(STILL) A BURNING ISSUE: FUEL-EFFICIENT STOVE USE IN RURAL KENYA A Thesis Presented to The Faculty of Graduate Studies of The University of Guelph by ALLISON PATRICIA GRATZ In partial fulfilment of requirements for the degree of Master of Science April, 2009 ©Allison Patricia Gratz, 2009 ABSTRACT (STILL) A BURNING ISSUE: FUEL-EFFICIENT STOVE USE IN RURAL KENYA Allison Patricia Gratz Advisor: University of Guelph, 2009 Professor James P. Mahone Could a stove hold a meaning beyond merely being a tool to cook with? This thesis investigates the knowledge and perceptions of rural residents concerning raw-biomass stoves in Trans Nzoia district, Kenya. The research aimed to identify factors that influenced the use of fuel-efficient stoves in that area. Qualitative data from rural residents, Ministry of Agriculture staff and local administrators were gathered using semi-structured interview techniques and participant observation. Research findings underscored the importance of identifying practical and strategic needs of technology users and the role of local innovation in addressing those needs. There were differences in knowledge and exposure to fuel-efficient stoves depending on the ethnic heterogeneity of an area, age and sex of participants. A conceptual framework developed in the course of this study highlights the importance of culture, exposure, personal factors, and stove characteristics to develop ones capacity to use a new stove. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis, although authored by me, would not be in its present form without the help of hundreds of other people. I would like to start by thanking my family, especially my parents, Bob and Verna Duncan. They instilled in me a deep sense of joy and wonderment in discovering the stories and experiences of others quite different from myself, as well as a recognition of the responses that knowledge should bring. They have always encouraged me to follow my heart and be sensitive to God‟s guidance in every area of my life. Thank you for the examples you set in your life. An insurmountably huge thanks to my husband Mike for his emotional and even physical support as he journeyed beside me through this process of coursework, researching and writing a thesis. I couldn‟t ask for a better partner in life. Next I will thank my advisor, Dr. Jim Mahone, for giving me confidence to apply for all sorts of funding and for the prodigious amounts of support, often simply in the form of a listening ear that you gave these last two years. Thank you for your feedback and unwavering encouragement. Thank you also to Dr. Helen Hambly Odame for your practical tips, sage advice, abundant offers of ideas and resources and extremely useful feedback on drafts. It was an honour to work with this advisory committee. Graduate school would have been quite boring, uneventful and much more stress-filled without the laughter, tears, food, discussion, and encouragement shared with my classmates both in and out of academic settings. Thank you for the challenges and rewards working with such a diverse group of people gave me. In Kenya my research assistants Okumu Nyongeza Nickson and Mwanziah S. Grace were of insurmountable value for providing cultural and linguistic interpretation, help with data analysis and friendship throughout the study period. i Thank you to all of the staff at SCC-Vi‟s Olaf Palme Agroforestry Research Center in Kitale, especially Fred Marani, Robert Musikoya, Sellah Wanjekeche, Juliet, Emily, Japhrice, Sally, Limu, Soita, Ruth and Jane the driver. Their enthusiasm in this project and willingness to assist a novice researcher really made the experience of researching extremely smooth and rewarding. I am immensely grateful to all of the participants in my study for having the grace to receive my research team into your busy houses, yards, kitchens, and offices, often unannounced. It is my sincere hope and desire that you will gain benefit from this project. I was extremely privileged to receive funding for this study. This project was undertaken with the financial support of the Government of Canada provided through the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), the Government of Ontario provided through an Ontario Graduate Scholarship, and the University of Guelph through various awards. The Swedish Cooperative Centre‟s Vi Agroforestry Project in Kitale, Kenya gave in-kind support. