Reminder

Research questions + references should be handed in next week! Thursday, March 7 , by 5.30 p.m. No handwritten proposals will be accepted! If you still have not found a suitable topic, come to see me! Please note: I will deduct points if references are not presented in the proper format (see class notes) or if they are missing.

Tense vs aspect in English Tense and aspect use deictic systems: Past Present Future (anchor)

I will sleep. I sleep. I slept.

1 Past Present Future (anchor)

past moment

I had slept.

Past Present Future (anchor)

future moment

I will have slept.

2 Aspect interacts with the meaning of tense, often sharing markers/endings etc. It requires (sometimes additional) anchors but those anchors serve evaluative purposes.

Two aspect types across languages:

• Perfective (completed action) Perfect/ parfait - per (thoroughly)-facere (to make) ensures that the event is completed before the anchoring point and this is of relevance to the speaker.

• non-perfective 2.1.single non- completed action 2.1. Several actions (habitual action)

English

2.Progressive aspect as an example of non-perfective aspect It describes action as on-going from the point of view of a past/present/future anchor contained in the when- sentence.

I was building a ship, when you came. Past progressive I am building a ship. Present progressive I will be buidling a ship, when …. Future progressive

Additional tense meaning for present progressive : immediate future I am coming.(=I will come; I am on my way)

3 Perfect Tenses in English as perfective aspect:

In addition to the present anchor, which locates the time of the action, Perfect tenses in English use an (additional ) aspect anchor. The action is completed as of the anchor selected.

I have already eaten. Present Perfect (anchor: present ‘now’) I already ate (in some dialects, already alone shows the perfective aspect)

I had already eaten. Past Perfect (anchor: past moment I already ate. ‘when you came’)

I will have eaten by noon. Future Perfect (anchor: future moment ‘when you arrive’)

Simple present

• can express more than one tense and/or aspect (besides expressing sometimes future or past (historical present).

"Who is the Grail?", he asks. - past

• non-perfective aspect in simple present

In English, Simple Present usually expresses habitual/ repeated actions (after a single occurrence of the action is completed, the whole action is started all over again).

I usually eat lunch in the cafeteria.

4 Compare with French, where Simple present can express either habitual actions or a non-completed action co to the English progressive tense.(several discrete actions, or one non-completed action):

Je mange. (=I am eating) (=I eat)

Note: In English, with stative verbs, there is no distinction between habitual action and non-habitual action (similarly to French):

Usually, I know.(on several occasions) I know that….(‘stative’ now)

Simple past has also aspect interpretations

‘Perfective’ vs. ‘non-perfective’ aspect interpretation (an additional ‘evaluative’ anchor is needed) I watched the Superbowl.

Single occasion (one occurrence, completed, but no relevance of its completion to the present mo- ment (otherwise it would have been Present perfect) perhaps the relevance is to the moment of completion itself). ‘Perfective’ aspect

On Sunday (past anchor), I watched the Super bowl.

5 Simple past - cont.

Habutual action (several occurrences of the same action, when one of the occurrences ‘completes’, another one starts).

Every year, I watched the Superbowl. On several occasions, I watched the Superbowl.

‘non-perfective’aspect

Modality and evidentiality What is modality?

Commitment to the factuality of assertions, also called propositional attitude.

Strategies used to express assertions that may or may not be true: It is possible/likely/ that…(adjectives of modality) I believe/suppose/assume that…(verbs for belief, doubt) She must be here.(modal verbs)

6 Epistemic modality (involves degree of knowledge and judgements about the world)

You must be here.(=I suppose you are here) You can drive this car. (=It is possible for you to drive it).

Deontic modality (involves giving permissions, expressing obligation, responsibility, and judgements about what is acceptable in society)

You must be here (=I request from you to be here) You can drive this car (=I give you my permission)

What is modality? •relates a real world to a hypothetical world ‘Possible world semantics’ David Lewis Epistemic modality: Alice might be sick. (creates a hypothetical situation where Alice is sick). Deontic modality: You should pay more attention. (invokes a hypothetical situation, where the addressee acts according to norm/ expectations, in this case, he/she pays more attention)

7 In some languages epistemic modality is expressed by special verb forms.

Reported speech forms (Bulgarian) Toj napisal/pishel knigata. he write-Past Participle book-DEF “Reportedly, he wrote/was writing the book.” (but I am not sure)

Toj napisa/pisheshe knigata. he write-Past Participle book-DEF “He read/was writing the book.” * Note: na- is a perfectivizing prefix.

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