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Gender Reversals and Gender Cultures GENDER REVERSALS AND GENDER CULTURES The theme of gender reversals has occurred in all societies since the beginning of recorded history. This volume explores some of the vast historical and cultural range of experience of the phenomenon: from the gender crossing of early Christian martyrs to Hindu and Buddhist beliefs in salvation through gender modification; from the mutating gender of actors in Chinese theatre to sacred genders in Siberia; from gender variance in North American Indian cultures to the androgynous beings of the cultural imagination of the Bimin- Kuskusmin of Papua New Guinea. These original essays are written from a broad mix of perspectives. Their common focus is the complex relation of gender reversals to taboo, and what this tells us about particular cultures. Sabrina Petra Ramet is Professor of International Studies at the University of Washington. She is the author of several books, including Nationalism and Federalism in Yugoslavia 1962–1991 (1992) and Social Currents in Eastern Europe (1995). GENDER REVERSALS AND GENDER CULTURES Anthropological and historical perspectives Edited by Sabrina Petra Ramet London and New York First published 1996 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2004. Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 © 1996 Selection and editorial matter, Sabrina Petra Ramet; individual chapters, © 1996 the contributors All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data Gender reversals and gender cultures: anthropological and historical perspectives/edited by Sabrina Petra Ramet. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Sex role. 2. Gender identity. 3. Transvestism. 4. Transsexualism. 5. Taboo. 6. Androgyny (Psychology) GN484.35.G46 1996 95–26198 305.3–dc20 CIP ISBN 0-203-42893-5 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-73717-2 (Adobe eReader Format) ISBN 0-415-11482-9 (hbk) ISBN 0-415-11483-7 (pbk) To all who question society’s rules, To all who place Natural Law above all else, To all who accept Rosa Luxemburg’s principle: Freedom means nothing unless it is the freedom to think differently. And to Chris, who has always had the courage to think differently. CONTENTS Notes on contributors ix Preface xii 1 GENDER REVERSALS AND GENDER CULTURES An Introduction 1 Sabrina Petra Ramet 2 TRAVERSING GENDER 22 Cultural context and gender practices Anne Bolin 3 SUMER 52 Gender, gender roles, gender role reversals Judith Ochshorn 4 CROSS-DRESSING AND CROSS-PURPOSES 66 Gender possibilities in the Acts of Thecla J.L.Welch 5 MARTYRS, ASCETICS, AND GNOSTICS 79 Gender-crossing in early Christianity Karen Jo Torjesen 6 CROSS-DRESSING, GENDER ERRORS, AND SEXUAL TABOOS IN RENAISSANCE LITERATURE 92 Winfried Schleiner 7 ELENA ALIAS ELENO 105 Genders, sexualities, and “race” in the mirror of natural history in sixteenth-century Spain Israel Burshatin 8 BECOMING MALE 123 Salvation through gender modification in Hinduism and Buddhism Cynthia Ann Humes vii CONTENTS 9 GENDER, POWER, AND SPECTACLE IN LATE- IMPERIAL CHINESE THEATER 138 Sophie Volpp 10 EROTICISM, SEXUALITY, AND GENDER REVERSAL IN HUNGARIAN CULTURE 148 László Kürti 11 SACRED GENDERS IN SIBERIA 164 Shamans, bear festivals, and androgyny Marjorie Mandelstam Balzer 12 THERE IS MORE THAN JUST WOMEN AND MEN 183 Gender variance in North American Indian cultures Sabine Lang 13 THE PROCREATIVE AND RITUAL CONSTITUTION OF FEMALE, MALE, AND OTHER 197 Androgynous beings in the cultural imagination of the Bimin-Kuskusmin of Papua New Guinea Fitz John Porter Poole Index 219 viii NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS Marjorie Mandelstam Balzer (Ph.D., 1979) teaches in the Sociology and Russian Area Studies departments of Georgetown University. She is editor of the journal Anthropology and Archeology of Eurasia, and of the books Shamanism: Soviet Studies of Traditional Religion in Siberia and Central Asia (1990); Russian Traditional Culture (1992); and Culture Incarnate: Native Anthropology from Russia (1995). Using data from several years of fieldwork focused on Siberia, she has written on gender, religion, and nationalism for American Anthropologist, Slavic Review, Arctic Anthropology, Shaman, and other journals. She is currently finishing the following books: The Tenacity of Ethnicity and Siberian Women’s Lives: Autobiographies from the Sakha Republic (Yakutia). Anne Bolin received her Ph.D. in cultural anthropology from the University of Colorado. She is an Associate Professor of Anthropology at Elon College. Her book, In Search of Eve: Transsexual Rites of