FRANCIS TURNER PALGRAVE and the GOLDEN TREASURY By

FRANCIS TURNER PALGRAVE AND THE GOLDEN TREASURY

By

MEGAN JANE NELSON

M. A., Flinders University of South Australia, 1978

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

in

THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

(Department of English)

We accept this thesis as conforming

to the required standard

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

April 1985

(^Megan Jane Nelson, 1985 In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission.

English Department of

The University of British Columbia 1956 Main Mall Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Y3

Date 15 April 1985

)E-6 (3/81) ii

ABSTRACT

In spite of the enormous resurgence of critical interest in minor

figures of the Victorian era over the last twenty years, almost no attention has been paid to Francis Turner Palgrave (1824-1897). In his own age, he was

respected as a man of letters, educator, art critic, poet, friend of Alfred

Tennyson, and editor of The Golden Treasury of the Best Songs and Lyrical

Poems in the English Language, first published in 1861. This dissertation attempts to make good that neglect in two ways: firstly, through an analysis of his life and times, an assessment of his writings as an art and literary critic, an examination of his considerable corpus of original poetry, and the compilation of the first comprehensive bibliography of his own publications.

This bibliography is accompanied by a checklist of manuscript sources and a listing of secondary materials about Palgrave himself.

Secondly, the dissertation makes the first systematic examination of the

Golden Treasury, its genesis and editing principles, its critical reception, and its publication history. This detailed study is accompanied by eight appendices giving bibliographical information about the form and contents of the four major editions of the Treasury published in Palgrave's lifetime, along with a listing of sources and a checklist of contemporary reviews.

Throughout the dissertation, the intellectual concerns that led Palgrave to develop a set of fixed principles for judging all art and literature are examined in order to establish that, like his friend Matthew Arnold, he was a committed Hellenist, who insisted that all poetry conform to what he perceived as the "Homeric" ideals of simplicity and unadorned language. The iii

Golden Treasury, in particular, is based on an ideal of "unity" which

Palgrave used to justify the many editorial excisions and variant readings which are such a feature of the volume's texts.

It is impossible to account fully for the unprecedented success of the

Golden Treasury, which has continued to be reprinted in a variety of editions from the time of its first publication until the present, but one of its most important features is that it is the first anthology of English lyric poetry to declare itself complete: Palgrave insisted that the book contained all the best lyrics in the English language. Just as significant is the fact that it is the first anthology by a professional educator who refused to make his selections on the basis of their morally improving qualities, but relied instead on poetic excellence alone.

"Francis Turner Palgrave and The Golden Treasury," therefore, attempts to account for the extraordinary success of the Golden Treasury and to examine one of the nineteenth-century's more interesting minor figures, one who was a friend of some of the most brilliant men of his day, including

Jowett, Browning, Arnold, Clough, and Gladstone; a recognised minor poet of the "contemplative" school which included Arnold and Clough; and a well-known champion of the Pre-Raphaelite painters. iv

CONTENTS

Abstract i

Table of Contents iii

Acknowledgments v

Chronology vii

Introduction 1

Chapter

One LIFE AND ASSOCIATIONS 4

Two PALGRAVE AS CRITIC

i. Introduction ...... 37 ii. Art Criticism 51

iii. Literary Criticism 67

Three PALGRAVE AS POET 79

Four PALGRAVE AS TREASURER

i. Genesis and Publication 103 ii. Editing Principles 119 Iii. Critical Reception 144 iv. Subsequent Editions 152

APPENDICES: THE GOLDEN TREASURY

Introduction 171

A. Bibliographical Descriptions of Significant editions . . .175 B. Significant Textual Variants 184 C. Significant Title Changes 188 D. Additions and Omissions in Later Editions 198 E. Editorial Errors 203 F. Sources 204 G. Reviews 210 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Introduction 211

I. Primary Materials

1. Manuscript Collections 213 2. Books and Separate Publications 217 3. Art Criticism Articles 231 4. Literary Criticism Articles 239 5. Reviews 247 6. Miscellaneous Articles 254 7. Fugitive Poetry 259

II. Secondary Materials

1. Books and Articles on Palgrave 263 2. Obituaries 264 3. Golden Treasury Bibliography 264 4. General Bibliography 265 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The debts to friends, family, and colleagues in Australia, Canada, Great

Britain, and the United States that I have incurred since beginning my graduate work are too numerous to mention. I can only hope that in this dissertation I have justified their faith in me.

For making possible this study of Francis Turner Palgrave, I should like to thank, first, Julian and Christopher Barker, the copyright owners, who kindly gave me access to the Palgrave Family Papers and allowed me to quote from unpublished letters. Of the librarians and curators who made materials in their collections available, I should like particularly to thank Dr.

Dennis Rhodes of the British Library and Mrs. Lola Szladits of the Berg

Collection of the New York Public Library. To the many scholars with whom I have corresponded—Peter Allen, Clarence Cline, Philip Elliott, Colin Home, the late Walter Houghton, Cecil Y. Lang, Norman Kelvin, Simon Nowell-Smith, and Philip Scott—I am most grateful for their advice and encouragement. I should also like to thank Charles Cox and the firm of Bernard Quaritch for their efforts in searching out vital Palgrave material; Palgrave's publisher,

Macmillan, who readily supplied information on the publishing history of The

Golden Treasury; and, especially Alice McNair and Rita Penco of the U. B. C.

Library, who were assiduous in tracking down rare Palgrave items needed in my research.

I should like particularly to acknowledge the assistance of the members of my dissertation committee, Professors William E. Fredeman, John F.

Hulcoop, and Herbert J. Rosengarten, for their careful reading and critical assessment of my work and for their useful suggestions for revisions. My adviser, Professor Fredeman has been most generous in providing me for vii

several years with a working area in his house and in giving me complete access to his extensive personal library. His continued support and encouragement throughout the lengthy process of writing this dissertation have been invaluable. Finally, I must give special recognition to Dr. Jane

C. Fredeman of the U. B. C. Press, whose editorial skills and practical advice on matters of style and organization have improved the dissertation immeasurably. viii

CHRONOLOGY

1824 Born 28 September, Great Yarmouth, Norfolk

1838 Enters Charterhouse School

1839 Visits Italy

1842 Wins Balliol Scholarship

1843 Becomes Head of Charterhouse

Enters Balliol College in October after visiting Italy with his father

1846 Withdraws from the university for one term to become assistant private

secretary to W. E. Gladstone, Colonial Secretary for Robert Peel's

government

1847 Achieves first-class honours in Classics and a Fellowship at Exeter

College

Publishes first articles, on Michaelangelo and Dante respectively, in

Sharpe's London Magazine

1848 Visits Paris with Jowett in April to witness the Revolution

1849 Meets Alfred Tennyson on 31 March

Enters the Education Office in London

1850 Moves to Kneller Hall near Twickenham as Vice-Principal of a training

school for poorhouse teachers

1852 Lady Palgrave dies

Publishes novel, Preciosa

1853 Visits Scotland with Tennyson

1854 Publishes first volume of lyrics, Idyls and Songs: 1848-1854

1855 Returns to the Education Office in London after Kneller Hall closes

1857 "Preciosa" marries ix

1858 Publishes second novel, The Passionate Pilgrim

1859 Visits Portugal with Alfred Tennyson

1860 Visits Tintagel in Cornwall with Alfred Tennyson, Thomas Woolner, and

William Holman Hunt

Begins work on the Golden Treasury

1861 Sir Francis Palgrave dies

Publishes the Golden Treasury

1862 Writes memoir of Clough

Issues his Handbook to the fine art exhibits in the International

Exhibition

Marries Cecil Greville Milnes on 30 December

1863 Appointed art critic of the Saturday Review

Publishes his first poem; "Castelrovinato," in Fraser's

1865 Issues his Moxon Miniature Poets selection from Wordsworth's poetry

Edits a bowdlerised edition of the Songs and Sonnets of Shakespeare

Resigns from the Saturday Review

1866 Publishes Essays in Art

Writes a memoir for an edition of Scott's Poems

1867 Issues his original Hymns

Withdraws from the competition for the Oxford Professorship of Poetry

1868 Publishes The Five Days Entertainments at Wentworth Grange, a

collection of children's stories

1869 Produces Gems of English Art of this Century

1871 Issues his Lyrical Poems 1875 Publishes his Children's Treasury

1877 Withdraws again from the Professorship of Poetry competition

Publishes Chrysomela, a selection from the works of Herrick

1878 Receives honorary LL.D. from Edinburgh University

1880 Publishes privately his cycle of historical lyrics, The Visions of

England, his Gesta Anglorum

1884 Issues second edition of the Treasury

Edits the early works of Keats

Retires from the Education Office

1885 Wins election as Oxford Professor of Poetry

Edits a selection of Tennyson's lyrics for the Golden Treasury Series

1887 Publishes Jubilee Ode for Queen Victoria

1888 Gives Latin Creweian Oration at Oxford in memory of Matthew Arnold

1889 Edits Treasury of Sacred Song at the request of Oxford University

1890 Publishes third edition of the Golden Treasury

His wife, Cecil, dies

1891 Issues first officially revised and enlarged edition of the Treasury

1892 Publishes his final collection of original lyrics, Amenophis and Other

Poems, Sacred and Secular

1895 Retires from the Oxford Poetry Chair

1897 Publishes the Golden Treasury "Second Series," which includes living

poets

Issues last set of Oxford lectures, Landscape in Poetry from Homer to

Tennyson

Dies 24 October xi

"...in the best and most comprehensive sense of the term [Palgrave] was a man of classical temper, taste, and culture, and...he had all the insight and discernment, all the instincts and sympathies, which are the results of such qualifications. He had no taint of vulgarity, of charlatanism, of insincerity. He never talked or wrote the cant of the cliques or of the multitude. He understood and clung to what was excellent; he had no toleration for what was common and second rate; he was not of the crowd. He belonged to the same type of men as Matthew Arnold and William Cory, a type peculiar to our old Universities before things took the turn which they are taking now. It will be long before we shall have such critics again, and their loss is incalculable."

J. Churton Collins, "An Appreciation of Professor Palgrave," Saturday Review, 84 (30 Oct. 1897), 487. 1

PREFACE

This dissertation surveys in detail the life and writings of Francis

Turner Palgrave (1824-1897), the compiler of probably the most famous anthology of English verse since "Tottel's Miscellany" and one of the nineteenth-century's most prolific men of letters. An accomplished classicist, trained at Oxford and befriended by many of the leading minds of his day, Palgrave, like Matthew Arnold, John Stuart Mill, and William Michael

Rossetti, balanced two careers, functioning both as a civil servant and as a practising author. During a long and active literary life, extending from

1847 until his death, he published two novels, six volumes of poetry, and some fifty fugitive poems; fifteen editions and anthologies; a volume of critical essays on art and another on literature; two illustrated art books; and dozens of uncollected articles and reviews on literature and the fine arts—all these in addition to the capstone of his career: his edition of The

Golden Treasury of the Best Songs and Lyrical Poems in the English Language

(1861).

Although he never achieved major-figure status, Palgrave was widely regarded as an influential critic, and in his lifetime the Golden Treasury was universally recognized as an anthology without parallel. His posthumous reputation, however, suffered in the general reaction against the Victorians that began shortly after the death of the Queen at the turn of the century.

In part, Palgrave, along with the majority of Victorian writers, simply became unfashionable, and in the wake of the literary revolution launched by 2

Eliot, Pound, and other twentieth-century poets, the Golden Treasury and its author were relegated to temporary obscurity. In fact, following on the publication of his daughter's memorial biography in 1899, almost nothing was written on Palgrave until the centenary of the Golden Treasury, when a handful of brief articles and notices appeared in the popular press.

Paradoxically, however, Palgrave's name was kept alive in the public mind by the multiple reprints and updated adaptations of the Treasury that appeared—and, indeed, continue to appear—with surprising frequency.

Palgrave has been virtually ignored by scholars of the Victorian period.

While he is included in the standard reference sources—DNB, Farquharson

Sharp, the 11th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, NCBEL, Kunitz and

Haycraft—and casual references to him appear in biographies and studies of

Tennyson and other Victorian writers, few separate articles have been written on him, and most of these are short notes focussing directly on the Treasury.

The only book to be published in this century is an incomplete edition of one series of his Oxford lectures which he delivered as Professor of Poetry, edited by a Japanese scholar, Mine Okachi in 1973.

This dissertation is intended to redress the balance through a close examination of Palgrave's life, the total corpus of his creative and critical writing, and the Golden Treasury. The study consists of four introductory chapters followed by a series of appendices providing a schematic textual summary and analysis of the four editions of the first series of the Treasury and a complete annotated bibliography of writings by and on Palgrave. The initial biographical chapter draws on manuscript sources in the British

Library, the Berg Collection of the New York Public Library, the Tennyson 3

Research Centre in Lincoln, the Beinecke Library at Yale, and other repositories. Chapter Two examines Palgrave's critical writings on art and literature, traces the sources of his critical opinions, and assesses both his strengths and limitations as a critic in the twin media of art and literature. Chapter Three is devoted to Palgrave's creative work, which, though undistinguished in its quality, was nevertheless for him an important side of his total literary identity. Chapter Four is devoted exclusively to the background, editing, publication, and reception of the Golden Treasury, the documentation for which is provided in the appendices mentioned above.

Overall, the dissertation offers the most complete survey of Palgrave's life and work that has ever been undertaken. The bibliography includes a preliminary checklist of manuscript sources followed by a fully annotated catalogue of all Palgrave's writings, a secondary listing of works on

Palgrave and the Treasury, and a concluding section on general works relevant to the study. For convenience, the primary bibliography has been divided into seven sections, within which each item is separately numbered, as in

2.15 Essays on Art. For ease of reference and to avoid duplication of bibliographical information and an excessive number of page-only footnotes, all citations to Palgrave's work within the body of the text are documented internally, providing in parentheses the bibliography entry number together with pagination. References to the Golden Treasury in the text are also documented internally: poems by number, preface and notes by page numbers.

Typographical symbols, such as asterisks, employed in a specialized way, as in the appendices and bibliography, are explained in the appropriate sections. 4

CHAPTER ONE: LIFE AND ASSOCIATIONS

i

When Francis Turner Palgrave published the Golden Treasury of the Best

Songs and Lyrical Poems in the English Language in July 1861, he was almost unknown. His claims to fame were marginal at best: his friendship with

Alfred Tennyson; a few articles on art and literature; a volume of minor lyrics; and two unsuccessful romans a clef. His reputation today would be that of a minor mid-Victorian man of letters, who wrote poetry and criticism in his spare time from his duties in the civil service, were it not for the extraordinary success of the Golden Treasury, which gives him a special stature in English literary history. His success can be partly explained by the circumstances of his upbringing, by his education at Oxford, and by the literary circles in which he moved. Equally important, however, is the fact that in mid-Victorian England there existed for the first time, as a result of the education reforms of the forties and fifties, a large popular audience eager to learn the history of its nation's art and poetry.

Palgrave's education made him one of a long line of men of "classical" temper in English letters. However, he differed from his predecessors in his enduring conviction that the newly educated public had as much right as the traditionally privileged classes to enjoy the best art and literature.

Translating this perception into practical terms, he used the literature and sculpture of ancient Greece and Rome as models of perfection in his analysis of English poetry and art, and also provided this new audience criteria by which it could evaluate modern works. 5

His unorthodox family background made him acutely aware of the needs of those who had been traditionally ignored by the intellectual elite:

the family was one of the most describable in all England at that day. Old Sir Francis, the father, had been much the greatest of all the historians of early England, the only one who was un-English; and the reason of his superiority lay in his name, which was Cohen, and his mind, which was Cohen also, or at least not English.*

Sir Francis Palgrave, or Francis Cohen as he was known for the first

35 years of his life, belonged to that remarkable group of Victorian scholars which included Doctor Arnold and Mark Roget. Born in July 1788, the son of a wealthy Jewish stockbroker, he surmounted social prejudice to become an historian respected by some of the greatest literary men of his day, including Sir Walter Scott, Robert Southey, and Henry Hallam. As a Jew, the elder Palgrave was excluded from the educational system administered by the church, but his father employed tutors to ensure that he received a thorough humanistic education:

The key factor in moving Palgrave away from the Jewish community—the nature of his personal makeup aside—was his desire to participate in an intellectual culture outside the boundaries of Jewish life. Having been given the education of an English gentleman by an indulgent and proud father, and having responded to this education with enthusiasm and ability, he had to look as a consequence, beyond his family's friends and acquaintances for social and intellectual companionship. For within the Jewish community there were no secular intellectual coteries.^

Cohen's sense of isolation increased when he was forced at the age of

22 to leave his studies and take up an uncongenial occupation in order to support his parents following the loss of his father's fortune in the Stock

Exchange Crash of 1810. Notwithstanding his distaste for the law, Cohen articled successfully and continued to practise until he was almost 50, 6

earning a knighthood in 1832 for his services to municipal reform. His

historical studies were pursued as an avocation.

His chief interest was in the Middle Ages, and his classical education

led him to work from the now-discredited premise that English society was

based on the remnants of imperial Roman civilisation rather than on a

Germanic democratic social structure:

Taking up his mental existence, as it were, in the period of the long-protracted dissolution of the Roman empire, he has fondly cherished the history of every relic of that mighty system, and watched with a conservative jealousy the origin and progress of those innovations in which the present European system grew.

Despite its bias, his pioneering work fuelled the Victorian passion for

Medievalism, so much a feature of the Oxford Movement which he would later

embrace:

He has carried the torch into the darkest recesses of the dark ages, and cleared up things which the world believed buried forever. He has not only shown them to us, but he has found out how they came to be where they were, and what connection they have with each other.

Cohen was one of the first medieval historians to make any substantial use of

the primary public records of English history rather than the imaginative

reconstruction popular with historians such as Macaulay as the basis of his

research. From 1812, when he became aware of how scattered and badly

cared-for the public records of England were, he was afraid that they would

be dispersed and lost, and so he campaigned for a central office in which the

documents could be safely housed, catalogued and made accessible to scholars.

His dream did not become a reality until 1838, when he was given the newly

created job of Deputy Keeper of Her Majesty's Records and a mandate to design and build a Public Record Office, a task which occupied him until his death in 1861.

The young Francis Cohen knew that his race was an insuperable barrier to getting a permanent post with the records, and he might have waited forever for preferment if he had not made a judicious marriage and rejected Judaism.

He had almost ceased to be a member of the Jewish community by 1819 when he met Elizabeth Turner (1799-1852) while working on a history of Norfolk with her father, the banker and antiquarian Dawson Turner. Cohen's poverty, his race, his lack of prospects, and his difficult temperament made him such a potentially poor choice as a husband that it is hardly surprising that it took him four years to persuade Elizabeth to accept him. Her father consented to the marriage in 1823, even offering to help financially if Cohen would become a Christian and adopt the old Norfolk name "Palgrave," Mrs.

Turner's maiden name. Francis Cohen accepted eagerly: not only would he lose the obvious stigma of his name and be more financially secure, but he would also be able to enlist his father-in-law's considerable influence in the

London government establishment.

He gave up Judaism immediately, henceforth denying his birth so completely that even his sister-in-law did not know that he had been a Jew.

She said, many years after his death, that "to us, and for upwards of 30 years of his married life he never alluded to his own previous name or religion. I well remember the first time of his [speaking] of his father and his own name (which signified Priest) and of his being of the tribe of

Levi."4 To his credit, he did continue to provide financial support for 8

his parents and sisters until their deaths, but he cut off all other relations between them.

That Francis Cohen became Francis Palgrave overnight was common public knowledge, referred to in his obituaries and DNB entry; when his children learned of his parentage is unclear. Francis Turner's daughter suppressed the fact entirely in her biography of her father. He himself was probably told before he went up to Oxford; certainly he knew by the time his brother

Gifford left the Indian Army in the mid-forties to become a Jesuit priest with the name "Father Cohen." Palgrave's contemporaries knew, too, and they sometimes used his race against him. When Francis Turner was an adult, he was often referred to as "the Jew,"-' as J. A. Symonds called him, and even

Swinburne wrote to Theodore Watts that:

It has been my Christian wish and aim to give as much pain and offence as possible to fools and quacks of divers colours—especially in Oxonicular or (as D. G. Rossetti might have said) Cohenian quarters—and I humbly but fervently trust that a blessing has been graciously vouchsafed to my attempts.^

Despite the eleven-year difference in their ages, Elizabeth, who was 24 when she married, and Francis Cohen were highly compatible and had much in common intellectually. After their marriage in September 1823, they settled in a small house near the Houses of Parliament, later moving to a larger house in Hampstead where the family lived until Sir Francis' death in 1861.

When Elizabeth became pregnant a few months after the wedding, she followed the custom of the day and returned to her father's house in Great Yarmouth to have, her first child, and Francis Turner Palgrave was born there on 28

September 1824, the first of four surviving children, all sons, who went on to have distinguished careers.^ 9

Throughout Palgrave's childhood the family finances were always so precarious that the boys had no formal schooling until 1838, when their father was awarded the Deputy Keeper's post. The new financial security enabled Sir Francis to send them to Charterhouse School as day-boys. Until that time Francis and Elizabeth worked hard to surround their sons "from infancy with collections of books, pictures, and engravings" and, through tutors, to educate them rigorously, especially in classical art and

Q literature. The high store which both parents set on education derived in

Elizabeth's case from the very unwomanly education her father had provided for her, and in Sir Francis' from his recognition that his studies had given him a way to surmount the barriers of prejudice and escape the restricted world of the Victorian Jew. Both parents worried constantly that their sons were not applying themselves sufficiently to their studies and pressured them unmercifully—Francis Turner, the eldest, most of all. He began Latin at four, Greek at seven, and he was reciting "The Lay of the Last Minstrel" by heart at six. His few leisure hours were spent in a religious education greatly influenced by the burgeoning Oxford Movement.

His father's passion for Roman history extended also to a love of modern

Italy, and in 1838 he was commissioned to write the "Northern Italy" volume of Murray's popular guidebooks for the Grand Tour. In preparation for his work, Sir Francis took the family to Italy, a trip which ensured that the boys' early grounding in classical languages was balanced by a love and understanding of classical art, architecture, and culture.

When Palgrave finally went to school at the age of fourteen, his character was already largely formed. He said ruefully of himself that 10

"early going to school was the only remedy for priggishness," and the isolation of his childhood meant that his personality was unfortunately closely modelled on that of his eccentric father.9 Sir Francis was well-known for his arrogance, his irascibility, and his desire to impress his audience with his learning, and his son was widely recognised as having inherited many of the same traits. Francis Turner was also known for his pedantry, which Clough complained was a shortcoming of the Golden

Treasury.^ A characteristic instance related by Henry Adams tells of

Palgrave's first visit to a friend's new "Queen Anne" style house. When his host opened the front door, Palgrave greeted him by asserting, "I've counted three anachronisms on your front doorstep."^

An insensitivity to the feeling of others, compounded by his proud assertion of his personal abilities, is obvious in his relationships, most vividly with Tennyson, who was nearly driven to distraction by Palgrave's treatment of him, as Holman Hunt relates in Pre-Raphaelitism and the

Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. On the trip to Cornwall during which the idea of the Treasury was first mooted, Tennyson became so enraged by Palgrave's alternately obsequious and arrogant behaviour that he finally attempted to flee, but as he drove away in his dogcart to the station, Palgrave

jumped up beside Tennyson, greatly to the poet's surprise. He protested, but the remonstrance was met by Palgrave appealing to us to come too, and declaring that he was under promise to Mrs. Tennyson never to leave him on the journey, and as the pair were driven away we heard the two arguing as to whether such watchfulness were necessary.^

All these character traits are evident in his writings, particularly in his art criticism. Henry Adams records that Palgrave was famous for the 11

violence of his attacks, "which were always intelligent if not always kind,

and when these failed, he readily descended to meaner levels."^

If they do not seem to have ameliorated the unpleasant aspects of his

personality, Palgrave's four years at Charterhouse were so academically

successful, thanks to the thorough academic grounding his parents had given him, that he concluded his school career by winning the coveted Balliol

scholarship in 1842 and becoming Head of the school in 1843. His father took

him to Italy for a second trip in the summer of 1843, and in October of that year he went up to Oxford.

ii

At pre-reform Oxford academic work was of comparatively little importance, although that would soon change under the reforms introduced in

the course of the nineteenth century. Balliol, however, had begun to change

itself well ahead of the rest of the colleges, and its tutors were the most brilliant in the university. The curriculum was nevertheless still narrow, and Palgrave spent the four years of his undergraduate career consolidating his already considerable knowledge of Latin and Greek. Predisposed to a classicist view of modern life, literature, and art coloured by his father's passion for Roman history and his own love of Italy, Palgrave deepened his understanding of classical works and became committed to the qualities he saw in them as the models of perfection for modern literature and art. But other currents at Balliol also affected him profoundly.

When Palgrave entered Balliol, he must have been aware that he was entering one of the most controversial institutions in the university. The college was a microcosm of the theological, political, and educational 12

controversies sweeping through the university, at the same time harbouring powerful adherents of the Broad Church movement and its opposition, Newman's

Tractarians. The most powerful Tractarian at Balliol, W. G. Ward, had been responsible for inadvertently destroying the faith of Arthur Hugh Clough in the process of pressuring him to join the Oxford Movement. In 1845 Ward was expelled from the university as the result of an action brought by a fellow

Balliol man, A. C. Tait. Such Broad Church adherents were a strong force within the college, dominating it from the mid-forties onwards, mainly as the result of the efforts of a classics tutor named Benjamin Jowett. Palgrave came under the influence of Jowett and his followers in a secret society at

Balliol, the Decade Club, almost as soon as he entered the college.

Palgrave had been raised as a supporter of the Oxford Movement, rather than the opposing Broad Church, and his parents doubtless hoped that he would be guided by the Tractarians' charismatic leader, John Henry Newman. But fate dictated otherwise. Newman, who had been struggling for a long time with the dilemma of reconciling his faith with his increasing doubts about the validity of Anglican doctrine, resigned his post as parish priest of St.

Mary's Church in Oxford and retired preparatory to "going over" to Rome a few weeks before Palgrave went up to Oxford. With Newman's removal, the atmosphere of Oxford changed radically. The young men, worn out by years of cerebration, theological debate, and conscience-searching, turned with relief to active involvement in political and social issues, particularly of the kind advocated by the "muscular Christians" of the Broad Church movement.

They also turned to radicalism and republicanism in the years leading up to the Chartist Riots and the French Revolution of 1848. 13

Palgrave appeared in Oxford just as the changeover was taking place and thus found himself in the centre of the Broad Church reaction. In 1843,

Balliol was asserting itself as a stronghold for the Broad Church principle of expressing faith through good works. It also had strong formal links with the Broad Church party, both through theologians in the college (particularly

Jowett, Tait, and Frederick Temple) and through the college's relationship with Rugby School, one of the first reformed public schools. Rugby's headmaster, Doctor Thomas Arnold, had sent his best students to Balliol:

Ralph Lingen, later Palgrave's superior in the Education Office; Arthur

Stanley, later Dean of Westminster; Doctor Arnold's sons, Thomas and Matthew; and Arthur Hugh Clough. In return, Balliol supplied two headmasters for

Rugby: Tait succeeded Doctor Arnold, who died suddenly in 1842, and Temple,

Palgrave's mentor in the Education Office, replaced Tait.

But it was Benjamin Jowett, later the architect of educational reform at

Oxford, who exerted the greatest influence on the impressionable young

Palgrave. Although a newly appointed tutor scarcely ten years Palgrave's senior, Jowett was a powerful influence at Balliol:

There was a little inner circle, whose relation to him, partly because they most needed his support, was particularly intimate. Chief among these were William Y. Sellar, Alexander Grant, T. C. Sandars, W. S. Dugdale, F. T. Palgrave, Theodore Walrond, R. B. D. Morier, and H. J. S. Smith. It was within this group that there sprang up what outsiders designated a sort of "Jowett-worship."

Jowett has also been praised by Balliol historians for almost singlehandedly bringing the college out of the doldrums which the Oxford Movement had left as its legacy: 14

For some years after 1841 the best minds of the College seemed to be smitten with a kind of paralysis. They had lost their most fundamental convictions, and had found nothing to replace them. They had been plunged into a labyrinth of vexed questions without the semblance of a clue. They had lost all interest in their prescribed pursuits, and had no heart to strike out others for themselves. Their unfortunate position has been most graphically described by Clough and Matthew Arnold, who were themselves among the sufferers.... With such a malady of the intellect Jenkyns [the Master] was quite unable to deal.... There was need of a younger man who had himself felt the crisis, and who had won his own battle before he was called upon to arm others for it. Such a man the College found in Jowett. He had been elected to a Fellowship in 1838; he succeeded to a tutorship in 1842, directly after Tait's retirement; and, in spite of his youth, he became almost immediately the mainstay of the tutorial body.

Jowett influenced his earliest group of students in two important ways.

First, as a republican who believed strongly in social reform, particularly

through the medium of popular education, he gave substance to his belief not

only by campaigning within the university for a relaxation of the entrance

requirements to allow women and working men access to the universities, but

also by sending his best students to careers in the Education Office of the

Civil Service. Balliol men, including Temple, Lingen, Palgrave, Arnold, and

Clough, helped to set up the entire system of free state secular education in

England. Second, he was convinced that education should be firmly based on a knowledge of Greek literature, especially Plato, whom he translated in a

popular edition because he wanted to make classical literature accessible to

as many people as possible. Jowett campaigned throughout his life to extend

the benefits of classical education to the previously educationally disenfranchised, and his conviction that the Greek writers had much to teach

the modern world shaped Palgrave's belief that modern literature must also be

based on Greek ideals. 15

At Oxford, under Jowett's tutelage and buttressed by the political fervour of two of his friends, Clough and Froude, Palgrave became an ardent, if temporary, republican, as Clough wrote to Tom Arnold in 1848:

Palgrave too you will have heard has become, under Froude's guidance partly and partly by revolutionary sympathy, a very suspect person at Oxford and next to myself is I suppose accounted the wildest and most ecervele republican going. I myself apropos of a letter of Matt's which he directed to Citizen Clough, Oriel Lyceum, Oxford, bear that title par excellence.

J. A. Froude, author of the controversial document of scepticism, The

Nemesis of Faith, and defector from Tractarianism, was a dangerous man to be associated with publicly at Oxford. He and Palgrave remained friends for about twenty years after they left Oxford, Froude providing a short but glowing review of the Treasury in 1861, but Palgrave gradually became disillusioned with Froude's radicalism. By the time Froude produced his scandalous biography of the Carlyles in 1882, Palgrave disliked him so much that the same year he published a libellous Latin poem, "Inscription for a

Statue in Chelsea," in Blackwood's Magazine (7.3), attacking both Carlyle and his biographer. But at Oxford, Froude joined with Jowett, Clough, and other members of the Decade in encouraging Palgrave's republican enthusiasms.

The Decade Club, one of the many secret societies which flourished at

Oxford and Cambridge in the nineteenth century—and which lasted a little longer than its name implies—was formed in 1838 by two Balliol tutors, W. C.

Lake and Benjamin Brodie, as an alternative to the debating forum offered by the Oxford Union, which was going through a particularly rowdy period. The society initially consisted of ten members—hence the name—and for its entire existence the Decade had a serious and intellectual tone, unlike, for 16

example, the Cambridge Apostles, who gathered as much for convivial as intellectual reasons. The club also differed from other contemporary societies in rejecting theology, the most compelling topic of those years, in favour of subjects such as politics, economics, social reform, and literature, all with a markedly republican and radical flavour: "For all these young men, the February Revolution [of 1848] broke in like a sea wind blowing the tang of salt and sunshine through the musty conservatism of

Europe."^

The Decade Club attracted to its meetings some of the brightest young men in the University, and its members went on to become educational reformers in both schools and universities, leading members of the Church of

England, important civil servants and politicians, and even, in the person of

Lord Coleridge, a Lord Chief Justice of England. The Decade also produced

two of the most important poets of the nineteenth century—Matthew Arnold and

Arthur Hugh Clough. Both men are linked to Palgrave in literary history,

Arnold because he and Palgrave shared a view of literary criticism based on an admiration for classical poetry and on popularist principles, and Clough because Palgrave had a powerful influence on his posthumous poetic reputation.

Matthew Arnold's career paralleled Palgrave's in many ways. The son of a Roman historian, Arnold had won a scholarship to Balliol two years before

Palgrave; he was a poet and a critic; he left Oxford to enter the Education

Office; and he spent two terms as Professor of Poetry at Oxford. But the crucial point of contact between the two men was their common belief that

English poetry greatly needed reform in order for it to play a more powerful role in the culture of what both men perceived to be an increasingly materialistic middle-class society. Moreover, both agreed that such reform could be achieved by close study of Greek poetry—the epic for Arnold and the lyric for Palgrave. Palgrave was compared to Arnold throughout his lifetime, both as a critic and as a poet who wrote quasi-Arnoldian elegaic poetry.

Palgrave's relationship with Arnold, which began with their discussions of literature and social issues at the Decade Club and which did not end until

Arnold's death in 1888, is perhaps the most useful key to understanding the success of the Golden Treasury, the editorial guidelines for which are based on the same impulses as those of Arnold's preface to his 1853 Poems.

Palgrave and Arnold also shared a common affection for another Decade

Club member, Arthur Hugh Clough. Doctor Arnold's most brilliant pupil,

Clough failed to live up to his reputation at Oxford. Worn out by theological speculation and the pressures of his own collapsing faith, Clough retired into a passivity which fostered the Decade Club's tendency to regard him as both a saint and a martyr. Clough's biographers agree that his involvement in the Decade Club was one of the factors contributing to his inability to make a greater impact on Victorian culture:

Clough's connection with the Decade set might very well provide a clue to his final ineffectiveness in public life, and to his extraordinary difficulty in finding a fitting vocation for himself. The discontent with the age which Clough shared, of all his friends, most fully with Tom Arnold was a discontent too ambitiously general, too diffused in its scope to be easily channelled into clear and effective leadership. Yet Clough was the widely acknowledged leader.*^

Clough readily accepted the adulation of the Decade Club members, and, in general, they closed ranks to shield him from outside criticism. Palgrave 18

was one of the most assiduous in protecting the poet. When Clough resigned his Oriel Fellowship for reasons of conscience and drifted from job to job, eventually going to America, Palgrave paid his bills, took care of his letters, and, in 1853, with the help of Temple and Arnold, arranged a job for him in the Education Office, where he spent the few years till his premature death in 1861. When he died, Arnold and Palgrave were quick to memorialise him, the former in "Thyrsis" and the latter in an 1862 memoir in Fraser's

Magazine (4.6) which eventually appeared as the preface to the first posthumous edition of Clough's poetry in England (2.9).

The preface appealed then as now to the general reader, but it angered

Clough's widow, who removed it after only two impressions of the English edition (the American edition contained a preface by Charles Eliot Norton) and replaced it with one of her own, which treated the man and his poetry with more reverence. Palgrave's fury at having his version rejected was fuelled by the appearance in 1869 of an expanded edition of Clough's Poems which included a number of works Palgrave had considered either unfinished or too revealing of the sceptical, cynical side of Clough's nature which he had tried to ignore in his own memoir. He responded to the new edition by publishing a splenetic attack on Mrs. Clough and her collaborator, J. A.

Symonds, in a poem entitled "Pro Mortuis":

He dies: he leaves the deed or name, A gift forever to his land, In trust to Friendship's guardian hand, Bound 'gainst all adverse shocks to keep his fame, Or to the world proclaim.

But the imperfect thing, or thought,— The fervid yeastiness of youth, The dubious doubt, the twilight truth, 19

The work that for the passing day was wrought, The schemes that came to nought.

And crudities of joy and gloom:— In kind oblivion let them be! Nor has the dead worse foe than he Who rakes these sweepings of the artist's room,

And piles them on his tomb. (7.16)

"Pro Mortuis" sums up both Palgrave's abortive attempt to shape Clough's image by demanding the suppression of poems he considered unflattering to that image, and also his general approach as an editor. In his editions of the work of friends and in his other editions and anthologies, Palgrave always put his chosen image of the poet first. He did not hesitate to abridge or omit anything he thought reflected badly on the poet's personal life and political and religious beliefs, a practice which culminated in his undertaking to destroy Tennyson's personal papers after his death in 1892 in order to aid Tennyson's widow and son in creating an idealized image of

Tennyson, an action which has immensely complicated the task of subsequent biographers.

Palgrave's relationships with Clough, Arnold, Froude, and Jowett were the most fruitful of his Balliol years. The intensification of his love of classical poetry and art and his new sense of the possibilities for social reform through popular education shaped the course of his adult life. The only Balliol influence which he abjured in later life was his youthful political extremism. Like many young idealists who had been disillusioned by the collapse of the radical movements of the late forties, Palgrave became a true-blue Tory and an ardent monarchist, as his subsequent semi-official poems on royal events show. Indeed, as his friend G. D. Boyle said, he "grew 20

gradually to dislike many of the projects of his more liberal friends at

Oxford" and even became disenchanted with Jowett himself (Life, p. 37).

But the love of literature and art which had sustained him became an increasing preoccupation in later life.

iii

Palgrave began to put his ideas about art and literature on paper while he was at Oxford. His first published articles, characteristically about

Italian engraving and poetry, appeared in 1847 when he was 23 (3.1 and 4.1).

These early writings evince both his insistence on "simplicity" and "clarity" of expression and "unity" of subject matter and treatment and his lifelong conviction that literature and art should be made available to the widest possible audience. He published a number of articles in both fields over the next fourteen years, but until the Golden Treasury appeared in 1861, he made little impact in either art or literary circles. His first important venture into art criticism came a year after the Treasury was published, with the appearance of his official Handbook to the fine art exhibits of the 1862

International Exhibition. That book, which contains violent attacks on nearly every work, caused a public outcry and was quickly withdrawn from circulation. Although the reception of the two works was markedly different, the popularity of the one and the notoriety of the other brought him instantaneous recognition as a critic in both areas.

Palgrave began writing lyrics while at Oxford, and he published his first collection, Idyls and Songs, 1848-1854, when he was 30. He wrote verses all his life, but his poetry never had the success of his criticism.

Indeed, because he was unable to place his poems in periodicals, his work 21

received no critical attention until the Treasury made him an overnight authority on poetry.

Unlike many of his friends, Palgrave did not allow the controversies and distractions of Oxford life to affect his work. His first-class honours degree in 1847 was rewarded with a fellowship at Exeter College, but by then, along with the majority of the Decade, he was already thinking about leaving the University, and he stayed at Exeter only a year. Following the example of many of his contemporaries, Palgrave decided to enter the civil service.

After vetoing his first career choice, architecture, his father had tried to interest him in the civil service by insisting that he take time off in 1846 to work as a private secretary for W. E. Gladstone, who was then an up-and-coming young Colonial Minister in the Peel government. Such a post was a traditional way into the civil service or into politics, but Palgrave apparently found it not to his taste, for after one term he returned to

Oxford to take his degree. Matthew Arnold held an equivalent position with

Lord Lansdowne a little later and found it similarly unsatisfying.

Palgrave's personal relationship with Gladstone, however, lasted for many years, owing to a shared love of Homer, though it was finally severed by their increasingly differing political views. Palgrave chose a post in the

Education Committee of the Privy Council where there was a strong Balliol connection. Arnold's tutor, Ralph Lingen, had already gone to head the staff of school inspectors at the office, and one of Palgrave's mentors, Frederick

Temple, had been recruited to head an experimental training school. Both

Arnold and Clough eventually became Palgrave's colleagues.

The Committee on Education of the Privy Council, as it was initially 22

called, had been formed in 1838 to dispense government grants to the church-run school system. Gradually, over the next 30 years, it removed control of education from the hands of the churches, and, by the time

Palgrave retired in 1884, a new and entirely secular system of elementary state education had been established. Palgrave began work at the beginning of 1849 as Temple's vice-principal at Kneller Hall in Twickenham, an experimental training school for teachers who were to live and work with children in the workhouses. One of the earliest government experiments in teacher training, it was never successful, both because workhouse teaching was so unpleasant and badly paid that few could be induced to take it up and because it engendered so much controversy. The churches argued that it infringed on their legal right to train teachers, and Parliament complained of its high cost. After five years the school was closed, and Palgrave returned to the London office.

Palgrave remained at the Education Office for the whole of his working life, rising to the level of assistant secretary by the time he retired in

1884. His work was not illustrious—he certainly produced nothing as significant as the reports and studies that Matthew Arnold wrote for the same office—but he was involved in the setting up of the basic education system which still exists in England and throughout her former colonies. If he made no formal specific contribution to the history of education, he was profoundly influenced by his awareness of that vast illiterate audience which the Education Office was trying to reach.

Probably his years at Kneller Hall as a teacher helped Palgrave to define the audience he would address in his criticism, for he taught "English 23

History, and English Literature, and English Composition" to young men whose

only education had been laboriously acquired by working as pupil teachers in

poor elementary schools.^ While there, he published some of his

earliest literary criticism in 1853 in the house journal of the Education

Office, The Educational Expositor, including "A Method of Lectures on English

Literature," an examination of the critical theories of Coleridge and

Wordsworth written as a conversation between the two men (4.2). His teaching

experience with young working-class men served to underline his belief that

poetry and the fine arts should take a central role in popular education. He

also campaigned for the addition of English literature to school curricula,

even in some cases as a replacement for Latin and Greek, insisting that while

not everyone could learn enough to appreciate the classics, all students would benefit from exposure to the best art and literature of their own

country.

While Palgrave was at Kneller Hall, two of his closest emotional

ties—one real and one real only to him—were abruptly severed. He was cast

into a melancholy mood when his dreams of marriage with the sister of a

childhood friend were shattered by her rejection, a sorrow which deepened with the sudden death of his mother in 1852. The natural course of time

seems to have healed Palgrave's filial grief, but the pain of that unspoken

emotional tie, formed in adolescence, persisted into early manhood. Perhaps

inevitably, he chose the autobiographical novel—Preciosa (1852, [2.2])—as a vehicle for expressing his feelings in the wake of the lady's rejection,

returning to the same genre following the trauma of her marriage in 1857 and

rewriting Preciosa as The Passionate Pilgrim (1858, [2.6]). 24

Nowhere in the wealth of verses that document the relationship, in the novels Preciosa and The Passionate Pilgrim, or in existing correspondence

does Palgrave himself identify his inamorata, but she is less elusive than

Arnold's "Marguerite." Although no one has positively revealed the identity

of "Preciosa" in print, R. Brimley Johnson, editor of a 1926 reprint of The

Passionate Pilgrim, claimed she was a long-time friend of Cecil Greville

Milnes, Palgrave's future wife:

When, just upon five years after this book was published, that is in 1862, Francis Palgrave first met the lady destined...to become his wife, who had, curiously enough, long been her friend, the intimacy was not disturbed, nor was it broken save by the hand of death (2.6, 2nd. ed, viii).

But Johnson's coyness served only to tantalize. In 1984, however, evidence

surfaced about "Preciosa"'s identity. On the flyleaf of her copy of

Preciosa, Eleanor Leighton, sister of Palgrave's friend, the poet Lord de

Tabley, names "Preciosa" as Lady Salisbury, or Georgina Alderson, who married

Sir Robert Cecil in 1857. This identification is confirmed by a letter of 20

June 1857 found among Palgrave's papers in the British Library. In it, her brother, another of Palgrave's friends, Charles, Baron Alderson writes:

I feel sure, that however deeply you are feeling the events of last Saturday week, it is not a subject which with me you would wish tabooed—and that however painful, you must nevertheless feel a terrible interest in all relating...to it. And so, as I promised, I write to you now to tell you that everything went off as easily and quietly, and therefore as pleasantly, as possible, under the circumstances. Indeed to you, who know well what Georgie has been to the house, ever since it was a house, I need not speak of what the social loss is.... And now, my dear Frank, I have again to express my sympathy for you in this heavy trial.... Not but that I do firmly believe that a time must come when the sharp 25

edge of this sorrow must be blunted—and you attain something like peace.20

Both novels describe in detail his unreciprocated passion and the spiritual

anguish which the hero experiences, Preciosa in a simple, realistic style,

and The Passionate Pilgrim in a more decorative, self-consciously

intellectual manner, larded with quotations from Goethe and Dante. The first

was published anonymously, the second under the pseudonym, "Henry J.

