the surveys (broad-, medium-, and fine-scale), and the taxonomic resolution (community-, management-, or research- monitoring, with low, medium, and high taxonomic detail, respectively). The methods used by NOAA CRED in site-specific algal diversity and benthic composition surveys at Jarvis, and the metrics acquired, are consistent with those provided by the GCRMN for medium- to fine-scale spatial and taxonomic resolution. Towed-diver surveys are functionally equivalent to those described by the GCRMN manta tow protocol in providing broad spatial coverage at coarser levels of taxonomic resolution. I&M coral reef monitoring at Jarvis integrates with the GCRMN, strengthening our capacity to examine coral reefs and ensure that our methods and metrics are consistent with other monitoring programs. The coral reefs, other submerged lands, and water column lying within 3 nautical miles of the mean high water mark of Jarvis Island (Inventory Unit B) were identified in the Wilderness Review Inventory as meeting the requirements of a Wilderness Study Area (WSA-B); further evaluation of its

175 | Page wilderness values concluded it can be managed to preserve its wilderness character in perpetuity using a minimum requirements approach for all management activities. All management activities associated with survey activities (motorized marine vessel transportation to and from Jarvis; monitoring the marine ecosystem with the use of SCUBA equipment; mechanical equipment such as air compressors for SCUBA remains on the marine transport vessel) are conducted in such a manner as not to detract from the wilderness values identified in the Wilderness Inventory (i.e., naturalness, a condition that generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature with the imprint of man’s work substantially unnoticeable).

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: March, April, or May

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Shallow-water (< 30 meters) macroscopic marine algae (which are functionally categorized as macroalgae, turf algae, and coralline algae) are the population of interest. During broad-scale surveys, towed divers record estimates of percent algal cover during each of 10, 5-minute observation segments along GPS-referenced tow tracks. During site-specific surveys at GPS-referenced sites, methods have varied since 2001 in response to information needs and logistical constraints (i.e., shipboard berthing space for scientific personnel and small boat capacity). Methods have included: roving collections to compile species inventories (many species require microscopic examination to confirm identification); the use of photoquadrats along transect lines from which quantitative parameters are later extracted using computer-assisted image analysis; the line-intercept method along transect lines to estimate percent cover of algae and other benthic categories; and quantitative disease assessments of crustose coralline algae.

NOAA CRED surveys have been biennial since 2002, but beginning in 2012 changed to triennial intervals due to restructuring of funding by the NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program. Surveys have also been conducted by Scripps Institute of Oceanography (J. Smith and S. Sandin labs).

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Baseline Monitoring

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED); Scripps Institute of Oceanography

Partner Coordinator is Rusty Brainard, Chief of the Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED).

176 | Page

Survey Name: Deep-sea Realm

Survey ID: FF01RJRS00-020

Priority Rank: 14

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Expand baseline information on marine community; Increase baseline information on marine community.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

In 2006, benthic habitat mapping using multi-beam sonar was conducted to a distance of ~ 10.1 kilometers (km)m (5.5 nautical miles (nm)) off Jarvis Island by the NOAA Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED) in association with the Pacific Islands Benthic Habitat Mapping Center at the University of Hawaii. Bathymetric data show Jarvis to be a steep-sided, isolated island that rises from the abyssal seafloor (4,000+ meters (m)). In 2009, with the establishment of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument, the boundary of Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge was extended from 3 nm to 12 nm (~22.2 km) from the mean low water line. Consequently, an even larger proportion of the proportion of the marine habitat within Refuge boundaries now includes the mesopelagic (200 to 1000 m), bathypelagic (1000 to 4000 m) and potentially abyssopelagic (> 4000 m) depth zones. Moreover, extensive deep-sea habitat is contained within expanded Monument waters beyond the Refuge boundaries.

177 | Page isolated sites, the development of technological innovations is now providing researchers with unprecedented access.

Some of these innovations include mobile observation systems (manned submersibles, unmanned remotely- operated vehicles, autonomous underwater vehicles, and ocean gliders). These cutting-edge technologies are alternatives to the standard platforms commonly used for research purposes today. Recent research in regions such as the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (PMNM) indicates that deep-sea coral and sponge beds exist in more than 1000 m of water and has led to the discovery of more than fifty new sponge and coral species. It is likely that comparable studies in Jarvis Island NWR would reveal currently undescribed species and biotic communities.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: TBD

Frequency: Occurs one time only

The populations of interest include both the abiotic nature of the deep-sea floor and the biotic communities within the mesopelagic, bathypelagic, and potentially abyssopelagic zones. The barrier to exploring the deep-sea realm has been both technological and financial; deep-sea submersibles typically cost $20,000-$60,000 per day. Mechanisms for further exploration of the deep-sea realm at Jarvis Island could potentially include manned deep- sea submersibles, unmanned remotely-operated vehicles (ROVs), autonomous underwater vehicles, ocean gliders, and deep sea drop cameras.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Inventory

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED); National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Ocean Exploration and Research; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Regional Office; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Sanctuaries; Scripps Institute of Oceanography; Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

Partner Coordinator is Frank Parrish, Chief of the Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Protected Species Division.

178 | Page

Survey Name: Reef Fish Diversity and Abundance

Survey ID: FF01RJRS00-002

Priority Rank: 15

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Expand baseline information on marine community; Develop baseline data and understand sea turtle use; Increase baseline information on marine community; Protect and maintain wilderness values

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Little information exists on the marine biota of the U.S. equatorial Pacific islands compared to more populated Pacific locations. Until recently, this region of the Pacific (10°N–10°S by 145°W–180°) was one of the most poorly investigated portions of the world’s oceans outside of the polar regions. Beginning in 2000, ecological surveys of the shallow coral reef habitats of the U.S. equatorial Pacific islands were conducted by the NOAA Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED). Broad-scale surveys conducted by towed divers target large (>50 cm) fish whereas site-specific surveys record reef fish of all size classes. Incidental observations of sea turtles are also recorded. Surveys have also been conducted by Scripps Institute of Oceanography (J. Smith and S. Sandin labs). Still, limited data exist on the diversity of species in the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument.

The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) provides a suite of methods that are appropriate for ecological monitoring of coral reefs depending on the questions to be addressed, the spatial scale of the surveys (broad-, medium-, and fine-scale), and the taxonomic resolution (community-, management-, or research- monitoring, with low, medium, and high taxonomic detail, respectively). The methods used by NOAA CRED in site-specific reef fish surveys at Jarvis, and the metrics acquired, are consistent with those provided by the GCRMN for medium- to fine-scale spatial and taxonomic resolution. Towed-diver surveys are functionally equivalent to those described by the GCRMN manta tow protocol in providing broad spatial coverage for large (> 50 cm TL) species of reef-associated fish. I&M coral reef monitoring at Jarvis integrates with the GCRMN, strengthening our capacity to examine coral reefs and ensure that our methods and metrics are consistent with other monitoring programs.

