sign in sign up
<<
Home , Atomic age

The Laboratory of the

Edward Teller

ll of us hope that, in the long would be an ideal place ongoing liberalism in the old sense run, the energy of the atomic to develop weapons. That remark of the word, that is, an unques- A n nucleus will be used struck me as rather peculiar at the tioned—perhaps even unnoticed— only for peaceful purposes. After a time because it wasn’t until a year tolerance of widely different ideas. half century of nuclear explosives later that Fermi made the final deci- Another remarkable fact about Los and nuclear reactors, the practical sion to emigrate from Fascist Italy Alamos is the uniformity of the effect of the former has been more to the . standard of living of its residents. important, both in our thinking and When we arrived in Los Alamos There are no very rich and no very in our expenditures. The existence in late March of 1943, we found a poor. Perhaps this characterization of nuclear weapons has had a decid- striking contrast between the beauti- of Los Alamos sounds too good to ed influence on affairs. Los ful mountain surroundings and the be true, but I think such praise is Alamos, since its beginnings in dreary, green, barracks-like build- not unfounded. In large part, this March 1943, has been a unique ings in which we were going to live liberal environment is attributable place, distinguished both by its na- and work. Today, nothing is left of to the founder of Los Alamos, ture as a community and its continu- those early structures. After the Robert Oppenheimer. ing influence on world history. I Second World War, people were Los Alamos National Laboratory, will speak to several aspects of both permitted to own the houses in together with its sister laboratory in characteristics. which they lived, and the once uni- Livermore, , is currently In 1938, , my wife, form dwellings were replaced by a near the center of a great controver- Mici, and I were planning to drive beautiful variety. sy. On one side, it can be claimed from Stanford, California to the East Los Alamos is different from all that the efforts undertaken by the Coast. I clearly remember Oppen- other communities not only in ap- weapons laboratories won the Cold heimer’s suggestion that we stop on pearance but also in spirit. It was War and are ultimately responsible the way and spend some time in founded by scientists, and through- for the collapse of the . New Mexico. Even more particular- out its existence, has been led by If even a small portion of this claim ly, I remember Fermi’s remark that scientists. The result has been an is justified, the implied effect on