Thurstan," but Palgrave's contemporaries recognised his hand and Palgrave

admitted authorship. The persistent melancholia portrayed in these two books

apparently became a permanent part of Palgrave's personality, and Diana

Holman-Hunt reports that her grandfather, William Holman Hunt, forestalled a

suicide attempt by Palgrave two years after The Passionate Pilgrim was

21

published. The success of the Treasury and his marriage in 1862 seemed

to have assuaged his mental stress, but he was subject to attacks of

depression throughout the remainder of his life.

Palgrave was 38 when he married Cecil Greville Milnes (1834-1890), the niece of his old friend Richard Monckton Mines, Lord Houghton, and daughter

of Arthur Hallam's friend James Milnes Gaskell. Cecil bore him four

daughters and a son (a second son died in infancy), and their marriage seems

to have provided the stability and peace which his own melancholy and

choleric temperament had lacked for so many years.

Palgrave's domestic crises, though psychologically damaging to his personality, did not lead him to retire from social life. Indeed, when

Kneller Hall closed in 1855, he returned to London eager to re-enter the 26

literary world which he had tasted briefly in 1849 while working at the

London office. Palgrave was a great lioniser; he loved to meet the artists, poets, politicians, and aristocrats whose names fill the pages of his biography. The man he most wanted to meet, however, was Alfred Tennyson, whose work he had admired since his early days at Oxford. In a Decade Club debate Palgrave had winningly argued that "Tennyson is a greater poet than

Wordsworth" against that great Wordsworthian, Matthew Arnold. He prided himself, according to a friend, on the fact that he had been one of the earliest admirers of Tennyson's work, and when he first met Tennyson on 31

March 1849, Tennyson had not yet won renown—the success of In Memoriam, his marriage, and the Laureateship were still a year away.

Tennyson was at first flattered by Palgrave's admiration, which, as his daughter said, remained "a hero-worship most utterly loyal and true" until the former's death in 1892 (Life, p. 40). But Tennyson was a shy man, embarrassed by Palgrave's effusiveness and irritated by his often abrasive and insensitive nature. They remained friends throughout the fifties and sixties, taking a number of summer walking tours together which Palgrave seems to have engineered. As Emily Tennyson wrote to Edward Lear, "Alfred goes with Mr. Palgrave to Brittany, or scarcely goes but will be taken

22 perhaps." Tennyson's patience was tested constantly by Palgrave's unique mixture of deference and arrogance, and he eventually sought less trying companionship.

On one of these summer tours Palgrave suggested the idea of the Golden

Treasury to Tennyson, who encouraged the younger man to proceed with the project before he cut the holiday short in order to flee from what Sir 27

Charles Tennyson, perhaps with too much filial loyalty, called Palgrave's

pertinacious devotion.For Palgrave, however, the relationship held a central place even after Tennyson had largely withdrawn his friendship, and he continued to act and write publicly as if they were still close. Like so many of the other less-talented younger men who formed Tennyson's

"entourage," Palgrave was not unaware of the help which a connection with the

Laureate could be to his career, and his anthologies and criticism echo with references to his talented friend. By making known Tennyson's editorial involvement with the Treasury, Palgrave capitalized on Tennyson's reputation and helped to ensure the success of the book.

In the late sixties, Tennyson severed their relationship altogether for reasons which reveal as much about Palgrave's distinctive style as they do about Tennyson himself. Tennyson had tolerated the many references to their friendship in Palgrave's writings, but the poet drew the line at allowing

Palgrave to aggrandise himself by showing Tennyson's unpublished manuscripts to outsiders. In 1849, Palgrave had succeeded Coventry Patmore, who had been dismissed for showing the manuscript of In Memoriam to strangers against

Tennyson's express orders, as Tennyson's acolyte, so it was only fitting that

Palgrave should himself be replaced in 1868 by William Allingham when he not only showed the manuscript of the new unpublished Idylls to an outsider, Max

Muller, but also wrote to Tennyson detailing the stranger's criticisms of the poems, to which he added his own complaints, lecturing Tennyson on what he regarded as the poetic shortcomings of the manuscripts which Tennyson had lent him. Tennyson had a notoriously thin skin for criticism, and only a man of monumental insensitivity would have flouted Tennyson's orders and 28

then presumed to attack unpublished material lent in confidence.

Tennyson was understandably reluctant to allow Palgrave to criticise his work in print, and he vetoed his inclusion in the Treasury, a decision which led Palgrave to omit all living authors. He also apparently declined to allow Palgrave to review any of his volumes, and no Tennyson poems appeared in any of Palgrave's collections until Tennyson's move to Macmillan,

Palgrave's own publisher, made refusal difficult. Tennyson's suspicions seem justified: on 18 January 1884, three days after Tennyson's contract with

Kegan Paul expired and he decided to sign a contract with Macmillan, Palgrave wrote to Macmillan planning a selection from Tennyson's lyrics in the Golden

Treasury Series. That edition, discussed in the bibliography below, clearly illustrates the limitations of Palgrave's assessment of Tennyson's lyrics.

In particular, his selections from In Memorlam confirm his intense antipathy to mannered language and obscurity which, though consistent with Palgrave's critical views expressed elsewhere, reveals a serious inability to comprehend the true nature of Tennyson's distinctive genius.

When Tennyson died at the end of 1892, their relationship had been a token one for many years, yet Palgrave wrote almost immediately to Tennyson's widow Emily and son Hallam to offer help in dealing with Tennyson's papers and to suggest contributions to the memoir which he knew Hallam was planning.

He was thus able to gain an access to the Laureate's private life and feelings that he had never been able to achieve during his lifetime. His offer was gratefully accepted by the Tennysons, who were swamped with material, but who were selective in choosing their helpers because, as Robert

Martin says: 29

The process of making Tennyson's memory respectable was well in hand, and it was so successful that it took another half-century before the world began to suspect that behind the bland features of the Watts portraits and Hallam Tennyson's biography was the complicated mind and awkward personality of one of England's greatest poets.

They recognised in Palgrave a man with parallel aims.

Palgrave always took a particularly strong interest in the literary memorials erected to his friends—he had been involved by this time with the memoirs of Clough, Shairp, and Eastlake—and in each case, as has already been noted in reference to Clough, he was willing to make whatever concessions were necessary to ensure that no unflattering stories or unsatisfactory poems appeared in print. His work on Tennyson's reputation was made considerably easier by the fact that Emily and Hallam were already united in their desire to protect and idealise the Laureate.

Palgrave's first act consisted of an offer to read and, where necesary, destroy Tennyson's papers. The Tennysons sent him large batches of unread incoming correspondence which he had absolute authority to destroy as he saw fit:

Palgrave and Henry Sidgwick helped him [Hallam Tennyson] to read and sort out some 40,000 letters, then to destroy three-quarters of them, including practically all of Tennyson's letters to Emily before their marriage and those he had received from Arthur Hallam, as well as anything else Hallam and Emily Tennyson had decided was unworthy of the tame, saintly character whose image they wanted to perpetuate.

He did this unsupervised, but on their direct orders, and many of his comments show that he took an almost malicious pleasure in destroying the letters of those who had replaced him as Tennyson's intimates: 30

Palgrave's only serious fault as an advisor was his jealousy of other writers: Stedman is "a U. S. A. nobody," James Spedding's style is "very unequal," Kingsley's style is "always intolerable," Sidgwick's letter about In Memoriam is unsatisfactory, "The only light it throws is not on the poem, but on the professor," Lowell's description of Maud as "the antiphonal voice to In Memoriam" is a "nonsensical expression."

The family was thus able to ensure that the official image which they erected in the Memoir could be permanently protected. Palgrave not only assisted by destroying documents inimical to the family's official portrait, he also subedited the memoir extensively, correcting Hallam's grammar, and may even have suggested the title for the published record: Alfred, Lord

Tennyson, a Memoir by his Son. He wrote a number of travel memoirs and a memorial letter on Tennyson's late son, Lionel, for inclusion, but, while these appeared in the printed Materials for a Life of A. T. (2.48), they were subsequently rejected by Hallam in the final proof stage before publication.

All that remains of Palgrave's contributions to the Memoir is his "Personal

Recollections of Alfred Tennyson...(Including Some Criticisms by Tennyson)" placed in an appendix at the end of the second volume along with a number of similar recollections by other friends, such as Froude and Jowett. Tennyson and his Friends (1911), edited by Hallam and published long after Palgrave's death, has few references to him, but there is no question that his friendship with Tennyson was one of the most important events in his life.

iv

When Palgrave began work on the Golden Treasury in 1860, he could not have dreamt how much impact the little green book would have on his life. He capitalized on his newly gained status as a recognised man of letters 31

following the publication of the Golden Treasury to place his own poetry and to secure commissions for other editions and "Treasuries," such as the

Children's Treasury (1875) and the Treasury of Sacred Song (1889). But while he published nearly 50 separate volumes of poetry, art and literary criticism, anthologies, hymns, and lectures in the years between 1861 and his death, none of these came remotely close to rivalling the success of the

Treasury. That he himself was fully cognizant of the book's centrality in his life and reputation is reflected in his continuing editorial involvement with it throughout his life.

The Golden Treasury made Palgrave's name a household word in the eighteen sixties, and his reputation was sure enough by 1867 for him to consider standing as a candidate for Professor of Poetry at Oxford when

Matthew Arnold retired. He withdrew from the contest in favour of his uncle,

Sir Francis Doyle, but stood again in 1877, when his opponents included

Walter Pater, J. A. Symonds, and J. C. Shairp, his old Balliol friend. After an acrimonious contest, during which the old animosity with Symonds over the

Clough memoir resurfaced, he withdrew again from the competition. Shortly after his retirement, in 1884, the incumbent Professor of Poetry, J. C.

Shairp, died unexpectedly, and Palgrave was prompted once again to put his name forward, this time successfully. His four lecture series, on literature and the fine arts, on neglected English poets, on the Renaissance in English literature, and on landscape in poetry, were widely regarded as both dull and unoriginal, but he was after all 61 and already ailing when he was elected, and by the time he retired after two five-year terms he was only two years from death. He finally persuaded Macmillan to publish his last series of 32

lectures as Landscape in Poetry from Homer to Tennyson, but he died, fortuitously, before the generally unfavourable reviews appeared.

Thus, the 36 years between 1861 and his death in 1897 were certainly not uneventful, however anti-climactic they may have been in terms of Palgrave's successes and recognition. The Treasury has been noted as an ongoing and life-long enterprise, but Palgrave's other activities were many and varied.

Between 1862 and 1865, he was engaged principally as an art critic. In connection with his position on the Saturday Review, which engaged him on the strength of his Handbook to the International Exhibition, he contributed articles regularly on current artists and exhibitions. While much of his critical work can be described as journeyman tasks—especially his editorial contributions to the lives of Clough, Shairp, and Tennyson—his own publications were sufficiently numerous and frequent to keep his name before the public, and as his reputation grew, new opportunities opened to him.

Throughout these years, Palgrave maintained a highly active social life, counting among his friends and associations a wide range of successful writers and artists. His particular artistic friends were Thomas Woolner,

William Holman Hunt, and Sir Charles Eastlake, president of the Royal Academy and director of the National Gallery, who was married to Palgrave's cousin

Elizabeth. While he moved only on the fringe of Tennyson's literary circle, he was acquainted with Browning and Richard Monckton Milnes, and, for a time, with Swinburne, who later took a great dislike to Palgrave and refused to allow him to include any of his poems in the Second Series of the Treasury.

At the same time, Palgrave cultivated friendships with those 33

members of his old Balliol circle who had entered the church, particularly

Frederick Temple and A. C. Tait, both of whom became Archbishops of

Canterbury, and with Arthur Stanley, Dean of Westminster.

As he became older and lost his youthful reforming zeal, he strengthened his ties with members of the aristocracy and polite society, including the

Duke of Argyll, whose poetry appears in the Second Series of the Golden

Treasury. By the time of his election as Professor of Poetry in 1885,

Palgrave was a member of the literary, political, and social establishment, and one of the criticisms of his Second Series of the Golden Treasury of the works of living poets, published in 1897, was that it was reactionary, reflecting the taste of a man who not only rejected much of the work of poets of his own generation, notably William Morris, but who also had little taste for the new poets of the nineties, such as Wilde, Yeats, Symons, and Dowson.

Palgrave's marriage, which lasted until his wife's death in 1890, was a happy one. Ten years younger than he, his wife knew of his long unhappy obsession with his "Preciosa," and she seems to have treated him with great kindness, especially during his recurrent periods of depression. In return, he addressed her in many poems as his "Eugenia":

What pearl of price within her lay I could not know when first I met her So little studious for herself, Almost she ask'd we should forget her. (2.29)

After Cecil's death, their five children took care of him with equal care and concern. His final years were spent working on Tennyson's Memoir and a life of Benjamin Jowett, whose biographers called upon Palgrave for reminiscences and editorial help. After a long, slow deterioration of his health, Palgrave 34

died on 24 October 1897, having outlived almost all his old and close friends.

Palgrave was a typical Victorian man of letters, amateur art critic, and minor poet. He was also representative of the Balliol men of the eighteen forties and fifties who were swept up in a reforming enthusiasm that was translated into a conviction that the best changes would come through popular education. He summed up the best and the worst of his times: he was an outsider, and he knew it, but his Oxford training and intellectualism led him to want to raise others to his level of learning and pleasure in the arts and poetry, rather than to look down on the less fortunate. He had been a passionate young republican, and in later life he became a jingoistic old

Tory, but he never lost his faith that, if the best poetry and art were made available to the widest possible audience, they would educate and inspirit even the most uncivilised and ignorant. His greatest enthusiasm was, as his old friend G. D. Boyle said, "the high elevation of poetry, art, and music...as the goal for all rightly directed human effort" (Life, p. 39).

His violently expressed opinions and his abrasive personality helped to make him heard in that strident age, but underneath his bluster and arrogance lay the strong belief, which he shared with his friend Matthew Arnold, that the survival of poetry and the fine arts was fundamental to the salvation of what he perceived as an increasingly materialistic and soulless society. The quality of the Golden Treasury sprang from that conviction. 35

NOTES

Henry Adams, The Education of Henry Adams, ed. Ernest Samuels (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1974), p. 214.

2 Todd M. Endelman, The Jews of Georgian England, 1714-1830: Tradition and Change in a Liberal Society (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1979), pp. 259-60.

J. H. Burton, "Sir Francis Palgrave and his Books," Blackwood's Magazine, 81 (June 1857), 731.

^ Quoted in Lewis Edwards, "A Remarkable Family: the Palgraves," in Remember the Days: Essays on Anglo-Jewish History, ed. John Shaftesley (London: the Jewish Historical Society of England, 1966), p. 306.

5 To Charlotte Symonds Green, 24 Feb. 1877, Letter 1037, The Letters of J. A. Symonds, ed. H. M. Schueller and R. L. Peters, 2 vols. (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1968), 2, p. 460.

6 10 Aug. 1891, Letter 1570, The Swinburne Letters, ed. Cecil Lang, 6 vols. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1962), 6, p. 16.

^ William Gifford Palgrave (1826-1888) was a Jesuit priest, Arabian traveller, spy for Napoleon the Third, and diplomat. Robert Harry Inglis Palgrave (1827-1919) entered the family bank and became the editor of The Economist magazine and of Palgrave's Dictionary of Political Economy. Reginald Francis Douce Palgrave (1829-1904) was Clerk of the House of Commons and edited several editions of the Parliamentary Standing Orders. The two youngest boys were both knighted.

8 J. W. Mackail, "Francis Turner Palgrave," DNB (1921-2).

Gwenllian F. Palgrave, Francis Turner Palgrave: His Journals and Some Memories of his Life (London: Longmans Green, 1899), p. 5. Henceforth referred to as Life and documented internally.

*° P. G. Scott, "Tennyson and Clough," Tennyson Research Bulletin, 1 (Nov. 1969), 68. ~~"

H The Education of Henry Adams, p. 215.

I o William Holman Hunt, Pre-Raphaelitism and The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, 2 vols. (London: Macmillan, 1905), 2, p. 214. '36

1 3 The Education of Henry Adams, p. 215.

^ Evelyn Abbott and Lewis Campbell, The Life and Letters of Benjamin Jowett, M. A., Master of Balliol College, Oxford, 2 vols. (London: John Murray, 1897), 1, p. 126.

15 H. W. Carless Davis, et al., A History of Balliol College, 2nd. ed. (1899; rpt. Oxford: Blackwell, 1963), p. 188.

16 16 July [1848], Letter 181, The Correspondence of Arthur Hugh Clough, ed Frederick L. Mulhauser, 2 vols. (London: Oxford University Press, 1957), 1, p. 216. Note: contractions in quotations such as this have been silently expanded.

^ Katharine Chorley, Arthur Hugh Clough: the Uncommitted Mind (Oxford: Clarendon, 1962), pp. 143-4.

1 Q Robindra Biswas, Arthur Hugh Clough: Towards a Reconsideration (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1972), p. 195.

19 Frederick Temple to Arthur Hugh Clough, 10 May 1853, Letter 364, The Correspondence of Arthur Hugh Clough, 2, p. 364.

20 Charles Alderson, letter to F. T. Palgrave, 20 July 1857, Add. MS. 45741, British Library, London.

21 Diana Holman-Hunt, My Grandfather, His Wives and Loves (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1969), pp. 211-2. 22 August 1860, quoted in Charles Tennyson, Alfred Tennyson (London: Macmillan, 1949), p. 327. 23 Alfred Tennyson, p. 327.

23 December 1868, Letter 6074, Tennyson Research Centre, Lincoln, England.

25 See John 0. Waller, "Francis Turner Palgrave's Criticisms of Tennyson's In Memoriam," Victorian Newsletter, 52 (Fall 1977), 13-17, and Marion Shaw, "Palgrave's In Memoriam," Victorian Poetry, 18 (Fall 1980), 199-201. Robert Martin, Tennyson: the Unquiet Heart (Oxford: Clarendon, 1980), p. 583.

27 Philip L. Elliott, The Making of the Memoir (Greenville, South Carolina: privately printed, 1978), p. 18. 37

CHAPTER TWO: PALGRAVE AS CRITIC

It would be absurd to place him beside Matthew Arnold—to whose genius, to whose characteristic accomplishments, to whose authority and influence, he had no pretension. And yet it may be questioned whether, after Arnold, any other critic of our time contributed so much to educate public taste where, in this country, it most needs such education. If, as a nurse of poets and in poetic achievement, England stands second to no nation in Europe, in no nation in the world has the standard of popular taste been so low, has the insensibility to what is excellent, and the perverse preference of what is mediocre to what is of the first order, been so signally, so deplorably, conspicuous. *

i: Introduction

Like a number of his Victorian contemporaries, such as William Michael

Rossetti and Walter Pater, Palgrave was a critic of both literature and the fine arts. From the late forties onward, he wrote articles and gave public lectures addressed to the emerging general audience which his work in the state education system had helped to create. Because this audience had little or no critical training and almost no exposure to art and literature, his commentaries tend to be narrowly focussed, repetitive, and highly didactic. Notwithstanding Palgrave's long association with many of the best poets and literary critics of the nineteenth century, his critical vocabulary is derived primarily from the fine arts. Unlike his critical articles on poetry, which depend too exclusively on unsupported impressionistic assertions about poets and historical eras, with insufficient references to particular poems or individual lines, his writings on painting, sculpture, and architecture are informed discussions buttressed by ample documentation.

As a result, his art criticism is invariably superior to his literary 38

criticism, which is too dependent on allusions to and comparisons with the art and poetry of ancient Greece. Although Palgrave clearly loved Greek sculpture and poetry, in which he was highly versed, regarding classical works as the greatest achievements of art and literature, the examples he provides as critic are often too vague to support his generalisations, which reveal more about his perception of the faults of modern art than they do about his understanding of the Greeks.

The lack of specificity in his critical writings on art and literature obscures even the limited set of critical terms he employs to indicate his approval of works in the fine arts: "unity" and "propriety" are never really fully explained, and, except for "finish," most of his definitions can only be derived negatively from his reviews of works in which these properties are either, in his view, absent or deficient in comparison to the classics.

Palgrave's persistent references to the unity, simplicity, and objectivity of

Greek poetry, and his insistence that English art and poetry should emulate these virtues, almost certainly reflect his aim to make art and literature more widely accessible, and while this commitment may appear to contradict his repeated disapproval of didacticism among artists, it is nevertheless central to all his critical writings.

Most of Palgrave's strengths and weaknesses as a critic were identified by his contemporaries. His rigid application of criteria formed by the time he left Oxford led William Michael Rossetti to complain that

Mr. Palgrave remains somewhat too much of a Greek when he passes to the contemplation of other cycles and developments of art; and that, not entering into the motives of these phases of art with quite the same assimilative thoroughness which he commands when the Greek art is in question, he is too anxious to find in them a 39

certain sort of finish, of which a kind of ideal or echo abides in his mind from the models of Grecian perfection, but which does not, and hardly can, assume a like shape in modern art. Hence Mr. Palgrave appears to have a somewhat excessive craving for "finish" in work of our own day—for a certain completeness of execution which, were modern art as harmonious a concrete as the Greek, would rightly be demandable, and would indeed constitute the outer manifestation of its harmony, but which is not equally intrinsic to the idea of modern art, and may be insisted upon by the critic beyond the expedient point.

Following the publication of the Golden Treasury, Palgrave found a ready market for the promulgation of his critical ideas, and some of these, such as his insistence on the use of simple language, the fusion of form and content, and the superiority of the short poem have since found popular acceptance.

But his influence derived principally, indirectly, from the Golden Treasury itself.

As a critic, Palgrave was best known for his violent denunciations of those who disagreed with him or who produced works which did not conform absolutely to his narrow critical principles. Although his vehement style partly reflects the critical climate in which he wrote, it impeded his development as a critic and even provoked an attack by Matthew Arnold in "The

Literary Influence of Academies":

Thus in the famous Handbook, marks of a fine power of perception are everywhere discernible, but so, too, are marks of the want of sure balance, of the check and support afforded by knowing one speaks before good and severe judges.... Mr. Palgrave, on the other hand, feels himself to be speaking before a promiscuous multitude, with the few judges so scattered through it as to be powerless; therefore, he has no calm confidence and no self-control; he relies on the strength of his lungs; he knows that big words impose on the mob, and that, even if he is outrageous, most of his audience are apt to be a great deal more so.3

The salient limitation of Palgrave's criticism, however, is his repeated assertion that there are "immutable laws of art" which all artists and 40

critics must acknowledge, a view which he articulates in his introduction to

Essays on Art:

The main object of the book is, by examples taken chiefly from the works of contemporaries, to illustrate the truths, that art has fixed principles, of which any one may attain the knowledge who is not wanting in natural taste, and that this knowledge adds greatly to our pleasure, by giving it depth, permanence, and intelligibility. (2.15, v-vi)

In his writings, he makes constant reference to such a set of laws, when, in fact, they are at best eccentric generalisations based on his own perceptions of the ideal traits possessed by the Greeks.

His most explicit attempt to define these traits is contained in his article "On the Scientific Study of Poetry," in which he argues that

in the Greek poetry, the words come nearer to the thought than in any other; the dress or expression is a more simple and a more faithful rendering of the soul; the form and the matter are in a closer and more vital union. You will recognise at once that these conditions create a more perfect work of art. Hence, irrespective of its singular charm and power, the Greek poetry, not in its externals nor as a mode for copyists, but in its fulfilment of the immutable laws of art, is invaluable as a study for those who would use a modern language to its fullest extent. And, as a natural consequence, it is worth remarking that, with hardly one clear exception, no English writer, but those who have been acquainted with Greek literature, out of the hundreds who have attempted poetry, have succeeded in it. (4.12, 172)

"Unity" is thus the first of these laws, and it is Palgrave's basic tenet. It is the central guideline he adopted in compiling the Golden

Treasury, and, in its name, Palgrave made his most controversial and sweeping editorial excisions. In the Treasury, he defines the lyric in terms of unity of subject matter—"some single thought, feeling, or situation" (ix)—a definition which illuminates his preference for the short poem, which is more likely to deal with a single idea than is a lengthy narrative. In the 41

definition quoted above, however, Palgrave extends the meaning of "unity" to include "words," "metre," and "style"; and it also encompasses other elements from his critical vocabulary: "simplicity," "clearness," "conciseness," and

"moderation." What Palgrave means by unity is best expressed negatively as the absence of extremes: no obscure or ornate language, no "commonplaces" or cliches of language or situations, and no complexities of form or content.

This interpretation is supported by a later definition of unity in one of his

Oxford lectures where he discusses the influence of the fine arts on poetry:

It is through Unity and Beauty that the severity, simplicity, repose, self-restraint, which are their technical characters, find their spiritual and emotional expression. And this beauty will, necessarily, at once be of the most impressive and the most inward nature: the most reserved, and hence the most permanently powerful. (4.18, 360)

Unity here means that the artist must refuse to "decorate" poetry with rhetorical figures, and it incorporates in large measure the essence of his second term, "propriety."

Borrowed from sculpture criticism, "propriety" describes an artist's mastery of the technical details of his art, which enables him to sustain

not only mastery over the mysteries of curve and plane, truthfulness in surface, and the special adaptations or conventionalities which separate sculpture from the arts of design, but also the sense of beauty in general outline, of light and shade in mass, and all that belongs to sculptural propriety. (2.15, 296)

It is also an immutable law that,

inasmuch as the painter's materials, however admirably handled, will never reach the expression of the face or its colour or texture, in their actual intensity, we learn that a nearer imitation of subordinate matters, as of dress, or fur, or small implements, is an error which throws the whole picture, so to speak, out of scale. (3.37, 174) 42

Therefore, the central figure deserves closer and more careful painting than the background. In less technical terms, "propriety" refers also to a general sense of balance in sculpture and poetry, which Palgrave defines as one of the admirable characteristics of Greek art, which,

from its singular balance and perfection in all the essentials of excellence may always assist us greatly in learning how to judge, is particularly useful from the marvellous observance of propriety in every work, whether in its wholeness or in its details. And the lesson it teaches thus is of peculiar value, because propriety is the same in all ages, and applies as much to Gothic or modern art as to that of ancient Athens. It is an essential touchstone of goodness and of the artist's right comprehension of his work; and the constant reference to it as a law is of more use than any other test of judging in architecture. (3.37, 174-5)

This quotation also makes clear his concern with the whole form rather than with individual details or, in poetry, purple passages, highlighted at the expense of overall unity. Such a lack of propriety he finds particularly evident in the modern decorative arts:

Turn now to modern decorative art in this sphere. We find at once that these simple principles of propriety have disappeared. So far from that adherence to form as the first law...it is difficult to find a form, beautiful in itself, in any eminent or exquisite degree, among the thousands of costly vases produced by Chelsea or Sevres, Dresden or Vienna. On the contrary, the ambition of the makers seems always to have been to produce, not new forms of appropriate beauty, but new forms anyhow, and at any price. (3.38, 441)

Closely linked with "propriety" is another term from the fine arts,

"finish," which Palgrave uses in both his art and his literary criticism.

Technically, "finish" refers to the final, careful polishing which a sculptor must give his work, and Palgrave finds it lacking in both English art and poetry, especially in the contemporary poets' inability to balance "matter" 43

and "workmanship," as in the poetry of Clough, which he finds

wanting in art; the language and the thought are often unequal and incomplete; the poetical fusion into a harmonious whole, imperfect. Here, and in his other writings, one feels a doubt whether in verse he chose the right vehicle, the truly natural mode of utterance. His poetry, in a word, belongs to that uncommon class in which the matter everywhere far outruns the workmanship. (4.6, 530)

In his art criticism, Palgrave applies the term most often negatively, as a quality too often missing in English sculpture. Of Marochetti's bust of

Thackeray in Westminster Abbey, for example, he says,

All in the bust are smooth, rounded surfaces, which follow each other like the waves in a bad sea-piece. This is just the quality, as we have said, of an amateur's work; he suppresses and smooths because he cannot model and finish. (3.35, 759)

Palgrave complains that what he calls "working the marble" is an art almost lost in England:

Very few, we believe, since the flimsy manufacturing system was established by Chantrey, have been thorough masters in finishing the marble. Some well-known artists hardly even attempt it. No first-rate sculpture is, however, to be had without it. It was the touch of Phidias which gave the true and consummate expression of the design of Phidias. (3.18, 136)

Palgrave's contemporaries found his obsession with finish a serious limitation of his criticism. For example, William Michael Rossetti cited

Palgrave's failure to acknowledge the fact that "the Greek finish, so subtle and elusive is it, may almost be regarded as one of the animating and informing principles of that form of art, rather than as a distinctly executive quality."^

Palgrave's determination to force "finish" on English poetry is reflected in the unscrupulous excisions he made in many of the poems which he anthologised in the Golden Treasury. The extract from Marvell's "The Nymph Complaining of the Death of her Fawn" in the third edition, for example, is printed without any acknowledgment that the poem is not complete, and indeed, his note on the poem can be construed as bordering on deception:

Perhaps no poem in this collection is more delicately fancied, more exquisitely finished.... The poet's imagination is justified in its seeming extravagance by the intensity and unity with which it invests its picture. (425)

Only by consciously striving for simplicity and objectivity can the artist achieve unity, propriety, and finish. Palgrave opposed the use of

"far-sought conceits and allusions" (4.5, 449), a bias mirrored in the Golden

Treasury by the virtual exclusion of Metaphysical poetry in Book II. He felt that the obscurity and "frostwork ingenuities" (4.5, 456) of poets like Donne led to a "loss of power more than equal to the gain in grace or vivacity"

(4.5, 444), but there is also a moral issue involved:

what are called conceits or fancies became so engrossing as to have practically ruined the works of many men of true genius; Cowley perhaps being the most distinguished example. Now the poetry of Donne and of Herbert is itself thoroughly pervaded by these forced, over-ingenious turns of thought and language. (4.24, 193)

When he does include a Metaphysical work in the Golden Treasury—Crashaw's

"Wishes for the (Supposed) Mistress," for example—he cuts it so savagely to bring it "within the limits of lyrical unity " (309) and to remove its conceits that the poem is almost unrecognisable. But Palgrave's opposition to conventional language extends beyond conceits to such poetic techniques as allegory and personification, and to forms such as the pastoral. Allegory he labels "inherently feeble" because it is, as in the case of Chaucer's Romaunt of the Rose, 45

a vehicle so elastic that anything may be poured into it; and in the Middle Ages the fine sense of poetical form and poetical unity, in which the great writers of Greece and Rome are supreme, had little existence. (4.22, 344)

Personification, in such poems as Drayton's "Polyalbion," he condemns in his article on "The Growth of English Poetry":

whilst cities and villages are faintly traceable on the vast canvas, every brook and river between Hayle and Eden is made the subject of awkward personification, and county contends with county, mountain with mountain, like the monstrous struggles of the Indian mythology, through thirty tedious cantos. (4.5,447)

In the same article he also rejects the pastoral, a dismissal closely related to his view of landscape discussed in Chapter Four on the Golden Treasury, as creating a "mirage" (4.5, 446) and replacing the natural description he admired in Wordsworth's poetry with tired conventions.

Just as the Pre-Raphaelites, in Palgrave's view, provided a healthy reaction against worn-out conventions in painting, so the non-Metaphysical seventeenth-century poets, led by Dryden, provided a welcome revolution in

English poetry after the "prodigal power" of the Elizabethan poets, of whom he says that it was

their defect that, living in an inexperienced age, they were not only unable to discover in all cases the fit form and style for each subject, but that—hampered by models not fully understood, and led away by false foreign lights and the desire to display ingenuity and learning—they fell into the graver faults of conceit in expression and caprice of thought; that they were unable fully to break in the language to poetry, and are hence full of obscurity; lastly, that their own prodigal power led them to neglect that fine finish and perfection of work which, like the polish on marble, at once sets off and gives duration to Art. (4.7, 151)

Guilty of "obscurity" and the "neglect" of "fine finish," the

Elizabethans—even Shakespeare, of whom Palgrave says, "no one can be simpler when he chooses; the only regret left, is that he has not oftener preferred 46

simplicity" (4.20, 212)—are condemned because they are unable to rein in their prodigality. However, the Golden Treasury does not reflect Palgrave's critical preference for Dryden's works over those of the Elizabethans.

Palgrave praises Dryden and his followers for their success in being able

To give clearness to language and plainness to thought; to insist on the vast importance of Form and of Finish; to bring down poetry, as Socrates was said to have attempted for philosophy, from heaven to earth; to make her capable of representing not only common life, but also the interests of the day in science, and speculation, and politics; to try what moderation and subdued colour might do for this art, as the former age what could be effected by glow and enthusiasm: this was their vocation.... So far from being against the spirit of poetry, the qualities which they sought to introduce had distinguished almost all great writers. (4.7, 151-2)

Palgrave later found in the Elizabethan madrigal poets, particularly Thomas

Campion, plainer language and more restrained imagery, but the madrigals were not widely known or reprinted in 1861, and it was only in the expanded editions of the Treasury that he was able to include more than twenty such lyrics.

Related to Palgrave's distaste for obscurity is his disapproval of what, borrowing from the terminology of the fine arts again, he refers to as

"mannerism," where "the feeling of novelty in the word—i.e. the manner of speech or expression used—appears more prominent and impresses the mind more deeply than its force or significance."^ His use of the term becomes clearer in his application of it to the work of Tennyson. Palgrave's serious reservations about Tennyson's use of language are obvious in his copious annotations to a copy of the first edition of In Memoriam preserved in the

Tennyson Research Centre. In his notes, he consistently draws Tennyson's attention to words which he argues the poet uses in a "peculiar" way, giving 47

them a private or personal significance:

The main words, a certain peculiarity in the use of which does not appear to me altogether counterbalanced by their expressions—and which may hence be considered mannerisms—are 'large,' 'skirt,' 'quick,' 'the vast,1 to 'sphere,1 'orb,' 'round,'all mathematical or astronomical. (Waller, p. 17)

Simplicity in diction, then, is one of the major components of a unified poem, and Palgrave lists it first in one of his descriptions of the chief merits of Greek poetry:

What are the first or salient qualities of the Greek, and, above all, of the Athenian poetry? Simplicity and exquisiteness in the use of words, variety and beauty in metre, clearness of style, conciseness in phrase, moderation in colour, avoidance of commonplace, close and vital interpenetration of the scene described or the illustrations employed with the sentiments of the poet—in one word, poetical unity. (4.10, 303)

But achieving that "close interpenetration of the scene...and the sentiments" also requires objectivity.

Palgrave argued for a change in the subject matter of English art and poetry, and he felt strongly that two subjects—landscape and incidents from

English history—should take a central place. In his view, such a change in subject matter would improve both art and poetry by making them less

"subjective." Central to Palgrave's criticism is the concept of the superiority of "objective" poetry, which he admits borrowing from Goethe,*' whom he quotes in his introductory lecture as Professor of Poetry thus:

All eras in a state of decline and dissolution are subjective; on the other hand, all progressive eras have an objective tendency. Our present time is retrograde, for it is subjective; we see this not merely in poetry, but also in painting and much besides. Every healthy effort, on the contrary, is directed from the inward to the outward world, as you will see in all great eras, which have been in a state of progression, and all of an objective nature. (4.15, 344-5) 48

Both Browning and Arnold had serious reservations about subjective poetry, but Palgrave condemned "subjectivity" out of hand, praising "objectivity" as an anodyne to what he perceived as one of the cardinal shortcomings of

English poetry.

Palgrave sharply criticised the sentimentalism created by outpourings of

"personal passion" in English poetry, both in his own age and in the past, and he hoped to promote a reaction against overly "subjective" works by proposing impersonal topics. He found in William Barnes, the Dorset poet, who eschewed any expression of personal emotion and all references to morality and social commentary, a model worth emulating:

In a "subjective age," as Goethe described it sixty years since, Barnes has been obstinate in his objectivity. He is indifferent to coloured diction, to sensuous metaphor, to allusions and ornaments added for decoration's sake. Politics, religion, ethics, are only implied. He avoids all display of personal feeling, all self-conscious confession, all inward conflict, and, keeping his eye always on his subject, leaves the reader to be moved or not by its simple presentation. (4.17, 838)

The major poetic form that best conforms to Palgrave's prescriptive standards for poetry is the ballad, and the Golden Treasury is dominated by the ballad form, both traditional and Romantic. But he also found examples of his ideals in Wordsworth's shorter descriptive poems. In such works, he says, poetry returns to

her true natural function of translating ideas and feelings into sensible images; when, in the old-fashioned phrase, she works as an imitative art, realizing thus and embodying in living words the subject or idea given to the Maker's mind by the creative imagination—putting things before us objectively: when, in short, Poetry is most at home, most herself. (4.18, 354) Applying similar principles to art, Palgrave praised the

Pre-Raphaelites; it was as much their choice of new subjects—especially paintings illustrating scenes from Shakespeare's plays and the poetry of

Keats—and their interest in landscape as their painting techniques that led him to support them during the sixties:

The four or five men of genius whose doings began to create such a stir fifteen years ago set out, as genius must eternally do, with an energetic protest against conventionality. The "respectable sham," as the great belligerent of the day in this warfare might have called it, which the young artists first encountered was that careless style of working and that commonplace selection of incident which had become rather prominent in the English school. Art is always, and in all countries, apt to get away from Nature, and to try to persuade herself that the comparatively facile artifices of the studio—false lights, and theatrical attitudes, and showy colour, and generalised details,—are her legitimate methods. (3.26, 750)

Because they rebelled against traditional views of art, he was forgiving even when he did perceive shortcomings, as in the case of Ford Madox Brown:

In the vigour and success of his protest against the false light and false colouring, the facile sentimentalisms and conventionalities, to which weaker men are compelled to have resort, a brief lapse into crudity and quaintness, an occasional want of ease and of charm, may be here and there remarked, and forgiven. (3.30, 346)

The intense concentration on detail and careful finish which is the strength of a painting like Brown's Work,', is so typical of the Pre-Raphaelites that

Palgrave elsewhere reluctantly protests that another Pre-Raphaelite, William

Holman Hunt, puts too much effort and care into his paintings:

there has been an air of almost too strenuous and perfect elaboration about some of his greatest pictures. It is true that the finish was never what the ignorant supposed it, photographic or microscopic in its character, and that every added incident and touch increased the total effect through the imaginative intensity of the painter's mind; yet we have wished that he would not always concentrate so much on a single canvas, but give the reins more frankly to his invention, and employ his force of idea and his mastery over art on more numerous, if less highly wrought, productions. (3.26, 751)

Palgrave's criticism is unashamedly didactic. However much he admired the Pre-Raphaelites, he found little to praise in most of the art and poetry of his own age. But the passion with which he attacked what he regarded as the shortcomings of contemporary poets and artists was based on two lifelong convictions, one aesthetic, the other social with moral overtones: first, that the visual and literary arts are central to a nation's culture; and, second, that the attempts to improve the populace of England through education depended not only on schools but, equally, on making poetry and art accessible to the widest possible audience. To this end, Palgrave felt that it was imperative that artists and poets adopt subjects and techniques compatible with the prescriptions outlined in his criticism. If the principles he advances are too narrow in scope, too rigid in application, or too vaguely grounded in naive assumptions about the values of Hellenic models, his motives were, at least, unassailable. Palgrave's didacticism may not find ready adherents today, but it was shared by many of the leading critics and aestheticians of the Victorian period who were intent on imposing their own reforms on art and literature. His particular vision of art borders, to some degree, on the spiritual, in its assumptions about the elevated role that the arts should play in the molding of personal and national character, and in this view he is characteristically a man of his age. His 1886 inaugural lecture as Oxford Professor of Poetry provides his most unequivocal statement on the role of poetry, which he saw as "a high and holy Art, as a motive power over men—in opposition to the sentiment which 51

regards it as the creation and the recreation of an idle day,—as a mere source of transient or sensuous pleasure" (4.15, 333). He would have assigned a no less noble position to painting, sculpture, and architecture.

ii: Art Criticism

Palgrave's first love was not poetry but the fine arts, and from childhood he had pored over engravings and privately studied architecture.

Even after the unexpected success of the Golden Treasury redirected his efforts into literature, he continued for several years to write actively about the fine arts, and when he was Professor of Poetry at Oxford, years after he had ceased serious publishing on art, one of his best-known lecture series was on the relationship of poetry to the fine arts. Indeed, his final series of lectures, published in 1897, was Landscape in Poetry from Homer to

Tennyson.

Palgrave's interest in the fine arts began early, in the summers of his childhood spent in his grandfather's house behind the family bank in Great

Yarmouth. Dawson Turner was a well-known and wealthy collector whose acquisitions included a Titian, a Rubens, a Bellini, and several paintings by

John Crome, who had tutored the Turner daughters in painting. Turner also had a large number of rare and expensive books of early Italian engravings, which the young Francis Turner examined so carefully that in later life he was known as something of an authority on this subject. As indicated already in the biographical chapter, Palgrave's earliest ambition was to become an architect. Thwarted in this desire, he maintained his interest in 52

architecture not only by discussing it in his criticism, but also by designing a number of small projects for friends, including a school house and a number of gravestones for members of his family.

By the time Palgrave reached Oxford, his taste was fully formed. His love of early Italian engravings of the Virgin and Ghild, with which he hung his Balliol rooms, earned him the nickname of "Madonna" Palgrave, and he made his first venture into art criticism while he was still at the university.

In 1847, Sharpe's London Magazine published his "Michaelangelo's 'Raising of

Lazarus' in the National Gallery," which is also the earliest expression of his belief in the natural taste and instinctive attraction for the fine arts among the uneducated classes:

We have sometimes amused ourselves on the afternoon of a fine summer's day, whilst we accompanied round the eloquent walls of the National Gallery some chance party of rough visitors—and listened to the remarks which their natural taste gave birth to at the sight of the several pictures. (3.1, 121)

This "natural taste" should not, he argues, be impeded by artists choosing subjects, such as incidents from classical mythology, which "rough visitors" will not recognize.

An important result of his popularism is his fascination with contemporary "public" arts—sculpture and architecture—both of which he condemns as aesthetically inadequate and because they fail to provide ideal examples for improving the taste of the public, few of whom ever enter art galleries or read criticism of any kind. Much of Palgrave's career was devoted to reaching this audience: through his criticism in articles such as

"How to Form a Good Taste in Art" (3.37), and in books, such as Gems of 53

English Art of This Century (2.23, [1869]), which provides examples of great art from easily accessible national collections along with brief critiques.

He also addressed the public in his Handbook to the fine art exhibits of the

International Exhibition of 1862 (2.28) and through lectures to students at the newly formed government schools of design, and he lectured and conducted gallery visits for the Working Men's Colleges. In his own way, Palgrave was following the example of his friend John Ruskin, who had first pointed out the relationship between the workman's sensibility and good design in The

Stones of Venice and who had himself begun the practice of teaching art criticism at the Working Men's Colleges.