179 | Page transportation to and from Jarvis; monitoring the marine ecosystem with the use of SCUBA equipment; mechanical equipment such as air compressors for SCUBA remains on the marine transport vessel) are conducted in such a manner as not to detract from the wilderness values identified in the Wilderness Inventory (i.e., naturalness, a condition that generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature with the imprint of man’s work substantially unnoticeable).

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: March, April, or May

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Biotic Group Level 1: Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fishes,rays,sharks);

Biotic Group Level 2: Carcharhiniformes (ground sharks);

Carcharhinus (gray sharks);

Biotic Group Level 1: Osteichthyes (bony fishes);

Biotic Group Level 2: Perciformes (perch-like fishes);

Biotic Group Level 2: Scorpaeniformes (mail-cheeked fishes,scorpion fishes,sculpins);

Scorpaena (scorpionfishes);

Biotic Group Level 2: Tetraodontiformes (cowfishes,filefishes,leatherjackets,puffers,triggerfishes,trunkfishes);

Diodon (porcupinefishes); Balistes (triggerfishes); Aluterus (filefishes);

Surveys have been biennial since 2002, but beginning in 2012 changed to triennial intervals due to restructuring of funding by the NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

180 | Page

Coop Baseline Monitoring

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED); Scripps Institute of Oceanography

Partner Coordinator is Rusty Brainard, Chief of the Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED).

181 | Page

Survey Name: Marine Mammals

Survey ID: FF01RJRS00-024

Priority Rank: 16

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Increase baseline information on marine community; Develop baseline scientific information on marine mammal use

The surveys support objectives in the Jarvis Island NWR CCP pertaining to goals of protecting native marine communities and of managing federally listed threatened and endangered species. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall use AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Little is known of marine mammal use of the waters within Jarvis Island NWR and the adjacent Jarvis Island unit of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument (PRIMNM). Formal quantitative surveys of marine mammal distribution and abundance have not been undertaken in this region. However, studies elsewhere in the Pacific indicate that waters surrounding small islands may support distinct local populations of marine mammals.. Effective conservation of marine mammal populations requires an understanding of abundance, population structure, habitat use, natural and anthropogenic threats, and estimates of reproduction and mortality rates. The Service shares responsibility with NOAA for managing marine resources, and the Marine Mammal Commission has encouraged the Service to generate partnerships with NOAA to help document baseline information. The coral reefs, other submerged lands, and water column lying within 3 nautical miles of the mean high water mark of Jarvis Island (Inventory Unit B) were identified in the Wilderness Review Inventory as meeting the requirements of a Wilderness Study Area (WSA-B); further evaluation of its wilderness values concluded it can be managed to preserve its wilderness character in perpetuity using a minimum requirements approach for all management activities. All management activities associated with survey activities (motorized marine vessel transportation to and from Jarvis; monitoring the marine ecosystem with the use of SCUBA equipment; mechanical equipment such as air compressors for SCUBA remains on the marine transport vessel) are conducted in such a manner as not to detract from the wilderness values identified in the Wilderness Inventory (i.e., naturalness, a condition that generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature with the imprint of man's work substantially unnoticeable). What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: TBD

Frequency: Recurring -- every three to four years

Biotic Group Level 1: Mammalia (mammals)

Biotic Group Level 2: Cetacea (whales, cetaceans, marine mammals, dolphins, porpoises

182 | Page

Possible Methods:

Surveys using these methods could be conducted within the waters of Jajrvis Island NWR and the adjacent Jajrvis Island unit of the PRIMNM, and designed to operate concurrently with other pelagic surveys (e.g., Pelagic Fishes, Pelagic Seabirds. Marine Plankton) so as to enable data integration, increase efficiencies, and constrain costs. The NOAA Southwest Fisheries Science Center has conducted ecosystem surveys in the US Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) waters of Palmyra and Johnston Atolls and adjacent waters south of Hawaii in which line- transect data on cetacean abundance, photo-identification data for population structure, and biopsy samples for genetic studies of population structure are collected. Oceanographic sampling, net sampling, seabird distribution and abundance, and acoustic backscatter data of mid-water prey are concurrently conducted.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Cooperative Baseline Monitoring

NOAA Fisheries, Alaska Maritime NWR

183 | Page

Survey Name: Cryptic Reef Fishes

Survey ID: FF01RJRS00-022

Priority Rank: 17

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Expand baseline information on marine community; Increase baseline information on marine community.

The surveys support management objectives, derived from the Howland Island NWR CCP (2008), to increase and expand baseline information on the marine community. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Accurate estimates of overall reef fish diversity, abundance, biomass, and productivity require consideration not only of relatively conspicuous species that are reported from standard visual surveys but also of cryptic reef fish assemblages.

The coral reefs, other submerged lands, and water column lying within 3 nautical miles of the mean high water mark of Jarvis Island (Inventory Unit B) were identified in the Wilderness Review Inventory as meeting the requirements of a Wilderness Study Area (WSA-B); further evaluation of its wilderness values concluded it can be managed to preserve its wilderness character in perpetuity using a minimum requirements approach for all management activities. All management activities associated with survey activities (motorized marine vessel transportation to and from Howland; monitoring the marine ecosystem with the use of SCUBA equipment; mechanical equipment such as air compressors for SCUBA remains on the marine transport vessel) are conducted in such a manner as not to detract from the wilderness values identified in the Wilderness Inventory (i.e., naturalness, a condition that generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature with the imprint of man's work substantially unnoticeable).

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: TBD

Frequency: Occurs one time only

184 | Page

Biotic Group Level 1: Osteichthyes (bony fishes);

Biotic Group Level 2: Perciformes (perch-like fishes);

Blennius (blennies, blennies);

By their very nature, cryptic reef fishes are difficult to detect by strictly visual means, even when survey methods are modified to target their occurrence (Ackerman and Bellwood, 2000; Willis 2001). The use of toxicants or anaesthetics enables detection of species that inhabit reef interstices or burrows and which are usually not seen. In the limited studies that have been conducted on tropical and temperature reefs, census methods have relied upon the application of destructive explosives, toxicants, and ichthyocides, especially the use of rotenone, a nonspecific ichthyocide that asphyxiates all fish species when applied within small enclosed stations. Although rotenone is destructive, several studies have indicated that the effects are generally short-lived, as small reef fishes with high turnover rates recolonize defaunated areas quickly (Willis, 2001). Clove oil stuns fish, acting as an anesthetic and allowing collection for a short time. It is not as destructive as rotenone though in high doses it can kill small fish.The benefits of improving knowledge of biodiversity versus the negative effects of destructive sampling to acquire such information will need to be evaluated by Refuge staff before implementing such methods.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Inventory

Bishop Museum; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration;

185 | Page

Survey Name: Mesophotic Coral Ecosystems

Survey ID: FF01RJRS00-018

Priority Rank: 18

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Expand baseline information on marine community; Increase baseline information on marine community.; Protect and maintain wilderness values

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Efforts over the last decade to systematically map coral reefs in the U.S. Pacific Islands have revealed the presence of mesophotic coral reefs, most of which were previously unknown. Mesophotic coral reefs have been found in the Hawaiian and Mariana Archipelagos, American Samoa, and the U.S. Phoenix and Line Islands, although they have not thus far been documented at every island. In general, their distribution appears to be patchy and they are less common than coral reefs in shallow depths (< 30 m). MCEs have been hypothesized to serve as refugia for coral reef ecosystem organisms that may be subject to elevated levels of different types of stress on shallower reefs. Modeling has suggested that, in response to greenhouse-gas forcing associated with climate change, warming and decline in productivity around select Pacific islands will be mitigated by enhanced upwelling of cool waters in the equatorial undercurrent (EUC). If realized, these predictions help to identify potential refuges for coral reef communities from anticipated climate changes of the twenty-first century. Located within the stream of the EUC, Jarvis Island could become refuges for marine productivity and coral reefs in an otherwise desolate tropical seascape.