32 Los Alamos Number 21 1993 The Laboratory of the Atomic Age

world history is most important— spontaneous fission would trigger a United States to retain great influ- particularly because expenditures on diverging chain of nuclear-fission re- ence in world affairs during the fol- nuclear weapons amounted to rough- actions, and a premature explosion of lowing half century. It was, in my ly only 3 percent of the United far lower energy-yield, that is, a fiz- opinion, an unprecedented situation States military budget over the past zle, would result. It was not many in history: that low-cost military half century and, even more so, be- months afterwards that the complete power should become available and cause the was won without concept of the solution appeared: an nonetheless not be used for con- any significant loss of . On the elaborate spherical assembly of the quest, or for the imposition of our other side of this argument, it is fissile material wrapped in “lenses” of wishes in general, but rather for the claimed that we would be better off chemical high explosive, the operation sole purpose of deterrence, stability, had we never created atomic bombs, of which would result in substantial and peace on a global scale. and, now that the Cold War is over, compression of the “incompressible” In the meantime, the development we may forget about them forever. (or ). of nuclear weapons in the Soviet I intend to address this controver- The implementation of this con- Union, Great Britain, France, China, sy at some length as well as its rele- cept required a great deal of refine- India, Israel, and Pakistan is proof vance to the future of the weapons ment of both the techniques for han- that the to make nuclear laboratories. But to discuss the fu- dling chemical explosives and the weapons is there to be used by any- ture, we must first consider the past. calculations required for reliable esti- body. The detailed facts about such The most important accomplish- mates of the performance of the de- developments have been kept secret ment of Los Alamos was the con- sign. The result was the experimental and can therefore not be quoted. struction of atomic bombs in the two production of unprecedented pres- But in the special case of Iraq, a years and four months from the sures, exceeding even those that we commission of the United Nations founding of the Laboratory to the knew existed at the center of the has investigated, in an open manner, test in Alamagordo. Before this his- . In a period of twenty-eight the work of Saddam Hussein’s tory-making period I had been work- months, several new branches of ex- regime. They found not only that ing in the labora- perimental physics and numerous cal- Iraq was within a few years of hav- tory in , which was code- culational techniques were opened up. ing nuclear weapons but also that named the Metallurgical Laboratory, All this was made possible by the these developments had required the and while there I saw a lot of my skillful leadership of Oppenheimer. expenditure of billions of dollars good friend Eugene Wigner. I had That we “created” the atomic and the work of more than twenty come to learn that he was almost al- bomb is not an entirely correct state- thousand remarkably well-trained ways right, and he strongly advised ment. The atomic bomb had been Iraqis in addition to the importation me not to go to the new Los Alamos long since predicted by Leo Szilard, of a great deal of equipment and laboratory. The only difficulty, ac- and it would have been developed, supporting technology. The UN cording to Wigner, was the produc- in any case, in the next one to two commission’s findings have under- tion of the needed nuclear explosive decades. That the nuclear explo- mined two opposing myths: First, material, that is, plutonium. Once sives were made available in time to that a nuclear explosive could be se- we had enough of that, he asserted, write a favorable conclusion to the cretly developed and completed in it would be easy and obvious to put Second World War is the great ac- someone’s garage, and second, that together an atomic bomb. For once complishment of Los Alamos. secrecy will stop the proliferation of Wigner was completely wrong. In fact, the early availability of nuclear weapons. Just a few weeks after we arrived in nuclear explosives and the subse- After the Second World War, Op- Los Alamos, Emilio Segré discovered quent possession of an overwhelm- penheimer’s slogan concerning Los spontaneous fission, a most important ing military force at a continuing Alamos was, “Let us give it back to and unwanted source of . cost of a small fraction of 1 percent the Indians.” To his great credit This discovery meant that as we tried of our gross national product (count- Norris Bradbury, as the first postwar to assemble the fissile material into a ing only the essential nuclear explo- director of Los Alamos, prevented configuration that would result in a sives on which this force was cen- that from happening. As for the fur- nuclear explosion, the neutrons from tered) have made it possible for the ther development of nuclear explo-

1993 Number 21 Los Alamos Science 33 The Laboratory of the Atomic Age

sives, Oppenheimer’s attitude was up and, soon thereafter, are realized. With the passage of many years, it summarized in the statement he While some people may believe we has become quite clear that the hy- made to me in the fall of 1945, “We are fast approaching “the end of his- drogen bomb played an important did a wonderful job and it will be tory,” I still find myself in agree- role in the national military posture many years before anybody can im- ment with Plato: “Only the dead of both the United States and the So- prove on it.” have seen the end of war.” viet Union. I have had the privilege After the war I left Los Alamos to Although Bradbury took a strong of meeting some of the Russian sci- go to the University of Chicago, but stand on advancing the development entists who worked on nuclear I came back for frequent visits. In of fission weapons, he nevertheless weapons. Most important was An- the summer of 1946, I traveled to considered the development of the drei Sakharov, who is credited with Albuquerque to participate in dis- hydrogen bomb to be either an im- the development of the hydrogen cussions with the military regarding possibility or, at best, a challenge bomb in the Soviet Union and who further developments of nu- later became an exception- clear weapons. The military ally courageous advocate stated their opinion in very of civil liberties in that clear terms: The weapon used Communist regime. in is exactly what is Sakharov confirmed that needed and no changes what- the development of the hy- soever are to be recommend- drogen bomb proceeded in- ed. Fortunately, Bradbury dependently and almost si- and the other leaders at Los multaneously in the Soviet Alamos did not accept this Union and in the United opinion and instead worked States. It has also become on significantly reducing the clear that in the age of weight of nuclear explosives fairly accurate, rocket- without sacrificing any of based delivery systems, their effectiveness. Without hydrogen bombs with such a development our postwar that would require many years of yields of many megatons are no weapons would have quickly be- considerable effort. During virtually longer the most effective weapons. come rather ineffective in compari- all of my second stay in Los Alamos The real significance of the develop- son with the capabilities of other na- (1949Ð1951), I worked diligently on ment of the hydrogen bomb is not tions, particularly those of the Sovi- planning the first hydrogen bomb and that it offers exceptionally high et Union, Britain, and France. did not consider plans for a sister yields but rather that it affords many Thus, the question of whether the laboratory. But when the decision to options in explosive power, size and efforts of Los Alamos were still continue a vigorous effort was shape, and effects. needed in the period after the Sec- reached only by a hairsbreadth fol- I have used the conventional ond World War has been clearly an- lowing the successful test in the words “Cold War” in referring to the swered in a positive manner. I be- spring of 1951, I came to the conclu- four decades from roughly 1950 to lieve that the historical situation fol- sion that the creation of a second lab- 1990. I believe, however, that the lowing the Second World War is, in oratory would serve the national in- use of the word “war” in that con- some respects, comparable to the terest by generating competition and text is an unjustified exaggeration one we are facing at present. In the maintaining mutual support. These and becomes more so when applied current post-Cold-War period, we comments notwithstanding, it should to the development of defenses cannot simply conclude that the always be remembered that the first against the most effective method of weapons laboratories have become American hydrogen bomb was creat- delivering nuclear weapons, namely superfluous. Indeed, it is a funda- ed and tested by Los Alamos and that by rockets. mental characteristic of technology, those developments would not have In private conversations Russian particularly in modern times, that been possible without the coopera- scientists have recognized the Unit- new possibilities continue to open tion of many of the old-timers. ed States’ undoubted leadership in