Palgrave was particularly virulent in his attacks on those who wished to restrict the access of the general public to the arts. When the government tried (unsuccessfully) in 1864 to pass a bill which would have permitted the removal of the National Gallery from Trafalgar Square on the grounds that too many working people were walking over from Charing Cross Station to spend time and even to eat buns in the Gallery, Palgrave entered the lists, insisting art should not be

relegated to a dim religious grove, from which all profane persons should be rigidly excluded, and to which access should be given, even to the cognoscenti, only after pious lustrations and purifying rites. The simple fact is, that educated appreciators of old pictures are about one in ten thousand. But whether they understand them or not, works of the highest art can do no harm, and may do the greatest good, even to the most thoughtless and ignorant. The vulgar do gain, whether they know it or not, by being brought into the presence of the mighty achievements of art; and even the soldiers, and housemaids, and bun-eaters are all the better for Michael Angelo and Raffaelle. (3.25, 716) While infuriated by the government's refusal to educate the poor in art appreciation, or even to give them easy entry to national collections,

Palgrave was also angry with the Royal Academy. Ruskin and the

Pre-Raphaelites had rebelled against the Academy a decade earlier. In the eighteen sixties, it continued to exercise a virtual monopoly on exhibitions, and could still make or break any artist in England. Along with many contemporary critics, Palgrave never tired of pointing out the nepotism and bigotry which made the Academy the subject of a number of Royal Commissions during those years. The continuing refusal of Royal Academy members to recognise the quality of the work of many of the younger men, particularly the Pre-Raphaelite painters, made Palgrave persist in attacking the Academy, both in his reviews of the annual summer exhibitions, and in articles such as

"An R. A. Painted by Himself," which quotes the testimony of one of the academicians, Frith, who claimed that the Pre-Raphaelites were rightly excluded because "the members of the Academy have a right to show disfavour to a school which they think mischievous." Palgrave comments:

This is not the place for entering into a criticism of Mr. Frith's works, on which, moreover, the opinion of this journal has been recently expressed. But, whatever may be their true quality, it was certainly desirable that, when the painters of the "Huguenot," the "Order of Release," the "Light of the World," and many other works which might be named with these in fame and excellence, were to be virtually disposed of as a "mischievous school," the painter of the "Railway Station" should bring forward some better backer for his opinion than even his own ipse dixit. (3.17, 727)

In his review of the Royal Academy in 1863—a particularly low point in the exhibition's history—he begins by castigating the Academicians who hung their own mediocre works prominently while rejecting superior works by younger men: 55

We have already, in common with most of our contemporaries, drawn attention to the mode in which the Hanging Committee have this year exercised their always ungracious, though necessary, function. This has not only proved an unusually large stone of stumbling to the promising younger occupants of our studios, but has, in a very singular manner, and one likely to tell upon the receipts, affected the aspect of the Exhibition itself. We do not mean that all the pictures which people naturally crowd to see have been exiled from the celebrated line. But the Academy, like the Empire, has its Cayenne; and there can, unfortunately, be no doubt that Messrs. Frith, A. Cooper, and C. Landseer—the petty Napoleons of the season—have, with imperial impartiality, consigned to the highest or the lowest limbo a large proportion of works by men possessed of an inconvenient faculty of rising, whilst they have filled the space with canvasses which, except that they happen to be their own, would never have occupied any post which could be called a post of honour. (3.11, Part 1, 627)

Palgrave's disappointment with the authorities extends also to educators, as he shows in his article "Women and the Fine Arts." In spite of his fearsome reputation as a critic for whom, as Henry Adams said, "all the

art of a thousand—or ten thousand—years had brought England to stuff which

Palgrave and Woolner brayed in their mortars, derided, tore in tatters, growled at, and howled at, and treated in terms beyond literary usage,"7

Palgrave is extraordinarily sympathetic to the place of women in the fine

arts. In discussing the reasons for the lack of women among major artists,

Palgrave refuses to accept the common opinion that women were incapable of producing great works, arguing, instead,

That it is altogether premature to decide whether women are not intended for such success by natural organization until they have, for a sufficient period, received intellectual advantages equal to those received by men.... That their non-success is the result not of external circumstances, or want of endeavour, but of deficient general training, and the absence of a fair judgment on men's part. (3.32, Part 1, 119)

His solution is to revolutionise women's education and put it on a par with

that of men because "education partly gives us materials and, partly, skill

to use them. So far as it gives skill, by cultivating and training the mind, 56

women's education is ordinarily arrested at the point before which skill cannot seriously be given" (3.32, Part 1, 121).

His commitment to improving the level of public taste was total, but his desire to expose what he regarded as the widespread charlatanism of the

Victorian art world did get Palgrave into serious trouble early in his career. In 1862, with only a handful of articles on art to his credit,

Palgrave managed, by a great stroke of luck, to be awarded the commission to write the guidebook to the fine art exhibits, including not only painting and sculpture, but even the ironwork, in the gigantic International

Exhibition. It is characteristic of the age that the imbroglio generated by his highly intemperate, even libellous, remarks simultaneously caused a scandal and established him as a formidable critic.

Palgrave's luck came in the form of his friend Thomas Woolner, the

Pre-Raphaelite sculptor, who enthusiastically recommended him to the

Commissioners of the Exhibition and thus secured him the job. The commission for the book, the only official art guidebook sold on the site, was a lucrative one, and it also provided Palgrave, as he was quick to perceive, with an unprecedented opportunity to influence public taste. Ignoring the

Commissioners' stated wish that the book be a simple, non-judgmental guide to the exhibits, he wrote ruthless critiques of all the works shown, first stipulating prudently to the Commissioners "that he should express his

Q personal opinion on the whole question." Unsuspecting, they agreed.

When the Exhibition was opened by Queen Victoria on 1 May 1862, the

Commissioners had not read the red-covered handbook, priced at one shilling, and it went on sale in the exhibition grounds and was bought by thousands of people in the course of the next two weeks, until a letter appeared in The

Times on 15 May over the signature "J. 0.," beginning:

I desire to call the attention of the Commissioners of the International Exhibition to an indecent and discourteous act which is being perpetrated within the walls of the Exhibition with their avowed sanction, and, I am assured, to their profit.^

The following day, "J. 0." continued his attack:

Mr. Palgrave is a clerk in the Privy-Council Office, and one of the Government Examiners connected with the Education Department. He has tried his hand at novel-writing and as a poet, with moderate success. He now comes forward as an art critic, whose dicta are to be accepted as final, supported as they are by the patronage of the Royal Commissioners—for no dog of that breed may bark within the Exhibition but Mr. Palgrave. He claims in his preface a special aptitude for criticizing sculpture, "an art to which he has given many years' close attention."*0

"J. 0." correctly states that Palgrave's Handbook in fact heaps abuse on almost every item on display, and particularly on the sculpture, citing

Palgrave's tirade against Munro's statue, "Child's Play," as typical:

these vague writhing forms have not even a good doll's likeness to human children. We must class them Mollusca not Vertebrata.... Gaps, scratches, lumps, and swellings stand here, alas! for the masterpieces of Nature's modelling; the eyes are squinting cavities, the toes inarticulate knobs; whilst the very dresses of the poor children,—in reality so full of charm and prettiness,— become clinging cerements of no nameable texture, and thrown into no possible folds. We should not have thought it worthwhile to scrutinize work of an ignoramus so grotesque and babyish as all we have ever seen by Munro with any detail, if it did not appeal in subject to popular interests, and if we had not some faint hope that—arduous as are the steps from Child's Play to marble in art,—the author of these works may retrieve himself by recommencing his art before it is too late. (2.8, 99-100)

Palgrave can certainly be faulted for attacking most of the exhibits in a show to which artists had been invited to contribute and where by doing so they found, to their surprise, they had exposed themselves to intemperate castigation by the Exhibition's official critic, but it must in fairness be 58

pointed out that "J. 0." was not acting out of a purely disinterested love of art and fair play as his first letter suggests. His follow-up letter of 16

May reveals the truth. "J. 0.," "Jacob Omnium," was the pen-name of Matthew

Higgins, an inveterate writer of letters to the editor and a well-known social figure who numbered among his closest friends not only Thackeray—who wrote "Jacob Omnium's Hoss" in his honour—but, more significantly, the wealthy and fashionable sculptor, Baron Marochetti—one of the primary targets of Palgrave's wrath in his Handbook—whom Palgrave continued to attack throughout his career as an art critic. Higgins' second letter accuses Palgrave not just of attacking Marochetti unjustly, but of the more serious crime of favouring the work of Thomas Woolner in order to further

Woolner's fledgling career: "the object of this evidently is to fill Mr.

Woolner's pockets at the expense of his fellow labourers." In fact, Palgrave in the Handbook, as elsewhere in his criticism, is expressing his sincere belief that Woolner's work represents the height of achievement in modern

British sculpture, just as he argues that Marochetti's work represents its nadir. In support of his charge, Higgins points out that Palgrave and

Woolner shared lodgings, a fact which suggests that Palgrave had written the book under Woolner's direction, although Woolner, in a letter the following day, protested his innocence.

By this time, the publicity had brought the book to the attention not only of exhibitors, but also of the Commissioners who had originally given

Palgrave the contract. Several more letters from various artists for and against the book, and from Palgrave himself, appeared in The Times, and the following anonymous comic doggerel was even written on the topic: 59

I positively shudder when I look Within the pages of this crimson book, For all that once seemed lovely, graceful, chaste, Is shown to be in execrable taste

On reading further on, I learn with pain That Baron Marochetti tries in vain, "Like other men of similar pretensions, To puff and blow himself to Bull dimensions." I'm sure that Woolner, who's refined and modest, Although his fellow-lodger's of the oddest, Must blush at eulogy so coarse and stupid, And own there's something in the tinted Cupid.^

After several days, Palgrave announced in The Times that the Commissioners had ordered the book withdrawn under the polite fiction that he had misunderstood the nature of the commission, even though he had elicited full

creative permission at the outset. Unabashed, Palgrave immediately arranged

for a heavily edited version to be published by Macmillan and sold in the bookstores around the Exhibition site, and neither then nor ever afterwards did Palgrave suggest that he was anything but correct in his behaviour

throughout the affair.

Palgrave's friendship with Woolner survived the debacle, as did

Woolner's career, the apparent impropriety of Palgrave's criticism notwithstanding, and Palgrave's critical reputation was, if anything, enhanced by the whole episode. His book brought him to the attention of the

Saturday Review of Politics, Literature, Science and Art, whose editorial

style tended to the same intemperance and recurrent sense of moral outrage that characterised Palgrave's work. The Saturday hired him in 1863 as its

resident art critic, and he reigned there for more than two years, developing, in the process, as Henry Adams said, a reputation that "as an art critic he was too ferocious to be liked; even Holman Hunt found his temper 60

humorous; among many rivals, he may perhaps have had a right to claim the

12 much-disputed rank of being the most unpopular man in London."

As a critic, Palgrave wrote almost exclusively about the art of his own age, even though his critical principles were based on classical art. Apart from a lengthy early "Essay on the First Century of Italian Engraving" (3.3), published as an appendix to F. T. Kugler's Handbook of Italian Art in 1855 and well-received by the critics, even by Ruskin himself, Palgrave's critical articles dealt with the art, architecture, and sculpture of his own time, and particularly with English examples. His criticism is divided into four broad types: defences of the Pre-Raphaelite painters; attacks on the debased state of sculpture and architecture in England and Europe; challenges to the art establishment; and general synopses of his critical principles.

In his role as critic for the Saturday Review between 1863 and 1865,

Palgrave was perhaps best known for his defence of the Pre-Raphaelites, whose cause had been espoused from the beginning by the Saturday. As his praise of

Woolner in the Handbook attests, Palgrave regarded the Pre-Raphaelites as the most talented artists of the day, and never missed an opportunity to further their cause collectively and individually: his annual reviews of the Royal

Academy summer exhibition, for example, always have the theme of the poor treatment of the Pre-Raphaelites threaded through them. Whether their works were hung prominently or not, Palgrave always gave good space in his column to such works as Holman Hunt's The Light of the World, Millais' Huguenot and

Order of Release, and Ford Madox Brown's Work.

It was not painting, however, but sculpture that provoked the Handbook controversy, and Palgrave's intemperance on the subject came from his 61

conviction that sculpture is, if not the "noblest of the arts," then certainly the "most difficult" to master (3.28, 118), requiring the greatest knowledge of form, the most extensive and varied training, the greatest discipline, and the highest talent. Palgrave argues that it should be the most admired of the fine arts, but that it has been neglected in favour of the more easily enjoyed effects of painting:

it is of painting that we have been speaking hitherto—an art to the comprehension of which the public had educated itself up to a certain creditable point, and over which the public exercises consequently a very wholesome influence, profiting itself in turn by the lessons in good art which the painters, encouraged and upheld by national taste, give it. In sculpture, unhappily, the same comprehension and the same check appear to be still almost wholly wanting. (3.31, Part 1, 601)

Angry at the neglect of his favourite art and the fact that "sculpture in

England remains mainly an affair, not of publicly recognised ability, but of polite patronage," Palgrave predicted that "the present time will probably be looked on in future years as the nadir of English sculpture, just as the lowest point in our imaginative poetry is assigned by Mr. Hallam to the reign of William and Mary" (3.31, Part 4, 698).

The debased state of English sculpture occupied much of Palgrave's attention as a critic. One-fifth of his articles in the Saturday Review are devoted to sculpture, and many more deal with it in passing. A number concentrate on particular examples of bad sculpture commissioned through patronage and the waste of government money on expensive sculptural follies.

At a time when critical interest was almost entirely devoted to painting, great sums of money were being expended on commissions for large public monuments such as Nelson's Column and the Albert Memorial. For Palgrave, the irony was too pointed to be ignored: 62

The modern practice of putting up public statues and monuments, with the demand for portrait-busts, has called into activity a number of patrons who commission sculpture without having taken the pains to learn its first elements, and a number of practitioners whose work shows more or less incompetence for the difficult art they profess. Want of knowledge of natural form, want of effect in modelling, want of mind and of cultivation, are conspicuously marked upon nineteen out of twenty works exhibited. (3.18, Part 4, 698)

In "Landseer among the Lions," Palgrave examines the causes for the lengthy delay in the delivery of the stone lions for the base of Nelson's column, the commission for which had been awarded to the Royal Academy's most famous animal painter, Sir Edwin Landseer: "people are now beginning to pass

Trafalgar Square with ejaculations of despair as they see the vivacious ragamuffins of London pelting each other on the parallelograms where the lions should be" (3.28, 118). Palgrave is certain that the decision to give the job to a painter rather than a sculptor caused the delay: "we think we have made it clear that for an artist, be he never so skilled in painting, to take up serious sculpture, is likely to be a task of no slight difficulty"

(3.28, 119).

Palgrave also criticised Gilbert Scott's plans for the Albert Memorial in 1863 on the grounds of expense, taste, and the difficulties of ensuring that such an ambitious design could be sufficiently well carried out. He uses the Albert Memorial as an example of the particularly low state of architectural sculpture which has produced "the figures which, manufactured by the dozen as they turn out idols for the African trade in Birmingham, decorate the Houses of Parliament" (2.15, 287). He contrasts the architectural sculpture of the present unfavourably with that of ancient

Greece: 63

Let the reader think for a moment of the thought and labour which Phidias bestowed on every square inch of the Parthenon Marbles,—how he summed up here the leading religious and political traditions of the country,—with what exquisite care he carried out every detail; and then turn to the dolls in stone which fill the niches of the Palace, without truth, or interest, or character. It will a useful lesson in architectural sculpture. (2.15, 287)

In his final article for the Saturday, Palgrave turns once more on his

nemesis, Baron Marochetti. Furious that Marochetti, an old friend of

Thackeray's, had been commissioned to do the novelist's bust for Westminster

Abbey, Palgrave was further enraged by the high fees which Marochetti

demanded and which were apparently a feature of that artist's practice:

And we lastly drew attention to the enormous sum, twice or three times that commonly asked, which was, or seemed to be, required on the part of Mr. Marochetti; being a kind of miniature reproduction, as it were, of the vigorous absorbing powers with which this artist has familiarised every one in the case of the Scutari Memorial, the Clyde Memorial, and the Nelson Memorial. (3.35, 758)

In addition, Palgrave was concerned that Marochetti's production would

inevitably add yet another poor specimen to the existing bad art works in the

Abbey, which Palgrave regarded as having special significance in English

culture as Britain's "Pantheon": "the intrinsic badness of the sculpture within the Abbey, and its injurious effect on the look of the building, are grievances of long standing and public notoriety." Palgrave regarded the

bust as an insult to Thackeray, of whom "no more thorough specimen of the

Englishman of our century existed," and he was incensed by Marochetti's

technical incompetence. His rendition of Thackeray, Palgrave says, succeeds

only in creating "a fair superficial likeness of those points in his face which would be remembered by a casual visitor" (759). 64

Palgrave's essay on the Thackeray memorial amply illustrates the intemperance of his criticism and his impatience with a system which patronised a "charlatan" like Marochetti and neglected a far greater sculptor like William Behnes, whose obituary he wrote for the Saturday. Palgrave points out that Behnes died in poverty just at the time the Thackeray memorial was being debated at length in the newspapers, and that these same papers had virtually ignored his death. Although Behnes, he says, lacked the greatest sculptural gift of "poetical inventiveness," he "almost compensated" with a "modelling of exquisite truth and a great power (when he was willing to exert it) in the rendering of texture and of surface" (3.18, 135). And he performed one great service to sculpture: he opened his studio to pupils, several of whom—most notably Woolner—were developing into the "good men and true" whom Palgrave hoped would redeem British sculpture.

By devoting so much of his energy to sculpture, Palgrave hoped to reverse the negative effects of years of critical neglect: "the recognised low state of our sculpture...is singular proof of the results following upon a comparative abeyance of the functions of judgment during a long series of years" (3.34, 661). While he did not succeed in de-throning Marochetti and replacing him with Woolner, Palgrave was credited, by the end of his life, with having raised public consciousness about sculpture and having tried to reverse some of the more flagrant examples of jobbery and bad taste erected in the name of British sculpture.

Palgrave also reserved a special enthusiasm for architecture, and he was a committed follower of Ruskin's views on the importance of Gothic as the natural style for Victorian buildings, large and small: 65

Modern Gothic was, in its beginning, like the Lombard itself from which it was originally developed, essentially an imitative style. In the hands of Woodward, Butterfield, Street, Burges, Waterhouse, and others not yet so well known, it is rapidly passing from this first phase into an architecture as closely adapted to our wants as that of the thirteenth century to mediaeval requirements. (2.15, 285)

He also followed Ruskin in his condemnation of the Victorian passion for restoration. In an article entitled "Taste in France," he attacked the

French government's wholesale destruction of medieval buildings in the name of restoring them: "new Rouen and Amiens will present the ancient outlines to the sky, but nearer approach will show the hard, cold labour of artists working in a style dead for five hundred years" (3.5, 586). But he reserved his special anger for the elitism of architects who divorced themselves from any responsibility for designing houses for the general public and the poor, preferring to spend their time designing large public buildings in a variety of dead revival styles:

And, during the whole period [after the Renaissance and before the Gothic revival] the Italian, Renaissance, or Modern-classical styles were never able to fulfil' the first duty of Architecture,—they never produced one single pleasing or appropriate design for the dwellings of the poor, hardly even of the middle-class citizen. (3.9, 1160)

Palgrave's indignation over a lack of distinctive national architecture which would be appropriate for even the humblest dwelling, and his resentment of those who had allowed architecture to degenerate into a rich man's toy, while poor men lived in slums, was fuelled by his belief that architecture, like sculpture, would be a painless way to encourage good artistic taste in the general public. 66

In his capacity as art critic at the Saturday Palgrave also wrote about a variety of miscellaneous topics, including the frescoes for the new Houses

of Parliament in "Mr. Herbert's and Other Frescoes'" (3.27), "Japanese Art"

(3.13), about which he was enthusiastic, and what he regarded as the

irresponsible acquisition and conservation practices of the British Museum in

"The Farnese Antiques" (3.29) and "Lost Treasures" (3.20), respectively.

And in all these articles, he manifests an absolute commitment to the

survival of art as a cultural force and a good grasp of both art history and

the technical details of painting and sculpture.

After the publication of Essays on Art in 1866, Palgrave transferred his

critical energies to poetry, but his love of the arts lost none of its

intensity, and he did publish two illustrated books, Gems of English Art of

This Century (2.23) in 1869, and The Life of Jesus Christ Illustrated from

the Italian Painters (2.39) in 1885, both for popular audiences. He also

continued to lecture on the arts and to publish the occasional article, but

for all intents and purposes his active influence in the world of art was over by 1866. People were somewhat surprised, therefore, to find him publishing one more article, "The Decline of Art," (3.40) in 1888, eighteen years after his "Some Notes on the Louvre Collections" in the Portfolio in

1870 (3.39).

The surprise turned to suspicion, however, when a monograph by Sir Wyke

Bayliss entitled The Professor of Poetry at Oxford and the Witness of Art, A

Curiosity of Modern Literature, appeared later in that year, accusing

Palgrave of plagiarising the entire article from his book The Witness of Art

(1877). Bayliss marshalled illustrations and quotations from Palgrave's work

and printed parallel passages in order to demonstrate that "if we do not say the thing in the same words, at least we contrive to say the same thing in the same place.His evidence is convincing, particularly in the common use of abstruse Abyssinian and Egyptian references, and in the extraordinary parallels in the complex arguments developed in the two works. Palgrave did not respond to Bayliss' charges as he had to Jacob Omnium's complaints in 1862, apparently dismissing Bayliss' accusations out of hand. But It may be significant that he retired permanently from publishing art criticism.

Despite this final scandal and his intemperate style, Palgrave's love and understanding of the fine arts manifest themselves in every piece of writing which he produced during his colourful and controversial career.

Paramount in his art criticism are his concern with educating the general public in the fine arts and his conviction that the stamp of a nation or society could be gauged by the quality of its art and the way it treated its artists. His complaints about the unnatural divorce between "national

feeling" and the fine arts in architecture and sculpture and about the

refusal of artists to exploit distinctively English subjects in their work, along with his encouragement of these same topics as a means of reforming

English poetry are major themes in his literary criticism and his own poetry.

iii: Literary Criticism

Palgrave's literary criticism conspicuously lacks violently expressed opinions, but it is equally serious In its commitment to art and literature 68

as civilising agents in English society. Above all, it uses the same

"Hellenic" criteria which dominate his art criticism and the Golden Treasury.

But in spite of the number of works he produced, his career as a literary critic does not have landmarks comparable to his work on art. Although he published articles and reviews from 1847 onwards, he produced only one major piece of literary criticism, Landscape in Poetry, which did not appear until the month of his death in 1897.

The single most distinguishing feature of his literary criticism is his campaign to introduce English literature into school curricula. As a professional educator, Palgrave was partly motivated, in producing the Golden

Treasury, by the need to ensure that a quality text of English lyrics would be available for school use, and his later Children's Treasury (1875) was intended to expose younger children to the same excellence. As he claims in his introductory lecture as Professor of Poetry at Oxford:

English literature calls loudly for full and free recognition as one of the studies of an English University. If ever so recognized, I claim for Literature,—Art though it be,—the whole rights and methods of scientific pursuit. And for those thus who may pursue it, I claim also, in the highest measure, all that Science, in the latest and widest sense of the word, offers in the way of intellectual advance, of moral invigoration and pleasure, as the reward of her votaries. (4.15, 334)

Palgrave also foresaw that the only way in which English literature would be accepted into schools and universities would be for his beloved classics to be in some measure displaced. He argues that the change would in fact be a benefit to the education system because

The amount of trouble and time which is spent in driving into men a sort of knowledge they detest would inevitably produce more fruit, if spent in teaching them something in behalf of which their tastes and feelings were enlisted. We would yield to no one in reverent admiration of the poetry of Greece, but we regard as useless and foolish the attempt to make those minds appreciate it who never could do so after a lifetime's work with a dictionary and a grammar. 69

English literature could provide the same pleasure and the same lessons as the Greek, and, as Palgrave says, English literature is innately more accessible than the classics:

Its genius is a bond to link it with the soul of every Englishman. Its authors were men of like minds and passions with ourselves.... The thoroughly English character of our literature, breathing forth the mountain air of freedom and the freshest odours of the morning, will infallibly reach the heart, and through it, the intellect of every Englishman who seeks to understand it. (4.9, 83)

There are benefits on both sides to be gained from a strong relationship between a culture and its literature. Not only is there a "national vigour and health concurrent with a literature which stands in close relations of sympathy to the nation" (5.5, 501), but "as the river shapes the valley, and the valley gives the river its bias, so the poet is at once moulded by the general current of thought and feeling prevalent in each age,—and then himself aids in moulding them" (4.15, 338). Palgrave's work as a literary critic and editor is all based on his belief that English poetry must be

"read much, and by many" in "the interests of a living literature." And inevitably, he admits, "something must...be justly sacrificed, if needful, to obtain this" (4.8, 779-800). Palgrave's criticism and the Golden Treasury are based on that readiness to make whatever adjustments are necessary to make poetry attractive and accessible.

His critical articles and reviews concentrate on English lyric poetry from Wyatt and Surrey onwards, although as Oxford Professor of Poetry, he gave a lecture series on the Renaissance movement in English poetry, one lecture—later published as 4.22—dealing with "Chaucer and the Italian

Renaissance." It is, in fact, primarily a survey of Chaucer's works, but it 70

also links Chaucer to Dante and Boccaccio and finds in Chaucer what Palgrave regards as the distinctive shortcomings of English poetry. Palgrave argues that, while exposure to Italian literature had a salutary effect on

Chaucer, the poet's work has fatal limitations:

It was, in short, in the region of art that he profited most [but] he is wanting in form. The art of concealing art has not dawned on him. There is little perspective in his work...his sense of poetical unity is in some degree immature. Hence he does not succeed in short pieces; he has no command over the pure lyric: despite his knowledge of Petrarch, he does not attempt sonnet or canzone. Chaucer stands thus between the old world and the new; but on the whole, to use again a phrase of the day, he is reactionary in temperament; he is singularly wanting in enthusiasm. (4.22, 354)

English poetry, in Palgrave's view, begins with the Elizabethan lyric.

Palgrave's best known article, "The Growth of English Poetry" (4.5) published four months after the Treasury appeared, begins, after a brief dismissal of Chaucer as a "retrospective" poet who looks backward toward the middle ages rather than forward toward the Renaissance, with an analysis of lyric poetry from Wyatt to Dryden. It is all wanting in Palgrave's terms, falling short of his ideals of unity, finish, and simplicity. The second article in the three-part manifesto, published in 1862, deals with "English

Poetry from Dryden to Cowper" (4.7), and uses similarly dismissive terms, although Palgrave praises the seventeenth- and eighteenth-century poets for widening the subject matter of poetry and providing, in many cases, relief from the "extravagance" of the Elizabethans. Only in the final article of the trilogy, "Descriptive Poetry in England from Anne to Victoria," does

Palgrave finally reach the era in which he feels most comfortable—that of the Romantics and the poetry of Wordsworth: 71

Hence in Wordsworth more of the modern elements and tendencies appear to be united than in his contemporaries; and united also with greater balance and moderation than in any one of them. Less so in appearance, he is thus more essentially Greek than they...on the whole, I think the voices of the best judges would reckon Wordsworth as the most representative man among his contemporary poets—as the man who has done fullest justice to his powers, and had left us the most valuable and delightful legacy in song which has fallen to England during the last two centuries. That which is here given to Wordsworth, if he deserves it, is the best praise, as it is the rarest:—To have the highest powers, and to bring them all into harmony; to combine them in just unity. (4.10, 317)

These three articles covering the history of modern English poetry sum up

Palgrave's critical articles of faith: his focus on the lyric, his insistence on a narrow range of poetic laws and what he regards as "Greek" characteristics, and his rigid vision of English poetry. All his subsequent articles reiterate these views in relation to subjects such as English hymns

(4.11) and Elizabethan madrigal poets (4.19).

As a reviewer, Palgrave tackled a wider range of subjects, though he obviously felt most at home dealing with poetry. A revealing review deals with the vers d'occasion of Praed and Milnes, the latter a close friend, and in it Palgrave fails to hide his contempt for occasional verse:

Lamentable as the confession may be, we are bound to make it:—Except satirically (when the idea is to point out that the thing is unpoetical), as in some of the indignant phrases of 'Maud,' Poetry pure can hardly enter a 'good' house, or join in a valse;—she can accept kid gloves and tarlatan, suppers and dowagers, but in silence only; if she has to speak of them, it is too likely to be with something of the white and serene scorn which might wreathe the lips of the Praxitelean Aphrodite. (5.15, 417)

Palgrave concentrated also on biography, particularly the lives of artists, and he reviewed Gilchrist's Life of Blake enthusiastically twice, at least partly from the baser motive of helping Macmillan get rid of the relatively unsuccessful volume. His love of Blake's engravings, which he 72

collected, was joined by an admiration for Blake's Songs of Innocence, but he condemned Blake's mystical experiments unreservedly:

Unhappily for himself and for us, that obstinate element which is rarely absent from genius, and from which natural quickness of mind combined with imperfect mental culture always intensify to the uttermost, led Blake into that unsafe prophetic region, where, whilst we sympathise throughout with the noble nature and unworldly loftiness of the man, and are amazed at the imaginative power of his work, we have to lament that so much grandeur and so much skill should be wasted on the unintelligible. (5.8, 13)

Like so many of his contemporaries, Palgrave did not hesitate to use his position as a reviewer to further the reputations of his friends. His reviews of The Roman Poets of the Republic (5.6) and a ballad translation of

Virgil's Aeneid (5.18) praise books by his Oxford friends W. Y. Sellar and

John Conington, respectively, although he takes the opportunity in the latter review to attack Matthew Arnold for his suggestion in "On Translating Homer" that the quantitative hexameter should be used for such translations.

Palgrave characteristically makes his attack personal:

Mr. Arnold...loves a good unbroken level of generalisation upon which to build his argument, and, like the French, the convenience of the argument is occasionally disposed to overlook or to level away the facts. (5.18, Part 2, 406)

These remarks may have been sparked by Arnold's recently published negative views on Palgrave's Handbook and notes to the Golden Treasury in Essays in

Criticism, first series (1865).

Despite his own attempts in the genre, Palgrave had little critical interest in the novel. An early survey of Thackeray's works is so unsympathetic to the man that Macmillan's Magazine refused to publish it.

Palgrave objects to Thackeray's novels firstly for the author's "early habit of viewing life and reproducing it with an impassive and mirror-like fidelity

[which] is a quality which, under the name Cynicism, is familar to all his 73

readers" (5.5, 507). Secondly, he condemns Thackeray because he deals exclusively with polite society and does not consider "the common people"

(517). On that ground, Palgrave compares him unfavourably with Scott:

the difference we feel is wider than the difference between the atmosphere of a theatre and the atmosphere of Freshwater; of a ball supper-room and the "uncorruptible sea." We close "The Bride of Lammermoor" with a sense of healthy pain and healthy pleasure; Pendennis with a "Vanitas Vanitatum." (512)

Palgrave's love of Scott's novels, among the earliest he read as a child, is paralleled by a love of his poetry, so evident in the generous selection in the Golden Treasury. His only other novel review is an early one evaluating

Alfred de Musset's works (5.3). The article concentrates on his poetry and, where it considers the novels at all consists mainly of plot outlines.

Given the narrow range of Palgrave's views, it is hardly surprising that his influence on English criticism has been largely indirect, deriving from the Golden Treasury and his fifteen other editions and anthologies, including the Second Series of poets alive in 1850, the two books by his brother

Gifford, Hermann Agha (2.30) and A Vision of Life (2.45), and his two

Treasuries, The Children's Treasury of English Song (2.32) in 1875 and The

Treasury of Sacred Song (2.44) in 1889, which both follow the editorial pattern of the original, though with less success. The Children's Treasury is essentially and intentionally a school textbook, which Palgrave distinguished from other texts already on the market, as he pointed out to

Macmillan, by the fact that the selections were made on the basis of

"poetical merit" rather than their "suitableness to children" (Macmillan Papers, 2 Oct. 1874). There is considerable overlap with the original

Treasury. Although compiled with the hope of "being able to show our

'sacred' poetry in a much better light, qua poetry, than people have been in the way of thinking" (Macmillan Papers, 3 May 1887), the Treasury of Sacred

Song fails to avoid the stumbling-block of didacticism which, as he states in the preface, he tried to avoid in preparing the anthology, hymns being

"subject to the common penalty, the inferiority in art, inherent in all didactic verse" (vii). The selection relies too heavily on poets of the

Oxford Movement, from whom about half the selections are taken. The critical unevenness of the Treasury of Sacred Song is apparent in the juxtaposition of singularly poor hymns such as Christopher Wordsworth's "Hark, the sound of holy voices, chanting at the crystal sea" (no. 398), with Clough's far-superior "Qui Laborat Orat" (no. 346), which is thematically discordant in terms of the Treasury's avowed purpose, and with Tennyson's "In the

Children's Hospital" (no. 423), which is clearly not a hymn at all.

His editions of lyric poets mirror his taste, as expressed in his articles and in the Golden Treasury, closely: he produced selections from

Shakespeare, Wordsworth, Scott, Herrick, and Keats between 1865 and 1884.

The Shakespeare selection, eventually published in the Golden Treasury

Series, is the most controversial because it is so heavily bowdlerised.

Leaning on the authority of Henry Hallam, Palgrave condemned the "idolatry" of the sonnets (2.11, 242) and silently omitted five, renumbering the sequence to hide the omission and adding seven inferior poems from the

Passionate Pilgrim collection to provide a more acceptable conclusion. He also omitted the Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece because they were 75

"too highly coloured for mamas and parsons" (Macmillan Papers, 30 March

1864), even though all of Shakespeare's work was readily available elsewhere.

The Wordsworth selection of lyrics, in the Moxon Miniature Poets Series, was in essence commissioned by the Wordsworth family which, as Palgrave told

Macmillan, have "expressed a wish that I should make the Selection from his

Poems for Moxon—Payne's new series" (Macmillan Papers, 3 Dec. [1865]).

Palgrave used his editions, like his reviews, to further the fortunes of his friends, such as J. C. Shairp, and to make his favourite poets—Wordsworth, Shakespeare, Herrick, and Keats—more popular, but his most revealing selection is the one from the lyrics of Alfred Tennyson, briefly mentioned in Chapter One and in the bibliography below, which

Palgrave intended to compensate for Tennyson's original refusal to allow his verses to appear in the Golden Treasury. The volume, however, reveals

Palgrave's limited appreciation of Tennyson's work, particularly In Memoriam, which Palgrave cut severely, from 131 to 42 sections, and rearranged into an entirely new sequence, without the prologue, which presents the theme of

"personal love and sorrow" followed by the same theme "in figures, or connected with aspects of nature and religious thought" (2.37, 262).

Palgrave's readiness to cut and rearrange the poem suggests that he did not see In Memoriam as a single unit, and hence saw no development within the sequence itself, one of many examples of his limitations as a critic.

In spite of the Treasury's success, it was nearly 30 years before

Palgrave achieved his ambition of being elected Professor of Poetry at

Oxford, a largely nominal position which Matthew Arnold had held when the

Golden Treasury was published. Palgrave was eager to be granted the same 76

honour, but although he stood for election first when Arnold retired in 1867,

he had to wait until 1885, when, on his third nomination, he was finally

elected.

Following Arnold's example, Palgrave chose to lecture in English, rather

than the traditional Latin, although he gave the Creweian Oration in Latin at

Convocation in alternate years, devoting the 1888 oration to Matthew Arnold,

who had died suddenly a few months previously. Palgrave took his

responsibilities seriously, and, again following Arnold, he published as many

of his lectures as he could in Macmillan's Magazine, The National Review, and

The Nineteenth Century. These lectures deal with his distinctive interests.

Of the four known series, two deal with poetry and the arts— poetry's

relationship to the fine arts, and landscape in poetry—while the other two

deal with the Renaissance movement in English poetry and poets who Palgrave

felt had been neglected by the critics. The latter are not identified, but

one of them is probably Henry Vaughan, for whose poetry Palgrave had

developed a taste in later life on the basis of Vaughan's place in the Welsh

lyric tradition. Although his own Welsh blood must have been minimal,

Palgrave was an enthusiastic member of the Cymmrodorion Society; he spoke

Welsh and named one of his daughters Gwenllian.*^

His final set of Oxford lectures formed the basis of his only book of

literary criticism, Landscape in Poetry from Homer to Tennyson. The

discussion of landscape is by no means new: not only does it reiterate

Palgrave's Wordsworthian concept of English poetry, first manifested in the

Treasury and repeated throughout his critical writings, but it also covers

ground already considered, first of all by Ruskin and then by his 77

Professorial predecessor, J. C. Shairp, in his On the Poetical Interpretation of Nature, published twenty years previously. The critics disliked the book, finding in it "much which is Irrelevant, and much which is surprisingly defective."^ They condemned his translations of Greek and Latin and expressed their disappointment that his survey of English literature was so selective: "Mr. Palgrave hurries over the Elizabethan poets with too much expedition, and the poets of the eighteenth century fare even worse. Great injustice is done to Thomson."*7

Palgrave's only other contribution to literature is a series of articles in Chambers Cyclopedia of English Literature on Keats, Sidney, Alfred and

Charles Tennyson, and Wordsworth (4.25-29). By the end of his life, his literary critical powers, which had hardly developed beyond the fixed principles applied in the Golden Treasury, were largely overlooked by the new generation of critics. His critical reception in the twentieth century is epitomized by George Saintsbury in his History of English Criticism, who says, in discussing the Oxford chair of poetry:

The great achievement of Mr. Shairp's successor, Francis Turner Palgrave, in regard to literary criticism, is an indirect one, and had been mostly done years and decades before he was elected to the Chair. Little indeed, though something, was given to the world as a direct result of his professorial work. As an actual critic or reviewer, Palgrave was no doubt distinguished not over-favourably by that tendency to "splash" and tapage of manner which he shared with Kinglake and some other writers of the mid-nineteenth century, and which has been recently revived. But his real taste was in a manner warranted by his friendships; and his friendships must almost have kept him right if he had had less taste. He may have profited largely by these friendships in the composition of that really Golden Treasury, which, if it does not achieve the impossible in giving everybody what he wants, all he wants, and nothing that he does not want, is by general confession the most successful attempt in a quite appallingly difficult kind. 78

NOTES

* J. Churton Collins, "An Appreciation of Professor Palgrave," Saturday Review, 84 (30 Oct. 1897), 487.

o William Michael Rossetti, review of Essays on Art, Fine Arts Quarterly, NS 1 (1866), 309.

Matthew Arnold, "The Literary Influence of Academies," in Essays in Criticism (London: Macmillan, 1865), pp. 71-3.

4 William Michael Rossetti, 309.

^ John 0. Waller, "Francis Turner Palgrave's Criticisms of Tennyson's In Memoriam," Victorian Newsletter, 52 (1977), 13.

^ Palgrave is quoting from The Conversation of Goethe with Eckermann and Soret, trans. J. Oxenford (London: Bell, 1850).

7 The Education of Henry Adams, p. 220.

Q William Holman Hunt, Pre-Raphaelitism and The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, 2, p. 225.

9 "J. 0.," Letter to The Times, 15 May 1862, p. 9.

10 , Letter to The Times, 16 May 1862, p. 12.

^ Anonymous poem, quoted in Holman Hunt's Pre-Raphaelitism and The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, 2, p. 233.

12 The Education of Henry Adams, p. 214.

13 John Ruskin, letter of 22 March [1855], Collected Works, ed. E. T. Cook and Alexander Wedderburn (London: Macmillan, 1892), 36, pp. 193-4: "it is a most valuable contribution to the history of painting. I shall use it for reference when I come to the subject of engraving."

^ Wyke Bayliss, The Professor of Poetry at Oxford and the Witness of Art, a Curiosity of Modern Literature (London: W. H. Allen, 1888), p. 7.

^ For a fuller checklist of Palgrave's lectures as Professor of Poetry, including publication details, see the Appendix to Part 1, Section 4, of the bibliography.

l fi J. Churton Collins, review of Landscape in Poetry, Ephemera Critica (London: Constable, 1901), p. 237.

17 Collins, p. 247.

1 Q George Saintsbury, A History of English Criticism (Edinburgh and London: Blackwood's, 1911), pp. 538-9. i

79

CHAPTER THREE: PALGRAVE AS POET

But never was there seen so strange an instance of a mind, exquisitely judicious in regard to the compositions of others, powerless to criticize its own productions. Thought, and even fancy were.often present in Palgrave's verse, but melody never. His metrical infelicities were incorrigible. It may be said without exaggeration that he has left behind him not a single line of good poetry.*

Of all Palgrave's literary writings, his poetry was the least successful, never attaining either the classical unity and finish he demanded of the English lyric or the recognition that he desperately sought. As a man of letters, Palgrave felt that writing verse was part of his responsibility, and as time went on he devoted more and more attention to public verse.

Moreover, he lived in an age of great poets and numbered many of them among his friends, particularly Tennyson, but also Browning and the Pre-Raphaelite poets, Rossetti, Patmore, Woolner, and Allingham. But Palgrave was both insufficiently able to transfer the conscious principles he employed in shaping the Treasury to his own poetry and insufficiently self-critical to recognise his own poetic shortcomings. While his innate talent for poetry was obviously slight, he composed verses most of his life, refusing to be diverted by limited sales or adverse criticism. The interest of Palgrave's lyrics, thus, lies not in his poetic achievements, but in the extent to which his poetic practice mirrors his critical theories and in his contemporary reputation as a minor member of the "contemplative" school to which Edmund

2

Stedman also relegated Arnold and Clough.

Palgrave published six volumes of poetry between 1854 and 1892: Idyls and Songs (1854)Hymns (1867), Lyrical Poems (1871), A Lyme Garland (1874), 80

The Visions of England (1880), and Amenophis (1892); in addition he published

some 40 poems in periodicals and an equal number in contemporary anthologies

and collections. In all, he composed more than 250 poems, Including

translations, on a wide range of subjects, many of which illustrate concerns

similar to those emphasised in his critical prose, especially English history

and landscape.

Idyls and Songs shows his early and enduring enthusiasm for the

classical Greek and Latin lyrics In the number of translations from Sappho,

Catullus, and Horace, an enthusiasm later extended in experiments with

classical forms and subjects in Lyrical Poems. It also contains early

commemorative verses, works modelled on the ballad, and personal lyrics of

love and lost childhood, early examples of the strong elegaic strain which

runs through his verse. His Hymns deals largely with the challenge of

Darwinism to conventional faith, particularly in the context of the Oxford

Movement. The Lyme Garland, a pamphlet of fourteen poems written to aid a

school charity in his adopted town of Lyme Regis, gathers a number of his

experiments in describing landscape and reveals his talent for writing

simpler hymns and the stirrings of his interest in English history, which

finds its fullest development in The Visions of England, a sequence of lyrics

on events from the country's past. Amenophis, his last volume, a selection of mainly reprinted poems, illustrates the variety of Palgrave's poetic

Interests. The ambitious and lengthy title poem, "Amenophis," though unsuccessful, considers "the Egyptian, Greek, and Jewish ideas of the

existence of God before such ideas had been 'consciously analysed'" (Life, p.

228). 81

His first volume, Idyls and Songs, contains 83 poems, nearly one-third of his poetic canon, dealing with most of the subjects and themes mentioned above. His interest in the Greek and Latin lyric, a mainstay of his criticism, is shown in translations and in poems like "The Fall of Paganism" and "On Reading Theocritus." The ten translations are all brief, from eight to 44 lines. Occasionally, as in "The Bridal," Palgrave succeeds in capturing the simple, direct images of the original Sapphic poem, as in this example of the meeting of the bride and bridegroom:

High lift the beams of the chamber, Workmen, on high; Like Ares in step comes the Bridegroom; Like him of the song of Terpander, Like him in majesty.

—0 fair—0 sweet! As the sweet apple blooms high on the bough, High on the highest; forgot of the gatherers: So Thou:— Yet not so: nor forgot of the gatherers; High o'er their reach in the golden air, —0 sweet—O fair!

But more often, by adopting tetrameter couplets, Palgrave spoils the sense with an intrusive metre and rhyme, as these lines from Sappho's "Hymn to

Aphrodite" show:

Come, as once to Love's imploring Accents of a maid's adoring, Wafted 'neath the golden dome Bore thee from thy father's home.

The limited capacity of the English language to render accurately the metrical and syllabic values of Greek poetry is evident in Palgrave's own poems and translations; it also accounts for much of the confusion surrounding his aesthetic demands that English poets should emulate classical poetry. In his dedicatory poem to Lyrical Poems, "To the Immortal Memory of

Free Athens," Palgrave clearly recognises the futility of the ideal he

espouses, but this dedication, perhaps more clearly than any comment in his

critical writings, defines the classical values towards which he aspires:

Where are the flawless form, The sweet propriety of measured phrase, The words that clothe the idea, not disguise, Horizons pure from haze, And calm clear vision of Hellenic eyes?

Strength ever veil'd by grace; The mind's anatomy implied, not shown; No graspings for the vague, no fruitless fires;— Yet, heard 'neath all, the tone Of those far realms to which the soul aspires.

Upon life's field they look'd With fearless gaze, trusting their sight,—the while Conscious the God's whole scheme they could not see; But smiled a manly smile,

And the sane song spoke the heart's sanity.