186 | Page large part to the extremely steep bathymetry surrounding these islands that would require ships to operate in close proximity to navigation hazards when conducting camera-sled surveys at mesophotic depths. As of 2013, no mesophotic coral reefs have been observed by CRED at the U.S. Phoenix and Line Islands. The few camera- sled dives conducted in deeper waters at Jarvis Island did not reveal mesophotic corals; however, insufficient sampling has been conducted to be able to conclude that no mesophotic reefs are present around Jarvis Island.The clear oligotrophic waters minimally influenced by terrigenous inputs suggest that more mesophotic corals would likely be found if additional surveys were conducted.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: March, April, or May

Frequency: Sporadic or Ad Hoc

There are insufficient data to describe the location or density of mesophotic corals at Jarvis Island. The barrier to exploring MCEs has largely been technological. Deep-sea submersibles have been used to examine marine life at depths of 30–200 m in the tropical Pacific, but they typically cost $20,000-$60,000 per day, and are rarely deployed in remote tropical Pacific regions. Technical trimix dives conducted at 35–100 m on closed-circuit rebreathers from small boats supported by the NOAA ship Hi`ialakai have been used in the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (PMNM) since 2009 and at Johnston Atoll NWR in 2013 to identify the flora and fauna associated with differing MCE habitats. Mechanisms for further exploration of mesophotic depths at Jarvis Island could potentially include expanded sampling with towed camera sleds, closed-circuit rebreather technical dives, deep-sea submersibles, and remotely-operated vehicles (ROVs).

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Baseline Monitoring

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Ocean Exploration and Research; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED); National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Sanctuaries; Bishop Museum; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Service (NOS), National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science (NCCOS), the Center for Coastal Monitoring and Assessment (CCMA)- Biogeography Branch;

Partner Coordinator is Rusty Brainard, Chief of the Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center- Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED).

187 | Page

Survey Name: Terrestrial Hermit Crabs

Survey ID: FF01RJRS00-021

Priority Rank: 19

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Increase baseline information on marine community; Increase baseline information on terrestrial habitat; Protect and maintain wilderness values

The survey supports management objectives in the Jarvis Island NWR CCP (2008) to develop more complete information about the terrestrial ecosystem. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Their size and distribution may be an early indicator of some invasive species such as the Yellow Crazy Ant (Anoplolepis longipes). This aggressive ant species can exclude land hermit crabs from the interior of small oceanic islands, and regular monitoring of the Coenobita population at Jarvis Island may allow for early detection of invasive species. Rats also influence the size, abundance, and distribution of terrestrial hermit crabs, though rats have been eliminated from Jarvis Island.

Current wildlife monitoring efforts on Jarvis Island NWR are limited to a short visit of several days every 2-3 years. This infrequent and irregular level of monitoring does not allow for wildlife population trend estimates, but an index of crab population size repeated over many visits will allow us to detect dramatic changes. In addition, monitoring the species and quality of marine gastropod shells being used by these hermit crabs will provide an indirect indication of the availability of preferred shell types and may reflect changes occurring in the surrounding marine habitat.

188 | Page the Wilderness Inventory (i.e., naturalness, a condition that generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature with the imprint of man’s work substantially unnoticeable).

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: March, April, or May

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Biotic Group Level 1: Arthropoda (arthropods);

Biotic Group Level 2: Decapoda (crabs,crayfishes,lobsters,prawns,shrimp);

Coenobita (No Common Name);

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Baseline Monitoring

None;

189 | Page

Survey Name: Shorebirds

Survey ID: FF01RJRS00-010

Priority Rank: 20

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Develop baseline migratory bird and other species information; Protect and maintain wilderness values;

The surveys support an objective in the Jarvis Island NWR CCP pertaining to the goal of contributing to the recovery, protection, and management efforts for all native species with special consideration for seabirds, migratory shorebirds, federally listed threatened and endangered species, and species of management concern.

In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

The administration, management, and growth of the National Wildlife Refuge System are guided in part by the goal of developing and maintaining a network of habitats for migratory birds (601 FW 1). The United States Shorebird Conservation Plan (Brown 2000) identifies the U.S. Pacific Islands as being of critical importance for two species of Holarctic breeders, bristle-thighed curlew and Pacific golden-plover, both of which utilize Jarvis Island as wintering habitat. Of the four migratory shorebird species recorded from Jarvis Island (ruddy turnstone, sanderling, bristle-thighed curlew, and Pacific golden plover), all are considered species of High Concern in the national priority scheme for shorebirds (Engilis and Naughton 2004). Jarvis Island provides crucial wintering habitat and may also serve as a rest stop for arctic-breeding shorebirds going farther south in the Pacific islands. In addition, the bristle-thighed curlew and Pacific golden plover are recognized in the Birds of Conservation Concern in BCR 68 (USFWS 2002). Documenting trends in the use of Jarvis Island by migratory shorebirds assists in gaining a more comprehensive understanding of the species' population status trends and migratory patterns.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

190 | Page

Timing: March

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Biotic Group Level 1: Aves (Birds);

Biotic Group Level 2: Anseriformes (Ducks,Geese,Screamers,Swans,Waterfowl);

Anas acuta (Northern Pintail);

Biotic Group Level 2: Charadriiformes (Alcids,Auks,Gulls,Oystercatchers,Plovers,Shore Birds);

Pluvialis fulva (Pacific Golden-Plover, Pacific Golden Plover); Calidris alba (Sanderling); Numenius tahitiensis (Bristle-thighed Curlew); Arenaria interpres (Ruddy Turnstone);

Marine vessels capable of traveling the open ocean for extended periods are the only opportunity for access to Jarvis. Since the refuge was established in 1974, NOAA, the U.S. Coast Guard, the Environmental Contaminants Branch of the Ecological Services USFWS Office in Honolulu, the Scripps Institute of Oceanography, and private vessels chartered by HAM radio operators visiting Jarvis under Special Use Permit have all provided transportation. In some years, sea conditions preclude landing on the island. Between 1973 and 2015 biologists have been able to land and record observations on 21 of the 24 trips staged to Jarvis, for durations ranging from several hours to 8 days. If sufficient time is available, direct counts of migratory shorebirds are done while walking the perimeter of the island. In most years, time limitations have constrained observations to presence/absence and number of birds seen. Because trips to the Refuge have been opportunistic, surveys have taken place erratically throughout the year (February, March, April, June, October, or November).