34 Los Alamos Science Number 21 1993 The Laboratory of the Atomic Age

the area of strategic defense, the ac- sion and eventual domination would many people with nuclear-weapons- curacy of which depends largely on have proceeded in a more successful based confrontation, actually is the use of computers. The need for manner—these aims were basically a planned to provide a defense against sophisticated computers may be the continuation of the policies of the rockets carrying any of these means reason the Soviet government con- tsars of Russia. Remarkably, the of swiftly executed aggression. Al- sistently opposed the development frustration of these aims, coupled though it would not preclude all use of strategic defense, even after Pres- with the corruption and ineptitude of of nuclear weapons, it would make ident Reagan suggested a collabora- the Soviet government, led to the swiftly performed aggression, based tion. A more open attitude became abrupt end of the Soviet Union. It is on rockets and perhaps based on air- apparent, however, when the Soviet also not a coincidence that this craft as well, far more difficult. Union collapsed and President event followed just a few months What I have said already implies, Yeltsin took over. after the United States demonstrated to a considerable extent, my answer The most significant initiatives in the Gulf of Persia that high-accu- to the question: What should the for developing defensive arms came racy systems can be used to defeat a weapons laboratories do in the fu- from the two nuclear-weapons labo- big, well-trained army of a dictator ture? For the sake of clarity and ratories. Recently Los Alamos at a minimal cost, over the span of a emphasis, I will give two direct an- played an essential role in planning few days, with an incredibly small swers to the question—one is a gen- the adaptation of nuclear explosives sacrifice in the of our soldiers eral answer, the other, a discussion for use in a defensive manner as and those of our allies. The of a specific possibility. well as adaptations of satellites in weapons laboratories have thus con- In the present period of “Cold low Earth orbits for a variety of pur- tributed in more than one significant Peace” (a “Hot Peace” would be an poses, including not only the prompt way to the dissolution of the great active cooperation among all nations reporting of the launching of mis- and terrible Soviet dictatorship—a for their mutual, general benefit), it siles but also a warning of activities victory achieved without war. is justified to cut back the expen- that indicate preparations for aggres- Even in the absence of terrible sive, routine peacetime activities of sion. In addition, the adapted satel- tensions between the Soviet Union our armed forces as well as reduce lites can be used for observation of and the rest of the world, nuclear the number of enlisted personnel, weather, prediction of natural cata- weapons remain a reality. Complete the quantities of military bases, and strophes, and monitoring pollution elimination of these arms from the the amounts of stockpiled equipment on a global scale. stockpiles of the United States and and materials. It is, however, by no The Russians have shown particu- other important powers would mere- means justified to cut back research larly great interest in the last point. ly encourage dictators of small on future military capabilities. This They have openly stated their lack of countries to acquire these weapons, should be clear to everyone from the confidence in the evaluation of pollu- thus giving them opportunities for indisputable fact that such research tion and its effects on the former ter- aggression beyond that possessed by over the past half century made the ritories of the Soviet Union unless their neighbors and also perhaps be- real difference in winning the Cold this evaluation is made or supported yond that of all other nations. War. It will play a similar role in by authorities thoroughly different We must also consider the prolif- maintaining peace during the next from those of the old regime, prefer- eration of missiles of various half century. ably having a major international ranges. Approximately twenty Furthermore, with little alter- component. Thus the competitive de- countries now possess this danger- ation, modern instruments of war velopment of arms has led to meth- ous, rapid means of weapons deliv- can serve as tools for peaceful pur- ods of observation of the human en- ery. These missiles can be used not poses. For example, expensive nu- vironment that can be used in an in- only to carry nuclear weapons but clear weapon-tipped missiles can be ternationally cooperative manner for also chemical or biological weapons converted into delivery systems for important peaceful purposes. and ordinary high explosives, as sending observation satellites into Without the work of the two nu- shown by Saddam Hussein. orbit. Such satellites would give us clear-weapons laboratories, the aims The American Strategic Defense warnings and detailed predictions of of the Soviet Union toward expan- Initiative, identified in the minds of hurricanes, storms, and floods not