That unfantastlc strain, Void of weak fever and self-conscious cry,— Truth bold and pure in her own nakedness,— What modern hand can try, Tracing the delicate line 'twixt More and Less? Yet as one who, aiming high, Must aim far o'er the mark that he can gain, —0 shining City of the Maiden Shrine.— I name not thee in vain, If these late Northern lays be kin to thine.

In his original verse and translations, Palgrave conducted many of the experiments he urged on other poets, and one of the justifications for

examining his poetry in detail is to identify those changes in poetic

technique and subject matter which he felt would improve English poetry.

Besides translations, Idyls also contains poems dealing with the fine

arts, such as "The Birth of Art," dedicated to Benjamin Jowett, which specifically points to past "happy days" when

We held discourse, dear Friend, on art and verse: What style, what metre, fitting as a robe The naked thought beneath, endraping it In thousand-fold expression—adding grace Where it received it—best might suit the modes And giddy-paced invention of our age.

In it, Palgrave imagines art "from the principles / And canons of the beautiful, deduced" which now, "by need / Of all-inventing man, and fond requirement" are "faded" under the "fever'd weight" of man's "busy life" and day-long care." Others include occasional sonnets addressed to his father's friend Henry Hallam; his Oxford friends, linguist Max Muller and diplomat

Burnet Morier; and two women, his "Preciosa," Georgina Alderson, and

"Childhood's Interpreter," E. V. Boyle, whose children's books he was later to praise again in Macmillan's Magazine (5.20). More public are a poem addressed to "Louis Napoleon Bonaparte," written in December 1848 after a visit to the French Republic and praising France as "The First among the

Free," and an elegy for Robert Peel, killed in a sudden fall from his horse.

The longer poems in the volume include a remarkably bad one in blank verse interspersed with lyrics and entitled "Blanche and Ada: an Operetta."

Among the more interesting poems in Idyls and Songs are those in which the highly sentimental, "subjective" side of Palgrave's nature is given full rein In lyrics on the "Preciosa" theme of unrequited love, in a number of poems addressed to little girls, and in a group of ballads. "Night and

Morning" reprises the "Preciosa" theme of romantic despair:

In dreams I heard thy mother say 'She yet is ours at dawn of day, And his before the setting':— And thou wast by thy mother's side, And gav'st a sigh of happy pride, And sweetness past a life's forgetting.

—I wake to know the vision has fled; The slumberous sweetness vanished, And dreary daylight gleaming. —And is the hand—the smile—the sigh— Love, all thy tokens vanity? And art thou Love alone in dreaming?

Not unrelated in its elegaic tone, but in a different view, is "The Dream

Child," lamenting the death of a litttle girl:

—And around my neck Her little arms she flung: then on my lips Press'd treasured soft caresses: more than oft Regardless Childhood lavishes: sure proof, Sweet, undesign'd, of love that knew no stint, No looking back, or forward: the pure love Of self-unconscious confidence.

Apart from the barely suppressed sexuality of this stanza, the language, with the conventional phrasing so commmon in Palgrave's poetry, is hackneyed, and its syntax is so disrupted as to be almost incomprehensible in a line like

"more than oft/ Regardless Childhood lavishes."

Images of childhood, coupled with sublimated eroticism, appear frequently in Palgrave's poetry, sometimes even in poems seemingly totally unrelated to the theme. In "The Age of Innocence: Sonnet to Sir J.

Reynolds," for example, Palgrave expresses his admiration for Reynolds' paintings of children, which he himself collected, and for the eroticism which he semi-consciously perceived in the paintings:

Reynolds, thou art alive in children yet— Where'er their smiles are gay, their tresses bright, Where'er the young eyes glance, the feet trip light, Thine all-presaging skill its stamp hath set. On little Alice late one morn I gazed, Darling of many hearts, half risen from sleep: The long loose locks, the moist full eyes set deep 85

In chisell'd shade: translucent hands upraised From sleep-flush'd cheeks the wavy stream to part: Coralline lips, and curved in wakening glee:— I sigh'd to think thou were not there to see The gracious incarnation of thine art:— —So this faint sketch upon thy shrine I place, Pleased thy suggestion with thy name to grace.

Palgrave, as noted in Chapter Two, condemned Tennyson for his use of mannerist vocabulary, but Palgrave himself relied upon the same conventional, even cliched, poetic diction that he condemns in his criticism:

"tresses," feet which "trip," and the use of the archaic "thou," a persistent locution in his verse. The rhyme scheme of the Reynolds' sonnet is irregular, conflating the Italian and Shakespearean forms, but the metre is awkward, as, for example, in lines 2 and 3, where the heavy caesuras and endstopped lines draw attention away from Reynold's "skill" in line 4 rather

than emphasizing it. "Thine all-presaging skill its stamp hath set" is

intended to convey that, as Oscar Wilde said later, life had come to imitate art and that all beautiful girl-children resemble Reynold's paintings, but

the compression of the idea into a single line weakens the force of the

statement.

Palgrave's admiration for the ballad form so strongly represented in

the Treasury is evident in the six ballads in Idyls and Songs: "Romance,"

"Cospatrick," "The Lass of Lochroyan," "Redbreast's Dirge," "Mary of

Lochleven," and "Amy Robsart." Palgrave's ballads rely too heavily on

stilted "literary" language, such as "plash" and "salt-sea billows" and the

self-consciously archaic "roof-tree" and the rhyme "groaning-moaning" in "The

Lass of Lochroyan" seems almost parodic: 86

Lord Gregory heard the raindrops plash, He heard the roof-tree groaning; He heard the salt-sea billows crash: But he heard not his true love moaning.

Palgrave's first volume epitomizes both his life-long poetic preoccupations with subject and form and those technical deficiences that are

compounded in his later volumes. That he was himself aware of his poetic limitations is apparent, if only tangentially, in his poem dedicating Idyls and Songs to Tennyson, from whose work he acknowledges unauthorized borrowings ("grace-conferring thefts"). Tennyson clearly was, for Palgrave, the model of poetic perfection, the ideal towards which he unashamedly aspired—"A soul in friendship and in song"; and Palgrave's volume was intended as an imperfect tribute to the Laureate, whom he regarded as a

"royal" judge. Yet, in the dedication, he solicits neither Tennyson's patronage nor protection from hostile critics; Tennyson's approval of the poems and acceptance of the dedication are all he seeks: "I hold you judge in last resort, / And to your verdict yield me":

When to the Gods our prayers we bring, 'Tis with their names we grace them: I dedicate the songs to you, As on your knees I place them.

Tennyson's response to the dedication has not been recorded and Idyls and

Songs appears to have attracted no reviewers.

That the book went unnoticed is not surprising, given the competition for review space in journals of the day deluged with minor volumes of verse written by poetic nonentities. But, with all its obvious weaknesses, Idyls and Songs is neither totally devoid of merit nor the worst first volume of poems ever issued—and it was published rather than privately printed as a 87

vanity publication. In fact, all of Palgrave's poetry was published, with the exception of the Visions of England, which was initially printed at

Palgrave's expense, but was quickly picked up by Macmillan and published commercially, and the Lyme Garland, expressly produced by Palgrave for sale by a charity. While often clumsy in expression and highly sentimental, his early poems have at least the virtues of simplicity and sincerity, in contrast to the artificial and intellectual experiments that characterize so many poems in the later volumes. Their value for contemporary readers is perhaps best summarized in an inscription made in the volume by a former owner of Professor Fredeman's copy, one James Galbraith Porter, who in March

1855 composed the following endorsement on the pasted-down endpaper:

Mr. Palgrave's strength does not lie in invention, but in the feeling he throws into what he writes. He is especially a Poet of the Affections and his heart furnishes him with his best inspirations. Few depict better a father's or a husband's love—few sing sweeter or more aerial dirges over the dead—than the author of this scholarly, tender little volume of Poems.

In the thirteen years between Idyls and Songs and his volume of Hymns in

1867, Palgrave was chiefly engaged in his work for the Education Office, the preparation of the Golden Treasury, and his fine art criticism.

Palgrave's poetry during the forties and fifties dealt with secular issues, but with the publication of Darwin's Origin of Species in 1859, which he not only read himself but also urged on Tennyson's attention, Palgrave perceived a need for poetry which dealt with the challenges of the new science of evolution to conventional religious faith, and this volume of

Hymns is a delayed response to his involvement in the theological debates at

Oxford in the mid-forties which assailed the faith of so many of his friends 88

with crippling doubts. The twelve religious verses, first collected in his

Hymns (1867), address the challenges to religious faith in two distinct ways.

Many of them, such as "A Little Child's Hymn for Night and Morning," express a trusting faith in simple child-like language. This stanza has a straightforwardness of style which made the hymns popular for singing:

Be beside me in the light, Close by me through all the night; Make me gentle, kind, and true, Do what mother bids me do; Help and cheer me when I fret, And forgive me when I forget.

Seven of them were popular enough to be set to music, and the "Child's Hymn" was separately published as a school "Broad Sheet" for that very purpose.

But Palgrave was better known for his complex, philosophical lyrics dealing with the challenges of Huxleyan scepticism that dominated the dialectical poetry of the Victorians. Palgrave's speculative theological verses in this volume—obviously never intended to be set to music or sung—are characterized by weak reassurances that, in the face of apparently overwhelming evidence to the contrary, man should continue to believe. His evocations of the landscape of despair are much more vividly expressed than the subjects of his simple hymns of affirmation. In these two stanzas of

"The Reign of Law," in the third edition, perhaps the religious poem by

Palgrave most admired by his contemporaries, he first evokes man's helplessness and then attempts to reassure by asserting that "God may fulfil his thought":

We may not hope to read Nor comprehend the whole Or of the law of things Or of the law of soul: 89

E'en in the eternal stars Dim perturbations rise; And all the searchers' search Does not exhaust the skies; He who has framed and brought us hither Holds in his hands the whence and whither.

Then, though the sun go up His beaten azure way, God may fulfil his thought And bless his world to-day; Beside the law of things The law of mind enthrone, And, for the hope of all, Reveal Himself in One; Himself the way that leads us thither,

The All-in-all, the Whence and Whither.

The repetition of the conditional "may" in the passage suggests the possibility that God may not "bless his world to-

That readers should make comparisons between Palgrave and other poets writing on similar themes was inevitable, and in his lifetime Palgrave was perhaps best known as a lesser satellite of a constellation that included, according to Henry Adams, Arnold and Clough: "Among the minor poets of our own day and generation, there have been three in England who seem to fall most easily and naturally into a single group. These are Clough, Matthew

Arnold, and Palgrave."^

Palgrave was thus part of an established poetic tradition which counselled, as Tennyson did in In Memoriam (section 55), that in the absence of scientific proof, man's only recourse is to "trust the larger hope." Even 90

closer to the mood of Palgrave's poems such as "The Reign of Law" or "The

Voices of Nature," which asks "Who is man and what his place?," is Clough's statement in "What we, when face to face we see" (1850) that

Still what we hope we must believe, And what is given us receive;

Must still believe, for still we hope That in a world of larger scope, What here is faithfully begun Will be completed, not undone.

But, while mid-century critics praised Palgrave for attempting to attack such issues head on, by the time Amenophis appeared in 1892, the critics found his work dated and naive:

There have been religious poets like Dante, Milton, and even Keble, and in his own way Browning, whose faith interpreted the world to them. There are no such poets now. There are poets still, and Mr. Palgrave is one of them, whose faith enables them to live above the world as a stout sailor in a tight boat may live above a rough sea, without a chart, under the stars.

Palgrave had unquestionably addressed the question of faith honestly in the context of the intellectual ferment of the day, but where Arnold and Clough had faced the real possibility of God's "disappearance," Palgrave became a pillar of the established church, editing a Treasury of Sacred Song later in the century and continuing to publish his hymns for children.

By the time the third edition of Hymns was printed in 1870, Palgrave was well advanced in experiments with "Greek" style and subject matter and a year later he produced his Lyrical Poems with its dedication to Athens noted above. In spite of his insistence on the use of English subjects in poetry, many of his "Greek" experiments use classical subjects which were unfamiliar, as he had himself said, to a general audience. This contradiction is 91

compounded by his unsuccessful attempt to copy the externals of Greek form.

As Henry Adams pointed out about Palgrave's "Alcestis":

Neither Euripides nor Sophocles would have cared to throw their treatment of Alcestis into a mould which was difficult for their countrymen to appreciate, and if they had done so, the sense of effort would have taught them and their audience that they were following an unnatural process.... [The] study of Greek art is therefore only the stepping-stone to success, and Mr. Palgrave, after showing, as in "Alcestis," how careful his study had been, was yet to find his natural vein and to prove the quality of his genius. That this is refined is obvious enough. That it is generous in its sympathies, is evident.

Palgrave's efforts were of necessity inauthentic because he refused, as his review "On a Translation of Virgil's Aeneid" (5.18) discussed above explains, to employ the Greek quantitative hexameter which his friend Arnold had been urging on modern translators of Homer. "Alcestis," written in five-line iambic pentameter stanzas, rhyming a b c c b , bears little metrical relation to its Greek model. "Alcestis" retells the Greek legend of the woman who sacrifices herself to the underworld to save her husband:

So her young days upon her soul came back:— Iolkos: the white walls: the purple crest Of Pelion hung above them, whence a cry Of clanging eagles vex'd the summer sky, And loosen'd crags scarr'd the dark mountain breast:—

And how Apollo o'er the purple crest Came with the morn, and sent his golden beam Slant on the dancing waves: and how she fear'd, That day, when by the eclipse his locks were shear'd, Until the God shot forth a sword-like gleam.

These verses read like awkward literal translations, and they contain weak phrases in the Homeric style, such as "purple crest" and "sword-like," together with bald language and restricted word choice, intended to approximate to the Greek "finish" and simplicity Palgrave so much admired. 92

The general impression, as Henry Adams says in his review, is one of

subdued tone and careful finish; a subordination of passion to form; a self-restraint which is not timidity, but the result of the effort to realize a Greek ideal. The drawback is obviously in the too great sense of effort which such a task inevitably carries with it. (440)

Most critics agreed with Adams that Palgrave's "Greek" experiments were unsuccessful because they were neither creative nor original, but rather an attempt to copy slavishly the externals of a dead literature. The

Greek-style poems over which Palgrave laboured so long and for which he held

out such hopes in his criticism as a way of saving English poetry from its

characteristic excesses were failures. While these experiments had little apparent influence, and Palgrave eventually abandoned them, his other

prescriptions for improving the English lyric, chiefly the adoption of the

two new subject matters which he promoted in his criticism, landscape and

English history, were more favourably received and may well have influenced, at least indirectly, Kipling and the other "Empire" poets at the end of the

century. He had long subscribed to Ruskin's passion for the use of

landscape in the arts, and, as has already been shown, he both supported enthusiastically Pre-Raphaelite paintings and admired intensely Wordsworth's and Tennyson's abilities to describe landscape realistically. But, while he admits English history has "from days very remote...supplied matter for song"

(2.34, vii), only the plays of Shakespeare and Tennyson's verses on "the mythical glory and gloom of the Arthurian Epos," in his view, create "living

pictures of our magnificent history" (viii).

His attraction for the "matter of England" led him consequently, in his next brief volume, the privately printed Lyme Garland, to produce his 93

earliest attempts to employ these "objective" subjects. In "A Summer Sunset,

Wooton from Westover," for example, Palgrave tries to combine carefully drawn detail with metaphorical phrasing, but his diction is strained and overly

"mannerist," in his own terms:

Upon the green slope sward The hedgerow elms lie pencill'd by the sun In greener greenness: and, athwart the sky, Dotted like airy dust, the rooks Oar themselves homeward with a distant cry.

His metaphors are more vivid than is customary in his work, but the rooks

"dotted like airy dust" which "oar themselves homeward" seem more like a stage effect than realistic detail; rooks, after all, are by no means "airy."

Yet in spite of this clumsiness, Palgrave's attempts at "pure" description, though prone to plagiarism—as in his "Autumn," whose personified figure owes much to Keats—are satisfying in a way that his more consciously didactic verses are not.

Similarly, his first lyric based on English history, "A Danish

Barrow," relies largely on description for its effect:

Lie still, old Dane, below thy heap! —A sturdy-back and sturdy-limb, Who'er he was, I warrant him Upon whose mound the single sheep Browses and tinkles in the sun, Within the narrow vale alone.

Lie still, old Dane! This restful scene Suits well thy centuries of sleep: The soft brown roots above thee creep, The lotus flaunts his ruddy sheen, And,—vain memento of the spot,— The turquoise-eyed forget-me-not.

This largely descriptive style was quickly superseded by the more ponderously didactic approach which dominates The Visions of England, his 94

1880 lyric collection which gathers 70 cameo scenes, from the arrival of

Julius Caesar to the death of the Prince Consort. From his teaching and reading and the editing of his father's works, Palgrave had a strong grasp of the details of English history, and he approached the subject with enthusiasm. Like his father and Henry Hallam, to both of whom his Visions of

England is dedicated, "in devoted love of Justice, Truth and England,"

Palgrave had decided historical views, and he propounded them with vigour both in the poems themselves and in the lengthy notes which accompany them.

Palgrave's interpretation of English history dominates the volume: his dislike of Cromwell and praise of the monarchy are unequivocal, particularly in "The Mourning Muses," which laments Cromwell's destruction of the art and architecture of England; in "Dunnottar Castle," where Cromwell's forces are described as "iron power, fanatic, coarse,/ The unheavenly kingdom of the saints"; and in "The Return of Law," in which Cromwell himself is "The monster below, foul scales of the serpent and slime,—could we gaze / On

Tyranny stript of her tinsel, what vision of dool and dismay!" He evokes

England's celebration of the return of Charles II to the throne in glowing terms which bear little relation to the facts:

Peace in her car goes up; a rainbow curves for her road; Law and fair Order before her, the reinless courses of God;—

Plenty is with them, and Commerce; all gifts of all lands from her horn

Raining on England profuse.

These lines also illustrate Palgrave's penchant for allegory and stylized poetic diction—both contrary to his critical beliefs and contradicting his 95

stated intention in the introduction to the volume:

to write...with a straightforward eye to the subject alone; not studious of ornament for ornament's sake; allowing the least possible overt intrusion of the writer's personality...and convinced that the truest pathos lies in the situation, not in the pathetic setting forth,—the truest poetry, not in the decorative overlay, but in the form and matter, (x)

Visions had a tepid reception from the critics, who suspected, rightly, that

Palgrave had undertaken the volume more out of a desire to reform English poetry by setting an example for other poets and to pass on his prejudices about English history than from any true poetic inspiration:

Without any injustice to the vividness and felicity of much in Mr. Palgrave's historical verse, its fine qualities cannot hinder a regret that it has preoccupied leisure which might else have been free to construct twenty other exquisite reliefs of gold-green hill sides standing out against mellowed memories of Virgil, and Theocritus, Pindar, and Homer.8

Palgrave's inability, or refusal, to decide whether the book's purpose was didactic or poetic is further evidenced by the lengthy notes attached to the volume, notes which follow the format of those in the Golden Treasury.

Palgrave added almost a full page of explanatory notes for most poems, explaining abstruse points or suggesting further reading. A note to "The

Poet's Repentance," about Cromwell in Ireland, for example, glosses

Palgrave's epithet for Cromwell, "Caesar-Attila" thus:

The discreditable attempt made recently by more than one writer, in defiance of history and common human feeling, to whitewash or glorify the misdeeds committed by the English government on the Irish between 1642 and 1658 renders it necessary to place the truth before readers, who may have been thus deceived. (348)

He apparently did not see any irony in the fact that he could not convey his 96

ideas in the poems themselves, but had to rely on lengthy glosses. Visions suffers ultimately from Palgrave's mixed motives. The obvious didacticism of the poems militates against the book as poetry, and Palgrave's reliance on blank verse and experimental stanza forms and the borrowings of the subjects and language of other poets further weaken its effect, as, for example, in

"The Death of Sir John Moore," in which Palgrave borrows openly and at length from Wolfe's "The Burial of Sir John Moore at Corunna," a poem anthologised in the Golden Treasury. The verbal echoes in many of these poems are startling: "They bore him toward the ramparts, while the fainter, farther, gun," recycles Wolfe's "Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note,/ As his corpse to the rampart we hurried." "The Valley of Death," a poem about the war in Afghanistan, borrows its title from Tennyson's "Light Brigade"; and

"Crossing Solway," beginning "Blow from the North, thou bitter North Wind," directly parrots Shakespeare's "Blow, blow, thou winter wind" (Golden

Treasury, no. 42).

The concluding poem of the series, "England Once More," with its patent dependency on the old song, "Hearts of Oak," reflects both his simple patriotism and his lack of originality:

Old keel, old heart of oak, Though round thee roar and chafe All storms of life, thy helmsman Shall make the haven safe! Then with Honour at the head, and Faith, And Peace along the wake, Law blazon'd fair on Freedom's flag, Thy stately voyage take:— While now on Him who long has bless'd To bless thee as of yore Once more we cry for England, England once more! 97

Macmillan was not sanguine about the book's chances for success, and

Palgrave initially published it privately in an edition of 50 copies at his own expense; however, the volume attracted a sufficient number of readers for

Macmillan to reprint it commercially in a revised and expanded form within a year. Palgrave's fears that "the Visions...will soon be ready for a public which will not, I fear, be very ready for them" proved groundless and the volume did sell, as he predicted it might, as a school prize book (Macmillan

Papers, 26 Sept. 1881). Eight years later, Cassell's National Library Series included it in a textbook edition which also reprinted his jubilee Ode for

Queen Victoria. Some critics hoped that Palgrave's experiment would inspire followers who would open up a whole new school of patriotic poetry. As A. W.

Ward said in a review in Macmillan's Magazine:

an experiment in poetic literature, which if not absolutely new, is at all events, made under totally new conditions, these Visions of England may be destined to occupy and interest criticism when much of the verse that is now popular or fashionable has fluttered away with the leaves of the season.... Should his book, in an ampler and fuller form, achieve an enduring success, it can hardly fail to become the beginning of a new species of patriotic poetry. Should it happen otherwise, the age too may in some measure be in fault.9

Visions was Palgrave's most ambitious experiment in poetry, but it was, as his friend Henry James pointed out in a letter of 7 February 1881, in the final analysis a work of "commemoration" by a critic of the history of

English poetry, rather than an original work:

It seems to me very much the poetry of reflection, of association—rather than of whatever t'other thing is that makes lyric verse. It strikes one as begotten very much by the love of poetry and the knowledge and study of it, and as being full of echoes and reverberations of poetic literature. I don't accuse you 98

of 'lifting,' but you write from such a lettered mind that your strain is a kind of coil of memories. All this to me is a merit, and I suppose the merit you aimed at—that of commemoration. (Life, pp. 163-4)

James' acute comment applies generally to the whole of Palgrave's poetry: his own limited originality seems to have been swamped by his encyclopedic reading.

One of the more distinctive features of Palgrave's later poetic career is his predilection for public ceremonial poetry, an interest partly explained by his devotion to the Poet Laureate, whose official poems on events in the lives of the Royal Family seem to have been the models for

Palgrave's two Jubilee Odes and for several other such poems, including a

Prothalamion for the Duke of York. The Golden Treasury enhanced Palgrave's standing in English poetic circles, but the authority acceded him had more to do with his work as an editor than with his ability as a poet. To be the editor of what one reviewer called "our national anthology"^ gave

Palgrave a special status, and he seems to have felt that he held a semi-official Laureate-like position. This sense of authority was, if anything, reinforced by his election to the chair of Poetry at Oxford in

1885, and in 1887 he persuaded Clarendon press to publish his Jubilee Ode for

Queen Victoria in a limited edition of 50 copies as a semi-official document representing the University as a whole. This Ode is perhaps his most distinctive "public" poem.

It covers the course of Victoria's life in eight 17-line stanzas, all with the same elaborate rhyme scheme, the concluding couplet of each stanza ending in the word "QUEEN." He attempts to survey the history of the 99

monarchy through important events in Victoria's life, such as the death of

Prince Albert, before praising Victoria extravagantly for her feats of

Empire:

0 much enduring, much revered! To thee Bring sun-dyed millions love more sweet than fame, And happy roles that star the purple sea Homage;—and children at the mother's knee With her's [sic] unite the name; And faithful hearts that throb 'neath palm and pine, From East to West are thine.

The diction clearly violates Palgrave's own critical principles: cliched language such as "faithful hearts" and "purple seas" combines with a syntax so clumsy that in an expression like "Children at the mother's knee / With her's unite the name," the idea is so compressed as to be virtually unintelligible. He also contravenes his own rules on personification with phrases like "happy isles," while a line like "And faithful- hearts, that throb 'neath palm and pine," is infelicitous at best.

Any discussion of Palgrave's poetry must address his ability as a metrist. As the epigraph to this chapter shows, he had a reputation for

"incorrigible" "metrical infelicities," and a reviewer of Amenophis pointed out that "the thought is more to him than its metrical setting.

Palgrave obviously shared what he regarded as the characteristic English poetic preference for content over form. His experiments are almost all restricted to changes in subject matter, historical and public, and as a lyricist he relied heavily upon the native iambic tetrameter and pentameter lines. He explicitly rejected the hexameter being urged on translators of

Homer by Arnold, and, with the exception of a few excursions into blank verse, he generally employed rhyme. The length of his stanzas does vary from 100

a common quatrain (a b a_ _b) and a favoured five-line stanza with an embedded couplet (a b c c b) to the elaborately constructed seventeen-line form used in the Ode for Victoria's jubilee. Despite his concern with form, the scansion of many lines reveals inappropriate emphasis, and syntax is frequently distorted or diction forced to conform to the rhyme scheme. In the Visions of England, for example, Palgrave says that he attempted a greater variety of stanza forms in order to reflect the wide-ranging subject matter of the volume:

As therefore Horace, even in his impersonal lyrics, went back to the simpler Aeolic models which preceded the choral ode, so here resort has been made, in general, to native forms of stanza:—although where the subject seemed of itself imperatively to require some peculiar, perhaps novel, arrangement in metre and rhyme, or even the (symmetrical) use of more than one system, I have ventured upon essays which are commended to the reader's kindly judgment, (xiii)

Where his criticism insists on "finish," his poetry concentrates on subject matter or tries unsuccessfully to revive a long-dead poetic form; and where his criticism demands "objective" poetry, his own poetry deals largely with personal emotion and religious faith. Although his Hymns went to three editions and much of his verse was published in magazines and collected in anthologies such as those by Miles and Stedman, his prolific output was generally ignored by the reviewers. And it is probably a sign of his contemporary reputation that he was excluded from both editions of Kegan

Paul's Living English Poets (1882, 1893).

Palgrave's reasons for persevering in the writing and publishing of poetry lie in his conviction that poetry must remain a central force in

English culture, and his own verses are a testimony to his faith in the 101

powers of poetry. While his poetry did not rise to meet his exacting standards, his intentions cannot be faulted for, as Henry Adams recognised,

Palgrave had elected to embark upon a perilous course as a poet, which held little promise of popular recognition:

His highest ambition would be to offer the classical beauty of Greek form to an age and generation which has hardly a notion of form at all; which loves roughness and extravagance for its own sake rather than for what it is pleased to think these exteriors conceal; or which loves only such beauty of form as the time has to offer.... Such a poet can expect no large audience and few warm admirers. He must consider himself sufficiently rewarded if by any chance some verse or stanza of his shall linger long enough on the ear of the public to vindicate his claim to a place, as Mr. Palgrave has elsewhere said, above the vast and pathetic array of singers now silent, who have been honoured with the name of poet, and among the smaller and more fortunate body of those who for some moment at least have attained excellence.*2 102

NOTES

1 Obituary of F. T. Palgrave, Saturday Review, 84 (30 Oct. 1897), 457.

2 E. K. Stedman, The Victorian Poets, 13th ed. (1875; rpt. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1899), pp. 24-6.

J Stedman, p. 247.

^ Henry Adams, review of Lyrical Poems, Hymns, and The Lyme Garland, North American Review, 120 (1875), 438.

G. A. Simcox, review of Amenophis, Bookman, 3 (3 Jan. 1893), 29.

^ J. Hillis Miller, The Disappearance of God (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1963).

7 Adams, 440.

o Anon., review of The Visions of England, The Times, 6 Dec. 1881, p. 3. o A. W. Ward, review of The Visions of England , Macmillan's Magazine, 6 (Dec. 1881), 430.

10 Anon., "An Authority in Poetical Criticism," Saturday Review 82 (19 Sept. 1896), 312.

** E. K. Chambers, review of Amenophis, Academy, 43 (14 Jan. 1893), 123.

12 Adams, 439. 103

CHAPTER FOUR: PALGRAVE AS TREASURER

It was to impose a special kind of fine, eclectic, civilized, romantic taste on generations of English readers; so that a cultivated mind would for ever be conscious of echoing notes: heroic and martial (through Campbell and Scott); pensive and civilized (through Cowper and Milton); plaintive and moving (through Scottish laments and ballads). It would also fix in the English imagination—not least through Wordsworth—that verdant, pre-industrial, pastoral scene which many urban dwellers to this day hazily think is the England in which they live. At the same time it was to give the odd impression that what was not in its pages simply did not exist at all. Nothing in it, by the terms of the thing, is topical, satirical, or argumentative. Nothing is in blank verse or the heroic couplet—these are not the metres for lyric and song. As a result, the classical English eighteenth century was to disappear underground well into our own day. So, for more complex reasons of time and taste, did the metaphysical poets of the seventeenth century.

i: Genesis and Publication

Palgrave's Golden Treasury has had a unprecedented success as an

anthology, as its publication history makes abundantly clear: the book has

never been out of print since it first appeared in 1861, and reprints and

modern adaptations continue to be published with great frequency, although

Palgrave himself oversaw only the first four editions of the book. The

circumstances of Its inception, nevertheless, were relatively humble. The

Treasury was not, as Is repeatedly said, conceived by Tennyson, who then

drafted Palgrave as an editorial amanuensis, but by Palgrave himself. Thomas

Woolner reported to Emily Tennyson on 8 October 1860 that "Palgrave...is busy

reading all the Poets for the purpose of making a collection to publish which

2

he intends to beat that of Allingham. Allingham's anthology, Nightingale

Valley, had appeared in the previous year under the pseudonymous authorship 104

of "Giraldus," and in compiling a competing anthology, Palgrave was at least partly motivated by his jealousy of Allingham's intimacy with the Laureate, whom Palgrave wished to regard as his special friend and patron. Tennyson's involvement, then, may have been even less intentional than is generally thought, and his role may even have been initially something of an embarrassment, owing to Palgave's obvious indebtedness to Allingham's collection.

The relationship between the two books begins with parallels between the titles. "A Collection including a great number of the choicest Lyrics and

Short Poems in the English Language," as "Giraldus" subtitled Nightingale

Valley, is a clear model for the Treasury's "Best Songs and Lyrical Poems in the English Language." In extending Allingham's mandate from "great number" to "best," Palgrave examined a wider range of poetry in the cause of assembling a narrower but more definitive compilation, but his borrowings from Allingham are far more extensive than either he acknowledged or critics have heretofore recognised, especially In terms of a common canon. The two works share 51 titles—roughly one-quarter of the contents of Nightingale

Valley. However, when the 60 poems by living poets (including seven by himself) are subtracted f rom Allingham's total (211), the common total rises to over one-third. Palgrave cites his rival's anthology as the copy-text source for only one poem—Wotton's "The Character of a Happy Life" (no. 72)— in the Treasury, but Nightingale Valley must figure prominently in any critical examination of influences on Palgrave's work. That the Treasury flourished and Nightingale Valley was relegated to a mere footnote In 105

publishing history is one of those literary accidents for which there is no single explanation. Palgrave's personal taste, particularly his inclusion of a considerable number of poems new to his readers, his decision to exclude living writers, and the active involvement of Tennyson all contributed to the prestige and fame of the Golden Treasury.

The story of the Treasury begins with Palgrave's discussion of the need for a good lyric anthology with Alfred Tennyson while the two men were on a walking tour of Cornwall in the summer of 1860. Tennyson had published the first four Idylls of the King the previous year, and hoping to gather atmosphere for the next installment, they set out for Tintagel, accompanied by Val Prinsep and two members of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, William

Holman Hunt and Thomas Woolner.

These facts are well-known, but considerable critical confusion exists about who was actually responsible for the idea of the book. The view of modern critics already alluded to above, that Palgrave was only the "nominal compiler," is founded on the assumption that Palgrave's minor status in nineteenth-century letters is inconsistent with the considerable achievement 3 of the Golden Treasury. Christopher Clausen, for example, in a long article on the Treasury entitled "The Palgrave Version," states categorically that "because Tennyson suggested to Palgrave the idea of producing an anthology and collaborated in making the selections, the book has often been 4 regarded as a monument to official Victorian taste." Clausen is mistaken on both counts. Not only was Tennyson not the prime mover behind the book, but contemporary critics and friends of the two men are quite adamant in asserting that Palgrave himself suggested the idea of the anthology and, 106

encouraged by the older man, immediately began to consider it seriously. As

Palgrave says, "I had put the scheme of my Golden Treasury before him during

a walk near the Land's End in the late summer of 1860, and he encouraged me

to proceed, barring only any poems by himself from insertion in an anthology whose title claimed excel1 ence for its contents" (2.49, 500). This version

is confirmed by Holman Hunt in his memoirs:

Palgrave was a man of solid culture, and was engaged at the time on his unrivalled forthcoming selection The Golden Treasury.... Palgrave refers in his enthusiastically graceful acknowledgement in the dedication to his volume to the advice and assistance he had gained from the great poet in these critical investigations; they were at times continued throughout the day, at times on the heights of a cliff or on the shore below, while we painters were loitering over notes of features of the scene which fascinated us.^

Even if contemporary accounts giving Palgrave credit for the idea did not exist, an examination of the Treasury's editorial theory and practice

reveals not only that Palgrave made the basic selection of poems before

consulting Tennyson and did not always defer to Tennyson in making the final editorial decisions, but also that Tennyson perhaps undertook to help with

the project "originally through a combination of generosity to Palgrave and a

thoroughly understandable willingness to fall in with anything that would keep him quiet.

On their return from Cornwall to London in late September 1860, Tennyson went immediately to his house on the Isle of Wight; he did not see Palgrave

again until Christmas, which Palgrave was invited to spend with the

Tennysons. By the end of October, Palgrave had completed his preliminary

planning on the Treasury, and he began soliciting assistance from his other

two advisers, Thomas Woolner and George Miller, the latter a colleague from

the Education Office. The tone of the closing sentence of Palgrave's October

1860 letter to Tennyson makes clear that Tennyson intended his initial 107

encouragement to be his only contribution to the anthology:

Since I returned I have worked steadily for two or three hours A a day at making the collection of English Lyrical Poems which we discussed in Cornwall; and I have spoken about it to Macmillan, who gives a conditional consent to act publisher. I have gone through the whole of Chalmers' Collection, and through several of the writers not included in it, and have thus made a preliminary list of contents, which I am going over with Woolner. Whenever this is in order I hope you will let me go through it with you. (Life, p. 64)

Under pressure from Palgrave, however, Tennyson agreed to arbitrate the final

choice of poems, and he left Palgrave to complete his preliminary selection.

Throughout the fall of 1860, Palgrave read extensively in the English

lyric. His contemporaries agree that he went to extraordinary lengths to

ensure that he had missed nothing of importance. Charles Morgan, historian

of the house of Macmillan, says that the book was "gathered together by the

compiler with immense labour,"7 and Thomas Woolner wrote on 9 December 1860

to Emily Tennyson that

Palgrave has nearly finished making his Selections from the Poets, and has throughout shown the most extraordinary interest in his work; in fact he scarcely seems to think of anything else than the work he is engaged upon. He certainly has an astonishingly acute and quick mind in reading an enormous amount and extracting the best things.8

While Palgrave examined almost every major eighteenth- and

nineteenth-century collection of lyric poetry in the course of his

preparations, the issue of his sources for the Golden Treasury cannot be

fully or finally resolved. Fortunately, however, Palgrave's manuscripts for

both the first and second series of the Treasury are extant, and their' marginalia make it possible to identify positively the copy texts for 20

percent of the poems in the first series of 1861. 108

Bound in two separate folio volumes—whether by Palgrave or someone else

is uncertain—the manuscripts were presented to the British Library in 1930

by Palgrave's daughter, Margaret (Add. MS. 42126). According to an

inscription by Palgrave in the first volume, "the book was printed from this

M. S." However, since the poems in the manuscript are numbered according to

an earlier organisation principle, and the sources identified in the

manuscript and the marginalia were not included in the printed volume,

Palgrave must have made extensive revisions in proof stage, but no proofs of

the Treasury are known to have survived.

The manuscript texts are of two main sorts. Holograph fair copies, mostly Palgrave's, but some in the hand of an unidentified amanuensis

(perhaps George Miller), constitute by far the greatest number; but the

volume also contains many pasted-in cuttings, principally of poems by

Wordsworth and Milton, both of whom are lavishly represented in the volume,

selected presumably from readily available, but unspecified, editions.

Because the manuscript contains so little evidence of textual revision or

correction—the texts of the poems have already largely been excised or

rearranged—and little indication—other than the number changes—or internal

restructuring, it seems likely that Palgrave's preliminary editing was done

previous to the compilation of the manuscript.

The principal worth of the manuscript, therefore, is not textual. Its main value lies in the identification of sources and in the marginalia, the details of which will be discussed later in this chapter. There is no

evidence, however, that the three "collaborators" ever actually handled the manuscript; indeed, the facts that the marginalia are all in Palgrave's hand, 109

that the manuscript records editorial assessments which Palgrave did not in every instance follow, and that the final printed ordering departs in some cases from the manuscript—all testify to the editorial control that he exerted in compiling the Treasury.

Notwithstanding the breadth of his reading and researches, Palgrave does not seem to have consulted first editions or manuscript sources. Scholarly editing of non-classical literary texts was, of course, in its infancy in

1860, and that Palgrave relied entirely on reprints, collections, and anthologies for his copy-texts for poetry, even for editions of the Romantic poets, is hardly surprising. The result of this practice is that the text of virtually every one of the 288 poems In the final published version is suspect in one way or another by modern standards.

The copy texts for 64 poems—one-fifth of the total—are identified in the manuscript, and they come from sixteen separate sources. A further 74 poems have been cut out of unidentifiable printed sources and pasted into the manuscript, with several poems made up from two or more different printed versions. Palgrave also referred to a wide variety of works of the English poets which he borrowed from Macmillan although he did not cut poems from those texts, returning all the volumes intact. In a letter to his publisher, he asked for unspecified editions of Wordsworth, Campbell, Milton, Burns,

Gray, Collins, Hartley Coleridge, Motherwell, Thomas Moore, and Joanna

Baillie and also for suggestions for "good collections of Scotch Songs: besides Scott and Burns: I mean, collections in which I should find Allan

Cunninghams [sic] or such as The Land o' the Leal." Interestingly, in the same letter he also asked for collections by American poets on the grounds 110

that "I wish that no one whom I can overhaul shall go by default: however

unlikely," although no works by Americans actually appear in the final 9

edition. In spite of his thorough and careful preparation, Palgrave was

ready to accept any available reading, however unreliable, for his copy-text,

and he was equally willing to "overhaul" any poems which he regarded as

having potential. Lacking the modern reverence for the authority of text, he

saw the editor's role as being in a very real sense creative.

About one-third of the poems whose direct source can be identified come

from Alexander Chalmers' highly unreliable expanded edition of Doctor

Johnson's Works of the English Poets (1810). Twenty-four known copy-texts

for Golden Treasury poems derive from Chalmers, primarily the lyrics of the

seventeenth- and eighteenth-century poets who were out of fashion and whose

poems had hence not been reprinted. Palgrave supplemented Chalmers' coverage with Bell's Annotated Edition of the English Poets (1845-7), Campbell's

Specimens of the British Poets (1819), and Chambers' Cyclopedia of English

Literature (1843-4), all large early nineteenth-century collections and all

fraught with inaccuracies and misattributed poems. Even with their faults,

though, they did provide texts for the hard-to-find lyrics of those earlier periods.

For the Elizabethans, Palgrave was forced to rely on badly edited reprints of the great Elizabethan anthologies, such as England's Helicon

(1600) and Davison's A Poetical Rapsody (1602), both of which had been

reissued early in the century in editions by S. W. Singer (1810, 1812). The need for reputable modern texts of the Elizabethan poets was met soon after

the publication of the Treasury by good, cheap reprints not only of the Ill

mainstream lyricists but also of the Elizabethan song-book poets, particularly Thomas Campion, whom Palgrave preferred to the better-known poets. He included more than twenty poems by madrigal poets in the later editions of the Treasury. In fact, the Treasury's revival of some of the lesser-known Elizabethans, such as Nash, Lyly, and Lodge, was at least partly responsible for the later popular reprints by Bullen, Arber, and Grosart, all of whom Palgrave acknowledged in the preface to the expanded editions. He also used Ellis' Specimens of the Early English Poetry (1790) for the ballads which play such a large role in the collection.

The prominence of the ballad in the Golden Treasury reflects Palgrave's admiration for the great ballad collections of the eighteenth and early nineteenth century: Percy's Reliques (1765), Scott's Minstrelsy (1802),

Blackie's collection of Scottish songs (1843), and Ritson's ballad collections (1783-94), all of which are sources for the Golden Treasury.

However, his emphasis on the ballad springs also from his distaste for much, if not most, of the lyric poetry of preceding periods; rather than include poetry he disliked, he fleshed out the first three books of the Treasury with ballads.

Palgrave's editorial practice was quite straightforward. From his encyclopedic reading, he gathered a tentative list of poems. He then assembled the poems into a preliminary order either by cutting the texts from printed sources, copying the poems directly himself, or allowing an unidentified amanuensis to do so, probably without checking the transcriptions for accuracy. Although he worked alone during the compilation

stage, he wisely took the work to Woolner and Miller for approval. The three 112

men—Tennyson was not present—convened often that fall for what Palgrave calls in the manuscript "courts of poetry," during which the poems under consideration were read aloud and discussed at length. While Woolner and

Miller discussed their verdicts, Palgrave noted their comments in the margins of the manuscript, along with their final "grade" for each poem. The code they used is set out in the manuscript: "px" for "print decidedly"; "p?" for "not decidedly; "P" for "print": "pow- for print "on the whole"; and

"0," though not recorded, obviously stands for "omit." Only a few poems were omitted at this stage, and even poems which the collaborators agreed on dismissing were sometimes included in the final version on Palgrave's own authority. All but a handful of the poems were commented upon by one or more of the collaborators.

These annotations reveal not only how much the collaborators differed from Palgrave and from one another, but also how often Palgrave was prepared to reject their opinions altogether and to publish a poem he particularly liked. Poem 127, Logan's "Braes of Yarrow," for example, rates only \ an "on the whole," the lowest of the four "acceptable" categories, from

Tennyson and Woolner and an "omit" from Miller, but Palgrave printed it anyway, along with poem 104, Fletcher's "Hence, all you vain delights," which received "omits" from Woolner and Miller and an "on the whole" from Tennyson.

Yet in spite of his extensive preparations and the hours spent working with

Woolner and Miller, Palgrave did not feel that the book was complete until he had obtained Tennyson's approval. Accordingly, he took the manuscript with him when he went to spend Christmas with the Tennysons at Farringford, and by

22 December 1860, Emily Tennyson's journal records that "Alfred reads the 113

poems to us chosen by Mr. Palgrave for his 'Golden Treasury'."

Palgrave and Tennyson spent the days around Christmas going over the entire collection, which Tennyson read aloud to test every poem's excellence.

Palgrave also read poems aloud to his advisers, but, unlike Tennyson, who found recitation an invariable guide to quality, Palgrave gives no sign that he considered reading aloud an important editorial guideline. Tennyson also commented on almost every poem, disagreeing violently with Palgrave on occasion. Palgrave included six poems against Tennyson's express wishes—Wyat's "And wilt thou leave me thus" (no. 33), Barnefield's "As it fell upon a day" (no. 34), and Wither's "Shall I, wasting in despair" (no.

103), remained in all the editions, but three others, Constable's "Diaphenia"

(no. 15), Sewell's "The Dying Man in his Garden" (no. 163), and Shelley's

"Life of Life" (no. 271), were dropped in deference to Tennyson's opinion in later editions (2.49, 500).