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Baseline Monitoring

None;

191 | Page

Survey Name: Marine Plankton

Survey ID: FF01RJRS00-025

Priority Rank: 21

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Protect and maintain wilderness values; Increase baseline information on marine community

The surveys support an objective in the Jarvis Island NWR CCP pertaining to the goal of conserving, managing, and protecting native marine communities that are representative of remote tropical Pacific islands. In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall use AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

192 | Page

The waters within the Jarvis Island NWR and the adjacent Jarvis Island unit of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument (PRIMNM) are an important part of the most widespread collection of marine- and terrestrial- life protected areas on the planet under a single country’s jurisdiction, sustaining many indigenous species of fish, seabirds, and marine mammals. All are ultimately dependent on the food web based on primary productivity in the sea. An improved understanding of the biodiversity, abundance, and distribution of planktonic communities and their spatial and temporal variability will also improve understanding of the abundances and distributions of the higher trophic level populations supported by these communities. Modeling has suggested that, in response to greenhouse-gas forcing associated with climate change, warming and decline in productivity around select Pacific islands will be mitigated by enhanced upwelling of cool waters in the equatorial undercurrent (EUC). If realized, these predictions help to identify potential refuges for coral reef communities from anticipated climate changes of the twenty-first century. Located within the stream of the EUC, Jarvis Island could become a refuge for marine productivity and coral reefs in an otherwise desolate tropical seascape.

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: TBD

Frequency: Recurring -- every three to four years

Biotic Group Level 1: Arthropoda (arthropods)

Biotic Group Level 2: Amphipoda (amphipods)

Hyperia (no common name)

Possible methods:

193 | Page

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Baseline Monitoring

NOAA Fisheries; Alaska Maritime NWR

194 | Page

Survey Name: Terrestrial Arthropods

Survey ID: FF01RJRS00-016

Priority Rank: 22

What station management objective does the survey support? Is the objective derived from CCP, Interim Objectives, HMP, or other?

Comprehensive Conservation Plan - Conserve, manage, and protect habitat for nesting seabirds; Protect and maintain wilderness values

In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management [AM] Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize AM for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources.

An AM approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives (522 DM 1.5A).

Recent observations of insects during visits by Service biologists include house flies, small ants, moths and millers, butterflies, and spiders. Kirkpatrick and Rauzon (1986) found crickets, cockroaches and Tenebrionid beetles in the stomach of feral cats at Jarvis cats. Nonetheless, knowledge of the insect fauna at Jarvis Island NWR is poor because no formal surveys have taken place.

The threat of the YCA spreading across the entire island and completely displacing ground-nesting seabirds 1s a critical conservation issue; as a result a strike team was deployed to Johnston in August 2010 with the primary mission of eradicating the YCA population before it could displace native seabird species. The rate of expansion and difficulty of controlling YCA at Johnston Atoll highlights the need for improved knowledge of native and alien insects at other remote Pacific Island NWRs so as to improve the capacity for early detection and rapid response. Strict quarantine protocols have been previously established and are mandatory for all visitors to Jarvis Island NWR in order to eliminate the threat of introducing invasive insects, other animals, and plants.

Jarvis Island (Inventory Unit A) was identified in the Wilderness Review Inventory as meeting the requirements of a Wilderness Study Area (WSA-A); further evaluation of its wilderness values concluded it can be managed to preserve its wilderness character in perpetuity using a “minimum requirements” approach for all management activities. All management activities associated with survey activities (motorized marine vessel transportation to and from Jarvis; establishing temporary field camps; small motorboat operations used in deployment and demobilization of field camp operations; use of portable generators and solar power to operate communications and other equipment; control of invasive species using hand pulling or hand spraying) are conducted in such a

195 | Page manner as not to detract from the wilderness values identified in the Wilderness Inventory (i.e., naturalness, a condition that generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature with the imprint of man’s work substantially unnoticeable).

What is the population or attribute of interest, what will be measured, and when?

Timing: March, April, or May

Frequency: Recurring -- every three years

Although observations of insects noted during other survey work at Jarvis have been recorded, no systematic sampling had been undertaken before 2012. This survey will systematically use several types of collection methods, with each method targeting a different part of the insect fauna and covering as much area and diversity of habitat of the island as possible. Species distributions will be associated with micro-habitat preferences (e.g., host plant, substrate) to inform ecologically-based management plans by the refuge staff.

Is this a cooperative inventory or survey? What Partners are involved in the survey?

Coop Baseline Monitoring

U.S. Geological Survey;

Partner Coordinators are Bob Peck and Paul Banko, USGS Research Wildlife Biologistbrea

196 | Page

References

Brown, S, C. Hickey, and B. Harrington eds. 2000. The U.S. Shorebird Conservation Plan. Manomet Center for Conservation Science, Manomet, MA

Code of Federal Regulations, title 3 (January 1, 2010) Establishment of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument Proclamation 8336 of January 9, 2009

Code of Federal Regulations, title 3 (September 29, 2014) Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument Expansion Proclamation 9173 of September 24, 2014

Engilis, Jr., A. and M. Naughton. 2004 U.S. Pacific Islands Regional Shorebird Conservation Plan. USFWS, Portland, OR.

NOAA. 2008. NOAA Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Research and Management Strategic Plan. Coral Reef Conservation Program, Silver Spring, MD. http://coralreef.noaa.gov/resources/publicationsdata/

NOAA Coral Program. 2014. National Coral Reef Monitoring Plan. NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program, Silver Spring, MD. http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/noaa_documents/NOS/CRCP/noaa_crcp_national_coral_reef_monitoring_plan_ 2014.pdf

Puglise KA, Hinderstein LM, Marr JCA, Dowgiallo MJ, Martinez FA. 2009. Mesophotic Coral Ecosystems Research Strategy: International Workshop to Prioritize Research and Management Needs for Mesophotic Coral Ecosystems, Jupiter, Florida, 12-15 July 2008. Silver Spring, MD: NOAA National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, Center for Sponsored Coastal Ocean Research, and Office of Ocean Exploration and Research, NOAA Undersea Research Program. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS NCCOS 98 and OAR OER 2. 24 pp. http://coralreef.noaa.gov/resources/publicationsdata/

USFWS. 1973. Baker Island, Howland Island, and Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuges, Biological Ascertainment Reports.

USFWS. 2005 Regional Seabird Conservation Plan, Pacific Region. USFWS Migratory Birds and Habitat programs, Pacific Region, Portland, OR

USFWS. 2008a. Howland Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan. Honolulu, HI.

USFWS. 2008b. Baker Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan. Honolulu, HI.

USFWS. 2008c. Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan. Honolulu, HI.

197 | Page

Appendices

Appendix A. Key Legal Mandates and Policies for Inventorying and Monitoring Activities on Units of the NWRS The Mission of the National Wildlife Refuge System is “…to administer a network of lands and waters for the conservation, management, and, where appropriate, restoration of fish, wildlife, plants, and their habitats…” Our mission statement recognizes the need to implement management actions, as necessary, to achieve resource management objectives from refuge planning documents (CCPs and HMPs) on units of the Refuge System as well as resource objectives for large landscapes (encompassing the refuge) identified in plans and reports developed by other FWS programs and/or in cooperation with our conservation partners (e.g., state wildlife action plans).