Passage (1988), received a Choice Magazine Award for an Outstanding Academic Book for 1988–9. She has co-authored a textbook on the anthropology of human sexuality, Biocultural Perspectives in Human Sexuality (1996, in press). She is co-editor of Athletic Intruders: Women, Culture, and Exercise (1996, forthcoming). Her current ethnographic research is with competitive women bodybuilders for a book entitled Elegant Ironworkers: Beauties and Beasts in Bodybuilding. She is an active competitor in amateur women’s bodybuilding and continues her research with the transgender community. Israel Burshatin is a Professor of Spanish at Haverford College. He has published numerous studies on the discourse of Orientalism in early modern Spain, including “The Moor in the Text: Metaphor, Emblem and Silence,” in Henry Louis Gates, Jr. (ed.), “Race,” Writing and Difference (1986), “Power, Discourse and Metaphor in the Abencerraje,” in MLN (1984); and “Playing the Moor: Parody and Performance in Lope de Vega’s El primer Fajardo,” in PMLA (May 1992). He is currently working on a book-length study of the trial of Eleno de Cespedes. ix NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS Cynthia Ann Humes is an Associate Professor of Religious Studies at Claremont McKenna College. Her publications concern contemporary use of Sanskrit literature, modern ritual in North Indian goddess worship, political and economic dimensions in Hinduism, and issues of gender in world religions. She is the author of Goddess of Blood, Goddess of Love: Divinity and Power in the Devi Mahatmya and Vindhyachal Temple (forthcoming from SUNY Press). She is also co-editor of Living Banaras: Hindu Religion in Cultural Context (SUNY Press, 1993). László Kürti is a cultural anthropologist who has been conducting research on Hungarian culture for the past fifteen years. His publications have appeared in professional journals including Anthropology Today, East European Quarterly, East European Politics and Societies, and Anthropological Quarterly. He is currently a visiting professor in the Department of Ethnography and Folklore at the Eotvos Lorand University in Budapest. Sabine Lang was born in Frankfurt, Germany, in 1958, and studied social anthropology, European prehistory (Vor- and Frühgeschichte), and ancient Mesoamerican cultures and languages (Altamerikanistik) at the Universities of Tübingen (1978–0) and Hamburg (1980–0). She obtained her M.A. degree in 1984 and her Ph.D. in 1990, writing a Ph.D. dissertation entitled “Männer als Frauen—Frauen als Männer” [Men as Women, Women as Men], which deals with multiple genders in Native American cultures. Lang has done fieldwork in Mexico (1982) and in urban and rural Native American communities in the United States (1992–3), her recent fieldwork centering around gender variance and homosexual identities. She works as an independent scholar, living in Hamburg, Germany. Judith Ochshorn was a Professor of Women’s Studies at the University of South Florida, co-founded the department twenty-four years ago, and headed it for nine years. Working in the areas of women’s history, feminist spirituality, and feminist theory-building, she was the author of The Female Experience and the Nature of the Divine, co-edited (in 1995) Women’s Spirituality, Women’s Lives, and published a number of essays on goddess traditions and rituals in antiquity, gender roles in the ancient Near East, mother-daughter relationships in ancient Near Eastern and biblical literature, and the witch hunts in early modern Europe. Professor Ochshorn passed away during the production of this book. Fitz John Porter Poole is an Associate Professor in the Department of Anthropology at the University of California, San Diego. He has previously taught in Anthropology and Religious Studies at the University of Rochester. He received his M.A. and Ph.D. in Anthropology and Social Psychology from Cornell University. On the basis of field research among the Bimin-Kuskusmin of Papua New Guinea, he has published numerous articles on ethnopsychology, gender, myth and ritual, selfhood and personhood, socialization and x NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS enculturation, and aspects of the cultural contours of imagination.He is completing a monograph on The Rites and Passages of Childhood among the Bimin-Kuskusmin. Sabrina Petra Ramet is a Professor of International Studies at the University of Washington in Seattle. Born in London, England, she received her Ph.D. from UCLA in 1981. She is the author of five books, three of which have been published in expanded second
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