Tennyson could be adamant about his choices, and Palgrave notes in the marginalia to the manuscript of "Lycidas" that "he would not hear of the book unless it had this [poem and] Allegro, Penseroso—Gray's Elegy," but although

Palgrave deferred to him in this case, he was not entirely convinced, stating in the preface to the Treasury that "poems, as Gray's Elegy, the Allegro and

Penseroso, Wordsworth's Ruth or Campbell's Lord Ullin, might be claimed with perhaps equal justice for a narrative or descriptive selection" (ix-x).

Tennyson's most interesting choices, apart from his predictable fondness for

Scott, Byron, Shelley, and Wordsworth, were from the seventeenth- and eighteenth-century poets. He greatly admired Vaughan's "Retreat" (no. 75),

Waller's "Go, lovely rose" (no. 89), which, Palgrave notes in the manuscript, 114

Tennyson "read...aloud twice from sheer admiration to Mrs. Tennyson and me,"

Lyly's "Cupid and Campaspe" (no. 51), which he called "one of the most elegant things in English," and Lovelace's "On Lucasta, on Going to the Wars"

(no. 83), of which Tennyson "said with perfect seriousness, I would rather have written this than all I have written—he admired its gallant high hearted tone so greatly." Tennyson also encouraged Palgrave to include more poems by Cowper and Collins, particularly "The Passions" (no. 141), of which

Palgrave says, Tennyson "insisted on this, as I now see, rightly. Collins' obscurity caused us with great regret to omit some of his other Odes."

Tennyson's taste was obviously broader and less rigid than Palgrave's own: in discussing Marvell, as Palgrave also records, he "greatly pleaded for the lover ["To his Coy Mistress"]—but I thought one or two lines too strong for this age."

Tennyson was less successful in his attempts to influence the book by tampering with the texts of the poems. As B. Ifor Evans says in his article,

"Tennyson and the Origins of the Golden Treasury," "Tennyson had one foible that must have been disconcerting to his collaborators. When he found a line which appeared to him flat or meaningless he sometimes 'improved' it without apparently consulting any authority beyond the dictates of his own taste.In his "Recollections" for Tennyson's Memoir, Palgrave gives an example of this habit:

And the infelicitous "mermaid's song condoles" of the "Battle of the Baltic" tempted him to a "How easily could a little blot like this be cured! If we had but Tom Campbell in the room to point it out to him"; adding, however, a tale how Rogers had done the same office for another poem; and how Campbell had bounced out of the 115

room with a "Hang it! I should like to see the man who would dare to correct me!" (2.49, 502-3)

The manuscript also reveals that Tennyson tried to have Palgrave adapt

Lovelace's "To Lucasta, On Going to the Wars" by substituting for "A sword, a horse, a shield," the new line "A sword, a lance, a shield," but Palgrave comments that "unhappily the original edition gives no warrant for this improved reading of his." Evans describes Tennyson's habit of "improving" the lyrics in the Treasury well, but he does not reveal that while Palgrave faithfully recorded Tennyson's proposed "improvements" in the manuscript, none of them appear in the final published texts. Palgrave's personal admiration of Tennyson did not extend to condoning his actual rewritings of texts, notwithstanding his own readiness to allow silent omissions and transpositions. Tennyson did, however, encourage Palgrave to make the editorial excisions which are the hallmark of the Golden Treasury. He suggested, for example, that Palgrave cut the two central stanzas of Hood's

"The Death Bed," (no. 235) and the fourth to last stanza of Cowper's

"Alexander Selkirk" (no. 160).

Although Tennyson did not succeed in rewriting the texts of the poems in the Golden Treasury, he influenced the final form of the book in two significant ways. The first and more important is that by refusing to allow his own poetry to appear, he led Palgrave to exclude all work by poets alive after 1850, with the exception of Samuel Rogers, who is represented in Book

III, the eighteenth century, although he did not die until 1855. Palgrave had originally intended to follow Allingham's plan in Nightingale Valley and include work by contemporary poets, but one of the weaknesses of the earlier 116

book was the large number of second-rate poems by Patmore, Landor, and

Allingham himself, which jeopardised the quality of the whole book.

Palgrave's taste in the work of his contemporaries was equally fallible, as his Second Series of the Golden Treasury of lyrics by living poets (1897) shows; by terminating his coverage in the initial Treasury with the

Romantics, Palgrave brought his best and most objective critical judgments into play. Thus, by vetoing the inclusion of his own works, Tennyson indirectly ensured the Treasury's success.

Tennyson also recognised the imbalance in Book IV of the Golden

Treasury, and he tried to persuade Palgrave to reduce the number of

Wordsworth lyrics in the book. The extraordinarily large number of

Wordsworth poems in the Golden Treasury—41 out of a total of 288—has always been controversial, most critics agreeing that it is a flaw; Tennyson tried to reduce the number, but managed to remove only one poem. Palgrave wanted to add "Yarrow Revisited" to the "Yarrow Unvisited" (no. 257) and "Yarrow

Visited" (no. 258) already included, but Tennyson "however insisted on the omission of Yarrow Unvisited with many other of Wordsworth's later poems—give the best of so great a man—not what he wrote in old age etc."

Tennyson's open-minded and enthusiastic approach to the little-known poems in the Golden Treasury speaks for his obvious love of the English poetic tradition, a love which was broader and more tolerant than Palgrave's.

In the final analysis, the advice he gave to Palgrave, had it been followed to the letter, would have produced an entirely different "treasury" of

Tennyson's personal favourites, verbally "improved" where they fell short of the Laureate's ideals. 117

After Tennyson's exhaustive scrutiny of the poems that Christmas,

Palgrave noted in the manuscript that afterwards he added only a few poems,

"about most [of which] I know he would have approved," and he felt the book was ready for publication soon after the New Year. Palgrave wrote to

Macmillan on 24 January 1861 that the manuscript was complete, apart from

some copyright permissions, and he predicted that it would arrive at the

publishers by the end of the month. In early February, he was inspecting

paper samples, and two weeks later he was reading proofs and discussing

advertising for the book. On 23 April a proof page was sent to Tennyson for

approval, and Palgrave was looking at possible bindings and a vignette for

the title page. By the end of the month, the book was virtually in final

proof-copy form: only one poem—Shakespeare's "Farewell! thou art too dear

for my possessing" (no. 31)—was added afterwards. Still, it was more than

two months before the book finally appeared.

Part of the delay can be blamed on a printing error which Palgrave had

failed to pick up in the proofs. He had overlooked the duplication of an

unspecified sonnet, and on 24 May 1861 he overrode the printers' objections

that no one would notice and demanded that the error be corrected at his

expense on the grounds that "I should never look on it with satisfaction.—As

I made it, it is proper that I should pay for it" (Berg). Palgrave also

contributed to the long delay by his inability to decide upon an engraved

vignette for the title page. He had begun discussing suitable subjects as

early as April 1861, but he did not come to a final decision until the end of

June. His initial choice, an engraving from Raphael, was rejected by

Macmillan because the printer decided that it would not reproduce well, and 118

after considering the engraving of a Greek carved gem like that which

appeared in his later (1865) selection from Shakespeare, Palgrave finally

chose a sketch of a Pan-like figure, drawn by his friend Woolner and engraved

by Jeens, which appeared in all editions of the Treasury in his lifetime.

When the Golden Treasury was finally issued, around 17 July 1861—no

final date appears anywhere in Palgrave's papers or in the Macmillan Papers,

but one copy exists with that date on the flyleaf in Palgrave's hand—a few

days after the death of Sir Francis Palgrave, the book's reception with the

public was anxiously watched by the Macmillan brothers because the volume

marked their entry into poetry publishing. The company was less than twenty

years old when Palgrave brought his idea for an anthology to it, and, as the

title page of the Treasury shows, Macmillan was still in the process of moving from its original small bookshop headquarters in Cambridge to a larger

office in London's Covent Garden. A perusal of their Bibliographical

Catalogue reveals that their list in 1860 was composed almost entirely of

textbooks, particularly mathematics texts, sermons, and theology, all slanted

towards the Colonial market.

Palgrave never explained why he had chosen Macmillan to publish the

Treasury: possible reasons might be that the Macmillan brothers moved in his

literary circles or that no larger firm would touch such a relatively

unpromising project as an anthology. As the official biographer of Macmillan

relates, the company approached the publishing of the Treasury warily:

Alexander, intuitively aware of its importance, determined to "make a gem of it" but published it cautiously, printing at first only 2000 copies. There was, he acknowledged, a sense in which it was true to say that verse was a drug on the market. Had not David Masson mournfully calculated that there were some twenty-thousand respectable versifiers in the British Isles? 119

Although Palgrave and Macmillan had taken considerable time and trouble to ensure that the handsomely bound olive-green book in a handy pocket-octavo size was attractive to buyers, both editor and publisher had few hopes that the book would make much of an impact. The unexpectedly large sales of the book encouraged the company to make popular editions of poetry a mainstay of their offerings, and before long the Macmillan brothers had cornered a large portion of that lucrative and expanding market. The Golden Treasury also spawned the highly successful Golden Treasury Series, a title suggested by

Woolner, which specialised in "improving" works, anthologies, poetry

(including Arnold's selections of Wordsworth and Byron), fiction, and prose for a general audience. The first book in the Golden Treasury Series, which began in 1862, seems to have been Roundell Palmer's religious anthology, The

Book of Praise, followed by Coventry Patmore's The Children's Garland from the Best Poets. Within twenty years the company was transformed from a parochial publisher of colonial textbooks into one of the most important literary publishers of the nineteenth century and one of the few who were in a financial position to bid—successfully—for the exclusive publishing rights to Tennyson's works in 1884.

ii: Editing Principles

The enormous success of the Golden Treasury, which amazed both its editor and publisher, can largely be attributed to its timeliness. It was the first anthology consciously to consider a general audience and the first to gather poems intended to constitute part of a unified and complete corpus illustrating the English lyric tradition. Previous anthologies, including 120

Nightingale Valley, had collected "a great many" such poems, but the Treasury

was the first to declare itself complete.

The rapidly growing education system in which Palgrave worked catered not

only to children but also to artisans who attended the new Schools of Design.

Palgrave's understanding of the weak general knowledge of these students made

him aware of their special needs. As mentioned in Chapter One, because he

had himself taught literature at one of the earliest teacher training schools

in England, he was acquainted at first hand with the difficulties of teaching

poetry to students who knew little of either English or classical literature.

He recognised that a new kind of poetry textbook was required for this

audience, which was eager to become familiar with the literature of its own

country. Previous anthologies had fallen into three groups: those

anthologies, such as Nightingale Valley, which consisted of selections of

"gems," representing only the personal taste of the cultivated editor, those

for the "poor," such as the "Railway" and "Cottage" series, or morally

didactic collections, such as Charles Mackay's The Home Affections Pourtrayed

by the Poets (1858). The Treasury, the first anthology deliberately directed

at England's newly educated classes, presented the best lyric poetry in

English in a pocket-sized book with notes. That the lyric had received less

formal critical attention than other literary works in the nineteenth century may also have attracted Palgrave to it, as a genre more readily adapted to

his particular didactic resolve to educate public taste. It was among the

earliest collections intended to give its readers a course in taste without

attempting to improve their moral natures. As Palgrave says in the Treasury

dedication to Alfred Tennyson: 121

If this Collection proves a storehouse of delight to Labour and to Poverty,—if it teaches those indifferent to the Poets to love them, and those"who love them to love them more, the aim and the desire entertained in framing it will be fully accomplished, (viii)

By calling his collection The Golden Treasury of the Best Songs and

Lyrical Poems in the English Language, Palgrave meant, as he says in the preface, "to include in it all the best original Lyrical pieces and Songs in our Language, by writers not living,—and none beside the best" (ix). In a letter to Macmillan written while the Treasury was being readied for publication, he was adamant that the title should not read "a collection of the best" because "if it is put 'a collection of it does not clearly express that the book differs from others in attempting to contain all the best. If you don't like the above, it might be The G. T.: containing all etc" (Berg,

[Apr.-June] 1861). The Golden Treasury was to be a diadem of touchstones for

English lyric poetry, unified and complete in itself.

Palgrave's first significant editorial decision was that he would not attempt a representative history of the lyric from 1526 to 1850. He did not try to illustrate the rich diversity and great experimentalism of the genre over the years as it absorbed foreign forms and themes and moulded them into a native tradition. Instead, he combed the lyrics of past centuries looking for poems which conformed to his predetermined ideals of poetic perfection.

In his introduction to the Treasury, he posits an essentially Platonic view of poetry:

it is hoped that the contents of this Anthology will thus be found to present a certain unity, 'as episodes,' in the noble language of Shelley, 'to that great Poem which all poets, like the cooperating thoughts of one great mind, have built up since the beginning of the world'." (xi-xii) 122

If Palgrave rejected a strictly evolutionary view of the English lyric in

the Golden Treasury in favour of presenting 288 examples of variations on the

same few subjects and narrow poetic techniques, he also deliberately rejected

chronological order within each of the four "books," which cover the

Elizabethans (1526-1616), the seventeenth century (1616-1700), the eighteenth

century (1700-1800), and the first fifty years of the nineteenth century.

Within the individual Books, the poems are presented without regard for their

date of composition or their position in the author's canon: poems by

Shakespeare, for example, are scattered randomly throughout Book I. Instead,

the poems within each Book are arranged thematically. Palgrave used what he

calls a "symphonic" method of presentation:

A rigidly chronological sequence, however, rather fits a collection aiming at instruction than at pleasure, and the Wisdom which comes through Pleasure:—within each book the pieces have therefore been arranged in gradations of feeling or subject. The development of the symphonies of Mozart or Beethoven has been thought of as a model, and nothing placed without careful consideration.(xi)

Palgrave unfortunately does not define this term here or elsewhere, nor does

he specify to which symphonies, or sections of symphonies, he refers. This

thematic principle of organization is one of the achievements of the Golden

Treasury. Seemingly simple in outline, the concept is apparently

untranslatable, and the plan has defied imitation in the century or so since

its first publication, although "Q"'s edition of the Oxford Book of English

Verse attempts something of the same kind of unity.

Each of the four Books follows much the same thematic development: from nature, through the various phases of love—infatuation, passion, and 123

disappointment—to mutability and death. Palgrave presents a series of poems

on the same theme, each poem presenting slight variation on that theme, so

that the sequence moves gradually through a gamut of responses to the theme

of, for example, absence or mutability. The concluding poems of Book III

show his technique:

156, Burns' "John Anderson," 157 Lady Nairn's "The Land o' the Leal," which concludes: "We'll meet and aye be fain / In the land o' the leal," 158 Gray's "Ode on a Distant Prospect of Eton College," with its "Alas! regardless of their doom / The little victims play! / No sense have they of ills to come, / Nor care beyond to-day," 159 Gray's "Hymn to Adversity," 160 Cowper's "The Solitude of Alexander Selkirk, " 161 and 162 Cowper's two "Mary Unwin" poems, the second stating that "Thy spirits have a fainter flow, / I see thee daily weaker grow," 163 Sewell's "The Dying Man in his Garden," 164 Collins' "In the downhill of life, when I find I'm declining,"

165 Mrs. Barbauld's "Life! I know not what thou art."

These nine poems explore a variety of responses towards age, enduring love

and devotion, responses to adversity, and final resignation to the

inevitability of death. Each poem can be read alone, like a sonnet from a

sequence, and still make a self-contained comment, yet, as in a sequence, the

poems' themes provide commentaries on each other. Each poem is also part of a larger concept—the Golden Treasury.

In order to sustain the image of the Golden Treasury as a complete unit, rather than simply a random selection, Palgrave rejected a conventional

contents page or title index, no doubt partly because so many of the titles

are his own, rather than the original or well-known titles. He provides only

an alphabetical first line index and an author index in which the poem 124

numbers for each author are given. This comparative lack of documentation means that the reader looking for a particular title is forced to browse

through the book and to refer to the poems themselves more often than in a conventional collection. In the process, he will, Palgrave hoped, be distracted by other interesting—and possibly new—poems and thus gradually increase his acquaintanceship with English lyric poetry.

Palgrave's rejection of all but a token sense of chronology in the Golden

Treasury in favour of what he calls "the most poetically effective order"

(xi) is based on his conviction that all great poetry conforms to the same eternal criteria. The disproportionate sizes of the four books confirm this view: Palgrave did not feel bound to provide as much coverage for the poetry of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries (55 and 49 poems respectively), which he generally found obscure and too reliant on rhetoric and poetic convention, as he did for the poetry of the Romantics (123 poems), which conforms much more closely to his ideal of simplicity.

In fact, the selection is in many ways so eccentric and personal that it is remarkable it made such an impact on its own time, let alone that it was, for several generations of readers, the standard introduction to the history of the English lyric. The book does not even attempt a representative survey, yet it is generally regarded as an indispensable document on the history of the lyric and a monument to conventional Victorian taste; what

Angus Ross, in the Penguin Companion to English Literature entry on the

Golden Treasury, calls "rivetting a mid-Victorian sensibility on the English readers of poetry," even though Palgrave's contemporaries found his choices

11 somewhat revolutionary. His editorial peculiarities include 125

not only his highly personal selection of poems, but also his sometimes odd glosses to poems in the notes, where his political and personal prejudices often intrude, and, most significantly his technique of using deletions, transpositions and collations in order to obtain a text which conforms more closely than the original to his touchstone qualities.

His writings on literature reveal that Palgrave's general critical principles are his own version of quasi-Arnoldian classicism, but, despite this debt to Arnold, Palgrave lacks Arnold's flexibility, tolerance, and ability to develop new ideas. He also places severe restrictions on appropriate metres and the possible range of subjects.

He is not interested, for example, in imperfectly crafted poems which reflect a vivid sense of the time in which they were written, and he refuses on those grounds to consider Chaucer. Neither does he feel obliged to present the generally accepted "masterpieces" or works by poets revered by the public, preferring, he says, to believe that "popular estimate is serviceable as a guidepost more than a compass" (x). Such contemporary favourites as Leigh Hunt, Walter Savage Landor, and Felicia Hemans are omitted, or, as in the case of Southey and Rogers, given meagre space. Only works which meet a very narrow definition of perfection are admissible: careful polish, a single subject, and undecorated expression. His ideal poem, above all, has as its subject a romantic, simplified image of England, her history, and her landscape, as represented in such poems as Wordsworth's

"Reaper" (no. 250) and "She dwelt among the untrodden ways" (no. 177),

Thomson's "Rule Britannia" (no. 122), and Cowper's "Loss of the Royal George"

(no. 129). 126

Palgrave's definition of the lyric is based on his concept of "unity."

In the preface to the Treasury, he argues that "each Poem shall turn on some single thought, feeling, or situation" (ix), an idea which immediately limits drastically the number of lyrics available for consideration and ensures that the book constitutes a series of variations on single themes rather than extended arguments. Many of the lyrics are taken from sonnet sequences, such as those by Shakespeare, Drayton, and Sidney, but Palgrave regards each lyric as easily separable from its fellows, although the Treasury itself follows such a thematic arrangement. And even when he selects more than one sonnet from a sequence he does not, for example in his use of Shakespeare's sonnets in Book I, present them in their original order. His concern with unity extends from the subject to the form of the poem: his belief that "Excellence should be looked for rather in the Whole than in the Parts" challenges the contemporary taste for the "purple passage." Indeed, he states categorically that "a few good lines do not make a good poem" (x). That brevity is a desirable attribute for the lyric is evident also in his conviction that "we should require finish in proportion to brevity," and this turns out to be the case, with just over 50 percent of the poems at twenty lines or less (x).

For Palgrave, the more carefully polished, or "finished," a poem is, the more admirable it is, and inevitably short poems are more likely to display such consistent polish. Palgrave prefers poems with modest aims—no lengthy or complex argument, no expansive and elaborate expression, and no reliance on rhetorical devices—a poem "shall reach a perfection commensurate with its aim" (x)—because they are more likely to approach that perfection of form.

Palgrave examined every prospective lyric in isolation in order to 127

assess the level of its conformity to his ideals. Although the traditional

"great" poets—Shakespeare, Milton, Gray, and Wordsworth—are lavishly represented in the Treasury, he tried to ensure that their works were not

included merely because of their authorship. In fact, he attempted to avoid

that pitfall by his criterion that "a Poem shall be worthy of the writer's genius" (x), so that bad poems by great poets would not be more highly

regarded than excellent poems by minor neglected poets. And he did include a

large number of poems by writers of whom it can be fairly said that they wrote only one good poem: Sewell's "The Dying Man in his Garden" (no. 163),

Mrs. Barbauld's "Life" (no. 165), and Charles Wolfe's "The Burial of Sir John

Moore at Corunna" (no. 218), for example.

If Palgrave had rigid and highly exclusive editorial criteria concerning

the form of the lyric, he was equally narrow in his definitions of the

possible metres and contents. He immediately rejected, for example, all

poetry written in blank verse and "the ten-syllable couplet" (ix) on the

grounds that such metres are inherently unlyrical. His exclusion of the

ten-syllable couplet in particular even further limited the number of poems

available to represent the eighteenth century, for which he had little taste

in any case. He did include "L'Allegro" (no. 112) and "II Penseroso" (no.

113), however, even though they are in blank verse, but only, as already noted, at Tennyson's insistence.

But even more restricting than his rejection of two important metres are

his strictures on content. Palgrave classified certain subjects and

approaches to these subjects as inappropriate for the lyric: 128

narrative, descriptive, and didactic poems,—unless accompanied by rapidity of movement, brevity, and the colouring of human passion,—have been excluded. Humourous poetry, except in the very unfrequent instances where a truly poetical tone pervades the whole, with what is strictly personal, occasional, and religious, has been considered foreign to the idea of the book (ix).

As his 1865 review of the verse of Praed and Milnes shows (5.15), he resented the trivializing of poetry for "occasional" ends, and he condemned humour for the same reason—although he was unable to resist the whimsy of "On a

Favourite Cat, Drowned in a Tub of Gold Fishes" (no. 120). "Strictly personal" poetry is rejected because it does not conform to Palgrave's belief that poetry should do more than simply express private emotions such as love.

Palgrave elsewhere makes a distinction within the "subjective" love lyric:

The lyric, whilst expressing individual feeling, may also represent universal feeling. The Poet's personality may be felt to be that of human kind. The objective quality may be latent in the subjective.... The poem which expresses a single mind, which does not appeal to the common human heart, will often spring from an exceptional or fantastic temperament. Such are the fanciful lyrics of the seventeenth century which we owe to writers such as Donne, Crashaw, or Lovelace: nor is the race extinct in our own time. (4.15, 345)

In discussing his own love or mutability, the poet must also provide some general "universal" comment on the theme of love or mutability itself.

Narrative and descriptive poems are excluded because they tend to contravene the criteria of unity and "finish," although Palgrave's personal passion for "objective" landscape poetry and ballads led him to include a number of poems, such as "Ruth" (no. 273), which come close to defying his strictures. And he also left himself a loophole by specifying that any or all of the above excluded areas would be considered if they conformed to any of the quintessentially lyrical criteria of "rapidity of movement, brevity, and the colouring of human passion" (ix). 129

Other appropriate subjects for the lyric include a variety of secular

philosophical issues such as romantic interpretations of nature, mutability,

and patriotism, which comprises the range of subjects presented over and over

again in the Treasury. The book as a whole paints a picture of the history

of the English lyric which, by omitting poets like Donne and Raleigh, misrepresents the true variety and diversity of the genre.

Despite his disclaimer against it in the preface, Palgrave also

considered religion an appropriate subject for the lyric. Conventional

religious faith is represented in poems such as Drummond's "Saint John

Baptist" (no. 61) and Milton's "On the Morning of Christ's Nativity" (no.

62), and Palgrave also accepted only lyrics which deal with death within the

context of faith. The speculative theology and religious agonies of the

Metaphysicals are too tortured in content and expression for Palgrave's

taste.

Patriotism is permitted, indeed encouraged, as a subject for an

anthology whose editor was trying to create a distinctively English poetic

tradition, but Palgrave accepted almost no questioning of the conventional

view of English history, as reflected in poems such as Collin's "How sleep

the brave" (no. 124), Marvell's "Horation Ode upon Cromwell's Return from

Ireland," (no. 65), and Campbell's "Battle of the Baltic" (no. 207). The

only challenge to tradition comes in the gentle cynicism of Southey's "After

Blenheim" (no. 216) which concludes:

'But what good came of it at last?' Quoth little Peterkin. 'Why that I cannot tell,' said he, But 'twas a famous victory.' 130

An examination of the proportional representation given to each theme in

the Golden Treasury is revealing. More than half of all the poems deal with

the theme of love in one of its acceptable aspects, and there are more than

twice as many poems on love as on any other subject. In Book I, the

Elizabethans, for example, there are 46 love lyrics (almost half of which are

Shakespeare's sonnets), out of 61 poems, and the image of love presented in

Book I is summed up by Sidney's "My true love hath my heart" (no. 24) and

Shakespeare's "Shall 1 compare thee to a summer's day?" (no. 18), both

passionate love poems which nevertheless avoid the extravagant language and

poetic conventions which Palgrave so much disliked. Palgrave also generally

rejected the cynical or lascivious treatment of love in Elizabethan poetry,

exemplified for him by Spenser's "Epithalamion," which he "omitted with great

reluctance as not in harmony with modern manners" (311), by Marvell's "To his

Coy Mistress," and by many of Shakespeare's sonnets, and he considered

briefly, as a companion to Marlowe's "Passionate Shepherd" (no. 5), Raleigh's more cynical "Nymph's Reply," but ultimately decided to present only the more

idealised and romanticised image of love. Not himself prudish, Palgrave

personally regretted his emasculation of the English love lyric tradition,

apologising in a letter to Macmillan for his "'Golden Treasury' prudery," and

he excused his bowdlerizations by arguing that he was not putting together an

anthology for his sophisticated friends, who included the collector of

pornography Richard Monckton Milnes, but for an audience primarily composed

of children and newly literate adults (Macmillan Papers, 8 November 1870).

He also contemplated preparing an "amorous" anthology of erotic lyrics called

Under the Rose, but unfortunately he never carried out his plan (Life,

p. 65). 131

After love, the predominant theme in the Golden Treasury is nature, presented in romantic and particularly Wordsworthian terms. Like so many of his contemporaries, Palgrave was greatly influenced by Ruskin's descriptions of Turner's landscapes in Modern Painters, and he combed English poetry looking for lyrics which deal with landscape through pure realistic description, rather than the more characteristically English pastoral of

England's Helicon: "There is, indeed, serious and statesmanlike thought....

There is truth to passion and to nature; but these qualities are generally veiled beneath that dress of pastoralism which in those days divided public favour with Allegory" (4.5, 444). Palgrave distinguishes betweeen realistic landscape and the pastoral tradition, which he disliked, because it degenerates, in his opinion, so easily into cliche and convention and because it is so often an excuse for allegory and moralising. He contrasts earlier depictions of nature with those of Wordsworth, his ideal landscape poet:

Like Milton, Dyer, in what we have termed before the older method, refers every feature in the landscape to man and human interest, and, in the fashion of the day, moralizes on all he sees.... Neither can frankly trust himself to paint Nature only, and must have some human subject as an excuse for landscape—how remote from that art which, with Turner and Wordsworth, has unsealed for us the inmost enchanted fountains of natural beauty! (4.6, 167)

Apart from Wordsworth's poetry, Shakespeare's "Winter" (no. 27) and the opening poem of Book I, Nash's "Spring" (no. 1) are good examples, and

Palgrave included a wide range of ballads for their descriptive powers. The sole representative of Pope's poetry, his "Ode on Solitude"—retitled by

Palgrave as "The Quiet Life" (no. 118)—was written when Pope was twelve, and it is entirely atypical of Pope's talents in its praise of the simple country 132

life: "Happy the man whose wish and care/ A few paternal acres bound,/

Content to breathe his native air/ In his own ground."

Death and mutability are the least common subjects, and the selections are squarely within the context of traditional Christian teaching, avoiding

despair or nihilism. The alternative treatment of mutability is the theme of

carpe diem best reflected in Waller's "Go, lovely rose"-or in carefully

chosen Shakespeare sonnets such as "That time of year thou may'st in me

behold" (no. 28). But perhaps most telling of all is Palgrave's refusal to

include, apart from Hood's "The Bridge of Sighs" (no. 231), any attempts to

present a realistic picture of the problems of his own age. This false image

derives in part from his decision not to include works by poets alive after

1850, but he is still highly selective in choosing poems with rustic

settings. Palgrave's decision to represent only an idyllic rural England has

had a narrowing effect on popular poetic taste.

While the two major strengths of the Treasury are the extraordinarily high quality of the selections and the coherence with which they are fitted

together, its main weakness is that although it purports to be a collection

of all the best lyrics in English, it actually only represents a complete and

unified history of a small section of the English lyric. The narrow scope of

the Treasury is the result of the small range of permitted subjects,

Palgrave's rejection of so much rhetorical language, and his insistence on

unity of subject. He looked at many sources in his search for appropriate

poems, but there are only twelve anonymous and 75 named poets in a volume

which purports to cover more than 300 years of English lyric poetry, and of

those 87 poets, 44 have only one poem each, and Shakespeare, Shelley and 133

Wordsworth among them have more than a third of the poems.

Another obvious weakness of the Golden Treasury is Palgrave's cavalier use of chronology. Book I, the Elizabethans, has seven poems by the now little-known Jacobean poet William Drummond (1589-1649), who belongs in fact in Book II, but whose placement Palgrave justifies on the grounds of

The curious fact that the style followed by Wyat[t] and Surrey...was brought to perfection in Scotland a hundred years later. Drummond of Hawthornden, a poet little known in proportion to his merits, is in most respects the lineal representative of these early amourists. (4.5, 441)

Drummond writes "Elizabethan" lyrics which are better, in Palgrave's view, than the originals. On the other hand, Robert Herrick, whom Palgrave also refers to as having "a real note of the 'Elizabethan' poets" and as being

"the last of Elizabethans," is correctly placed in Book II, the seventeenth century (4.13, 476). A general awakening of interest in the Elizabethans in the three decades following the Treasury's publication gave Palgrave a much wider group of lyrics from which to choose (see Appendix F for details). The fragmentary nature of Book I, with seventeen of the 61 poems by different minor authors, also suggests that although Palgrave mined all possible sources, including the drama and sonnet sequences, in his search for appropriate poems, his appreciation of the Elizabethans was so limited that he had trouble filling it.

But if the eroticism and conventions of the Elizabethan lyric were not entirely to his taste, Palgrave had an even narrower appreciation of the seventeenth-century lyric. Book II, 1616-1700, consists of only 55 poems, or

18 percent of the book. In common with most of his contemporaries, Palgrave did not appreciate the Metaphysicals, and they are represented in the 134

Treasury only by one lyric each by Herbert, Vaughan, and Crashaw. Later editions do atone, to a certain extent, for this original intolerance by presenting newly rediscovered Metaphysicals such as Quarles and Habington, whose works had not been readily available in 1861. Palgrave's disapproval of obscurity and sophistication of language and argument severely limited the seventeenth-century canon open to him. Instead, he turned to Herrick and the

Cavalier poets Lovelace and Suckling, although, of course, their poems, like

Herrick's, are carefully chosen to avoid any hint of indecency, and Palgrave naturally deferred to Milton, who has eleven poems, the lion's share of the book. Marvell and Dryden are almost ignored in favour of a heavy emphasis on seventeenth-century versions of ballads, which Palgrave justifies in a note to "The Twa Corbies" (no. 108) by stating that "If not in their origin, in their present form this and the two preceding poems ["0 waly waly up the bank" and "I wish I were where Helen lies"] appear due to the Seventeenth

Century, and have therefore been placed in Book II" (315). As he says in "On

Printing and Reprinting," "The difference between a ballad reprinted by Scott and the first rude text is sometimes equivalent to the difference between poetry and archeology. We want both versions, but we want Scott's for pleasure" (4.8, 781).

Book II contains two serious editorial errors which suggest that

Palgrave's understanding of the nature of the history of English poetry was often as inaccurate as it was coloured by his critical biases. One of the eight anonymous lyrics, "It is not Beauty I demand" (no. 86), is actually a recognisably romantic lyric by George Darley (1795-1846), who affected a pseudo-Metaphysical style. Palgrave also included a lyric by Walter Scott, 135

"Thy hue, dear pledge, is pure and bright" (no. 105) from Old Mortality, on the highly dubious grounds that it was "written in the character of a Soldier of Fortune in the Seventeenth Century" (315), although he acknowledged his error by removing the poem in later editions.

This lack of appreciation and understanding of the seventeenth century becomes a distinct bias when Palgrave dismisses the eighteenth century almost out of hand. Book III, which covers the longest period, 1700 to 1800, is the shortest of the four, containing only 49 poems, or 17 percent of the total.

Granted that Palgrave was partly responding to the general Victorian distaste for the eighteenth century and that eighteenth-century poetry is not primarily lyrical, Book III of the Golden Treasury is still the weakest of the four. While Swift is not a lyric poet as such, the absence of any poem by him is remarkable, and Pope is represented, as stated above, by only a juvenile and uncharacteristic pastoral lyric. Instead, Palgrave turned first to the traditional and modern ballad, particularly that of Burns, and then to the English ode. Book III presents the eighteenth century in terms of the ballad tradition and pre-Romantic landscape poetry, particularly the work of

Gray, whose "Elegy" sets the tone of the Book, and Palgrave completely rejects the work of the "urban" poets of the period, such as Addison and

Doctor Johnson.

Palgrave's partiality for romantic poetry, which seems most easily to fit his editorial criteria, is evident in the imbalance in Book IV which, with 123 selections, occupies almost half the Treasury, although chronologically the Book spans only the first three decades of the century, notwithstanding its cut-off point of 1850, the year of Wordsworth's death, 136

and of those 123 poems, 75 are written by Wordsworth, Shelley, and Campbell alone.

Palgrave's selection from the English lyric tradition throughout shows a restricted appreciation of all poetry written before 1800, and he unashamedly set out to recast English lyrical poetry in his preferred image. Palgrave concludes his introductory lecture as Oxford Professor of Poetry by pointing to the work of

Wordsworth [who] in his solitary "Highland Reaper" expresses the quality we look for most, and find most frequently, in first-rate lyrics;—the voice of humanity, the cry of the heart;—our own experience given back to us in song; the commonplace of life transmuted into novelty and beauty. (4.15, 346)

And when he could not find poems from the past which conformed completely to his ideals, he simply made excisions from the existing texts until they did.

Palgrave's insistence on what he regarded as the long-neglected criterion of

"unity" in English lyric poetry often left him without sufficient suitable material but he created what he could not find by editing what he had. He argued that if by such changes "the piece could thus be brought to a closer lyrical unity" (xi), then the action was justified, and in fact he believed that he had improved the poem. In the expanded editions, Palgrave allowed this tendency more scope, moving from making serious cuts in poems to cutting sections from longer poems—most notably Marvell's "The Nymph Complaining of the Death of her Fawn" (no. 135, 3rd. ed), which he retitled "The Girl

Describes her Fawn"—and presenting them as separate lyrics.

The original Treasury contains 28 severely-condensed poems, and

Shelley's "Euganean Hills" (no. 274) and Crashaw's "Wishes for the

(Supposed) Mistress" (no. 79), in particular, have each been reduced by 137

almost half. In making his changes, Palgrave altered the nature of the poems so radically that they bear little relation to the originals. In the Crashaw poem, for example, Palgrave removed stanzas 11 to 25, which are devoted to a series of conceits about the mistress' appearance, from "A cheek where grows

/ More than a morning rose, / Which to no box his being owes," which was presumably too strained a comparison for Palgrave's taste, to "Tears, quickly fled / And vain, as those are shed / For a dying maidenhead," which he doubtless found improper. Even more controversial is his reorganisation of the remaining stanzas in order to distort Crashaw's argument. In what he had left of the poem, Palgrave drastically reorganized the stanzas to distort

Crashaw's argument and turn the poet's relationship with his supposed mistress from a physical to a spiritual one. The whole stanzas are too long to quote in their entirety, but the transpositions and reversals given below indicate his methods. Stanzas 31 and 32 of the original are transposed, and stanza 30 follows stanza 10, thereby cutting the argument. Palgrave declares in the preface that he has noted all major textual condensations in the notes, but as the list of such changes in the Appendix attests, this is by no means the case. Palgrave also felt free, as in the Crashaw poem, to transpose lines or even stanzas in the name of that closer lyrical unity.

As well as using omission and transposition, he also collated up to six versions of poems, particularly ballads, as he did with Wotton's "Happy

Life," in his search for "the most poetical version" (xi). Palgrave was adamant that a collection of poetry intended for a modern audience must contain edited poems. As he explains in an article entitled "On Printing and

Reprinting" in 1863: 138

a popular edition must necessarily contain omissions. These will be regulated by the same general principles of editing. Sometimes a stanza breaks the current of thought, or refers onward to other portions of the writer's works. Here by effacement the poem is restored to unity. Sometimes a few lines are so fanciful or obscure, that the average reader would be repelled from proceeding. Sometimes fashion has changed, and what seemed fair outspeaking to Pope or Burns seems already coarseness to us.... Again, there have been writers of whom it is no presumption to assert, that their many gifts did not include the knowledge of when to stop.... No man is in truth so immortal that the world cannot afford to lose some drops of him. (4.8, 782)

Palgrave made equally serious changes in shorter poems also, either to remove what he regarded—for a variety of reasons—as inappropriate or to recast the form of the poem. A good example of the latter is Sidney's "My true love hath my heart" (no. 24), which appears as two quatrains, each followed by the first line as a chorus, but was originally a sonnet.

Palgrave simply omitted the sestet, which is perhaps too "ingenious." The complete poem reads:

My true love hath my heart, and I have his, By just exchange one to the other given. I hold his dear, and mine he cannot miss: There never was a better bargain driven. His heart in me keeps me and him in one, My heart in him his thoughts and senses guides. He loves my heart, for once it was his own, I cherish his, because in me it bides.

[His heart his wound received from my sight; My heart was wounded with his wounded heart; For as from me on him his hurt did light, So still methought in me his hurt did smart. Both, equal hurt, in this chance sought our bliss, My true love hath my heart, and I have his.]

By turning a sonnet into a two-stanza "ditty," as he titled his version,

Palgrave opened himself to charges of editorial deception.*^ He also routinely "compressed" poems, omitting stanzas, as he did in Thomas Hood's

"The Death Bed" (no. 235), an expurgation which he admits in the notes thus: 139

"Two intermediate stanzas have been here omitted. They are very ingenious, but, of all poetical qualities, ingenuity is least in accordance with pathos"

(322). The poem in full reads:

We watched her breathing through the night, Her breathing soft and low, As in her breast the wave of life Kept heaving to and fro.

[So silently we seemed to speak, So slowly moved about, As we had lent her half our powers To eke her living out.

Our very hopes belied our fears, Our fears our hopes belied— We thought her dying when she slept, And sleeping when she died.]

For when the morn came dim and sad, And chill with early showers, Her quiet eyelids closed—she had Another morn than ours.

In the two examples quoted above, Palgrave has taken relatively short poems and cut them by almost 50 percent, and in both cases he has justified the change by arguing that he was omitting "ingenious" language, conceits of expression, or obscurity of ideas. It is interesting to note that Palgrave restored the two intermediate stanzas of the Hood poem in the fourth edition.

Palgrave felt no compunction in making textual substitutions and omissions even though he knew that his chosen readings would provoke controversy. He was right. Reviewers of the first edition complained that well-known versions of their favourite poems had not been included, and he received quite a number of letters through his publisher criticising his editorial practices. However, he was buttressed by his faith that in presenting the "best" lyrics in their "most poetical versions," he was 140

serving the larger cause of ensuring that poetry would survive as an important cultural force in England. As he says in his defence of his editorial methods in the article cited above:

Our first object is now, not to help students to see Shakespeare or Scott as they were, but to teach the young, or the ignorant, or the indifferent to love poetry. Those who learn to love it will soon turn to the author's works in their integrity. One lesson they may then learn will be, how much many poems have gained by the silent changes which have crept in. (4.8, 781)

He had no real sense, in other words, of the sanctity of the text, of retaining the reading intended by the author.

In spite of his readiness to omit sections of text, Palgrave did have a strong sense of the authority of existing variant texts. He distinguished clearly between omissions or textual variants justified by the authority of existing texts and the arbitrary changing of words or lines to "improve" the text purely on the editor's personal authority. Palgrave made no apparent verbal substitutions, apart from a few corrections of "misprints" (309)—as opposed to omissions or collations of variant texts—solely on his own authority; unlike Tennyson, he did not use his own poetic talents to rewrite and improve upon the original language of a lyric. He distinguished between omissions (which are acceptable, even encouraged) and arbitrary substitutions

(which are not). Unfortunately, he felt no such compunction about other

textual changes. A list of all significant textual and title changes in the

Golden Treasury appears in Appendix C.

Palgrave's editorial practice, based on the principle of presenting what he calls "the most poetical version," encompasses a variety of other changes

to the poems. In the preface, he announces that he has endeavoured "to 141

present each poem, in disposition, spelling, and punctuation, to the greatest advantage" (xi) , and in fact the text of almost every poem in the Golden

Treasury has been altered in some way or another. Apart from the textual omissions and transpositions, the poems have been largely retitled by

Palgrave or simply left untitled. As he says in the notes, "The Editor... has risked the addition (or the change) of a Title, that the aim of the verses following may be grasped more clearly and immediately" (321).

Palgrave's reasons for changing titles vary from his desire to redirect the reader's interpretation, as in Shakespeare's "0 Mistress mine" (no. 26), which is misleadingly retitled "Carpe Diem," to cases in which he wishes to distract the reader from an improper interpretation, as in Herrick's "To the

Virgins, to Make Much of Time" (no. 82), which he retitled "Counsel to

Girls," and "Upon Julia's Clothes" (no. 93), from which he removed the title altogether.

Palgrave also routinely altered punctuation, turning periods into dashes, commas, and semi-colons, often changing the meaning significantly.

Although he does announce some changes of punctuation in his preface, he does not admit how widespread and, in some cases, how radical these changes are.

Perhaps his most frequent change is the addition of the exclamation mark, as in the conclusion of Wordsworth's "A slumber did my spirit seal" (no. 180), which in the Treasury reads:

No motion has she now, no force; She neither hears nor sees; Roll'd round in earth's diurnal course With rocks, and stones, and trees!

The added punctuation gives an entirely inappropriate sense of enthusiasm to these well-known lines. 142

Palgrave also routinely modernised the spellings, on the grounds that he wanted to attract an audience which would be repelled by archaic spelling and that such historical accuracy would also create a needless barrier to the enjoyment of a general audience. As he says in "On Printing and

Reprinting":

The reasons which, even in critical republications, have led most editors to modernize the spelling and rearrange the punctuation are much stronger when the book is not for scholars, but for the people. If religion is to be served, they are decisive; if the book be for children, they are decisive also; if for average readers, as our "Railway" and "Cottage" series, they are not less powerful. (4.8, 781)

More serious is his routine capitalisation of abstract nouns such as "Love,"

"Death," and "Life" in order to give the personal expression of the poet a more universal significance in keeping with his editorial principle that the

"purely personal" has no place in his anthology. A good example is the

Epitaph to Gray's "Elegy" (no. 147), which begins: "Here rests his head upon the lap of Earth,/ A Youth, to Fortune and to Fame unknown." In the original, all the nouns are lowercase. Just as serious is his readiness to remove capitalisation, particularly in Shakespeare's sonnet, "Being your slave, what should I do but tend" (no. 10), which in the original concludes

"So true a fool is love, that in your Will,/ Though you do anything, he thinks no ill." Palgrave removed the pun on Shakespeare's name in order to direct the reader away from an unhealthy, personal interpretation and to avoid a compromising footnote.

In conclusion, then, an examination of Palgrave's editorial practices in the Golden Treasury reveals that the texts of the anthology's poems, which 143

for many years were the most widely known in English, are completely unreliable. In the cause of ensuring that poetry would continue to be known

and loved, Palgrave felt free—indeed, compelled—to change the texts on

every level from spelling, punctuation, and stanza form to the omission of upwards of 100 lines of a lyric. The Treasury contains a number of serious

editorial blunders, noted in Appendix E, including misdated and misattributed

poems.