In accordance with 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management Implementation policy), refuges staffs shall utilize adaptive management for conserving, protecting, and, where appropriate, restoring refuge lands and resources. Specifically, an adaptive management approach requires conducting surveys to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving resource objectives (522 DM 1.5A). Adaptive management provides a structured process to consistently derive and implement effective decisions that increase scientific knowledge while reducing potential tensions among stakeholders (522 DM 1.3).

I&M is required on units of the NWRS based upon the following legal mandates as well as DOI and Service policies:

1. National Wildlife Refuge System Improvement Act (PL 105-57)

a. “In administering the System, the Secretary shall -- (N) monitor the status and trends of fish, wildlife, and plants in each refuge.” Sec 4 b. “…identify the effects of each use on refuge resources and purposes of each refuge.” Sec 6

2. Implementation of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969; Final Rule (43 CFR § 46)

a. “Adaptive management is a system of management practices based on clearly identified outcomes and monitoring to determine whether management actions are meeting desired outcomes; and, if not, facilitating management changes that will best ensure that outcomes are met or re-evaluated. Adaptive management recognizes that knowledge about natural resource systems is sometimes uncertain.” 43 CFR § 46.30 b. “Bureaus should use adaptive management, as appropriate, particularly in circumstances where long-term impacts may be uncertain and future monitoring will be needed to make adjustments in subsequent implementation decisions. The NEPA analysis conducted in the context of an adaptive management approach should identify the range of management options that may be taken in response to the results of monitoring and should analyze the effects of such options. The environmental effects of any adaptive management strategy must be evaluated in this or subsequent NEPA analysis.” 43 CFR § 46.145

3. NEPA and Agency Decisionmaking (40 CFR § 1505)

a. “[For agency decisions based on an EIS] A monitoring and enforcement program shall be adopted and summarized where applicable for any mitigation.” 40 CFR § 1505.2(c) b. “Agencies may provide for monitoring to assure that their decisions are carried out and should do so in important cases [EA and mitigated FONSI]. Mitigation (§1505.2(c)) and other conditions established in

198 | Page

the environmental impact statement or during its review and committed as part of the decision shall be implemented by the lead agency or other appropriate consenting agency.” 40 CFR § 1505.3

4. Inventory and Monitoring in the National Wildlife Refuge System policy (701 FW 2)

a. “Guide and coordinate the inventory and monitoring of fish, wildlife, plants, habitats, ecological communities, invasive species, abiotic components, and wilderness character on refuges to: (1) Gather baseline data and record benchmark conditions used to support refuge planning; (2) Estimate the status of, and trends in fish, wildlife, plant populations, and their habitats; (3) Assess trends in biological integrity, biological diversity, and environmental health (601 FW 3); (4) Evaluate the effectiveness of management actions in contributing to established goals for fish and wildlife conservation by using adaptive management (522 DM 1); (5) Provide surveillance to detect changes in the structure and function of ecological systems; (6) Establish baseline measures and monitor wilderness character of designated wilderness on refuges to evaluate the effects of refuge management activities and uses (610 FW 2); (7) Record impacts of environmental stressors, including climate change, on natural resources and ecological processes; and (8) Support the Service’s goal of landscape conservation by assessing similar management actions across refuges and with Service partners, including actions by multiple refuges, one or more Regions, Joint Ventures (JVs) and Landscape Conservation Cooperatives (LCCs).” 701 FW 2.3E b. “An IMP: (1) Is an operational plan for one or more refuges that clearly states I&M priorities and clarifies operational commitments, depending on available capacity…(3) Provides the management rationale, timing and costs for conducting refuge surveys; (4) Lists the prioritized surveys, identifies the surveys selected for implementation, and documents the protocols that describe the survey objectives and methods;” 701 FW 2.4A c. “(2) We address broad information needs that may reach beyond individual refuges, and support conservation with partners at the local, landscape, regional, national, and international scales. (3) We participate in surveys that support joint management information needs within the Service, or needs of other agencies or organizations. We may implement these cooperative surveys at individual refuges, multiple refuges, or outside Refuge System lands, as appropriate.” 701 FW 2.4C

5. Habitat Management Plans policy (620 FW 1)

a. “Habitat Management Plan… Each plan incorporates the role of refuge habitat in international, national, regional, tribal, State, ecosystem, and refuge goals and objectives; guides analysis and selection of specific habitat management strategies to achieve those habitat goals and objectives; and utilizes key data, scientific literature, expert opinion, and staff expertise.” 620 FW 1.4D b. “Refuge Managers will: (1) Develop, implement, monitor, evaluate, and revise HMPs.” 620 FW 1.6E c. “Develop habitat inventory and monitoring essential to the HMP in accordance with the guidance provided in the Habitat and Wildlife Inventory and Monitoring chapter (701 FW 2). Habitat monitoring, in association with monitoring wildlife response to habitat manipulation, provides the best measure of achievement for HMP objectives. Monitoring wildlife population response to assess habitat manipulations is difficult and introduces more variability into the monitoring process. Monitoring wildlife populations as a sole indicator of wildlife habitat is not usually appropriate. Animal population changes may result from events other than habitat manipulations (e.g., biotic and abiotic conditions such as weather, disease, human intervention, and contaminants). Often these external factors can impact wildlife populations and mask benefits associated with improved habitat conditions. Thus, habitat monitoring is the primary basis for evaluating the effectiveness of management actions to achieve habitat objectives set forth in CCPs and HMPs.” 620 FW 1.14A

6. Comprehensive Conservation Planning Process policy (602 FW 3)

199 | Page

a. “Develop objectives for specific habitat types, management units, key species (e.g., migratory birds and threatened and endangered species), wildlife-dependent recreation, monitoring populations of fish, wildlife, plants, and their habitats...Objectives may deal with refuge information needs (for example, including the development of baseline data)…” 602 FW3.4(4)(d) b. “Develop inventory and monitoring strategies to measure implementation of results in quantifiable and verifiable ways.” 602 FW3.4(4)(e)

7. Biological Integrity, Diversity, and Environmental Health policy (601 FW 3)

a. “Assess the current status of biological integrity, diversity, and environmental health through baseline vegetation, population surveys and studies, and any other necessary environmental studies.” 601 FW 3.9B b. “Evaluate the effectiveness of our management by comparing results to desired outcomes. If the results of our management strategies are unsatisfactory, assess the causes of failure and adapt our strategies accordingly.” 601 FW 3.9H

8. Compatibility policy (603 FW 2)

a. “Monitoring costs (e.g., biological or visitor surveys, maintenance of control sites, etc.) to assess the impacts of uses over time on natural resources and the quality of visitors’ experience.” 602 FW 2.12A(7)(b)(iv) b. “To support management decisions and their rationale by using a thorough assessment of available science derived from scientific literature, on-site refuge data, expert opinion, and sound professional judgment.” 602 FW 3.3D