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i TABLE OF CONTENTS iii LIST OF TABLES x LIST OF FIGURES xii GLOSSARY xiv PICTORAL DIRECTORY OF STOVES FOUND IN TRANS NZOIA DISTRICT xv PROLOGUE 1 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY 3 Background 4 Rationale for the Study 4 Objectives 5 Limitations 5 Significance 6 Overview of the Thesis 7 CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 9 Introduction 9 Part one: Biomass Fuel and Stoves 9 Biomass Fuel 9 Traditional Stove 10 Advantages 11 Tradition 12 Disadvantages 12 Cost in Fuel 12 Cost in Time 13 Cost in Health 13 Cost to the Environment 16 History of the Wood Fuel Crisis 17 Present Thoughts on Environmental Impacts 19 iii Part Two: History of Fuel Efficient Stoves and Their Promotion 21 Successes and Failures in Promotion of Household Energy Technologies 22 Diffusion of Innovation Theory 23 Facilitating Factors for Successful Promotion and Use of FES 25 Selected FES Models in East Africa Today 27 Successful Stove Promotion Programs 30 Community Based Extension: The Case of the Kuni Mbili Stove in Kenya 30 Non-Government Organisations: The Case of GTZ and Rocket Lorena Stoves in Uganda 31 Government-Run programs: The Case of China 31 Government-Run Programs: The Case of India 32 Government-Run Programs: The Case of Kenya 33 Common Advantages of FES 33 Common Disadvantages of FES 34 Part Three: Energy Programming and Policies in East Africa 35 Women in Development 36 Women, Environment and Development 37 Ecofeminism 38 Gender and Development 39 Gender and Energy 40 Gender Planning: Incorporating Practical and Strategic Gender Needs 41 Gendered Approaches: Efficiency vs. Equity & Equality 42 Gender-Energy-Poverty Nexus 43 Traditional Fuels in Public Energy Policies 45 The Energy Ladder 45 Government organisations 45 Gender in Energy Planning and Policies 47 Gaps in Literature 48 Using a Gendered Approach to Investigate Stove Adoption 48 Qualitative research 50 Complexity of Categorisation 50 Conceptual Framework 51 Summary 53 CHAPTER THREE: STUDY CONTEXT 54 Introduction 54 iv History of the Study Area 54 Physical and Agricultural Characteristics of Trans Nzoia District 56 Cooking Habits of Study Participants 58 Dominant Ethnic Groups in Trans Nzoia and Their Relevant Characteristics 59 Recent Ethnic Violence in Trans Nzoia District 61 Relevant Characteristics of the Study Area 62 Cherangani Division 63 Kaplamai Division 64 Kiminini Division 66 Endebess Division 68 History of Stove Promotion and Use in Kenya 71 Specific Use of Fuel in Kenya 71 Fuel Deficit Scenario 73 Immediate Response to the Fuel Deficit 74 History of Chepkube 75 Summary 76 CHAPTER FOUR: METHODOLOGY 77 Introduction 77 Research Strategy 77 Partner Organisation 78 Research Assistance 79 Area Selection 81 Individual vs. Household Unit of Analysis 82 Kenyan Culture and Visitors 85 Literature review 85 Focus groups 86 Semi-structured interviews with individuals and groups 87 Participant Observation 89 Feedback sessions 89 Analysis 95 Limitations 95 v Summary 97 CHAPTER FIVE: DATA ANALYSIS 99 Introduction 99 Semi-Structured Interview Participant Profiles 99 Personal Data of Semi-Structured Interview Participants 99 Other participant profiles 103 Perceived Advantages of the TSS 105 Ease of Construction and Maintenance 105 Cooking Advantages 106 Perceived Disadvantages of the TSS 107 Inconvenience 107 Fuel Consumption 108 Increased Danger 109 Circumstances Where No Other Style of Stove Can Be Substituted for TSS 110 Practical Advantages 111 Cultural Identity 111 Traditional Beliefs and Customs 111 Family 111 Marriage 112 Death 112 Disagreements 113 Curses 114 Household Roles and Benefits Concerning FES 116 Decision Making for Stoves and Fuel 116 Practical Gender Relations Influencing the Use of FES 117 Buildings and Materials 117 Acquiring Fuel 118 Perceived Benefits for Specific Family Members in FES Using Households 118 Benefits For Women 118 Benefits For Men 120 Benefits for Children 122 Perceived Need for FES Within the Community 122 Perceived Advantages of FES 124 Saving Energy and Time 125 FES Physical Characteristics 126 Avoiding Disturbance 127 Perceived Disadvantages of FES 129 FES in General 129 Clay Stoves 130 Sawdust Stoves 131 vi Perceived Fuel Shortage in the Area 132 Perceptions of fuel scarcity 134 Perceptions of Fuel Abundance 135 Perceived Factors That Influenced Households to Use FES 136 Perceived Factors That Prevented Households From Using FES 139 Perceived Differences in Thoughts About FES Between Community Members 143 Perceived Differences in Thought Between Men and Women 143 Perceived Differences in Thought Between Older and Younger People 144 Perceived Thoughts of Other Community Members 146 Existing Channels For Transfer of Information About FES 146 Informal and individual exposure 149 Community Level Exposure 150 Summary 151 CHAPTER SIX: DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 152 Introduction 152 A New Conceptual Framework 152 Key #1: Culture 154 Family of Origin 155 Gender Roles 156 The Role of Christianity 157 Key #2: Exposure 158 Exposure by Observation 158 Formal Extension 159 Lack of Established Vocabulary 161 General Paucity of Knowledge 162 Negative Misconceptions as a Barrier 163 Influence of Male