The notes to the Treasury reveal, as Matthew Arnold says, "a delicacy of

feeling in these matters which is quite indisputable and very rare," but "all

the more striking, conjoined with so much justness of perception, are certain

freaks and violences in Mr. Palgrave's criticism," which shortcoming, Arnold

laments, "simply astounds and irritates the hearer by contradicting without a

a word of proof or preparation, his fixed and familiar notions."*"'

Palgrave did temper the violence of some of the notes in the later editions,

but in general the intemperance that is so carefully suppressed in the

Treasury preface resurfaces in the notes.

Palgrave's critical vagaries in the notes to the Golden Treasury can be

divided into two groups. The first consists of unsupported statements of

classification, such as his note to Gray's "Elegy," which he labels "Perhaps

the noblest Stanzas in our language" (318) without providing any reasons for

his choice, and to Herrick's "Poetry of Dress" and "Whenas in silks my Julia

goes" (nos. 92-3), which he glosses as "These are quite a Painter's poems"

(315), although Herrick was not a painter, and Palgrave does not explain what

he means by his comment. But these are relatively harmless in comparison to

his use of the notes to attack other critical viewpoints and historical 144

figures. He glosses Milton's reference to "the Emathian Conqueror" in "When the Assault was Intended to the City" (no. 70) thus; "He was as incapable of appreciating the Poet as Louis XIV of appreciating Racine: but even the narrow and barbarian mind of Alexander could understand the advantage of a showy act of homage to Poetry" (314). Palgrave wisely replaced this comment in expanded editions with a simple explanatory sentence. He also used the notes to the Treasury to correct what he regarded as general critical misconceptions. In his note to the mythological references in Drummond's

"Phoebus arise" (no. 2) he comments that

It has been thought worth while to explain these allusions, because they illustrate the character of the Grecian Mythology, which arose in the Personification of natural phenomena, and was totally free from those debasing and ludicrous ideas with which, through Roman and later misunderstanding or perversion, it has been associated. (308-9)

This note was dropped altogether in later editions. In both examples

Palgrave is attempting, without supporting evidence, to persuade his audience about issues beyond the scope of the anthology.

But in spite of the many eccentricities and limitations of the Golden

Treasury, its publishing history reflects the remarkable power which the book exerted over its audience almost from the day of publication.

iii: Critical Reception

When the Golden Treasury finally appeared in July 1861, Palgrave was understandably worried that the long delays in getting the book onto the booksellers' shelves would harm its chances for success. Anthologies traditionally had few chances for serious attention from reviewers, but the

Treasury was further handicapped by being held up at the printers for more 145

than two months. By the time the book appeared in the bookstores, the major

reviewing for the season was over, and Palgrave and Macmillan had real grounds for fearing that the book would attract no important reviews.

Palgrave's apprehensions about the Treasury's reception were based not only on the fact that the publishing industry acknowledges that summer books rarely succeed, but also that, as discussed above, Macmillan had little experience with publishing and marketing poetry. A further worry to editor and publisher was the number of excellent volumes of poetry, such as

Tennyson's Idyls (1859), already on the market. All these factors doubtless contributed to the general critical silence which greeted the Treasury's publication.

Worried that there would be no reviews at all, Palgrave did his part to get the book noticed. In fact, he assumed a far greater role in the marketing of the Treasury than any publisher could expect, and more than many would find desirable. However, given the firm's limited experience outside of textbooks, Macmillan may have welcomed Palgrave's intervention in this instance. Even before the Treasury went on sale, Palgrave arranged for complimentary copies to be sent to a number of "Schoolmasters and others likely to be of use" (Berg, 3 July 1861). That he had little positive feedback from this action is suggested by his concern over the placement of review copies. Palgrave was particularly eager to have The Times review the book, and, less than two weeks after publication, he began a campaign to secure a notice from that newspaper: "considering the advanced season, it would be a great advantage if the G. T. were reviewed in the Times shortly"

(Berg, 22 July 1861). The Times, ever magisterial in its manipulation .of the 146

book world, confirmed the first of Palgrave's fears by its continuing neglect of the Treasury. Macmillan certainly made the effort to place the Treasury with The Times, sending out the first of what would be several review copies to no effect. Palgrave himself asked his superior in the Education Office,

Sir Robert Lowe, to intercede on his behalf with The Times reviewer later in

1861. Lowe apparently agreed, but from Palgrave's report to Macmillan, he was not hopeful that he could help:

I have given a copy of my book to R. Lowe, who appears willing to recommend it to the "Times" for a review, but said that to send a copy to the Editor would probably be the more effective course. (Berg, [Oct.-Dec] 1861)

Whatever Lowe's role, it had little practical effect in advancing the fortunes of the Treasury with The Times. The paper did not deign to notice the book for ten years, until 20 December 1871, when it was given one sentence in a general discussion of Christmas gift books.

Palgrave also solicited reviews from his friends. According to

Palgrave, his old Oxford colleague J. A. Froude found the book "perfectly excellent" and agreed to review it in Fraser's, which he edited (Berg, 25

July 1861). Froude produced the review for the October issue, but it was disappointingly short, appearing only as part of a longer article on admirable recent publications. Froude was, however, wholly enthusiastic about the book, as he had promised. Palgrave also asked an unidentified friend to recommend the book to W. H. Smith, the bookseller and library owner, but he reported to Macmillan that Smith "appears to have taken his hints kindly. Either Smith or one of his partners remarked that the price was high—I must say all the other remarks I have heard on this point were quite 147

opposite" (Berg, 25 July 1861). In the same letter he told Macmillan that he had also spoken to a sub-editor at the Daily News, but no review has been located for that publication.

Woolner tried to help by writing to "his friend Watts editor of the

Melbourne Argus, who has a more than Times authority in those parts, and got

500 of Patmore's 'Angel' sold there. I am sure that the G. T. is much more angelic than Mrs. P[atmore]—so I hope he will help in clearing the shelves"

(Berg, 22 July 1861). Woolner also enlisted another Australian supporter,

Dr. Woolley, who he maintained "has great powers of recommending books, [and] that he did much for Patmore's, and would be sure to do so for mine" (Berg,

[Oct.-Dec] 1861). Whether these antipodean critics had the required effect has not been determined. But in spite of all their efforts, the Treasury was not reviewed widely: only twelve reviews have been located for the whole of the nineteenth century, and several of the more important were delayed by several months. In all, only five significant reviews appeared in the first three months: in the Saturday Review, the Scotsman, the Spectator, the

Westminster Review, and the Working Men's College Magazine.

By the end of August, the book's fortune had changed, however, and with the appearance of a handful of flattering reviews, Palgrave was writing to

Macmillan, "I am glad to learn the success of the book" (Berg, 5 Sept. 1861).

By 15 September, he could avow that "altogether I have little to complain of from the critics. Whenever you print from fresh type, I shall seriously consider their suggestions" (Berg, 15 Sept. 1861). The notices of the book are generally complimentary and perspicacious in recognising its special qualities. They praised not only its unique arrangement of poems, Palgrave's 148

critical ability in making the selections, and the book's challenge to existing standards of taste, but also, and most significantly, they voiced the general opinion that the Treasury advanced the genre of the anthology beyond the simple arrangement of poetic gems to become itself a creative work. Typical of the tone of the reviews is that by H. B. Wilson in the

Westminster Review;

We are accustomed to turn away from similar collections with disgust, because they usually consist of a heap of good, bad, and abominable poems selected without taste and arranged without care. We are delighted to be able to acknowledge that this "Golden Treasury" is...on the whole, so excellent a work, that we unhesitatingly recommend every lover of English poetry to get the volume and read it.

Wilson recognises what subsequent critics confirmed: the Golden Treasury is sui generis—not merely an improvement on the form of the anthology, but a qualitative advance in the nature of the anthology itself and an innovation

so substantial that it would establish a standard by which all other anthologies would be judged. But if Wilson admires the quality of the book's contents and the manner In which the poems are combined, he has some serious reservations about Palgrave's habitual abridgments of texts which did not conform to his ideal of "unity," reservations which the reviewer expresses through a homely but vivid analogy:

Mr. Palgrave has a perfect right to reject this, or any other poem from his collection, just as he may refuse to receive as a visitor a man whom he dislikes. Were he to ordain, however, that all his visitors who wore beards must cut them off with a view of improving their personal appearance, he would act foolishly and deserve to be ridiculed. It might happen that some of them looked handsomer after their beards were cut off, yet they would justly complain that it was their beards which distinguished them from other men. (606) 149

Wilson was, however, prepared to embrace the Golden Treasury despite these criticisms because he recognised the book's extraordinary quality.

The Saturday Review critic also has some reservations. He identifies as one of the shortcomings of the book its willingness to supply new titles to well-known poems or to omit commonly used and familiar ones. He complains that the practice of giving titles to Shakespeare's sonnets is not only dangerous, but also that "to give a new title is a kind of retouching pro tanto, and a modern Shakesperian heading generally looks like a restoration in an Elizabethan structure—that is, very rarely of a piece with the rest."*7 He also objects to the omission of the customary title of

Cunningham's "A wet sheet and a flowing sea"—"The Snoring Breeze"—on the grounds that "as Mr. Palgrave does not object to manufacturing new headings, it is not unfair to ask him to prefix an old one when tolerably expressive"

(176). In his commendation of the book, the Saturday critic also unwittingly reveals the extent to which Palgrave condensed his texts, assuming, erroneously, that the book is in fact a collection of extracts: "in the arrangement and carefully considered juxtaposition of the different extracts, it is certainly superior to any book of the class we have yet seen" (176).

Palgrave deliberately rejected extracts from his collection, but his heavy editing of many of the poems produced a book which to the informed but casual observer might appear to be composed of them. In spite of these criticisms, however, the Saturday critic ultimately praises the book in terms which are typical of its reception: he expresses his delight that the book had proved that the anthology need not be "a book of extracts for school-room consumption, jumbled together without rhyme or reason, and where Dr. Watts' 150

invariable busy bee alternates with a platitude of Mrs. Barbauld's" (175).

The Saturday critic particularly admires the inclusion of many "detached poems of the highest excellence by authors whose very names many will probably meet here for the first time" (176). The Scotsman review by John

Brown echoes the Saturday's comments:

We have, generally speaking, a dislike of these ultraneous anthologies. The sturdy perversity of human nature dislikes to be told what to like, or why; and most people think their own Elegant Extracts and Golden Treasuries, which nobody, except possibly their wife or their sister, can be prevailed upon to listen to and applaud, far better than any "Carcanet of Literary Gems" or "Beauties," from the heavy Burnett to the scholastic Scrymgeour. But this of Mr. Palgrave's is "full of blessed conditions," and has for these last three hours "ta'en our 'prisoned soul and lapt it in Elysium;" and—what a rare mint—this is greatly owing to the editor and his notes.

After such lavish praise, Brown has little to find fault with in the book, although he regrets that Palgrave had excluded Spenser's "Epithalamion" on moral grounds, arguing that "we would have liked you better still had you not despised 'modern manners,' and printed it" (3).

The Spectator reviewer foreshadows Brown's favourable assessment of the

Treasury, stating that it is the best lyric collection he has ever seen:

On the whole no selection from the English lyrical poets has ever been made which gives so adequately the very essence and aroma of this, perhaps not the most characteristic, but the most original, and in one direction also the most expressive side of our literature.

He points out that Palgrave's choice of the lyric was an extraordinary one for the time. No one had previously taken such care over what was generally regarded as a minor genre of English poetry. But perhaps the highest praise for the Golden Treasury came from A. J. Munby in an extended review in the

Working Men's College Magazine's first number. 151

Munby praises the book uncritically. While he is sorry that some of his favourites have been omitted, he acknowledges that Palgrave had covered himself by setting out his editorial principles in his preface:

There are several poems which one misses much, and notably the 'Ancient Mariner;' but even while regretting their absence, one cannot help seeing that they are only absent because the selectors have rigidly followed out the judicious canons laid down by them for their own guidance, and announced in the editor's preface.

Palgrave never relented about the "Mariner," but he did include "Kubla Khan" in the expanded editions. Munby also particularly praises Palgrave's readiness to reject mediocre poems, a principle of editing which he argues has been greatly neglected by anthologists: "there are only two questions to ask—Have all the best lyrical poems been admitted? and, Have any been let in which are not of the best? This last question is easy to answer. None"

(171).

In summary, therefore, the critics recognised immediately that the

Golden Treasury was an entirely new and admirable variation on the traditional or conventional anthology format. While they note that Palgrave used copy-texts of which they did not approve and that he omitted poems which

they admire, they generally agree that the Golden Treasury represented an advance in the difficult art of anthology making and a reinterpretation of the accepted poetic canon of the day. All acknowledge its quality and recommend the book strongly to their readers. As the Saturday reviewer says

in an article about the 1891 expanded edition:

Considerable courage was needed, in 1861, to publish such a volume as the "Golden Treasury," but to this courage tact and a delicate sense of the fitting moment were added. The actual condition of the production of poetry and the taste of poetical 152

readers was much in advance of the criticism of the age. The fourth section of his book, covering from 1800 to 1850, was that in which Mr. Palgrave showed the most temerity. The old Scotch tyranny still in part prevailed, and to readers of middle life in 1861 it was startling to find Southey almost entirely omitted, Rogers represented by two trifles, such mediocrities as James Montgomery, Pringle, Croly, and Charlotte Smith, hitherto so beloved of the makers of anthologies, resolutely ignored, and even the soft claims of Felicia Remans and L. E. L. stoutly disregarded. In counterpoise, a prominence never before awarded in any book appealing to the wide public was given to Wordsworth, to Shelley, to Keats. Wordsworth, indeed, was represented more copiously than any other poet, and to this preponderance some readers, then young, objected.2*

iv: Subsequent Editions

Pleased as he was with the general tenor of the reviews, Palgrave began to be concerned about the unexpectedly brisk sales of the book after the first two slow months. While initial sales proved heavier than expected,

Palgrave was still not confident that the sales would last, so he urged

Macmillan to produce a second impression quickly because "I have had so many notices that the book was out of print, that I am anxious this should not occur again, in case the sale goes on" (Berg, [Oct.-Dec] 1861). While it is not possible to determine the exact number of copies of the Treasury in print by the time of Palgrave's death in 1897—the last identified is the 67th thousand in 1886—the demand for the Treasury continued steadily long after the copyright expired in 1911. The book rivalled all but a few of the bestsellers of the nineteenth century. The Treasury could not of course compete with Enoch Arden, which sold an amazing 17,000 copies on the first day of publication in 1864 and 60,000 in the first year, but it exceeded In

Memoriam, which appeared in May 1850 and sold only 8,000 copies the first oo year. And it certainly outstripped in sales all previous one-volume 153

anthologies. Upon realising the magnitude of the Treasury's success,

Palgrave was understandably reluctant to tamper with his winning formula, and he left the book almost unchanged for 23 years.

The contents and arrangement of the Treasury did not vary from 1861 to

1884, through twenty impressions. In 1884, Palgrave made the first revisions, and between 1884 and 1891 the Treasury went through three editions and sixteen further impressions for a total of 36 impressions before his death. These figures do not include the American editions, which have generally been excluded from this study. Apart from the 1872 official

Macmillan American edition, nineteenth-century reprints using the Treasury title in the United States are usually piracies and often include a selection of poems by living English and American authors.

One of the remarkable points about the Treasury's publishing history, given Palgrave's initial lack of confidence about its future, is his insistence that he retain full control of the book. Indeed, his editorial supremacy was one of the terms he required in his contract with Macmillan.

When the book was at the printers in January 1861, he demanded assurances that there be "no subtraction or addition to the text, and no illustrations be added without the Editor's consent" (Berg, 24 Jan. 1861). This stipulation covering future editions of a volume with no particular chances of success probably seemed overly optimistic and groundless to Macmillan at the time, but the unexpected and extended popularity of the anthology justified Palgrave's concern.

The initial printing of 2,000 copies was exhausted within two months of publication. Still careful, Macmillan issued an extra 1,200 copies in 154

mid-October, but these did not come close meeting the demand, and by the end of the year another 5,800 were called for—3,800 in November and two separate reprintings of 1,000 each in December to satisfy the Christmas trade. In all, in the first six months after the book's appearance, from July to

December 1861, the Treasury went through 9,000 copies in five impressions.

Only the first four impressions of 1861 have any bibliographical significance. In the second impression of October, Palgrave corrected a number of typographical errors, including a mis-numbered poem, some small spelling errors, and what Palgrave called in a letter to Macmillan making "a few verbal changes" and "correcting stops etc" (Berg, 5 Sept. 1861). More significantly, he also amended a footnote to Keats' "nature's patient sleepless Eremite" (no. 198), which in the first impression he had erroneously glossed as a reference to the Wandering Jew. This error, which had been pointed out by Munby, was the only one which he corrected in the first impression in response to published criticism. He also added two more notes to the final page and dropped an unnecessarily admonitory paragraph addressing "those who take up the book in a serious and scholarly spirit" from the first page of the preface. He refused, however, to amend any of the texts of the poems, although he told Macmillan in September 1861 that he was

"much obliged for every body's hints, but until we set the book up again I think very few will be available. When I return to my books I will reconsider the questions raised" (Berg, 5 Sept. 1861). The texts of the later editions of 1884, 1890, and 1891 had the benefit of not only these early reviews, but, more important, of the many authoritative reprints of earlier poets from which he prepared the texts in later editions. 155

The third and fourth impressions continued the correction of minor flaws in the book, and the changes are detailed in Appendix A. The fourth impression remained the copy text until 1890. Although Palgrave kept a now-lost running file of changes he intended to make when the book was reset, he refused to allow Macmillan to vary the text of the Treasury until 1884, on the grounds that he was afraid the competing versions would hurt sales of the original and that if he continued to tamper with the contents, the implication would be that his basic premise—that the book included all the best lyrics—was faulty. He was obviously reluctant to undermine his authority with constant revisions of his "great tradition."

In 1884, Palgrave issued an expanded second edition, although he continued to refer to it as part of the first. His revisions added only fourteen new poems from different periods to the end of the original sequence. Author and first-line indices were reset to reflect the changes, and a paragraph was added to the preface, which was redated "1861-1883."

Apart from extra selections from some of his favourite poets, the new poems in the second edition show the earliest awakening of Palgrave's interest in the Elizabethan song-book poets, some softening of his prejudice against the Metaphysicals, and a move towards correcting the scanty coverage of the eighteenth century. However, the additions also reveal that the quality of his original judgment had started to falter, and certain defects introduced in 1884 were intensified in the two subsequent editions, particularly a failure to adhere to his—admittedly loose—original editorial guidelines and a tendency to allow his personal sentimentalism to overcome his critical judgment. 156

The four poems chosen to enlarge the Elizabethan complement should actually count as three since both the additions from Shakespeare—"Where the bee sucks" and "Come unto these yellow sands"—are numbered 289. Like the song-book poets, the Metaphysical writers Quarles, Habington, and Vaughan had been systematically reprinted for the first time since the first publication of the Treasury, and Palgrave added Quarles' "E'en like two little bank-dividing brooks" (no. 292) and Vaughan's "I saw Eternity the other night" (no. 293) to the seventeenth-century section to complement the three Metaphysical poems that appeared in the original edition. Still,

Palgrave's distaste for the Metaphysical conceit and complex language caused him to edit both the Vaughan and Quarles poems so severely that they are almost unrecognisable.

Five of the additional poems in the 1884 edition are from the eighteenth century, including Cowper's "The Shrubbery" (no. 297) and "The Castaway" (no.

298). The former had been requested by the Spectator reviewer in 1861, and he also had asked for the anonymous "When I think on the happy days" (no.

296), also included in this edition. But works by Christopher Smart and

William Blake are the most interesting additions. Palgrave turned three poems from Smart's recently rediscovered song-cycle "A Song to David" into a synthetic lyric entitled "The Song of David" (no. 295). This corruption of

Smart's poem is the clearest example in this edition of Palgrave's increasing willingness to present extracts as complete works, always a flaw in the book, and a direct contravention of the stated editorial policy laid out in the preface to the first edition: "as essentially opposed to this unity, extracts, obviously such, are excluded (xi)." 157

Unlike Smart, Blake was not new to Palgrave: an early admirer of Blake's artistic works and a collector of his engravings, Palgrave reviewed

Gilchrist's Life of Blake twice in 1863 (5.7-8). Nevertheless, he apparently did not know Blake's poetry well, which was not reprinted as a whole until

William Michael Rossetti's Aldine edition in 1874. After he read Blake,

Palgrave was eager to incorporate his simpler lyrics in the later editions of the Treasury, and in 1884 he included "Infant Joy" (no. 299) from the Songs of Innocence. The mystical poems do not, of course, conform to his editorial criteria of simplicity and clarity.

The nature of Book IV, the nineteenth century, was not basically altered for the 1884 edition. Palgrave added only Wordsworth's "There's not a nook within this solemn Pass" (no. 301) and the mediocre "If I had thought thou couldst have died" (no. 300) by Charles Wolfe, which joins his "The

Burial of Sir John Moore at Corunna" (no. 218). The 1884 edition thus generally reflects both Palgrave's willingness to include material which had been brought to light since 1861 and a broadening of his taste.

In 1890, the Treasury was reset in a totally new edition. For the first time, Palgrave dropped as well as added poems to bring the total up to 326.

Three of the six omitted poems are by Shelley: "Rarely, rarely, comest thou"

(no. 226) and "Life of Life" (no. 271), both of which Tennyson had disliked and argued against including, and "A widow-bird sate mourning" (no. 265).

With 22 lyrics, Shelley had been the most heavily represented Romantic poet in the original edition after Wordsworth, and the manuscript notes to the first edition reveal that Tennyson fought unsuccessfully to reduce the number 158

of Shelley poems from the beginning. Palgrave also dropped Bacon's "The

World's a Bubble" (no. 57), for no stated reason, and Sewell's delightful

"The Dying Man in his Garden" (no. 163). Tennyson disliked the poem, but it was greatly admired by other reviewers, and they criticised Palgrave's decision to remove it. The sixth omission, Scott's "Thy hue, dear pledge, is pure and bright" (no. 105), was a romantic copy of the seventeenth century style.

The 1890 edition also added 30 new poems scattered throughout the four books, with one-half (sixteen) in Book I, reflecting Palgrave's delight in the newly reprinted song-book and madrigal lyrics. In 1888 and 1889, he had reviewed Bullen's Lyrics from the Song-Books of the Elizabethan Age

(5.30) favourably, and in 1888 he had written an equally enthusiastic general article on the song-book poets (4.19). His critiques quote extensively from the poems, and many of the same ones appear in the revised editions of the

Treasury. Palgrave reserved special enthusiasm for Thomas Campion who has seven poems in the 1890 edition and three more in that of 1891, although unbeknownst to Palgrave, Campion was already represented in the Treasury.

His "Cherry Ripe" (no. 91) appeared anonymously in Book II of the first edition, and although Campion's work was reprinted in the late eighties,

Palgrave neglected to reattribute the poem to him in the third and fourth editions. There are six other song-book lyrics in Book I, all anonymous, so that the first Book was radically affected by the "constant rediscovery of exquisite things lost among obscure Elizabethans," as the Saturday Review 23 critic said.

Palgrave's antipathy towards much of the poetry of the seventeenth century, which he had partly overcome in the 1884 edition, resurfaces 159

in the third edition. He adds only five of the 30 new poems to Book II, and three of them are in fact Elizabethan lyrics, one by Campion and two anonymous, which should have properly been placed in Book I. Also included is a truncated version of Marvell's "The Nymph Complaining of the Death of her Fawn" (no. 135).

If the seventeenth century is shortchanged in the 1890 edition, the eighteenth century is even more severely treated. Palgrave dropped one of the meagre 49 poems of the 1861 edition and added only two more, both by

Blake, whose work also appears in Book IV of this edition, an inconsistency which further justifies the criticism that by 1890 Palgrave had at least partly lost the powers of discrimination which made his 1861 selection so successful. One of the Blake songs is from the Songs of Innocence: "Never seek to tell thy love" (no. 165).

The appropriateness of most of the additions to Book IV is questionable for different reasons. The other Blake poem—"Whether on Ida's shady brow"

(no. 199) is accompanied by two more works by Wordsworth, the lengthy "Lucy

Gray" (no. 217) and "Glen-Almain" (no. 313), taking the total number of

Wordsworth poems to 44. This further swelling of Wordsworth's lyrics provoked complaints from the Saturday Review critic:

We yield to none in reverence of Wordsworth; but in 1861 he already covered more space than any other poet, and Mr. Palgrave is always slipping one more of his (and our) favourites, so that of Wordsworth there are now positively some forty-four examples. The worst of it is that to make room for these fresh pieces the Editor silently drops one lovely old lyric after another. (312)

A further example of Palgrave's failing judgment lies in his inclusion of two lyrics, "I meet thy pensive moonlight face" (no. 215), an extract from 160

"Sad Thoughts," and "Agnes" (no. 280), both by H. F. Lyte, author of "Abide with Me," leading the same critic to wonder of Palgrave "what strange madness has urged him to admit among his little masterpieces two feeble songs by H.

F. Lyte, an interesting person who was essentially not a poet" (312). These flaws in Book IV are somewhat counteracted by Keats' "Ode on a Grecian Urn"

(no. 316) and "To one who has been long in city pent" (no. 282). The 1890 edition shows that, while Palgrave was capable of appreciating poets newly brought to his attention, particularly Campion and Blake, and thereby of broadening the range of the anthology, he also marred the book by some signal weaknesses in critical taste.

The 1891 edition, completely reset only a year after the third edition, is the first to contain the words "revised and enlarged" on its title page, and Palgrave referred to it as the "second edition," although it was in fact the fourth. He was reluctant to label the second and third editions as such, as he said in a letter to Macmillan dated 27 November 1890, "lest this should discourage purchases of the small edition," stocks of which were still on hand (Macmillan Papers). He insisted that Macmillan advertise the first edition along with the expanded ones, "otherwise the new will be supposed to supersede the old" (Macmillan Papers, 1 Jan. 1891). He obviously regarded the new editions as variations on the original rather than as definitive updatings of it.

Four more poems were dropped in 1891. One of them, Constable's

"Diaphenia" (no. 15), Tennyson had always disliked. The removal of

Campbell's "Freedom and Love" (no. 183) is balanced by the inclusion of his 161

"The Beech Tree's Petition," an act which still left Campbell over-represented with eleven selections. Palgrave also dropped Vere's "Fair

Fools," originally included under the politer title, "A Renunciation"

(no. 41), and Darley's "It is not Beauty I demand." Palgrave left the poem in Book II in the 1884 edition, although attributing it correctly to Darley, but in 1891 he dropped it altogether, leading the Saturday Review critic to defend the poem because "it is not merely a marvellous piece of pastiche, it is also a poem of rare and sustained beauty, entirely worthy of a niche in the 'Golden Treasury'" (312). As late as 1957, the editor of the abridged

Cambridge History of English Literature remarked indignantly that the poem had been unfairly removed: "his true century being quickly discovered, his

24 song was unjustly cast out." Palgrave also reattributed an anonymous lyric in Book I, "Absence, hear thou my protestation" (no. 9), to Donne, perhaps to allay criticism that he had ignored the poet, for whose work he had little sympathy, although modern literary historians believe the poem to be by John Hoskins.

The additions to the fourth edition follow much the same lines as those of the edition of the previous year. Campion gets three more lyrics, two in

Book I and one in Book II. Book II is also enlarged by six poems, including the Campion "Jack and Joan" (no. 143), another Marvell lyric, "The Picture of

Little T. C. in a Prospect of Flowers" (no. 105), and an atypically respectable Rochester lyric, "I cannot change as others do" (no. 107). As in the second edition, Palgrave added some Metaphysical poems to Book II:

Habington's "When I survey the bright Celestial sphere" (no. 148), Vaughan's

"They are all gone into the world of light" (no. 138), and Cowley's "On the 162

Death of Mr. William Hervey" (no. 137). Unfortunately, Palgrave's prejudice against these poets' tendencies towards what he regarded as extravagance and obscurity of expression again led him to make substantial cuts to both the

Vaughan lyric, which lost its final three stanzas, and the Cowley poem, which lost 96 of its 152 lines.

Book III is enlarged by only one poem, Collins' "Ode to Simplicity" (no.

153), which brings his total contribution to four. Book IV contains, remarkably, no additional Wordsworth poems, and one Shelley poem is added,

"Rough wind that moanest loud" (no. 334), to compensate for the dropping of three lyrics in the previous edition. The most interesting additions to Book

IV are Charles Lamb's "A child's a plaything for an hour" (no. 183), attributed by Palgrave to Mary Lamb, and Coleridge's "Kubla Khan" (no. 316), making Coleridge's total contributions only three.

This "revised and enlarged" fourth edition of the Treasury was the last expanded edition to appear before Palgrave's death. After 1891 Palgrave left the book alone, turning his attention to the project which occupied his final years: his "fifth book" or "Second Series" of the Golden Treasury, devoted to the work of poets alive after 1850, although by the time the book appeared only six of the 38 poets represented were still alive.

By the time he began work on the Second Series, Palgrave was nearly 70 and already almost crippled with illness. Not surprisingly, the book, which appeared in September 1897, when he was dying, was a great disappointment to critics and public alike. His failing judgment, readiness to bowdlerise texts, and the many editorial idiosyncrasies and biases which had increasingly marred the expanded editions of the Treasury combined to 163

undermine the quality of the book. Palgrave was also apparently constitutionally incapable of appreciating the work of the young poets of the eighties and nineties, and the book includes scarcely anything written after 1870. The book's quality is further impaired by his personal loyalties and, it must be admitted, his snobbery. The works of Lord

Houghton and the Duke of Argyll, for example, would surely not have been considered for inclusion on their own merits.

The book consists of poetry by Palgrave's contemporaries of the 1850's and 1860's: both talented poets such as Tennyson, the Brownings, the

Rossettis, Arnold, and Clough, and also lesser lights such as Frederick and

Charles Tennyson, Barnes, 0'Shaughnessy, Shairp, Patmore, and Archbishop

Trench, all of whom were personal friends of the editor. Palgrave's taste in contemporary poetry was so fallible that, for example, he gave Charles

Tennyson Turner twelve lyrics and Arthur Hugh Clough only five, but the book was credited, by H. A. Beers, with giving Arthur 0'Shaughnessy's talent for lyrics special attention:

a gift not fully recognised till Mr. Palgrave accorded him, in the second series of his "Golden Treasury" (1897), a greater selection than any Victorian poet but Tennyson: a larger space than he gave either to Browning or Rossetti or Matthew Arnold.

As his obituary in the Saturday Review says, "his taste was not supple enough to bend to new forms of expression, and probably after 1871 no new verse

26 succeeded in giving him the least pleasure." The reviews of the Second

Series are almost universally condemnatory, damning the book for being

27

"incomplete, ill balanced, and wanting in critical authority." The

Academy reviewer is even more negative: "the present selection will only baffle and distress everybody who believed, as we did, in Mr. Palgrave's 164

preparedness for his task. Its sins of omission and commission alike are mortal and past blotting out." ° Fortunately, Palgrave did not live to read the reviews and see the critical failure of this book.

The later editions of the Golden Treasury will never replace the original. The first edition, biased and unrepresentative as it is, is nevertheless a complete and unified work, creative in its principles and arrangements. The expanded editions do not manifest the same level of taste and judgment, and as a result they lack that sense of unity and confidence which the first edition reflects. His contemporaries warned him against continuing his practice of issuing new editions: "Mr. Palgrave's hand, we fancy, is not so firm as it was; he should hesitate before he tampers any

29 further with the admirable product of his youth." While one must conclude that the later editions show a falling-off in Palgrave's critical sensitivity, in some ways his expansions and revisions of the Golden Treasury improved the book, particularly in terms of the texts of the poems.

The success of this little anthology, edited by a minor civil servant, has been remarkable. As a reviewer in 1897 said of the original edition of the Treasury: What renders this success more remarkable is the fact that the book originally won its way entirely on its own merits.... Mr. Palgrave...never occupied any commanding position in that region of letters. No one has ever suggested that people liked "The Golden Treasury" because they were devotees of Mr. Palgrave's critical judgments.30

Contemporary critics and readers instinctively recognised that the Treasury was an entirely new kind of anthology which dealt with poetry in a way which was largely independent of established contemporary taste. The book also broke with tradition in addressing, along with the usual sophisticated audience for such books, a new, large uneducated audience without recourse to 165

the didacticism of earlier anthologies for the "plain man." Palgrave's direction of his work towards this audience is one of the most obvious

reasons for the book's success. A Spectator review of 1897 pointed out that

this choice of audience, which in 1861 was unique to the Treasury, had ensured the volume's survival even while radical changes in taste had taken place among critics and the intelligentsia; this choice of audience means

that "'The Golden Treasury' is never likely to be superseded, and for this

reason. There are only a limited number of poems on which the plain man and

31

the critic agree, and practically Mr. Palgrave has got them all."

Palgrave's friend Froude pointed out also that Palgrave's decision to address that group meant that, while the book is not directly didactic, its

survey of the English lyric will "make it instructive, so to speak, as a primer of poetical education, to those who may be commencing their studies 32 among the great English writers of songs and lyrics." Palgrave's desire to address "plain men" meant also that the critical reception of the

Golden Treasury was, to a certain extent, irrelevant to its success because that audience did not read literary journals or even most newspapers, although the reviews the book received certainly helped to widen its circulation among a definite class of readers and thereby to extend its influence among an educated audience. The dearth of serious reviews suggests that the success of the book, early established and enduring, had more to do with word of mouth among an uneducated audience than it did with the literary circles of the eighteen sixties.

Reviewers may have quibbled about some of Palgrave's editorial practices and complained that their favourite poems did not appear, but to a man they 166

recognised that the appearance of the Golden Treasury marked a qualitative change in the nature of the English anthology. As A. J. Munby says in his review in the Working Men's College Magazine, the Golden Treasury fulfills all the expectations anyone could have for the perfect anthology of lyric poetry:

we must have for our task a consensus of poetic minds; each favouring most some one portion of that period which they all traverse together; each taking, it may be, a different view of the comparative value of popular fame and of the "audience fit though few;" each representing, but in different proportions, these great constituents—Strength, Beauty, Wisdom; and all harmonized by some one of them (a poet he should be, if possible) who has skill to arrange and learning to explain and comment, and, above all, firmness and sense to strike the balance true between past and present, and between fleeting popularity and permanent worth. Lastly, if this work were to be done in an age whose poetry is emphatically lyrical, and done, too, with the sanction and help of the chief poet of that age; then we might expect to see something like a trustworthy collection of the best songs and lyrical poems in the English language. What a number of requisitions! some one may say; what a task it must be to demand such an unprecedented combination of talent! Marry, and so it is: but if I make requisitions, it is only to show that they are already complied with; for, de te fabula narratur. Dete, simple little Book, whose very exterior is all refinement, and for whom a place is ever prepared in my handiest shelf alongside 'In Memoriam' and the 'Idylls.' (171)

The Golden Treasury, therefore, is a remarkable book. Its corrupt texts and Palgrave's idiosyncratic editing methods combine with a narrow vision of the acceptable subject matter of English lyric poetry and the forms and conventions appropriate to its expression. These limitations are compounded by palgrave's inability to do justice to poems which do not conform to his view of poetic perfection. His insistence on simplicity of language and form and unity of content and expression certainly produces a uniform but rather 167

romantic and Idealised vision of England's lyric tradition.

As a result of Palgrave's editorial approach, the Golden Treasury presents a homogeneous tradition, complete in itself and in many ways appealing, but it can scarcely be considered a representative survey of the

English lyric. The book does, however, bring together a group of all the

lyric poems that Palgrave considered suitable for the alternative lyrical

tradition which was to replace the existing accepted canon. As Naomi Lewis

says in her article celebrating the centenary of the Treasury's publication,

quoted in the epigraph to this chapter, Palgrave managed to impose his highly

selective vision of the lyric, its form and content, not only on lyric poetry but on poetry in general, so that the term "lyric poetry" tends, at least in

the popular sense, to be viewed as synonymous with the term "poetry" itself.

The other result of Palgrave's unique editorial method is that he

succeeded in establishing a distinction between the "educated" taste for sophisticated and obscure verse and the taste for Wordsworthian simplicity which the Treasury helped to foster in the general reader. As Christopher

Clausen has noted,

Palgrave probably did more than anyone else to create late-Victorian poetic taste and assumptions about poetry—a taste and set of assumptions which, so far as nonacademic readers go, have probably not changed very much in the eight decades since he left the scene. The Golden Treasury has never gone out of print and exists today in a variety of updated editions. Updating it is a relatively easy task because the popular poets of the twentieth century—Kipling, Housman, Bridges, Masefield, Frost, and so on—fit so well into the tradition that Palgrave defined.... One reason that the nonacademic audience for poetry is so small today is undoubtedly the enormous gap in taste between most of those who write poetry (the heirs of modernism) and most ordinary readers (the heirs of Palgrave). Among poets, critics, and professional students of literature In the last half-century, Palgrave's reputation has paid the price of this split, for his lasting influence on taste has been a potent source of frustration to the modernist movement and its supporters.33 168

Whether the Golden Treasury has had since 1861 a positive influence on poetic taste is a question open to debate, and, in any event, one that lies outside the purview of this dissertation. Indisputable, however, is the fact that several generations of English and American school children and general readers were first exposed to the lyrical heritage of England through the selection included in this extraordinary anthology. NOTES

* Naomi Lewis, "Palgrave and his Golden Treasury," The Listener, 4 Jan. 1962, 23.

2 Thomas Woolner, R. A., Sculptor and Poet: his Life in Letters, ed. Amy Woolner (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1917), p. 199.

Cecil Lang, ed., The Swinburne Letters, 6 vols. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974), 1, note, 94.

^ Christopher Clausen, "The Palgrave Version," Georgia Review, 34 (1980), 277.

^ William Holman Hunt, Pre-Raphaelitism and the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood (London: Macmillan, 1905), 2, 157-8.

^ Robert Martin, Tennyson: the Unquiet Heart (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980), p. 435.

7 Charles Morgan, The House of Macmillan, 1843-1943 (London: Macmillan, 1943), p. 62.

8 Thomas Woolner, p. 203. Q F. T. Palgrave to Macmillan, 21 Nov. 1860, Macmillan Papers, Berg Collection, New York Public Library. Subsequent letters from the Berg Collection will be documented internally.

Lady Tennyson's Journal, ed. James 0. Hoge (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1981), p. 152.

** B. Ifor Evans, "Tennyson and the Origins of the Golden Treasury," TLS, 8 Dec. 1932, 941.

1 2 Charles Morgan, The House of Macmillan, p. 62. 1 3 Angus Ross, The Penguin Companion to English Literature (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1971), p. 411. In the notes to the fourth edition, Palgave justifies this version of Sidney's sonnet by arguing that it "appears, as here given, in Puttenham's 'Arte of English Poesie,' 1589. A longer and inferior form was published in the 'Arcadia' of 1590: but Puttenham's prefatory words clearly assign his version to Sidney's authorship" (351).

^ Matthew Arnold, "On the Literary Influence of Academies," Essays in Criticism (London: Macmillan, 1865), pp. 70-1. 170

1 6 [H. B. Wilson], review of the Golden Treasury, Westminster Review, 43 (Oct. 1861), 606.

*7 Anon., review of the Golden Treasury, Saturday Review, 12 (17 Aug. 1861), 176.

1 Q John Brown, review of the Golden Treasury, The Scotsman, 12 (Sept. 1861), 3. 1 9 Anon., review of the Golden Treasury, Spectator, 34 (27 July 1861), 813. 20 A. J. Munby, "A Noteworthy Book of Poems," Working Men's College Magazine, 1 (Sept. 1861), 171. 21 Anon., 'An Authority on Poetical Criticism," Saturday Review, 82 (19 Dec. 1896), 312.

22 June Steffensen Hagen, Tennyson and his Publishers (London: Macmillan, 1979), pp. 84, 112.

23 • Anon., An Authority on Poetical Criticism," 312. O / George Sampson, The Concise Cambridge History of English Literature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1957), p. 645. 25 H. A. Beers, A History of English Romanticism in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Henry Holt, 1918), p. 389.

26 Obituary of F. T. Palgrave, Saturday Review, 84 (30 Oct. 1897), 457.

27 Anon., review of the Second Series of the Golden Treasury, Athenaeum, 110 (30 Oct. 1897), 555. '. 28 Anon., review of the Second Series of the Golden Treasury, Academy, 52 (23 Oct. 1897), 317.

y "An Authority on Poetical Criticism," 312.

30 Anon. "Anthologies," Spectator, 79 (30 Oct. 1897), 591.

31 "Anthologies," 591.

32 J. A. Froude, "Some Poets of the Year," Fraser's, 64 (Oct. 1861), 64.

33 Christopher Clausen, "The Palgrave Version," 289. 171

APPENDICES TO THE GOLDEN TREASURY

These Appendices are restricted to editions over which Palgrave had direct editorial control. Pirated American editions are thus not included, nor are the many expanded editions which appeared subsequent to Palgrave's death in 1897 and the expiry of the copyright in 1911. Every attempt has been made to secure copies of all the impressions and issues of the Treasury which appeared prior to 1897, but because most of them are of no particular bibliographical interest, libraries in North America have tended not to collect them, and some have not been available for examination.

Appendix A consists of bibliographical descriptions of the seven important states of the Treasury: (1) the first four impressions of the first edition, which appeared in July, October, November, and December of 1861, and all of which contain internal distinguishing features, although they are not formally identified as such; (2) the expanded edition of 1884; (3) the reset edition of 1890; and (4) the "Revised and Expanded" edition of 1891. For purposes of discussion in this section, the three latter are referred to as the second, third, and fourth editions (without quotation marks). These editions are quite different from the first, with poems added and subtracted in the course of raising the number of poems from 288 to 339. Other, bibliographically unimportant impressions which appeared in Palgrave's lifetime are listed in the notes.

Appendix B lists all the major editorial changes which Palgrave made to his texts, excluding punctuation and spelling emendations. All significant 172

omissions of one word or more, transpositions of words or lines, and unsupported variant textual readings are included. All references to textual changes, e.g. "stanza 6 omitted," refer to the standard text or copy text, where that is identified, of the poem; rather than to the Treasury text.

Appendix C lists all significant changes in title, including titles added and omitted. Title changes between the first and fourth editions are added at the end of Appendix C. Texts and titles have been compared with the original where Palgrave has identified it in the manuscript, or with texts Palgrave is suspected strongly to have used. In the absence of a known or suspected copy-text, the comparison has been made with a reputable standard text, such as de Selincourt's edition of Wordsworth, which lists the textual variants published before 1861 to which Palgrave might have referred. Appendix D lists all the added and omitted poems which make up the four significant editions of the Golden Treasury. Poems are classified by their Treasury number, title or first line, and Palgrave's own title where that differs from the original. Additions to the second edition do not affect the numbering because fourteen poems were simply added to the end of the sequence, and none were subtracted, but the third and fourth editions, which were completely renumbered, contain both additions and omissions. These changes affect the continuous numbering of the Treasury, so that all numbers cited in Appendices

C and D refer to the placement of poems in the revised editions. All omissions were made from the contents of the first edition. Palgrave did not drop any of the poems added to the three expanded editions; therefore, all omitted poems are numbered as in the first edition. 173

Appendix E lists Palgrave's major editorial errors, including misattributed poems and incorrect placement of poets in the four Books.

Appendix F lists the known sources for both the first edition of the

Treasury, most of which are identified in the margins of the manuscript itself, which is in the British Library, and for the expanded editions. The rather meagre list of identified sources says as much about the state of scholarly editing in 1861 as it does about Palgrave's thoroughness as an editor. The editions, annotated in Palgrave's hand, of Keats and Shelley which were donated by him to the British Library can reasonably be assumed to have been used for the preparation of the Golden Treasury. No formal list of sources exists for the later editions, but some can be identified fairly confidently from the notes and prefaces of the expanded editions of the

Treasury, and from Palgrave's reviews and critical articles, many of which applaud the resurgence of critical and popular interest in the minor sixteenth and seventeenth century poets, especially the Elizabethan madrigal poets, and to a lesser extent the Metaphysical poets, both of whom are well represented in later editions. Appendix F lists only editions of such poets included in the expanded editions reviewed by Palgrave or poets reprinted for the first time after 1861.