9. Fire Management policy (621 FW 1)

a. “We use evaluations to monitor and determine the effectiveness of hazardous fuels reduction, emergency stabilization, and burned area rehabilitation treatments to accomplish objectives. The evaluations combine monitoring and analysis to determine whether we achieved treatment objectives and land management goals using the fire management treatments. Adaptive management techniques are used to determine if there is a need to change treatments or plans to achieve the desired effects.” 621 FW1.17

10. Integrated Pest Management policy (569 FW 1)

a. “Use appropriate monitoring techniques before, during, and after any IPM activity to determine whether we achieved pest management goals and objectives and if the activity caused any unanticipated impacts.” 569 FW 1.4J

11. Wilderness Administration and Resource Stewardship policy (610 FW 2)

a. “Long-term wilderness stewardship requires that we inventory and monitor wilderness character. Conditions prevailing within a wilderness area at the time of designation serve as a benchmark for the area’s wilderness character.” 610 FW2.28 b. “We should conduct baseline inventories for key wilderness resources and identify the nature, magnitude, and source of any threats that originate both within and outside the wilderness area. Baseline data also provide a frame of reference for the limits, thresholds, and indicators identified in the WSP that may trigger refuge management activities, including limiting public use.” 610 FW2.28B c. “Inventories also give us the information necessary to evaluate the effects of refuge management activities, refuge uses, and external threats on wilderness character. We will evaluate proposed inventory

200 | Page

and monitoring protocols and activities in an MRA [minimum requirements analyses] and document inventory and monitoring activities in the refuge’s WSP [wilderness stewardship plan].” 610 FW2.28C

12. Documenting and Implementing Decisions policy (550 FW 3)

a. “…Mitigation and other conditions committed as part of the decision [ROD or FONSI] should be implemented. The Service may provide for monitoring to assure that decisions are carried out, and should do so in important cases (40 CFR § 1505.3).” 550 FW 3.4

13. Adaptive Management Implementation policy (522 DM 1)

a. “Conduct appropriate and applicable environmental monitoring to determine resource status, promote learning, and evaluate progress toward achieving objectives whenever using adaptive management.” 522 DM 1.5B

14. Integrated Pest Management Policy (517 DM 1)

a. “Conduct appropriate and applicable pest detection, environmental surveillance, and monitoring, before, during, and after any management activity to determine whether pest management goals are achieved and whether the activity caused any significant unanticipated effects.” 517 DM 1.5H

201 | Page

Appendix B. Criteria and Weights Used With the SMART Tool to Prioritize Surveys Thirteen criteria were considered to prioritize proposed and ongoing surveys in developing the Inventory and Monitoring Plan (IMP) for Howland Island, Baker Island, and Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuges and the Howland Island, Baker Island, and Jarvis Island Units of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument. Weights for indexing the relative importance of each criterion were assigned by the three IMP prioritization team members. Weights sum to 1.0 across all 13 criteria. A higher value weight corresponds with a criterion of greater importance. Assigned weights are summarized in the table below and shown (in parenthesis) next to the criterion name. These weights were multiplied by the average among‐member value for each criterion to derive each survey’s score in the SMART tool.

Criterion Name Weight Refuge and Monument Purposes 0.08 CCP or Other Management Plan Objectives 0.11 Management Utility (Decision Support) 0.09 FWS Program Need 0.07 FWS Partners Need 0.05 Refuge Processes 0.08 Survey Breadth 0.06 Listed Species or Vegetation Communities 0.09 Threat 0.08 Baseline Data 0.06 Spatial Scale 0.08 Long‐term Data Set 0.10 Survey methods, data management and analysis, and reporting 0.05 1.00

1. Refuge and Monument Purposes (0.08) Does the survey provide information to evaluate if the refuge and Monument is achieving its purposes? 1. No 2. Yes, one purpose 3. Yes, two purposes 4. Yes, three or more purposes

2. CCP or Other Management Plan Objectives (0.11) How many refuge CCP or other management plan objectives (e.g., HMP, NRMP, Fire Management Plan, Recovery Plan, Integrated Pest Management Plan) are met by the focus of this survey? 1. Does not address an objective 2. Addresses one objective 3. Addresses two objectives 4. Addresses three or more objectives

3. Management Utility (Decision Support) for the Refuge and Monument (0.09) Does the survey provide data for recurring management decisions, especially as part of

202 | Page

an existing decision framework that is implemented on a regular basis? 1. No set application for the refuge and Monument 2. May have management implications, but they are not explicitly defined 3. Has management implications, but no current decision framework

4. Part of an existing adaptive management decision framework

4. FWS Program Need (0.07) Does the survey provide information that directly contributes to evaluating the status and trends of resources that are a priority for another FWS regional or national program (e.g., Migratory Birds, Fisheries, Water Resources/Hydrology other than ESA species)? 1. Does not address a management priority identified by a FWS regional or national program or initiative 2. Addresses a management priority identified by 1 FWS regional or national program or initiative 3. Addresses a management priority identified by 2 FWS regional or national programs or initiatives 4. Addresses a management priority identified by ≥3 FWS regional or national programs or initiatives

5. FWS Partners (0.05) Does the survey address an identified priority of a conservation partner, such as a Landscape Conservation Cooperative(s) (LCC), state agencies, or other conservation partner? 1. Does not focus a management priority identified by FWS partners (e.g., LCC, state agency) 2. Focus on a management priority identified by one FWS partner (e.g., LCC, state agency) 3. Focus on a management priority identified by two FWS partners (e.g., LCC, state agency) 4. Focus on a management priority identified by three or more FWS partners (e.g., LCC, state agency)

6. Refuge and Monument Processes (0.08) Does the survey focus on an ecological process (e.g., fire, water temperature, climate) that Is changing at a rate that is important to the refuge and Monument? 1. No 2. Yes, one significant ecological process 3. Yes, two or more significant ecological processes

7. Survey Breadth (0.06) The focus of the survey is: 1. A single species or abiotic parameter 2. Multi‐species or multi‐abiotic parameters 3. A community – multi‐trophic level or biota 4. An ecosystem – biotic community and abiotic parameters

8. Listed species or vegetation communities (0.09) Is the objective of the survey a species or vegetation community federally listed under ESA, state listed (threatened or endangered only), ranked by the state’s natural heritage program

203 | Page

(S1 or S2 rank only), globally ranked by NatureServe (G1 or G2 rank only), or globally listed on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (Critically Endangered, Endangered, or Vulnerable only)? 1. Not state, federally or globally ranked 2. Yes, state listed or ranked by state’s natural heritage program 3. Yes, globally listed by NatureServe , IUCN, or CITES 4. Yes, federally listed under the ESA as threatened or endangered

9. Threat (0.08) Does the survey target a known or suspected threat to refuge and Monument resources or the impact of a threat? 1. The survey does not target a known or suspected threat to refuge and Monument resources or the impact of a threat. 2. The survey targets a known or suspected threat to refuge and Monument resources or the impact of a threat. Management action to mitigate the threat or impact of a threat is not currently underway or thought to be needed but may be in the near future. 3. The survey targets a known or suspected threat to refuge and Monument resources or the impact of a threat. Management action to mitigate the threat or impact of a threat is currently underway. 4. The survey targets a known or suspected threat to refuge and Monument resources or the impact of a threat. Management action to mitigate the threat or impact of a threat is not currently underway but urgently needs to be initiated.