1993 Number 21 Los Alamos Science 35 The Laboratory of the Atomic Age

only in the United States but of and our allies. Howev- Such a necessity replaces the rela- throughout the world. er, nuclear weapons design for the tively simple problem of what to do Assuming that such research con- proliferant nation or terrorist might with the DOE weapons laboratories tinues as it should, it ought to be assume an entirely different charac- with the difficult task of planning in concentrated in the present weapons ter from that of the major nuclear detail exactly what should be done laboratories. Among alternate facil- powers, taking paths prescribed by in a new era. Fortunately, Los ities neither those serving pure re- the limited availability of weapons Alamos National Laboratory has the search, nor those serving industrial materials and more narrowly defined intellectual tradition and power to development, nor even the Defense objectives. Our understanding of give the needed answers, if not in a Department’s military laboratories these different paths to nuclear perfect way, at least as well as can will be appropriate for such re- weapons is by no means complete. any other existing institution. search and development. The first Without a full knowledge about these Finally, it should be remembered two lack the necessary contacts with alternative prospects, we might not that, after the Second World War, the military and also lack the tradi- be able to detect the development of Los Alamos initiated a number of tion of R&D on military systems. a weapons stockpile because we projects that are not connected with The other military laboratories, on might not recognize the technology nuclear explosives. Among these, I the other hand, exist primarily for or even understand the clues that our select one particular enterprise for the stepwise improvement of exist- superior remote sensing systems comment both because of my own ing weapons based on the closely might provide for us. interest and because it may have an prescribed requirements of the Pen- One of the more likely paths to exceptionally great importance in tagon. Compared to Los Alamos nuclear weapons taken by a prolifer- the future. and Livermore, they have played es- ant nation or terrorists might be In their first half century nuclear sentially no role in the radical im- through the use of spent reactor fuel. reactors have progressed greatly and provements, such as nuclear explo- The present worldwide inventory of now produce 17 percent of the sives or the instruments of extreme plutonium in spent fuel is about 1300 world’s . In Japan and, accuracy that have been developed tons. If we accept the unclassified even more so, France, the progress successfully for defense against information in reports by several Los is far greater than average. Nuclear- missiles and to hit point-like mili- Alamos scientists, frightening nu- reactor-derived energy is clearly tary targets. In contrast, the nu- clear weapons can be constructed needed if the energy demands of the clear-weapons laboratories have ex- from rather small quantities of pluto- world in the twenty-first century are perience in all these fields. They nium from reactor spent fuel. If the to be fully satisfied in an environ- are the appropriate places for the amount required for a threatening mentally acceptable fashion. Yet, in creation and development of the were 10 kilograms, the United States, public opinion fundamental advances in military the present worldwide inventory and thus political trends have capability on which America’s fu- would allow the construction of brought this development to a full ture safety will depend. 130,000 such weapons. Not only do stop. In the context of this general an- we need to understand how weapons What is badly needed is not just a swer, I want to discuss the specific might be designed from plutonium or safe reactor but an obviously safe issue of whether the DOE weapons other materials derived from spent reactor, one whose safety is easily laboratories should devote attention fuel, but we should also understand recognized, even by non-experts. to new types of nuclear weapons. the various options for the disposi- There are many means to achieve We must first consider what kind of tion of this material that would pre- such safety, and Los Alamos is new nuclear weapons would be of in- vent its use in weapons. working on one of them. The Los terest. Through the present time, we During the past few years the Alamos reactor falls just short of have emphasized the development of great changes in the world have pro- being critical, by producing in each nuclear weapons using the best of duced a clear and urgent necessity to neutronic generation only 90 or 95 the possible nuclear weapons materi- consider major changes in our de- percent of the neutrons needed to als for a broad spectrum of military fense strategy while evaluating pos- sustain the population in a objectives necessary for the security sible technical accomplishments. steady state. Therefore, the reactor