Appendix G lists located contemporary reviews of the Treasury, which have proved suprisingly few, the book apparently becoming an institution as much by word of mouth as by formal reviews. In his correspondence with

Macmillan, Palgrave mentions a number of reviews that could not be traced.

Several reviews listed appeared well after the Treasury's publication in

1861. Some others notice the later expanded editions. The Treasury was, presumably, reviewed in the minor daily press but, apart from the very brief 174

Times notice, no articles have been identified in accessible sources. The lack of reviews is disappointing, but an unknown young editor's anthology bearing the imprint of a small Cambridge bookseller who had hitherto published Colonial textbooks and sermons would have roused little or no interest from over-worked reviewers. Only in retrospect does the appearance of the Golden Treasury occupy a significant place in the history of modern publishing. 175

APPENDIX A: BIBLIOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTIONS OF THE FOUR SIGNIFICANT EDITIONS OF

THE GOLDEN TREASURY IN PALGRAVE'S LIFETIME: 1861, 1884, 1890, 1891

First Edition, First Impression (July 1861):

THE / GOLDEN TREASURY / OF THE BEST SONGS AND LYRICAL POEMS / IN THE ENGLISH

LANGUAGE / SELECTED AND ARRANGED WITH NOTES BY / FRANCIS TURNER PALGRAVE /

FELLOW OF EXETER COLLEGE OXFORD / [Vignette by Thomas Woolner, engraved by C.

H. Jeens, of a boy playing a reed pipe, with a bird in a tree, and a dog and pan pipes at his feet (5 X 3.5 cm.)] / Cambridge [gothic type]/ MACMILLAN AND

CO. / AND / HENRIETTA STREET COVENT GARDEN / London [gothic type] / 1861

Pagination: [i-xii], [1] 2-40, [41] 42-106, [107] 108-165, [166] 167-307,

[308] 309-323, [324] 325-326, [327] 328-332.

Binding: Olive-green cloth-covered boards with chocolate-brown end-papers; spine-title in gold-stamped roman capitals GOLDEN / TREASURY / OF / SONGS /

AND / LYRICS / at head, and MACMILLAN & CO at base above price 4/6 at foot

["Carter A," see Ian Carter's Binding Variants, p. 32]. The cover has a two-line border in gold on front cover with rosette in centre containing the logo of the Golden Treasury Series designed for this volume; a gold-stamped casket or treasury occupies the central circle of a cruciform, the legs of which enclose (clockwise) a bee, three acorns, a butterfly, and three stars; with the letters G-T-M and C and L intertwined in each corner of the cruciform. Back has blind-stamped rules as on front cover.

Collation: 16 X 10.8 cm.;TT 2, a1, b2, c1, B-X8, Y6 (a and c are conjugate). 172 leaves. 176

Contents: [i] roman half-title: THE GOLDEN TREASURY / OF ENGLISH SONGS AND

LYRICAL POEMS; [ii] printer's imprint; [iii] title page; [iv] blank; [v] contents; [vi] dedication: TO ALFRED TENNYSON / POET LAUREATE / MAY 1861;

[vii] text of dedication; [viii] preface; [ix-xii] text of preface; [1]2-307 text of the Golden Treasury; [308] NOTES; 309-323 text of notes;[324] INDEX

OF WRITERS / WITH DATES OF BIRTH AND DEATH; 325-326 text of index; [327]

INDEX OF FIRST LINES; 328-332 text of index.

Typography: Running title is "Book" verso and "First" etc. recto, with pagination set on outer margin of headline. Poems are distinguished by roman capital numbers, with title (if given) in italicised roman capitals, authors' names in small italics.

Outer margins average 3.3 cm. left and 3 cm. right.

Gutter margins average 2.5 cm. left and 2.7 cm. right.

Ir

Leaf 0 16 cm. X 10.5 cm.: gutter margin: 2.2 cm. outer margin: 3.3 cm.

The average page contains 42 lines plus headline.

Paper: Buff woven paper with no watermark. Sheets bulk 1.5 cm.

Notes: Published around 17 July 1861 at price 4/6; 2,000 copies make up the first impression. Palgrave took considerable trouble in choosing the format, paper, and binding and insisted on the pocket 8vo size, which he had admired in Murray's 1855 edition of Byron, for ease of carrying the book and consulting it outdoors. Externally the first impression of the first edition differs from subsequent impressions by having the price printed on the base of the spine ("Carter A" in Ian Carter's Binding Variants, p. 113).

Internally, it contains a number of distinguishing variants, including a roman half-title; the misprinting of "witheld" for "withheld" on page 43, line 23; a number of minor errors in the printing of the stops; and the 177

misnumbering of poem CCXLIII as CCLXIII. This impression, as in all editions to 1884, has 288 poems, 323 arabic-numbered pages. Of the two most significant variants in the first impression, Simon Nowell-Smith notes in an article in the Book Collector (14 [Summer 1965], 185-193), "I like to distinguish the earlier two [impressions], not by their roman and black-letter half-titles, but by their notes on Keats's 'nature's patient • sleepless Eremite.' This is not an allusion, as Palgrave first quaintly supposed, to the fable of the Wandering Jew" (192n). Three copies of this impression were examined.

Second Impression (October 1861): This impression consisted of 1,200 copies, and is identical with the first impression except for the following variants: two additional notes on page 323, bringing the number to six (unique to this impression); the note on Keats's "nature's patient sleepless Eremite"

(p. 321) has been corrected to "like a solitary thing in Nature"; the three-line second paragraph on the first page of the preface has been permanently removed. There are a number of corrections, including some incorrectly printed stops, and poem CCXLIII has been correctly renumbered.

The binding variant is "Carter C," with the shorter wide-faced capitals for the publisher's name on the spine. The Colbeck Collection contains what appears to be a purple-leather publisher's binding without cover-ornaments done especially for this impression; another copy in Colbeck has gilt top edges. This and subsequent impressions have "Lewis," not "Louis" on page

314, line 21. Two extra notes—to pp. 292 and 303—were added. Three copies of this impression were examined. 178

Third Impression (November 1861): This impression of 3,800 copies (bringing

the total to 7,000 over five months) has only four notes on page 323. The

notes to pp. 292 and 303 were dropped without Palgrave's permission. An

apostrophe is inserted in "Hamlet's" on page 310 in this impression, which

has binding variant "Carter B," which is identical with "Carter A" but

without the price on the spine. There is an olive-green leather publisher's

binding for this impression. Three copies were examined.

Fourth Impression (December 1861): The fourth impression retains the binding

variant of "Carter B," which is standard thereafter. This impression

consisted of only 1,000 copies bringing the total to 8,000, although another

1,000 copies, probably only a reissue of the fourth impression, were released

in December 1861. This fourth impression is also the first to have

bibliographical information printed on the verso of the half-title. The missing notes were restored in this edition, and subsequent impressions

followed this fourth impression as copy-text, although Palgrave continued to make a list of changes he would make when the book was completely set up

again, which did not happen until 1890. Two copies were examined.

Sub se quen t Imp re s s ions: The book, as stated above, was reissued for a fifth

impression in late December 1861, bringing the total number of copies printed

in the first six months to 9000. After that, the book was reissued

frequently over the next 23 years, all copies formally remaining part of the

first edition and based on the corrected copy-text of the December 1861

fourth impression. After the first five impressions of 1861, the first 179

edition was reissued sixteen times: 1862 (twice, 12th and 14th thousand);

1863, 1865, 1867 (29th thousand); 1870; 1872 (the year in which it also appeared in North America for the first time, although pirated editions had already been circulating for a number of years); 1874; 1875; 1877; 1878;

1880; 1881; 1882; 1883 (twice: May and August).

Second Edition (1884):

THE GOLDEN TREASURY / OF THE BEST SONGS AND LYRICAL POEMS / IN THE ENGLISH

LANGUAGE / SELECTED AND ARRANGED WITH NOTES BY / FRANCIS TURNER PALGRAVE /

FELLOW OF EXETER COLLEGE OXFORD / [vignette as for first edition] / London

[gothic type] / MACMILLAN AND CO. / 1884 / and New York [gothic type]

Pagination: [i-xii], [1] 2-40, [41] 42-106. [107] 108-165, [166] 167-318,

[319] 319-336, [337] 338-346

Binding and Cover: as in first impression.

Collation: 16 X 10.8 cm. ;T2, a1, b2, c1, B-Y8, Z6. 180 leaves.

Contents: [i] gothic half-title: THE GOLDEN TREASURY / OF ENGLISH SONGS AND

LYRICAL POEMS; [ii] publisher's information (61st thousand); [iii] title page; [iv] printer's imprint; [v] contents: [vi] four-line Greek motto; [vii] dedication; TO ALFRED TENNYSON / POET LAUREATE / MAY 1861; [viii] text of dedication; [ix] preface; [x-xii] text of preface / 1861-1883; [1] 2-318 text of the Golden Treasury; [319] NOTES; 320-336 text of notes / [337] INDEX OF

WRITERS AND INDEX OF FIRST LINES; 338-346 text of indices.

Typography: As in the first edition.

Paper: As in the first edition. 180

Notes; The book is identical to the first edition in format, except that it has been lengthened by 23 pages to 346. It consists of the original 288 poems of the first edition, with fourteen additional poems added to the end of the volume, additions which were eventually intercalated into the text in subsequent editions. The sequence has been lengthened by only thirteen numbers because Palgrave grouped two short Shakespeare lyrics ("Where the bee sucks" and "Come unto these yellow sands") under one number, 289, and entitled them "The Fairy Life 1 and 2." Palgrave limited the changes in the book to the addition of a paragraph dated "1883" to the end of the preface, the addition of notes to cover the extra poems, and the resetting of the indices of authors and of first lines. The index of authors retitles

"Unknown" poets as "Anonymous." This edition was reprinted in 1885, 1886

(twice for the 67th and 68th thousand); 1887; 1888; 1890. No complete copies have been examined because UBC Interlibrary Loan was unable to locate a copy in North America. This bibliographical description is derived by analogy from later expanded editions and an examination of a xerox of the indices obtained from the British Library.

Third Edition (1890);

THE / GOLDEN TREASURY / OF THE BEST SONGS AND LYRICAL POEMS / IN THE ENGLISH

LANGUAGE / SELECTED AND ARRANGED WITH NOTES BY / FRANCIS TURNER PALGRAVE /

PROFESSOR OF POETRY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD / [Vignette as in first edition] / London [gothic type] / MACMILLAN AND CO. / AND NEW YORK / 1890

Pagination: [i-xii], [1] 2-63, [64] 65-152, [153] 154-231, [232] 233-413,

[414-6], [417] 418-436, [437] 438-439, [440-1] 442-448. 181

Binding: dark-green cloth-covered boards with matching end-papers and a single binder's leaf at each end; spine has gold-stamped Roman capitals

GOLDEN TREASURY / OF / SONGS / AND / LYRICS / F. T. PALGRAVE. Four gold rules at base of spine match those on the cover, which has four narrow gold rules on all edges with a central gold ornament of a lute placed diagonally on a background of three dog-roses on four stems with foliage (19.5 X 13.4 cm.).

Collation: 19 X 13 cm.;T2, [a]4, B-Z8, AA-FF8. 230 leaves.

Contents: [i] half-title: The Golden Treasury [ii] four-line Greek motto;

[iii] title page; [iv] blank; [v] dedication: TO ALFRED TENNYSON / POET

LAUREATE / MAY 1861; [vi] text of dedication; [vii] PREFACE: [viii-xi] text of preface; [1] 2-413 text of the Golden Treasury; [414] blank; [415] NOTES /

INDEX OF WRITERS / AND / INDEX OF FIRST LINES; [416] blank; [417]-436 text of notes; [437] INDEX OF WRITERS: [437]-439 text of index; [440] blank; [441]

INDEX OF FIRST LINES; [442] 443-448 text of index.

Typography: Running title "Book" verso and "First" etc. recto in block capitals. Pagination set outside outer margin of headline. Poems still distinguished by Roman numbers, but for the first time have Gothic upper and lowercase titles.

Outer margins average 2.6 cm. left and 2.5 cm. right.

Gutter margins average 1.2 cm. left and 1.5 cm. right.

Leaf 0*r 19 X 12.7 cm.: outer margin: 2.5 cm. gutter margin: 1.2 cm.

The average page contains 34 lines plus headline.

Paper: Off-white woven paper with no watermark. Sheets bulk 2.3 cm. 182

Notes: The third edition appeared in 1890 and was reissued twice: once in the same year and again in 1891. The first edition to be entirely reset, it is also the first to appear in a large-paper copy, which included a limited vellum and gold-tooled Library Edition of 500, signed and numbered. This edition omits six of the original 288 poems, and adds a further 30 new poems which, added to the extra fourteen in the second edition, provides a total of

326. "It is not Beauty" (no. 106) has been properly reattributed to George

Darley, but it is listed in the index twice, under Darley and the original

"Anonymous." The two short Shakespeare lyrics added in 1884 under the single number 289 are now numbered separately. There are now 448 arabic-numbered pages, and the preface has been briefly added to and redated

"1861-1883-1890." This edition apparently also appeared in pocket 8vo.

Two large copies, one small copy examined.

Fourth Edition (1891):

THE / GOLDEN TREASURY / OF THE BEST SONGS AND LYRICAL POEMS / IN THE ENGLISH

LANGUAGE / SELECTED AND ARRANGED WITH NOTES BY / FRANCIS TURNER PALGRAVE /

PROFESSOR OF POETRY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD / REVISED AND ENLARGED /

London (gothic type) / MACMILLAN AND CO., LTD. / NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN CO.

/ 1891

Pagination: [i-viii], [1] 2-55, [56] 57-132, [133] 134-196, [197] 198-346,

[347-9], 350-369, [370-1], 372-373, [374-5], 376-381, [382].

Binding: Dark blue cloth-covered boards with white end-papers. Spine has gold-stamped roman caps: GOLDEN / TREASURY / OF / SONGS / AND / LYRICS. Base of spine has two gold-stamped rules and MACMILLAN & CO. The cover has two blind-stamped rules to match those on spine, and a publisher's ornament: a 183

gold-stamped rectangular scroll containing (clockwise) two squares; one rectangle; two squares; and three squares, around a central oval containing gothic capitals G-T-S.

Collation: 15.8 X 10.5 cm.; 11 2, b4, B-Z8, AA-BB8. 198 leaves.

Contents: [i] gothic half-title: THE GOLDEN TREASURY; [ii] blank; [iii] title page; [iv] printer's imprint; [v] dedication TO ALFRED TENNYSON / POET

LAUREATE / MAY 1861; [v] text of dedication; [vi] preface; [vii-ix] text of preface; [x] contents; [xi] 4-line Greek motto; [1] 2-346 text of The Golden

Treasury; [347] NOTES / INDEX OF WRITERS / AND / INDEX OF FIRST LINES; [348] blank; [349] 350-69 text of notes; [370] blank; [371] 372-373 text of index of writers; [374] blank; [375] 376-382 text of index of first lines.

Typography: as in first edition.

Paper: Off-white woven paper, with no watermark. Sheets bulk 2.1 cm.

Notes: The fourth edition, the first to contain the words "Revised and

Enlarged" on the title page, appeared in 1891 in the pocket 8vo format, and also in a limited Library Edition 250-copy unsigned large-paper edition

(21 X 12.7 cm.). The preface is dated 1861-1883-1890-1891. The poem numbers appear in the Author Index as arabic numerals for the first time, rather than the roman ones used to that point. It was reissued five times in Palgrave's lifetime: again in 1891, 1892, 1894, 1896, 1897. This edition was the definitive one: Palgrave subsequently turned his attention to other projects. He omitted four more poems and added seventeen new ones for a final total of 339. The notes were expanded in number from 126 in the first edition to 161 in this fourth edition; the original notes were also extensively revised. 184

APPENDIX B: SIGNIFICANT TEXTUAL CHANGES IN THE GOLDEN TREASURY

I. FIRST EDITION (1861)

No Author Title or First Line Textual Change

2 Drummond Phoebus, arise... *3 lines omitted (lines

29 & 30 and line 36)

5 Marlowe Come live with me.., *extra variant stanza (no.

6)from Walton and variant

Walton readings throughout

Shakespeare Crabbed Age and... a 10-line poem printed by

Palgrave in half-lines

7 Under the greenwood., stanza 3 omitted (8 lines)

9 Anon. Absence, hear thou.. *stanza 3 omitted (6 lines)

24 Sidney My true love hath... originally a sonnet, with

sestet omitted and choruses

added at the end of each

quatrain

36 Shakespeare Take 0 take those lips.., stanza 2 omitted (8 lines)

45 Fear no more the heat... *stanza 4 omitted (6 lines)

79 Crashaw Who'er she be... *using Chalmers as copytext,

Palgrave's version consists

of stanzas 1-7, 9, 10, 30,

32, 31, 26, 27, 29, 35, 36,

38, 39, 41, 42

80 Anon.[Parker] Over the mountains... last two stanzas omitted (16

lines)

*Note: an asterisk indicates Palgrave declared the omission in the notes. 185

No. Author Title or First Line Textual Change

81 Sedley Ah, Chloris!... last 2 stanzas omitted (8

lines)

84 Wotton You meaner beauties... stanzas 2 and 3 transposed

87 Carew He that loves a rosy... *last stanza omitted (8

lines)

100 Lovelace If to be absent were... *stanza 2 omitted (6 lines)

107 Anon. I wish I were where... 6 stanzas from Part I

omitted

114 Marvell Where the remote Bermudas ...lines 7&8 transposed to

9&10

116 Dryden 'Twas at the royal feast. . final 10-line Grand

Chorus omitted

117 Gray Now the golden Morn aloft ...final 11 lines omitted

128 Anon Down in yon garden... *stanza 6 omitted

133 Graham If doughty deeds... last 4 lines of stanza two

omitted

154 Mickle And are ye sure the news. ,. *second last stanza of

original omitted (8 lines)

160 Cowper I am monarch of all... *4th to final stanza

omitted

165 Barbauld Life! I know not what... *18 of the original 30

lines

omitted (2 central stanzas)

220 Lamb I have had playmates... first stanza omitted

227 Shelley The sun is warm... *final stanza (9 lines)

omitted 186

No Author Title or First Line Textual Change

235 Hood We watched her... *2 middle stanzas omitted

(restored in later

editions)

264 Shelley Art thou pale... last 2 lines omitted

265 Shelley A widow bird... final stanza omitted

268 Shelley I dream'd that as I... line 13 omitted

274 Shelley Many a green isle... *182 lines omitted

18 lines of stanza 1 and

all of stanzas 2, and 6-10

276 Wordsworth I was thy neighbour... stanza 6 omitted (4 lines)

277 Shelley On a Poet's lips... last 2 lines omitted

II. SECOND EDITION (1884)

292 Quarles E'en like two... 4 final stanzas (24 lines)

omitted

294 Vaughan I saw Eternity... last 8 lines omitted

295 Smart He sang of God... only 3 of the 86 poems in

the sequence included

III. THIRD EDITION (1890)

34 Anon. Fine knacks for ladies... final stanza omitted

151 Marvell With sweetest milk... consists of lines 55-92 of 187

No Author Title or First Line Textual Change

"The Nymph complaining of

the Death of her Fawn,"

lines 1-54 and

93-122 omitted

172 Blake Sleep, sleep, beauty... final four-line stanza

omitted .

215 Lyte I meet thy pensive... *6-quatrain extract from

"Sad Thoughts" (stanzas 5-8,

20-21, 24 of the original 96

lines)

IV. FOURTH EDITION (1891)

137 Cowley It was a dismal... stanzas 3-5, 7-9, 11, 13,

15, 17-19 excluded (96

lines of the original 152)

138 Vaughan They are all gone... final 3 stanzas (12 lines)

omitted 188

APPENDIX C: TITLE VARIANTS

I. FIRST EDITION (1861)

No Author Title or First Line Palgrave's Title

1 Nash Spring, the sweet... "Spring"

2 Drummond Phoebus, arise... "Summons to Love"

3 Shakespeare When I have seen... "Time and Love 1"

4 Shakespeare Since brass, nor stone... "Time and Love 2"

9 Anon. Absence, hear thou... "Present in Absence

10 Shakespeare Being your slave... "Absence"

12 Shakespeare When in disgrace... "A Consolation"

13 Shakespeare 0 never say that... "The Unchangeable"

15 Constable "Damelus* Song to his "Diaphenia"

Diaphenia"

16 Lodge "Rosalynde's Description" "Rosaline"

17 "The Shepherd "To Colin Clout" "Colin"

Tonie" [Anthony Munday]

18 Shakespeare Shall I compare thee... "To his Love"

19 Shakespeare When in the chronicle... "To his Love"

20 Shakespeare "The Passionate Shepherd's "Love's Perjuries"

Song"

21 Wyat[t] Forget not yet... "A Supplication"

22 Alexander 0 if thou knew'st... "To Aurora"

23 Shakespeare Let me not... "Man's Love" 189

No. Author Title or First Line Palg rave's Ti11e

25 Sylvester Were I as base... "Love's Omnipresence"

26 Shakespeare 0 Mistress mine... "Carpe Diem"

27 Shakespeare When icicles hang... " Winter"

29 Shakespeare When to the sessions... "Remembrance"

30 Shakespeare Like as the waves... "Revolutions"

32 Shakespeare They that have power... "The Life without Passion"

33 Wyat[t] And wilt thou leave me. "The Lover's Appeal"

34 Barnefield As it fell upon a day.. "The Nightingale"

37 Drayton Since there's no help.. "Love's Farewell"

38 Drummond My lute, be as thou.... "To his Lute"

39 Shakespeare 0 me! what eyes... "Blind Love"

40 Anon. "Philon the Shepherd: "The Unfaithful

His Song" Shepherdess"

41 Vere "Fair Fools" "A Renunciation"

44 Shakespeare Come away, come away... "Dirge of Love"

45 Shakespeare Fear no more... "Fidele"

46 Shakespeare Full fathom five... "A Sea Dirge"

47 Webster Call for the robin... "A Land Dirge"

48 Shakespeare If Thou survive... "Post Mortem"

49 Shakespeare No longer mourn for me. "The Triumph of Death"

51 Lyly[e] Cupid and my Campaspe.. "Cupid and Campaspe"

54 Dekker "Sweet Content" "The Happy Heart"

56 Shakespeare Poor Soul... "Soul and Body"

57 Bacon The World's a bubble... "Life" 190

No Author Title or First Line Palgrave's Title

58 Drummond Of this fair volume... "The Lessons of Nature"

60 Shakespeare Tired with all these... "The World's Way"

61 Drummond The last and greatest... "Saint John Baptist"

68 Shirley Victorious men... "The Last Conqueror"

69 Shirley "Death's Final Conquest" "Death the Leveller"

71 Milton When I consider... "On His Blindness"

73 Jonson "Good Life, Long Life" "The Noble Nature"

74 Herbert "The Pulley" "The Gifts of God"

79 Crashaw "Wishes for his (Supposed) "Wishes for the Supposed

Mistress" Mistress"

80 Anon [Parker] "Truth's Integrity" "The Great Adventurer"

81 Sedley Ah, Chloris! could I... "Child and Maiden"

82 Herrick "To the Virgins, to Make "Counsel to Girls"

Much of Time"

86 Anon. [Darley] It is not Beauty... "The Pursuit of the Ideal"

87 Carew "Disdain Returned" "The True Beauty"

91 Anon [Campion] There is a garden... "Cherry-Ripe"

92 Herrick "Delight in Disorder" "The Poetry of Dress 1"

93 Herrick "Upon Julia's Clothes" "The Poetry of Dress 2"

94 Anon. My Love in her attire... "The Poetry of Dress 3"

101 Suckling Why so pale and wan... "Encouragements to a Lover"

102 Cowley Awake, awake, my Lyre... "A Supplication"

103 Wither "The Shepherd's Resolution "The Manly Heart"

104 Fletcher Hence, all you vain ... "Melancholy" 191

No Author Title or First Line Palgrave's Title

105 Scott "The Verses found in "To a Lock of Hair"

Bothwell's Pocketbook"

106 Anon. 0 waly waly... "The Forsaken Bride"

111 Marvell "The Garden" "Thoughts in a Garden"

114 Marvell "Bermudas" "Song of the Emigrants in

Bermuda"

118 Pope "Ode on Solitude" "The Quiet Life"

121 Philips "To Miss Charlotte Pulteney "To Charlotte Pulteney"

in her mother's arms"

125 Burns "The Flowers of the Forest" "Lament for Culloden"

132 Burns "My bonnie Mary" "A Farewell"

135 Rogers "On — Asleep" "The Sleeping Beauty"

144 Burns "To a Mouse on turning her "To a Field Mouse"

up with a plough "

154 Mickle "Colin's Return" "The Sailor's Wife"

160 Cowper "Verses supposed to be "The Solitude of Alexander

written by Alexander Selkirk"

Selkirk"

161 Cowper "To Mrs. Unwin" "To Mary Unwin"

164 [John] Collins In the downhill of life... "To-Morrow"

167 Keats "Ode" "Ode on the Poets"

169 Byron "Stanzas Written on the "All for Love"

Road between Florence

and Pisa" 192

No Author Title or First Line Palgrave's Title

170 Scott 0 Brignall Banks... "The Outlaw"

171 Byron "Stanzas for Music" untitled

176 Shelley "To untitled

177 Wordsworth She dwelt among the "The Lost Love"

untrodden ways...

179 Wordsworth Three years she grew... "The Education of Nature"

183 Campbell "Song" "Freedom and Love"

185 Moore "Echo" "Echoes"

186 Scott Ah! County Guy... "A Serenade"

187 Campbell Gem of the crimson- "To the Evening Star"

colour 'd Even...

188 Shelley "To Night" "To the Night"

189 Wordsworth Why art thou silent... "To a Distant Friend"

191 Keats In a drear-nighted... "Happy Insensibility"

194 Scott A weary lot is thine... "The Rover"

195 Shelley When the lamp is.. "The Flight of Love"

197 Campbell Earl March look'd., "The Maid of Neidpath"

199 Keats When I have fears., "The Terror of Death"

200 Wordsworth Surprized by joy.., "Desideria"

202 Byron And thou art dead., "Elegy on Thyrza"

204 Scott Pibroch of Donuil Dhu... "Gathering Song of Donald

the Black"

210 Wordsworth "Thoughts of a Briton on "England and Switzerland

the Subjugation of 1802"

Switzerland" 193

No Author Title or First Line Palgrave's Title

216 Southey "The Battle of Blenheim" "After Blenheim"

217 Moore When he who adores thee... "Pro Patria Mori"

221 Moore As slow our ship... "The Journey Onwards"

222 Byron "Stanzas for Music" "Youth and Age"

223 Wordsworth "The Small Celandine" "A Lesson

224 Hood I remember, I remember... "Past and Present"

225 Moore Oft in the stilly night... "The Light of Other Days"

226 Shelley Rarely, rarely... "Invocation"

228 Southey My days among the Dead... "The Scholar"

230 Scott Proud Maisie... "The Pride of Youth"

232 Byron 0 snatch'd away... "Elegy"

236 Scott "Harold" "Rosabelle"

238 Wordsworth "The Affliction of —" "The Affliction of Margaret"

246 Shelley "Ozymandias" "Ozymandias of Egypt"

247 Wordsworth "Composed at — Castle" "Composed at Neidpath

Castle, the property of Lord

Queensberry, 1803

249 Wordsworth "To a Highland Girl, "To the Highland Girl of

at Inversneyde, upon Loch Inversnaid"

Lomond"

250 Wordsworth "The Solitary Reaper" "The Reaper"

252 Shelley "With a Guitar, to Jane" "To a Lady, with a Guitar"

253 Wordsworth I wander'd lonely... "The Daffodils"

( 194

No Author Title or First Line Palgrave's Title

261 Wordsworth It is a beauteous evening..."By the Sea"

262 Campbell "Song to the Evening Star" "To the Evening Star

263 Scott The sun upon the lake... "Datur Hora Quieti"

268 Shelley "The Question" "A Dream of the Unknown"

269 Wordsworth Most sweet it is... "The Inner Vision"

270 Keats "Fancy" "The Realm of Fancy"

271 Shelley "Hymn to the Spirit of

Life of Life!... Nature"

273 Wordsworth "Ruth: or the Influences of

"Ruth" Nature"

274 Shelley "Lines Written Among the "Written in the Euganean

Euganean Hills" Hills, North Italy"

276 Wordsworth "Elegaic Stanzas Suggested "Nature and the Poet"

by a Picture of Peel Castle"

277 Shelley On a Poet's lips I slept... "The Poet's Dream"

283 Campbell "A Thought Suggested by "The River of Life"

the New Year"

284 Keats Four Seasons fill... "The Human Seasons"

288 Shelley "To —" untitled

II. SECOND EDITION (1884)

No. Author First Line Palgrave's Title

289 Shakespeare Where the bee sucks.., "The Fairy Life 1' 195

No Author Title or First Line Palgrave's Title

289 Shakespeare Come unto these yellow... "The Fairy Life 2"

290 Sidney Come Sleep: 0 Sleep... "Sleep"

291 Anon. Weep you no more... "A Song for Music"

292 Quarles E'en like two... "A Mystical Ecstasy'

293 Herrick Get up, get up for shame. . "Corinna's Maying"

294 Vaughan 1 saw Eternity the other "A Vision"

night...

2 95 Smart "A Song to David" "The Song of David"

296 Anon. When I think on the happy .."Absence"

300 Wolfe If I had thought... "To Mary"

301 Wordsworth There's not a nook... "The Trosachs"

III. THIRD EDITION (1890)

6 Anon. Fain would I change... "Omnia Vincit"

13 Sidney High-way, since you... "Via Amoris"

22 Anon. Sweet Love, if thou... "A Picture"

26 Campion Turn back, you wanton., "Basia"

34 Anon. Fine knacks for ladies. "An Honest Autolycus"

48 Campion Follow thy fair sun... "In Imagine Pertransit

Homo "

52 Anon. The sea hath many... "Advice to a Lover" 196

No Author Title or First Line Palgrave's Title

56 Campion When thou must home... "0 Crudelis Amor"

66 Anon. Lady, when I behold... "A Dilemma"

68 Anon. Though others may her... "Love's Insight"

72 Campion Come, cheerful day... "Sic Transit"

79 Devereux Happy were he could... "A Wish"

135 Marvell "The Nymph Complaining of "The Girl Describes her

the Death of her Fawn" Fawn"

141 Norris Hail thou most sacred... "Hymn to Darkness"

165 Blake Never seek to tell... "Love's Secret"

199 Blake Whether on Ida's... "To the Muses"

215 Lyte I meet thy pensive... "A Lost Love"

IV. FOURTH EDITION (1891)

26 Campion Never love unless... "Advice to a Girl"

30 Anon. I saw my lady weep... "In Lacrimas"

55 Campion Thou art not fair... "A Renunciation"

57 Anon. Come little babe... "A Sweet Lullaby"

60 Greene "Sephestia's Song to her "Sephestia's Song to her

Child after escaping from Child"

shipwreck"

71 Lodge Love in my bosom... "Rosalynd's Madrigal"

138 Vaughan They are all gone... "Friends in Paradise"

143 Campion Jack and Joan... "Fortunati Nimium"

283 Mary Lamb "Parental Recollections" "In Memoriam" 197

V. TITLE VARIANTS BETWEEN THE FIRST AND FOURTH EDITIONS

No Author Palgrave's 1861 Title 1891 Variant

23/31 Shakespeare "Man's Love" "True Love"

29/39 "Remembrance" "Memory"

36/48 "Madrigal" "Frustra"

43/61 Drummond "Madrigal" "A Lament"

50/69 Shakespeare "Madrigal" "Young Love"

100/128 Lovelace "To Lucasta, On Going "To Lucasta, Going Beyond

Beyond the Seas" the Seas"

106/133 Anon. "The Forsaken Bride" "Forsaken"

118/154 Pope "The Quiet Life" "Solitude"

144/184 Burns "To a Field Mouse" "To a Field Mouse, On

turning up her nest with

the plough, November, 1785"

146/186 Collins "To Evening" "Ode to Evening"

172/215 Shelley "Lines to an Evening Air" "The Indian Serenade"

177/221 Wordsworth "The Lost Love" untitled

197/241 Campbell "The Maid of Neidpath" untitled

262/310 "To the Evening Star" "Song to the Evening Star"

"Written in the Euganean "Written among the Euganean

274/321 Shelley Hills, North Italy" Hills"

"A Lament" "Threnos"

285/335 198

APPENDIX D: CONTENTS, ADDITIONS AND OMISSIONS IN THE GOLDEN TREASURY

I. POETS REPRESENTED IN THE FIRST EDITION (1861)

Book One (61 poems) 1526-1616:

Shakespeare 32—one apocryphal, number 6, "Crabbed Age and Death"—from The

Passionate Pilgrim, Drummond seven, anonymous and Wyat[t] two each, one each by Alexander, Bacon, Barnefield, Constable, Daniel, Dekker, Drayton, Heywood,

Lodge, Lylyfe], Nash, "The Shepherd Tonie" [Anthony Munday], Marlowe, Sidney,

Spenser, Sylvester, Vere, Webster.

Book Two (55 poems) 1616-1700:

Milton eleven, and anonymous eight (two of which are mislabelled: "Cherry

Ripe" by Campion and "It is not Beauty" by Victorian George Darley), Herrick seven, Marvell, Jonson, and Lovelace three, Dryden, Sedley, Shirley, Waller, and Wotton two, and one each by Beaumont, Carew, Cowley, Crashaw, Fletcher,

Herbert, Scott, Suckling, Vaughan, and Wither.

Book Three (49 poems) 1700-1800:

Burns eleven, Gray eight, Cowper six, Collins three, Rogers and Thomson each two, and one poem each by Barbauld, Carey, Cibber, John Collins, Elliott,

Gay, Graham of Gartmore, Goldsmith, Lindsay, Logan, Mickle, Nairn, Philips,

Pope, Prior, Sewell, and an anonymous balladeer.

Book Four (123 poems) 1800-1850:

Wordsworth 41, Shelley 22, Scott twelve, Campbell and Keats each eleven,

Byron eight, Moore five, Hood and Lamb three, Coleridge and Southey two, and one each by Hartley Coleridge, Cunningham, and Wolfe. 199

II. SECOND EDITION (1884)

Additions:1

No. Author Title or First Line Palgrave's Title

289 Shakespeare Where the bee sucks... "The Fairy Life 1"

289 Shakespeare Come unto these yellow... "The Fairy Life 2"

290 Sidney Come Sleep: 0 Sleep!... "Sleep"

291 Anon. Weep you no more... "A Song for Music"

292 Quarles E'en like two little... "A Mystical Ecstasy

293 Herrick Get up, get up for shame... "Corinna's Maying"

294 Vaughan I saw Eternity... "A Vision"

295 Smart He sang of God... "The Song of David"

296 Anon. When I think on the happy.. ."Absence"

297 Cowper Obscurest night involved... "The Castaway"

298 Cowper 0 happy shades!... "The Shrubbery"

299 Blake I have no name... "Infant Joy"

300 Wolfe If I had thought... "To Mary"

301 Wordsworth There's not a nook... "The Trosachs"

III. THIRD EDITION (1890)

Additions:

6 Anon. Fain would I change... "Omnia Vincit"

13 Sidney High-way, since you... "Via Amoris"

Additional poems are numbered for the edition in which they appear. All omissions are from the first edition and are numbered accordingly. 200

No Author Title or First Line Palgrave's Title

22 Anon. Sweet Love, if thou... "A Picture"

26 Campion Turn back, you wanton... "Basia"

34 Anon. Fine knacks for ladies... "An Honest Autolycus"

45 Sidney The nightingale... untitled

48 Campion Follow thy fair sun... "In Imagine Pertransit

Homo"

50 Campion Sleep, angry beauty... untitled

52 Anon. The sea hath many... "Advice to a Lover"

55 Sidney With how sad steps... untitled

56 Campion When thou must home... "0 Crudelis Amor"

66 Anon. Lady, when I behold... "A Dilemma"

68 Anon. Though others may her... "Love's Insight"

72 Campion Come, cheerful day... "Sic Transit"

75 Campion The man of life upright untitled

79 Devereux Happy were he could... "A Wish"

97 Campion Of Neptune's empire... "A Hymn in Praise of

Neptune"

109 Anon. Love in thy youth... untitled

129 Anon. Upon my lap my sovereign... untitled

135 Marvell With sweetest milk... "The Girl Describes her

Fawn"

141 Norris Hail thou most sacred... "Hymn to Darkness"

165 Blake Never seek to tell... "Love's Secret"

172 Blake Sleep, sleep, beauty... "A Cradle Song"

199 Blake Whether on Ida's... "To the Muses" 201

No Author Title or First Line Palgrave's Title

215 Lyte I meet thy pensive... "A Lost Love"

217 Wordsworth Oft I had heard of Lucy... "Lucy Gray"

282 Keats To one who has been long... untitled

313 Wordsworth In this still place... "Glen-Almain, the Narrow

Glen"

316 Keats Thou still unravish'd... "Ode on a Grecian Urn"

320 Lyte I saw her in childhood... "Agnes"

Omissions;

57 Bacon The World's a bubble... "Life"

105 Scott "The Verses found in "To a Lock of Hair"

Bothwell's Pocketbook"

163 Sewell Why Damon... "The Dying Man in his

Garden"

226 Shelley Rarely, rarely,... "Invocation"

265 Shelley A widow bird sate... untitled

271 Shelley Life of Life!... "Hymn to the Spirit of

Nature"

IV. FOURTH EDITION (1891)

Additions:

26 Campion Never love unless... "Advice to a Girl"

30 Anon. I saw my Lady weep.. "In Lacrimas" 202

No. Author Title or First Line Palgrave's Title

55 Campion Thou art not fair... "A Renunciation"

57 Anon. Come little babe... "A Sweet Lullaby"

60 Greene Weep not, my wanton... "Sephestia's Song to her

Child"

71 Lodge Love in my bosom... "Rosalynd's Madrigal"

105 Marvell See with what simplicity... "The Picture of Little T. C.

in a Prospect of Flowers"

107 Rochester I cannot change... "Constancy"

137 Cowley It was a dismal and... "On the Death of Mr. William

Hervey"

138 Vaughan They are all gone... "Friends in Paradise"

143 Campion Jack and Joan... "Fortunati Nimium"

148 Habington When I survey the bright... "Nox Nocti Indicat

Scientiam"

153 Collins 0 Thou, by Nature taught... "Ode to Simplicity"

283 Mary Lamb A child's a plaything... "In Memoriam"

295 Campbell 0 leave this barren... "The Beech Tree's Petition"

316 Coleridge In Xanadu did Kubla Khan... "Kubla Khan"

334 Shelley Rough wind, that moanest... "A Dirge"

Omissions:

15 Constable "Damelus' Song to his "Diaphenia"

Diaphenia"

41 Vere "Fair Fools" "A Renunciation"

86 Anon. [Darley] It is not Beauty... "The Pursuit of the Ideal"

183 Campbell How delicious is... "Freedom and Love" 203

APPENDIX E: EDITORIAL ERRORS IN THE FOUR EDITIONS OF THE GOLDEN TREASURY

I. MISATTRIBUTED POEMS

No GT's Author Title or First Line Correct Author 6 Shakespeare Crabbed Age and Youth... Anon, lyric poet

Palgrave took this lyric from The Passionate Pilgrim Elizabethan lyric collection, but it is not by Shakespeare, a fact apparently known in 1861.

9. Anon. Absence, hear thou... John Hoskins

Palgrave attributed this poem, anonymous in the first three editions, incorrectly to John Donne in the fourth edition.

86 Anon. It is not Beauty... George Darley

Palgrave compounded his misattribution by not recognising that the this poem, although in the seventeenth-century lyric style, was in fact by a Victorian, George Darley (1795-1846). It is correctly attributed to Darley in the third edition, although Palgrave retained its "anonymous" label, so that it appears twice in the index, but was dropped in 1891, to the indignation of some critics who admired its quality.

91 Anon. "Cherry Ripe" Thomas Campion

Palgrave never corrected this error, although Campion is well represented in the expanded editions.

II. MISPLACED POEMS

105 Walter Scott Thy hue, dear pledge...

Palgrave placed this poem in the seventeenth century Book on the grounds that it was "Inserted in Book II as written in the character of a Soldier of Fortune in the Seventeenth Century" (315). He later dropped the poem altogether.

III. ERRORS IN CHRONOLOGY

William Drummond (1585-1649), the Jacobean lyric poet, is placed by Palgrave in Book I, although he is in fact from the next era, on the grounds that he perfected the Elizabethan lyric style. Thomas Campion (1567-1620) is represented in both Book I and Book II of the expanded editions, although he clearly belongs to the first. Francis Beaumont (1586-1616) and John Fletcher (1576-1625) are placed in Book II, rather than Book I. William Blake (1757-1827) is represented in both Book III and Book IV in the expanded editions. Samuel Rogers (1762-1855) is placed in Book III rather than Book IV. 204

APPENDIX F: SOURCES FOR THE GOLDEN TREASURY

I. FIRST EDITION (1861)

"Giraldus" [William Allingham], ed. Nightingale Valley: A Collection including a great number of the choicest Lyrics and Short Poems in the English Language. London: Bell and Daldy, 1860.

This anthology, which appeared the year before the Treasury, inspired Palgrave to begin work on his own collection. Palgrave apparently used only one of Allingham's poems as a copy-text, Wotton's "The Character of a Happy Life" (72), but the strong similarities between the two volumes in terms of format and number of shared poems suggests that Palgrave borrowed from Allingham's collection in compiling his anthology.

Bell, Robert, ed. The Annotated Edition of the English Poets. 24 vols. London: John W. Parker, 1845-7.

Bell's multi-volume work is the ostensible subject of Palgrave's critical manifesto, "The Growth of English Poetry," which appeared in the Quarterly Review in October 1861, a few months after the Treasury's publication. Palgrave found that in preparing the Treasury he had to rely heavily on large and often inaccurate collections such as Bell's in the absence of more authoritative texts. Bell was the source for two poems: Nash's "Spring" (1) and Jonson's "Drink to me only with thine eyes" (90).

Blackie, John Stuart, ed. The Book of Scottish Song. Edinburgh: Blackwoods, 1843.

Blackie is one of the sources Palgrave turned to in his search for ballads to fill the eighteenth-century section. His dislike of mainstream eighteenth-century poetry led him to include a large number of Scottish songs and ballads, both of which were more to his taste. Blackie was the source for three poems: Anonymous's "0 waly waly up the bank" (106), Anne Lindsay's "Auld Robin Gray" (152), and Mickle's "Are ye sure the news in true" (154), which latter was also collated against Chalmers and Chambers.

Campbell, Thomas, ed. Specimens of the British Poets. 7 vols. London: John Murray, 1819.

A significant source, Campbell's large collection was one of a number, including Bell, Chambers, and Chalmers, which Palgrave browsed through in his search for little-known poems. He also admired the poetry of Campbell, who had been a friend of his father's, and later reviewers complained that he included too many poems by Campbell in the Treasury. Campbell provided two copy texts: Herrick's "Fair pledges of a fruitful tree," and Carey's "Sally in our Alley" (131). 205

Chalmers, Alexander, ed. The Works of the English Poets from Chaucer to Cowper, including the Series Edited, with Prefaces, Biographical and Critical by Doctor Samuel Johnson and the most approved translations. The Additional Lives by Alexander Chalmers. 21 vols. London: privately printed, 1810.