10. Baseline data (0.06) Does the survey provide high‐priority information that contributes to baseline data needs? 1. No 2. Yes

11. Spatial Scale (0.08) What is the largest scale at which survey results will be applied for resource management? 1. Small scale: Applicable to only a single refuge or sites on a refuge 2. Medium scale: Applicable to a few refuges, a refuge complex, or includes the refuge and a small area beyond the refuge boundary 3. Large scale: Applicable to multiple refuges/complexes across an entire ecoregion, LCC, or region 4. Continental scale: Component of a large landscape level survey (e.g., North American Breeding Bird Survey, North American Amphibian Monitoring Program, and Circumpolar Biodiversity Monitoring Network)

12. Long‐term Data Set (0.10) Does the survey maintain the continuity and integrity of a long‐term data set by which trends or changes in state can be detected? 1. No data previously collected. No comparison with past possible. 2. Data exist but do not allow for the potential to detect trend or change in state. 3. Data exist with ability to detect change but only for the last 15 years. 4. Data exist with ability to detect change for greater than 15 years.

204 | Page

13. Survey methods, data management and analysis, and reporting (0.05) Note: So as not to penalize surveys that are not currently conducted on the Refuge (“expected” or “future” surveys), they can be evaluated on the basis of the degree to which these qualities have been documented elsewhere. At what stage is the documentation of survey methods, data management, data analysis, and reporting? 1. Low: Survey has no (or sparse) written methodology, data management only as hard copy data forms, no data analysis, and no reporting 2. Medium‐low: Survey is based on initial survey instructions OR data are stored in a database (e.g., Excel spreadsheet) without metadata OR data have been summarized in unpublished report. 3. Medium‐high: Survey is based upon an approved framework or draft site‐specific protocol AND data are stored in a database and metadata exist AND data have been summarized in final report. 4. High: Survey has an approved site‐specific protocol AND data are stored in a database and metadata exist and data management plan is prepared AND data have been summarized in archived final report.

205 | Page

Appendix C‐1. Prioritization Scores and Status, All Ranked Surveys, Howland Island NWR and Howland Island Unit of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument

The following table lists, in descending order, the prioritized list of refuge surveys based upon the scoring output derived from the SMART tool criteria presented in Appendix B for Howland Island NWR and the Howland Island Unit of the Pacific Islands Marine National Monument.

Priority Survey Name SMART Survey Ranking Score Status 1 Calcium Carbonate Accretion 0.630 Current 2 Pelagic Seabirds 0.618 Expected 3 Non‐avian Terrestrial and Marine Wildlife Observations 0.617 Current 3 Remote Surveillance of Terrestrial and Marine Systems 0.617 Current 4 Benthic Marine Cryptobiota 0.603 Current 5 Wildlife Hazards and Signs of Trespass 0.595 Current 6 Oceanography 0.590 Current 7 Pelagic Fishes 0.586 Expected 8 Seabird Colonies 0.575 Current 9 Coral Community Structure 0.562 Current 10 Pelagic Wildlife 0.560 Current 11 Terrestrial Plant Observations 0.556 Current 12 Non‐coral Targeted Marine Macroinvertebrates, Broadscale 0.532 Current 13 Algal Diversity and Abundance 0.503 Current 14 Deep‐sea Realm 0.476 Expected 15 Marine Mammals 0.474 Expected 16 Reef Fish Diversity and Abundance 0.461 Current 17 Cryptic Reef Fish 0.432 Future 18 Mesophotic Coral Ecosystems 0.398 Current 19 Terrestrial Hermit Crabs 0.380 Current

206 | Page

20 Shorebirds 0.371 Current 21 Marine Plankton 0.311 Expected 22 Terrestrial Arthropods 0.238 Current

- Current surveys are either on-going or scheduled to begin in the year of IMP development because it is reasonably certain capacity will be available to conduct them (e.g., surveys conducted with operational or other FWS funds). Expected surveys are new surveys likely to be conducted during the life span of the IMP because the capacity to conduct them is anticipated (e.g., from partners or through grants). Future surveys have a low chance of being conducted during the life span of the IMP because the capacity to conduct the survey will be difficult to secure or the current methodology requires complete development or major refinement.

207 | Page

Appendix C‐2. Prioritization Scores and Status, All Ranked Surveys, Baker Island NWR and Baker Island Unit of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument

The following table lists, in descending order, the prioritized list of refuge surveys based upon the scoring output derived from the SMART tool criteria presented in Appendix B for Baker Island NWR and the Baker Island Unit of the Pacific Islands Marine National Monument.

Priority Survey Name SMART Survey Rank Score Status 1 Calcium Carbonate Accretion 0.630 Current 2 Pelagic Seabirds 0.618 Expected 3 Non‐avian Terrestrial and Marine Wildlife Observations 0.617 Current 3 Remote Surveillance of Terrestrial and Marine Systems 0.617 Current 4 Benthic Marine Cryptobiota 0.603 Current 5 Wildlife Hazards and Signs of Trespass 0.595 Current 6 Oceanography 0.590 Current 7 Pelagic Fishes 0.586 Expected 8 Seabird Colonies 0.575 Current 9 Coral Community Structure 0.562 Current 10 Pelagic Wildlife 0.560 Current 11 Terrestrial Plant Observations 0.556 Current 12 Non‐coral Targeted Marine Macroinvertebrates, Broadscale 0.532 Current 13 Algal Diversity and Abundance 0.503 Current 14 Deep‐sea Realm 0.476 Expected 15 Marine Mammals 0.474 Expected 16 Reef Fish Diversity and Abundance 0.461 Current 17 Cryptic Reef Fish 0.432 Future 18 Mesophotic Coral Ecosystems 0.398 Current 19 Terrestrial Hermit Crabs 0.380 Current

208 | Page

20 Shorebirds 0.371 Current 21 Marine Contaminants 0.334 Expected 22 Terrestrial Contaminants 0.324 Expected 23 Marine Plankton 0.311 Expected 24 Terrestrial Arthropods 0.238 Current

209 | Page

Appendix C‐3. Prioritization Scores and Status, All Ranked Surveys, Jarvis Island NWR and Jarvis Island Unit of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument The following table lists, in descending order, the prioritized list of refuge surveys based upon the scoring output derived from the SMART tool criteria presented in Appendix B for Jarvis Island NWR and the Jarvis Island Unit of the Pacific Islands Marine National Monument.