36 Los Alamos Science Number 21 1993 The Laboratory of the Atomic Age

obviously cannot work at all unless the main cause of legitimate concern the missing 5 or 10 percent of neu- about existing reactors is that means trons are furnished by an accelera- for eliminating an uncontrolled en- tor. The for operat- ergy release by the reactor might ing the accelerator is in turn fur- fail, resulting in the scatter of a lot nished by the reactor in such a way of radioactivity over considerable that a considerable amount of ther- distances. The Los Alamos reactor mal power is left over for the gener- concept either eliminates or greatly ation of electricity. The means of reduces the possibilites for such ensuring that such a reactor will not accidents. become supercritical and “run away” Much remains to be done before are obvious and easily appreciated— such a reactor concept can become a the accelerator design could include reality. The need for the accelerator an automatic shut-off mechanism. and for continuous fuel-reprocessing Furthermore, in the Los Alamos equipment could make the reactor reactor concept the low-pressure hot economically unattractive. I hope fuel would be cooled by pumping it that these objections can be over- to heat exchangers located outside come, in which case the reactor the reactor core but within the same could break the deadlock that has core containment. This technology prevented further construction of re- parallels somewhat the molten-salt actors in the United States during reactor developed at Oak Ridge. the past decade. This approach simplifies the design I cannot even attempt to discuss of the reactor core and all the possibilities utilizes the heat more for future successes efficiently. The Oak that may be achieved Ridge reactor had the by Los Alamos Na- disadvantage that its tional Laboratory. breeding capacity was What assuredly is marginal, which in turn needed is thoughtful imposed constraints on consideration of the its engineering. Such support that may be constraints are re- available from Wash- moved in the case of ington and an open- the proposed Los minded pursuit of the Alamos reactor by the truly limitless possi- presence of the neu- bilities presented to tron-generating accelerator. inquiring minds by scientific and A further important feature of the technological revolutions. Los Alamos reactor concept is the The conditions clearly exist for continuous removal of the radioac- surpassing in the next half century tive fission products. In this man- the history-making successes ner, the great amounts of radioactive achieved in the Laboratory’s infan- materials are removed from the en- cy. Indeed, I have reasons both to ergy-rich, high-temperature portions criticize and also to agree with Op- of the reactor system. The conse- penheimer’s declaration (slightly quences—and, more important, even paraphrased) of forty-seven years the likelihood—of a nuclear acci- ago: “It will be a long time before dent are thereby minimized. Indeed, anybody can do better.”

1993 Number 21 Los Alamos Science 37