Priority Survey Name SMART Survey Rank Score Status 1 Calcium Carbonate Accretion 0.630 Current 2 Non‐avian Terrestrial and Marine Wildlife Observations 0.617 Current 2 Remote Surveillance of Terrestrial and Marine Systems 0.617 Current 3 Benthic Marine Cryptobiota 0.603 Current 4 Pelagic Seabirds 0.601 Expected 5 Wildlife Hazards and Signs of Trespass 0.595 Current 6 Oceanography 0.590 Current 7 Seabird Colonies 0.575 Current 8 Pelagic Fishes 0.568 Expected 9 Coral Community Structure 0.562 Current 10 Pelagic Wildlife 0.560 Current 11 Terrestrial Plant Observations 0.556 Current 12 Non‐coral Targeted Marine Macroinvertebrates, Broadscale 0.532 Current 13 Algal Diversity and Abundance 0.503 Current 14 Deep‐sea Realm 0.476 Expected 15 Reef Fish Diversity and Abundance 0.461 Current 16 Marine Mammals 0.456 Expected 17 Cryptic Reef Fish 0.432 Future 18 Mesophotic Coral Ecosystems 0.398 Current 19 Terrestrial Hermit Crabs 0.380 Current

210 | Page

20 Shorebirds 0.371 Current 21 Marine Plankton 0.293 Expected 22 Terrestrial Arthropods 0.238 Current

211 | Page

Appendix D. Brief Description of Non‐selected Surveys

The Cryptic Reef Fishes survey was not selected for inclusion in the IMP. The only currently applied sampling methodology, which has been documented in studies in New Zealand and Australia, employs rotenone, a non‐specific ichthyoside, to kill all the fish within the area to which it is introduced. The coral reefs, other submerged lands, and water column lying within 3 nautical miles of the mean high water mark of the Howland Island, Baker Island, and Jarvis Island NWRs have been identified in their CCP Wilderness Review Inventory as meeting the requirements of a Wilderness Study Area, and are managed in such a manner so as not to detract from wilderness values identified in the Wilderness inventory (i.e., naturalness, a condition that generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature with the imprint of man’s work substantially unnoticeable). The destructive nature of this aquatic poison is inconsistent with preserving wilderness values. Moreover, it would require additional NEPA (beyond an EAS) because it would involve the introduction of a contaminant and potentially cause more than negligible mortality. The need for additional NEPA compliance would represent a major commitment of staff time which is a factor considered in survey selection. It is classified in PRIMR as a “future” survey, to be considered at such time that a methodology not introducing contaminants or causing direct mortality is developed.

References:

Ackerman, J.L. and D.R. Bellwood. 2000. Reef fish assemblages: a re‐evaluation using enclosed rotenone stations. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 206: 227‐237.

Willis, T.J. 2001. Visual census methods underestimate density and diversity of cryptic reef fishes. Journal of Fish Biology 59: 1408‐1411

Willis, T.J. and M.J. Anderson. 2003. Structure of cryptic reef fish assemblages: relationships with habitat characteristics and predator density. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 257: 209‐221.

212 | Page

Appendix E. Research Projects Participants of a workshop conducted in 2011 (Pelagic Fish and Seabird Inter-Relationships in the Central Tropical Pacific: Methods and Approaches to Study and Management) identified several research topics to further inform the status and trends of seabirds, pelagic fishes, and their interaction via facilitated foraging:

1. Diet, inter-annual variability and links to oceanography a. Develop a comprehensive, up-to-date understanding of seabird diets throughout the entire PRIMNM region b. Understand the integrated diet structure of both seabirds and subsurface predators c. Investigate energetics associated with diet and foraging, and how stress influences population trajectories 2. Limiting factors for seabird reproduction a. Determine basic breeding and population metrics across the PRIMNM region b. Relate breeding and population metrics to factors that may limit reproduction including on-island predation and prey availability 3. Subsurface predator facilitated foraging a. Develop an integrated understanding of the movements of seabirds, subsurface predators, and fishing vessels with the objective of attempting to correlate fishing and breeding success. b. Investigate localized versus population-level effects of fishing, and investigate if seabird populations would increase if subsurface predator populations increased c. Characterize the level of impact of different threats on seabirds, determining the relative effects of each (i.e., land predation versus fishery impacts) d. Investigate how seabirds may respond to a reduction of subsurface predators

References:

Maxwell, S.M. and L.E. Morgan. 2012. Pelagic Fish and Seabird Inter-Relationships in the Central Tropical Pacific: Methods and Approaches to Study and Management. Report to NOAA Fisheries Pacific Islands Regional Office. Marine Conservation Institute, Seattle. 44 pp. https://ecos.fws.gov/ServCat/Reference/Profile/41890

Maxwell, S.M. and L.E. Morgan. 2013. Foraging of seabirds on pelagic fishes: implications for management of pelagic marine protected areas. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 481: 289-303

213 | Page

Appendix F. Environmental Action Statement

U. S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE

ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION STATEMENT

Within the spirit and intent of the Council on Environmental Quality's regulations for implementing the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), and other statutes, orders, and policies that protect fish and wildlife resources, I have established the following administrative record and determined the following for the proposed action described below:

Proposed Action and Alternatives

The proposed action is to implement an Inventory and Monitoring Plan (IMP) for the Howland Island, Baker Island, and Jarvis Island national wildlife refuges (collectively referred to as Refuges). This IMP is a refinement of the September 2008 Comprehensive Conservation Plans (CCPs) and associated EAs for the Refuges (USFWS 2008 a,b,c). This IMP provides more-specific guidance for surveys of Refuges’ fish, wildlife, plant, habitat, and abiotic resources to fulfill the Refuges’ purposes and help achieve Refuges’ goals and objectives.

The EAs for the Refuges’ CCPs included goals and objectives and assessed the impacts associated with a range of reasonable alternatives to those goals and objectives for each refuge. The rationale for selection of one specific alternative for implementation for each refuge is explained in the Findings of No Significant Impact (FONSIs) accompanying the final CCPs (USFWS 2008 d,e,f). The survey strategies included in this IMP fall within the bounds of those described and assessed in the CCPs and their EAs.

Pursuant to 40 CFR 1502.9, no additional NEPA documentation is required to implement this IMP beyond the EAs and FONSIs prepared concurrently with the CCPs. No substantial changes to the proposed action alternative that was identified, analyzed, and selected for implementation within the CCPs, EAs, and FONSIs are proposed through this IMP. Similarly, no significant new information or circumstances exist relevant to environmental concerns and bearing on the proposed action or its impacts.

Categorical Exclusion(s)

In accordance with 43 CFR § 46.205 and 40 CFR 1§ 508.4, all selected surveys presented in Tables 1A, 1B, and 1C for the refuges of this IMP are covered by the following Departmental categorical exclusion because they would not have significant environmental effects.

“Research, inventory, and information collection activities directly related to the conservation of fish and wildlife resources which involve negligible animal mortality or habitat destruction, no introduction of contaminants, or no introduction of organisms not indigenous to the affected ecosystem.” 516 DM 8.5B(1)

214 | Page

IMP Revision Signature Page

IMP Revisions

Howland Island, Baker Island, and Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuges and Units of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument

Action Signature /Printed Name Date Survey list and priority changed:

Submitted By:

Monuments Superintendent

Reviewed By:

Regional I&M Coordinator

Approved By: Refuge and Monument Supervisor

216 | Page