Chalmers' 21-volume revised and expanded edition of Johnson's works of the poets was Palgrave's most important source, albeit a highly unreliable one. He leaned particularly on Chalmers, in the absence of more scholarly texts, for the lesser known seventeenth- and eighteenth-century poetry. Many of the Treasury's most charming and out-of-the-way poems come from Chalmer's forbidding two-column pages. The dreary appearance of the volumes is a testament to Palgrave's passionate commitment to poetry: few today would care to have to read every poem in the collection twice, as Palgrave did. He took 24 poems from the collection:

No Author Title or First Line 2 Drummond Phoebus, arise!... 22 Alexander 0 if thou knewst... 35 Daniel Care-charmer Sleep, son of the sable Night... 38 Drummond My lute, be as thou... 43 Drummond My thoughts hold mortal strife... 53 Spenser "Prothalamion" 55 Drummond This Life, which seems so fair... 58 Drummond Of this fair volume which we World do name... 59 Drummond Doth then the world go thus, doth all thus move?... 61 Drummond The last and greatest Herald of Heaven's King... 63 Dryden "Song for Saint Cecilia's Day" 67 Beaumont Mortality, behold and fear... 73 Jonson It is not growing like a tree... 87 Carew He that loves a rosy cheek... 89 Waller Go, lovely Rose... 95 Waller "On a Girdle" 101 Suckling Why so pale and wan, fond lover?... 102 Cowley Awake, awake, my Lyre!... 118 Pope Happy the man, whose wish and care... 127 Logan "The Braes of Yarrow" 130 Gay "Black-Eyed Susan" 136 Thomson For ever, Fortune, wilt thou prove... 138 Goldsmith When lovely woman stoops to folly... 154 Mickle And are ye sure the news is true... (also collated against Blackie and Chambers)

Chambers Cyclopedia of English Literature. London: W. and R. Chambers, 1843-4.

Palgrave contributed several articles to later editions of Chambers, and the two-volume collection, which provides lives of most English writers of fiction, non-fiction, prose, poetry, and drama, also gives selections of the authors' writings. Palgrave took nine lyrics from Chambers: 206

No Author Title or First Line 72 Wotton How happy is he born and taught... (coll. Allingham) 81 Sedley Ah, Chlorls! could I now but sit... 91 Anon [Campion] There is a garden in her face... 111 Marvell How vainly men themselves amaze... 114 Marvell Where the remote Bermudas ride... 122 Thomson "Rule Britannia" 126 Elliott I've heard them lilting at our ewe-milking... 152 Lindsay When the sheep are in the fauld... (also collated against Ritson and Blackie) 154 Mickle And are ye sure the news is true... (also collated against Chalmers and Blackie)

Davison, Francis, ed. A Poetical Rapsody. London: John Bailey, 1602. Reprinted by S. W. Singer, London: privately printed, 1810.

The first of the two Elizabethan anthologies on which Palgrave relied in the absence of more scholarly texts, the Rapsody provided two copy texts:

No Author Title or First Line 9 Anon. Absence, hear thou... (attr. Donne 4th ed.) 94 Anon. My Love in her attire doth shew her wit...

Ellis, George, ed. Specimens of the Early English Poets. 3 vols. London: Edwards, 1790.

Specimens was another of the indispensable—and textually unreliable— sources for early English lyrics in the Treasury. It provided three copy- texts :

No Author Title or First Line 24 Sidney My true love hath my heart, and I have his... 84 Wotton You meaner beauties of the night... (also coll. with Percy) 97 Anon. Love not me for comely grace... (also coll. Percy)

England's Helicon. London: John Flasket, 1600. Reprinted by S. W. Singer, London: privately printed, 1812.

Palgrave's favourite Elizabethan anthology, the Helicon's thematic organisation perhaps suggested a model for his own Treasury. The book provided six copy-texts:

No Author Title or First Line 5 Marlowe Come live with me and be my Love... 15 Constable Diaphenia like the daffadowndilly... 16 Lodge Like to the clear in highest sphere... 17 "The Shepherd Tonie" Beauty sat bathing by a spring... 34 Barnefield As it fell upon a day... 40 Anon. While that the sun with his beams hot... 207

Milnes, Richard Monckton, ed. The Life, Letters, and Literary Remains of John Keats. London: Edward Moxon, 1848.

Keats is well represented in the Treasury with eleven poems in the original edition (nos. 166-7, 191, 193, 198-9, 229, 244-5, 270, 284) and two more in the third (1890) edition (nos. 282, 316). The fact that this edition of Keats and one of Shelley (see below), both heavily annotated in Palgrave's hand, were presented by him to the British Library suggests that they were probably sources for the Treasury.

Percy, Thomas, ed. Reliques of English Poetry. London: J. Dodsley, 1765.

One of Palgrave's favourite collections, along with Scott's Minstrelsy, Reliques provided four copy-texts for the early poets:

No Author Title or First Line 68 Shirley Victorious men of earth, no more... 84 Wotton You meaner beauties of the night... (also coll. Ellis) 97 Anon. Love not me for comely grace... (also coll. Ellis) 103 Wither Shall I, wasting in despair...

Ritson, Joseph, ed. The English Anthology. London: T. and J. Egerton, 1793-4.

, ed. A Select Collection of English Songs. 3 vols. London: J. Johnson, 1783.

, ed. Scotish [sic] Song: A Collection of Scottish Songs with Airs. London: J. Johnson and T. Egerton, 1794.

, ed. Pieces of Ancient Popular Poetry. London: T. and J. Egerton, 1791.

One of the earliest song collectors, Ritson published a variety of song-books and ballad-collections, both English and Scottish. Palgrave does not specify which of the collections he used, but they all contain the ballad material which the Treasury relies on so heavily. He used Ritson's anthologies as copy-text for three poems:

No Author Title or First Line 98 Sedley Not, Celia, that I juster am... 128 Anon. Down in yon garden sweet and gay... (also coll. Minstrelsy) 152 Lindsay "Auld Robin Gray"

Scott, Walter, ed. Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border. 2 vols. Edinburgh: privately printed, 1802.

One of Palgrave's favourite books, the Minstrelsy's flavour shows up strongly in the Treasury. Palgrave admitted that he preferred Scott's romantic versions of ballads to the rough originals, and he included many 208

such Scottish ballads in the Treasury. He also included quite a number of poems by Scott himself, who had not only been a friend of Palgrave's father, but also one of Palgrave's favourite poets. The Minstrelsy provided five poems:

No Author Title or First Line 107 Anon. I wish I were where Helen lies... 108 Anon. "The Twa Corbies" 126 Elliott I've heard them lilting at our ewe-milking... 128 Anon. Down in yon garden sweet and gay... (see also Ritson) 133 Graham If doughty deeds my lady please...

The Minor Poems of Percy Bysshe Shelley. London: Edward Moxon, 1846.

Shelley is the most represented Romantic poet in the Golden Treasury after Wordsworth. He had 22 selections in the first edition (nos. 172, 176, 184, 188, 195, 203, 226-7, 241, 246, 252, 259, 260, 264-5, 268, 271, 274-5, 277, 285, 288), and one further in the fourth edition (334). Palgrave did, however, omit three poems (nos. 226, 265, 271) from the third edition for a final total of 20. This edition of Shelley, like that of the Keats (see above) was in Palgrave's library and heavily annotated by him.

II. PROBABLE SOURCES FOR THE THREE EXPANDED EDITIONS OF THE TREASURY

Arber, Edward, ed. An English Garner: Ingatherings from our History and Literature. Birmingham: E. Arber, 1877-90.

, ed. The Works of William Habington. Birmingham: E. Arber, 1870.

Bullen, A. H., ed. Lyrics from the Dramatists of the Elizabethan Age. London: J. H. Nimmo, 1889.

, ed. Lyrics from the Song-Books of the Elizabethan Age. London: J. C. Nimmo, 1887.

, ed. More Lyrics from the Song-Books of the Elizabethan Age. London: J. C. Nimmo, 1888.

, ed. Poems, Chiefly Lyrical, from Romances and Prose-Tracts of the Elizabethan Age: with Chosen Poems of Nicholas Breton. London: J. H. Nimmo, 1890.

, ed. Speculum Amantis: Love Poems from Rare Song-Books and Miscellanies of the Seventeenth Century. London: privately printed, 1889.

Gosse, Edmund, ed. The Works of Thomas Lodge. Glasgow: Hunterian Club, 1883. 209

Grosart, A. B., ed. The Works of Abraham Cowley. Edinburgh: T. and A. Constable, 1881. ("Fuller Worthies Library")

, ed. The Poetical Works of Andrew Marvell. 4 vols. London: Robson and Sons, 1872-5. ("Fuller Worthies Library")

, ed. The Collected Works of Francis Quarles. London: privately printed, 1880-1. ("Chertsey Worthies Library")

, ed. The Poetical Works of Philip Sidney. London: privately printed, 1873. ("Fuller Worthies Library")

, ed. The Complete Poems of Henry Vaughan. London: privately printed, 1876. ("Fuller Worthies Library")

, ed. The Poems of Thomas, Lord Vaux; Edward, Earl of Oxford; Robert [Devereux], Earl of Essex; and Walter, Earl of Essex. London: privately printed, 1872. (Vol. 4 of the "Fuller Worthies Miscellany")

Hannah, John, ed. The Country Poets from Raleigh to Montrose. London: Bell and Daldy, 1870.

Linton, William James, ed. Rare Poets of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century. London: K. Paul, 1883.

Rossetti, William Michael, ed. The Poetical Works of William Blake. London: Bell, 1874. 210

APPENDIX G: CONTEMPORARY REVIEWS

REVIEWS OF THE FIRST EDITION (1861)

Anon. Spectator, 34 (27 July 1861), 813-4.

Anon. Saturday Review, 12 (17 Aug, 1861), 175-6.

"A. J. M." [A. J. Munby]. "A Noteworthy Book of Poems." Working Men's College Magazine, 1 (Sept. 1861), 170-2.

Brown, John. The Scotsman, 12 Sept. 1861), 5.

Froude, J. A. "Some Poets of the Year." Fraser's, 64 (Oct. 1861), 64.

Wilson, H. B. Westminster Review, 43 (Oct. 1861), 606.

Anon. "Christmas Books." The Times, 20 December 1871, 4.

REVIEWS OF THE SECOND EDITION (1884)

Anon. New York Independent, 38 (26 Aug. 1886), 1078.

REVIEWS OF THE FOURTH EDITION (1891)

Anon. Spectator, 66 (17 Jan. 1891), 93.

Dixon, W. M. "Finality in Literary Judgment." Westminster Review, 143 (Apr. 1895) , 401-412.

Anon. "An Authority on Poetical Criticism." Saturday Review, 82 (19 Sept. 1896) , 311-3.

Anon. "Anthologies." Spectator, 79 (30 Oct. 1897), 591-2. 211

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Introduction

Part I of this two-part Bibliography is a comprehensive annotated listing of the primary works of Francis Turner Palgrave, divided into seven sections: manuscripts; separate publications, which include not only volumes of his own original prose and poetry, editions and anthologies, but also pamphlets and separately printed poems; articles of art criticism; articles of literary criticism; reviews; "miscellaneous" articles, including letters to the editor; and fugitive poetry published serially and in anthologies.

Fugitive poems are classified for convenience—on the same principle as in the Wellesley Index—under the title of the periodical in which they appeared. Most of the items in the primary bibliography are annotated, providing background information on the major publications and giving details of reviews and reprints. Part II is a secondary bibliography divided into four parts: books and articles on Palgrave, obituaries, articles—no books exist—on the Golden Treasury, and a general secondary bibliography.

Beyond the general listings in the catalogues of the Library of Congress and the British Library, and in NCBEL, Poole, and the Wellesley Index, there is no bibliography of Palgrave. As some of Palgrave's publications are extremely rare, no claim is made for the absolute completeness of this bibliography. However, most of the known lacunae in the bibliography are either mentioned by Palgrave in his correspondence with incomplete publication details, or they are poems, pamphlets, song-sheets, or privately printed items which he included in the "Opuscula" but which may be unique survivors of extremely limited issues. Except for those items noted as "not 212

examined" (indicated by an asterisk following the item number), all entries in the bibliography have been physically inspected.

The initial item in the bibliography of books, the "Opuscula"

(2.1)—a four-volume scrapbook containing most of his published articles presented by Palgrave to the British Museum in 1897—is an essential primary source for Palgrave's publication history. In all, the "Opuscula" contains

117 items, including one duplicate (the text of his inaugural lecture as

Professor of Poetry [4.15]), most of which are annotated in Palgrave's hand with sufficient detail to identify the source of publication. In a few instances, however, the sources have proved to be wrongly identified, and a handful of these items remain unlocated. Entries from the "Opuscula" are indicated by the volume number (in parentheses) following the publication data, e.g. "(Op. 4)." It should be noted that the "Opuscula" by no means contains the whole of Palgrave's writings: of particular importance among the exclusions are the articles written during his period as art critic for the

Saturday Review (1863-1865), many of his fugitive poems and reviews, and most of the introductions to his anthologies and editions. More crucially, the

"Opuscula" contains no material relating to the Golden Treasury. 213

PART I: PRIMARY BIBLIOGRAPHY

SECTION i: MANUSCRIPT COLLECTIONS

UNITED KINGDOM

1.1 The British Library

Apart from Palgrave's family letters, which are still in the hands of the family, and his correspondence with Tennyson, which is in the Tennyson Research Centre, most of his correspondence is in the British Library, where Palgrave is represented by several volumes of general papers and correspondence, including one full volume of manuscript poetry which also contains several hitherto-unpublished variants of Tennyson verses, including fragments of Locksley Hall, Maud, and The Princess (see K. W. Grandsen, "Some Uncatalogued Manuscripts of Tennyson," Book Collector, 4 [Summer 1955], 159-62). The British Library also has over one hundred letters between Palgrave and Gladstone, for whom Palgrave worked briefly in the 1850's, which cover their friendship from the mid-fifties to the late eighties, when Palgrave severed the friendship. His travel journals and a "confessional" album form an interesting background to the more crucial letters in the Macmillan Papers, which cover his long association with Macmillan publishers, commencing in 1860 and continuing until his death in 1897, with the exception of the letters relating to the Golden Treasury which are in the Berg Collection of the New York Public Library (see 1.13). Perhaps the most valuable items in the collection are the manuscripts of the Golden Treasury, first and second series, presented to the Library by Palgrave's daughter in 1930. The manuscript is mostly in Palgrave's hand, with some poems cut out of a variety of published sources, with the comments of the three collaborators—George Miller, Thomas Woolner, and Alfred Tennyson—noted by Palgrave himself. The manuscript is invaluable for gauging the input of each of the collaborators, and for clarifying Tennyson's role in the book's preparation. For the several critical articles treating the Treasury manuscript, see "H. I. B." [Idris Bell], "The Original Manuscript of the 'Golden Treasury'," BMQ, 5 (Sept. 1930), 85-7; B. Ifor Evans, "Tennyson and the Origins of the Golden Treasury," TLS, 8 Dec. 1932, 941. There is also one article concerning a juvenile production of the Palgrave family printing press preserved in the British Library: D. F. Foxon, "E Typis Palgravianis," Book Collector, 4 (Autumn 1955), 252.

1.2 Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge University

The Fitzwilliam has an autograph testimonial dated 9 November 1872 supporting Sidney Colvin's bid for the Slade Professorship.

1.3 Trinity College, Cambridge University

Ten letters to Charles King, the gemnologist (two undated, and 25 Apr. 1866-3 Nov. 1870) and one undated letter to an unnamed correspondent accompany two letters (18 June 1875 and 10 Nov. 1888) to Palgrave's financial advisor, Mr. Hendriks. 214

1.4 East Sussex Record Office, Lewes

The Frederick and Eleanor Locker-Lampson Collection contains 22 letters —21 letters (24 Oct. 1865-14 Oct. 1875) to the Lampsons, and one to Lady Augusta Stanley (9 Aug. 1867)—and two unpublished poems by Palgrave.

1.5 The National Library of Scotland

There are six unpublished letters to the editors of Blackwood's Magazine (9 Mar. 1859, 14, 18 Nov. 1882, and 4, 9, 19 Dec. 1882), with two of Blackwood's apparently-undated replies in an uncatalogued letter book (Acc. 5643).

1.6 Balliol College, Oxford University

Palgrave's own college has only one postcard (23 June 1894) and three letters (23 June 1894, 26 June [1894], 29 Mar. [1894]) to Evelyn Abbott and Lewis Campbell, Benjamin Jowett's biographers, concerning Palgrave's input into the biography, along with a six-page list of addenda which Palgrave suggested for the volume.

1.7 Bodleian Library

Bodley has Palgrave's travel journal made on his visit to revolutionary Paris with Jowett and Arthur Stanley in 1848, along with one letter each to Arthur Stanley (12 Feb. 1854), Woolner (n.d.), with a letter to Palgrave from Woolner dated 28 Feb. 1875, William Barnes (26 Nov. 1875), and the headmaster of Charterhouse, Doctor Haig Brown (15 July, n.y.), but the most important cache of letters is the correspondence between Palgrave and Arthur Hugh Clough, much of which has already been published, either in The Poetry and Prose Remains of Arthur Hugh Clough, ed. Blanche Clough (1869), or in The Correspondence of Arthur Hugh Clough ed. F. L. Mulhauser (1957). There is also one letter to Clough's widow (8 Jan. 1866). See also Palgrave's memoir of Clough (2.9). Palgrave's more than thirty letters to the Pre-Raphaelite painter F. G. Stephens are also in Bodley (17 June 1862-23 Feb. 1876), together with five letters to William Holman Hunt (1 May 1860-13 Feb. 1865), and two letters to the editor of the Daily Telegraph and another unidentified publication.

1.8 Palgrave Family Papers

The Palgrave family still retains large numbers of letters exchanged by various members of Palgrave's family, including many by Francis Turner written from childhood onwards. The letters, which are a goldmine of information about the Palgrave family, have never been completely catalogued, but they are available to scholars and are presently being microfilmed by the Palgrave Society, a group devoted to the history of the family.

1.9 Tennyson Research Centre, Lincoln

An indispensable source in dealing with Palgrave's relationship with Tennyson, the TRC has all of Palgrave's surviving correspondence with the Laureate, although almost certainly this collection represents only a 215

a fraction of the complete correspondence since Palgrave was instructive in destroying much of the Laureate's correspondence after Tennyson's death. In all, 35 letters to the Tennysons survive: ten written to Tennyson from 1856 to 1868, when Tennyson temporarily ended the friendship, nineteen others to Alfred, Emily and Hallam Tennyson written between 1875 and 1896, and six to Hallam written after Tennyson's death discussing Palgrave's role in the Memoir (2.49) and in the destruction of Tennyson's letters and papers. The TRC also has one letter to Palgrave from Max Muller, an old Oxford friend. See also 1.18.

1.10 The Victoria and Albert Museum

The Dyce Collection has only one trivial note (26 July n.y.) written by Palgrave in his capacity as his father's private secretary.

UNITED STATES AND CANADA

1.11 Duke University, North Carolina

The S. Weir Mitchell Papers have one letter by Palgrave (17 June 1892) to an unnamed correspondent in the Trent Collection in the History of Medicine.

1.12 The Humanities Research Center, University of Texas

The HRC has four letters to Richard Garnett (17 July 1893-22 June [1896] and two postcards (27 June 1896 and 13 Mar. 1897). There is one postcard to T. H. Ward (14 Mar. 1879), one letter to John Talbot (18 Aug. 1880), one letter to Derwent Coleridge (3 May 1843), and three letters to The Times (7 Feb. 1871, 30 Jan. 1874, and 19 May 1877), all unpublished. Eight other letters to Sarah Coleridge (1842-1851) ascribed to Palgrave are in fact by his father and mother. There is one undated letter from Robert Browning to Palgrave and one Browning letter to Palgrave's wife, Cecil, dated 9 Dec. 1878.

1.13 The Berg Collection, New York Public Library

The Berg has the 4 9 letters written by Palgrave to Macmillan between 1859 and 1863 which make up the Golden Treasury correspondence which Macmillan historian, Simon Nowell-Smith, believed was lost when he put together Letters to Macmillan in 1967. The letters follow the book's development from conception to publication and thus provide an invaluable basis for evaluating Palgrave's editorial decisions. A few letters also deal with Palgrave's other Macmillan publications.

1.14 The Pierpont Morgan Library

The library has six letters: one to J. B. Gilder (Jan. 1889), and five to William Knight (6 Oct. 1887-11 Feb. 1888) dealing with Knight's biography of their mutual friend, J. C. Shairp, and with Palgrave's edition of Shairp's poetry (2.41). 216

1.15 Princeton University Library

Princeton has one long interesting ALS from Palgrave to Charlotte Yonge, dated 2 Mar. 1869.

1.16 University of British Columbia Library

The Angeli Papers contain thirteen letters from Palgrave to William Michael Rossetti (10 Oct. 1856-22 June 1896), and a list of poems by Christina Rossetti and Dante Gabriel Rossetti which Palgrave wished to include in the Second Series of the Golden Treasury.

1.17 University of Virginia Library

One letter (23 Dec. 1876) to an unnamed recipient is in the Tracy William McGregor Collection.

1.18 Yale University Library

In all, the Yale collections have eighteen Palgrave letters: three letters in the Wreden Collection (22 Feb. 1878, 7 Feb. 1885, and one undated) of the Sterling Memorial Library and another fifteen in the Beinecke Library: four (20 July 1866 and three undated) to unnamed recipients; one to William Cox Bennett (3 June 1869); one to the editor of Academy Notes (16 Feb. 1878); five to A. H. Miles (16 Sept. 1893 and four undated); and two to Hallam Tennyson (7 June 1893 and 24 Sept. 1893), complementing those in the TRC (1.9). 217

SECTION ii. BOOKS AND SEPARATE PUBLICATIONS

2.1 ["Opuscula"]: Four Volumes of Miscellaneous Essays, 1847-1897, presented to the British Library by Francis Turner Palgrave in 1897.

In the last years of his life, Palgrave put together a four-volume "scrapbook" of his fugitive publications, including serial contributions, poetry, introductions, printed ephemera, and letters to the editor, from his first publication in 1847 until the year of his death (1897); he presented those volumes to the British Library. While incomplete, the "Opuscula" is an invaluable source book. All items in this bibliography which have been identified through the "Opuscula" have the annotation "Op." with the volume number in parentheses following the entry.

2.2 Preciosa. London: John Chapman, 1852.

Palgrave's first book and first novel, published anonymously, is a thinly-disguised narration of his long-standing, unrequited love for the sister of a childhood friend. The story is retold in his other novel, The Passionate Pilgrim (2.6) in 1858. For more details of the biographical basis for both books, see Chapter One. Preciosa was not a critical success, although his biographer, his daughter Gwenllian Palgrave, quotes a Times reviewer's comparison of the book to In Memoriam and Shakespeare's sonnets as an exploration of a state of powerful emotion.

2.3 Common Room Common-Places by Two Oxford Fellows. London: A. and G. A. Spottiswoode, 1854. (Op. 1)

Palgrave notes in the "Opuscula" that this political pamphlet was written in collaboration with his Oxford friend Alexander Grant.

2.4 Hints on the Hebdomadal Reform Bill. London: A. and G. A. Spottiswoode, 1854. (Op. 1)

This pamphlet is one of Palgrave's few prose writings on religion. From the sixties onwards he wrote hymns and religious verses in support of the Oxford Movement.

2.5 Idyls and Songs, 1848-1854. London: John W. Parker, 1854.

Palgrave's first volume of poetry, printed by his father's publisher, consists entirely of lyrics, as do all his subsequent original collections and anthologies. This collection of translations, ballads, Oxford reminiscences, Tennysonian "idyls," and Wordsworthian nature poems is typical of the collections produced by young Oxford men in the fifties, particularly those of his friends Arnold and Clough. The contents of the Idyls also foreshadow the structure of the Treasury, particularly in the heavy reliance on ballads and Wordsworthian lyrics. The volume did not sell, and was not apparently reviewed. Many of the poems were reprinted in Lyrical Poems (2.29) in 1871. 218

2.6 The Passionate Pilgrim, or Eros and Anteros. London: Chapman and Hall, 1858. Reprinted London: Peter Davies, 1926, ed. R. Brimley Johnson.

This novel, named for the Elizabethan lyric collection and published under the pseudonym, "Henry J. Thurstan," is a retelling of the 1852 Preciosa, a roman a clef dealing with his hopeless love for a childhood friend. This version of the story is less realistic than the earlier one and is more influenced by Palgrave's reading of Dante and Goethe, from both of whom he quotes at length. R. Brimley Johnson's introduction to the 1926 reprint hints at the autobiographical basis for both novels.

2.7 The Golden Treasury of the Best Songs and Lyrical Poems in the English Language, ed. Francis Turner Palgrave. Cambridge: Macmillan, 1861.

The first book in the Golden Treasury Series. The second appears to have been Roundell Palmer's Book of Praise (1862). For complete bibliographical details of the Golden Treasury, see Appendix A, above.

2.8 The Official Catalogue of the Fine Art Department of the International Exhibition of 1862. London: Truscott, Son and Simmons, 1862. (Op. 10) Reissued as The Handbook to the Fine Art Collections in the International Exhibition of 1862. London: Macmillan, 1862.

This handbook was commissioned as a simple guide to the art exhibits, but Palgrave was unable to resist turning the book into an extended attack on the poor quality of much of the work exhibited, particularly the sculpture. The book was withdrawn less than three weeks later when enraged artists and critics protested in the letters columns of The Times (see 6.4-6). The Illustrated London News (7 June 1862, 588-9) also attacked the book. Palgrave became notorious overnight, and was immediately hired as resident art-critic by the equally controversial Saturday Review, where for the next three years he fulminated against what he perceived to be the iniquities of the Victorian art world.

2.9 "Memoir," in The Poetical Works of Arthur Hugh Clough with a Memoir by Francis Turner Palgrave. Cambridge and London: Macmillan, 1862.

Palgrave had been a close friend of Clough at Oxford and in the Education Office, so he offered to write the memoir for this first posthumous selection of Clough's poetry, edited by Clough's widow with the help of Charles Eliot Norton, who also wrote the introduction to the American edition. Palgrave's memoir, the first important discussion of Clough's life and work, had an enormous impact on Clough's reputation, creating what Michael Thorpe, editor of Clough: the Critical Heritage, calls the "Clough myth" (p. 13), and setting the tone for Clough criticism for a century of "admiration of the man combined with diffident praise of the honest and upright content of the works" (p. 8). The "Memoir," which appeared originally in Fraser's (4.6) in a slightly different form, was used only in the first (1862) and second (1863) editions, after which it was replaced by a more-adulatory memoir by Mrs. Clough, although it did reappear in a revised Macmillan edition (1888) and in a G. Routledge and Sons edition in 1906. 219

Palgrave notes in the "Opuscula" that his memoir was dropped because "her friends, I fancy of a generation after A. H. C. , did not consider it sufficiently reverential." When Blanche Clough published an expanded edition in 1869 containing poems Palgrave considered unfinished or unflattering, he published a splenetic poem in defence of the interests of the dead poet, "Pro Mortuis" (7.16). Palgrave's correspondence with Arthur and Blanche Clough is in Bodley (1.7).

2.10 Palgrave, Sir Francis. The History of Normandy and England. 4 vols. The last two volumes edited by Francis Turner Palgrave. London: John W. Parker, 1851-1864.

The first two volumes of Sir Francis's scholarly, eccentric and difficult history appeared in 1851 and 1857, but he died before editing the last two, and his son completed them. He also transferred the edition to his own publisher, Macmillan, in 1864 when John Parker went out of business. Palgrave used his father's ideas, along with the views of his father's friend, Henry Hallam, as the basis for his cycle of historical lyrics, The Visions of England (2.34), in 1880.

2.11 Songs and Sonnets by William Shakespeare, ed. Francis Turner Palgrave. London: Macmillan, 1865.

This inexpensive "Gem" edition is the first of the many which Palgrave edited for Macmillan after the success of the Treasury convinced the firm that there was a market for such popular poetry selections. Palgrave's edition provoked controversy not only because it omits the Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece on the grounds, as he said privately to his publishers, that "[t]hey are too highly coloured for mammas and parsons" (Macmillan Papers, British Library 30 Mar. 1864), but also because he bowdlerised the sonnet sequence, silently omitting sonnets 20, 150, 151, 153, 154, and substituting seven inferior sonnets from the Passionate Pilgrim collection to replace the original four final sonnets. By renumbering the sequence he disguised the loss of sonnet 20, and none of the poems he added from the Pilgrim (Pilgrim poems 12, 7, the second half of 14, the first half of 14, 13, 10, 8) are by Shakespeare, a fact which was apparently widely known at the time. Two of the poems are not even sonnets, but halves of a longer lyric. This dubious editorial practice, which also included "a sparing introduction of the most plausible emendations of the most obviously corrupt passages" (p. 236), he justified by drawing on the critical authority of his father's friend, Henry Hallam, who had expressed his disappointment in, as Palgrave put it, "the idolatry which the author of Hamlet and the Tempest wastes on an unworthy subject" (p. 242). He rounded out the collection with songs from the plays, most of which had already appeared in the Treasury, and followed his general critical practice of giving his own titles to the poems, including the sonnets. After reappearing in the Golden Treasury Series in 1879, the book was reprinted in 1887, 1891, 1893, and in 1902. 220

2.12 A Selection from the Works of William Wordsworth, ed. Francis Turner Palgrave. London: Moxon, 1865. (Memoir, Op. 2)

Palgrave edited this collection in the new Moxon's Miniature Poets Series, his only secular selection issued by a publisher other than Macmillan, apparently at the request of Wordsworth's family, who had no doubt been pleased with the 41 selections in the Treasury, published in 1861 at the nadir of Wordsworth's reputation. Palgrave's enthusiasm for Wordsworth here and in the Golden Treasury helped to revive the poet's reputation after its decline following his death in 1850. This revival continued with the appearance of Matthew Arnold's selection from Wordsworth in the Golden Treasury Series in 1879. The 119 selections are presented thematically and emphasise poems with the themes of nature and "national individuality and advance."

2.13* Palgrave's "Arabia" and the "Quarterly Review". London: privately printed, 1866.

This pamphlet, which first appeared as an article in the Spectator (6.8), challenges the Quarterly Review's criticisms that A Narrative of a Year's Journey through Central and Eastern Asia (London: Macmillan, 1865) by Palgrave's brother William Gifford, the Arabian traveller, was inaccurate. Palgrave edited at least two of Gifford's books (2.30 and 2.45), and helped to write his obituary (6.15).

2.14 Poetical Works by Walter Scott, ed. Francis Turner Palgrave. London: Macmillan, 1866. (Memoir, Op. 2)

Palgrave contributed only the memoir of his father's friend to this collection, the text of which was reprinted from the plates of an earlier edition with Scott's own notes, although Palgrave insisted that not all of Scott's poetry be reprinted: he wrote to Macmillan (22 Feb. 1866) that "as some of the miscellanea are poor, some political, or temporary, and some, translations, you may perhaps exercise a discreet suppression." Palgrave also pointed out that Scott's poetry does not approach the touchstone of what Palgrave perceived as "Hellenic" quality: "Scott's was the Gothic mind throughout, not the Greek; he wants that indefinable air of distinction which even the lesser ancient authors have" (p. xxxv). The memoir was reprinted as part of a Scott "Centennial Offering" in 1871 (2.28), and the whole edition was reprinted in 1867, with additions and omissions in 1868, 1869, 1871, 1872, 1873, 1876, 1878, 1881, and 1884. Palgrave later edited two selections from the volume for schools (2.35).

2.15 Essays on Art. London: Macmillan, 1866. New York: Hurd and Houghton, 1867.

Palgrave's only book of art criticism is a selection of his writings from his three-year tenure as art critic of the Saturday Review (1863 to 1865), and its publication marks the end of his active participation as an art critic. The essays have been extensively revised to remove local 221

references, to tone down his often-intemperate expression, and to include subsequent developments in the topics. The collection reflects Palgrave's most important interests: the support of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood; his attacks on the degenerate state of contemporary sculpture; and his hatred of the art establishment, particularly of the Royal Academy. The book was reviewed by William Michael Rossetti in the FAQ, NS 1 (1866), 302-11; by F. T. Wedmore in Colburn's New Monthly Magazine, 137 (1866), 108-113; and by the Spectator, 1976 (12 May 1866), 526-527. The Saturday articles are listed separately in Section iii below.

2.16 Hymns. London: Macmillan, 1867. Reprinted 1868 and 1870. (Op. 3)

Palgrave's most popular volume of original poetry, Hymns was reprinted twice in three years, during which time the number of poems rose from twelve to twenty. His hymns are really religious poems, although a few of them were later set to music (2.17-21, 2.25-27), and critics noted the resemblance between his religious verses and those of Matthew Arnold, particularly in the "music of mournful speculation" (E. K. Chambers, review of Amenophis, Academy, 44 (14 Jan., 1893), 29). The volume was reviewed by his friend Henry Adams in the NAR, 120 (1875), 438-44.

2.17* Christus Consolator. London: Novello, 1867.

A hymn set to music by James Tilleard and published separately, as were 2.18-21 and 2.25-27, below, (first publ., 2.16, 1st ed.)

2.18* The City of God. London: Novello, 1867.

A hymn set to music by James Tilleard. (first publ., 2.16, 1st ed.)

2.19* The Day Star. London: Novello, 1867.

A hymn set to music by James Tilleard. (first publ., 2.16, 1st ed.)

2.20* Evening Hymn. London: Novello, 1867.

One of a number of Palgrave's hymns entitled "Evening Hymn," "0 Light of life, 0 Saviour dear" was set to music by James Tilleard, and published separately, as was 2.21, below, (first publ, 2.16, 1st ed.)

2.21* Morning Hymn. London: Novello, 1867.

One of a number of Palgrave's hymns entitled "Morning Hymn," "Lord God of Morning and of Night" was set to music by James Tilleard. (first publ., 2.16, 1st. ed.)

2.22 The Five Days' Entertainments at Wentworth Grange. London: Macmillan, 1868.

Palgrave's only children's book, although he wrote charades and stories for magazines and produced a Children's Treasury in 1875 (2.32), the Five Days' Entertainments consists of a mixture of retold fables and original 222

stories on the subjects of the five senses. Apparently unsuccessful, the book was still in stock two years later, when Macmillan reduced the price. It exists in two states, with red or blue interchangeably framing the title page, and the later state has corrections. The book is a collector's item today owing to the wood-engravings by the Pre-Raphaelite artist, Arthur Hughes.

2.23 Gems of English Art of this Century: Twenty-Four Pictures from National Collections Painted in Colours by Leighton Brothers. London and New York: George Routledge, 1869.

A guide for a popular audience to paintings in national public galleries, Gems consists of a series of reproductions of paintings, each with a facing page of criticism to explain the painting's value as a touchstone. The guide apparently encourages an uneducated audience to get to know the national public collections, but its lavish multi-coloured, gold-stamped binding suggests that it was intended for a more prosperous market.

2.24 A Short Sketch of European Painting. London: privately printed, 1870. (Op. 3)

One hundred copies of this guide to national collections for a popular audience were printed for a visit by the Working Men's College to the National Gallery on 2 April 1870.

2.25* A Child's Evening Hymn. London: National Society, 1870.

One of several poems entitled "A Child's Evening Hymn," "0 Lord, who when thy cross was nigh" was published separately as a "Broad Sheet for Schools," as were 2.26-7, below, (rpt. 2.29)

2.26* A Child's Morning Hymn. London: National Society, 1870.

One of several poems entitled "A Child's Morning Hymn," "0 God who when the night was deep" was published as a Broad Sheet for Schools, (rpt. 2.31)

2.27* A Little Child's Hymn. London: Novello, 1870.

This hymn, first published in the first (1867) edition of Palgrave's Hymns, was set to music by James Tilleard. (rpt. 2.16, 1st. ed.)

2.28 A Centennial Offering 1771-1871. The Life of Sir Walter Scott, with remarks upon his writings, by Francis Turner Palgrave. With an Essay on Scott, by David Masson, M. A. and "Dryburgh Abbey": a poem by Charles Swain. Philadelphia: Porter and Coates, 1871.

A reprint of Palgrave's memoir of Scott prefacing 2.14. 223

2.29 Lyrical Poems. London and New York: Macmillan, 1871.

Palgrave's first secular collection since Idyls and Songs in 1854, Lyrical Poems combines poems from the earlier volume with poems published in periodicals since 1862 and newly-written experimental verses in which he attempted, unsuccessfully, to reproduce the tone and style of Homeric verse. It was reviewed with 2.16 and 2.31 by his friend Henry Adams in the North American Review, 120 (1875), 438-44, and by the Saturday Review, 31 (27 May 1871), 671.

2.30 Palgrave, William Gifford. Hermann Agha, ed. Francis Turner Palgrave. London: Macmillan, 1872.

Palgrave edited his brother's Middle-Eastern novel and saw it through the press in his brother's absence. He performed the same service for his brother's posthumously published long poem, A Vision of Life (2.45).

2.31 A Lyme Garland, Being Verses, Mainly Written at Lyme Regis, or Upon the Scenery of the Neighbourhood. Lyme: privately printed, 1874. (Op. 3)

One hundred and fifty copies were printed in aid of "the School Fund" in Lyme Regis, where Palgrave had a country house and where he took a keen interest in the schools and churches. The book consists of several poems first printed in local magazines, along with a number of previously-published hymns and some pleasant nature lyrics. Henry Adams was the only reviewer (see 2.29).

2.32 The Children's Treasury of English Song, ed. Francis Turner Palgrave. 2 vols. London: Macmillan, 1875. Reprinted in a single volume in the following year as The Children's Treasury of Lyrical Poetry.

In preparing the Children's Treasury, Palgrave consciously strove for novelty: "everyone has aimed at what he thought suitableness to children; goodness as Poetry has come or not as might have" (Macmillan Papers, British Library, 2 Oct. 1874). He decided to print only poetry "reaching a high rank in poetical merit," rather than using poetry to instruct or moralise, in order to encourage children to love poetry, as the Golden Treasury had tried to encourage adults. As a result, there is considerable overlap with the original Treasury, although Palgrave also included works by living authors. Tennyson, however, was not represented until 1884, when he transferred his copyright to Macmillan, after which Palgrave immediately included twelve lyrics by the Laureate. The collection appears in the Golden Treasury format. Lyrical Poetry and English Song are identical in content, but the former is a one-volume textbook. English Song's two volumes both initially appeared in 1875. Volume one was reprinted in 1877, 1879, 1880, 1881, 1883, 1884, 1885, expanded in 1886, in 1888 (twice); with the second volume in America in 1893 and 1919 as part of "Macmillan's Juvenile Library." The second volume was reprinted in 1879, 1881, 1883, expanded in 1886 (twice), and in 1889. Lyrical Poetry appeared in Macmillan's Copy-Books Literature 224

Primers Series one year after English Song in 1876, 1877, 1878, 1881, 1882, 1884, expanded in 1885, 1890, 1892, 1898, and then in 1905, 1919, and in 1944 without the twelve Tennyson poems.

2.33 Chrysomela: A Selection from the Lyric Poems of Robert Herrick, ed. Francis Turner Palgrave. Golden Treasury Series. London: Macmillan, 1877. (Preface, Op. 3)

Reprinted in 1884, 1888, 1891, 1892 and 1911, this highly-selective collection is dedicated to Beatrix Maud Cecil, the eighteen-year-old daughter of his "Preciosa." As Palgrave pointed out to his publisher, "a complete Herrick, as I daresay you know, contains so many coarse things that it could not ever be left on a drawing room table, much less given to ingenuous youth" (Macmillan Papers, British Library, 18 July 1876). Palgrave, who admired Herrick because his poetry combined the beauty of Elizabethan verse with the "simplicity, sanity, and beauty" of the Greek lyric (p. xxi), produced this selection partly, as he said privately, "as the preface may serve to help me in my candidature for the Oxford poetry professorship which is vacant this year" (Letters to Macmillan, p. 108). Palgrave had contributed notes to Grosart's complete edition of Herrick (1876), and Grosart returned the favour in this selection. The preface appeared separately in Macmillan's Magazine (4.13).

2.34 The Visions of England. 2 vols. London: privately printed, 1880 and 1881. Reprinted in an expanded one-volume edition, London: Macmillan 1881, and in an abridged one-volume edition with the addition of 2.40, London: Cassell's National Library, 1889.

After his Hymns, Palgrave's Visions of England was his only popular volume of original lyrics. He was at first forced to publish it at his own expense in an edition of 50 copies, although its critical reception was strong enough to persuade Macmillan to undertake an expanded one-volume printing in 1881, and Cassell brought it out in an abridged school edition in 1889. The Visions is a loosely-connected series of lyrics dealing with incidents from English history, from Julius Caesar's visit to the death of Prince Albert. It is intended to foster "national spirit" and pride, as he believed Athenian poetry had done, but it also is "an open avowal of some of his political and historical views" (Life, p. 158), both of which reflect the views of his father and his father's friend Henry Hallam, to both of whom the book is dedicated. Visions includes several reprints and some fugitive verses, one of which, "Trafalgar," was later set to music (2.54). Critics generally agreed that the Visions sprang more from Palgrave's desire to teach than from any true poetic inspiration. Reviews: Church Quarterly, 5 (1880), 16; The Times, 6 Dec. 1881, p. 3; and A. W. Ward in Macmillan's Magazine, 46 (1882), 424-30. 225

2.35 Scott, Walter. The Lay of the Last Minstrel and the Lady of the Lake, and Marmion and the Lord of the Isles, ed. Francis Turner Palgrave. London: Macmillan 1883.

A pair of excerpts from Palgrave's 1865 edition of Scott (2.14), these selections appeared as "Globe Readings from Standard Authors" in cheap soft-cover school editions.

2.36 The Poetical Works of John Keats, ed. Francis Turner Palgrave. London: Macmillan, 1884.

Reprinted 1885, 1886, 1889, the Keats is unique in Palgrave's canon because it is his only edition devoted to literal reprints. In all his other editions and selections, he emended texts freely in form, spelling, and presentation, in order to ensure that poetry was read as widely as possible; but in this case, he felt that someone should "reproduce exactly the rare original texts" which had not been reprinted since Keats' death. This edition includes the texts of Poems (1817), Endymion (1818), Lamia, Isabella, The Eve of Saint Agnes and Other Poems (1820), and Hyperion, and adds a few manuscript pieces. The edition relies heavily on Palgrave's friend Richard Monckton Milnes' Life, Letters and Literary Remains of John Keats (1848), which is also the source for the Keats' selections in the Treasury.

2.37 Lyrical Poems by Alfred Tennyson, ed. Francis Turner Palgrave. Golden Treasury Series. London: Macmillan, 1885.

This Golden Treasury Series selection was intended as an appendix to the Golden Treasury, in which Tennyson had refused to allow his poetry to appear. Tennyson refused to allow Palgrave to edit any of his poetry until in 1884, having signed with Palgrave's publisher, Macmillan, he could no longer easily refuse permission. So eager was Palgrave to edit the selection that he wrote to Macmillan about it only three days after Tennyson's previous contract with Kegan Paul had expired in January 1884. Almost all the poems in this selection, 70 lyrics and 42 selections from In Memoriam, date from before 1860. The real critical interest of the volume lies in the 42 selections from In Memoriam: "seventeen sections of personal elegy" (Shaw, p. 199), followed by 25 representing the grief "in figures, or connected with the aspects of nature and of religious thought" or "imbued with religious thought" (Palgrave, p. 262). The editors of the newest edition of In Memoriam (Oxford: Clarendon, 1982), Susan Shatto and Marion Shaw, discuss Palgrave's selection in their introduction on the dubious grounds that "there can be no doubt, however, that at the very least, Tennyson knew and approved of Palgrave's selection" (p. 25). In reality, Palgrave's correspondence with Macmillan reveals that Tennyson, already ailing, was almost indifferent to the book, and Palgrave had great trouble getting Tennyson even to look at the selections. Although not apparently reviewed at the time of publication, this edition has been noted by modern scholars: Marion Shaw published her discussion of the selection separately as "Palgrave's In Memoriam," Victorian Poetry, 18 (Summer 1980), 199-201. A related article by John 0. Waller, "Francis Turner Palgrave's Criticisms of Tennyson's In Memoriam," Victorian Newsletter, 52 (Fall 1977), 13-17, discusses Palgrave's annotations to a first edition, first state In Memoriam. 226

2.38 Religion and Art: Their Influence on Each Other. (Op. 4)

A printed lecture, but without publication details. A note in the "Opuscula" states that it was read on 7 October 1885 to a church congress at Portsmouth.

2.39* The Life of Jesus Christ Illustrated from the Italian Painters. London: National Society, 1885.

„ This illustrated book for children and a popular audience was published by one of the religious education societies, which had also published some of Palgrave's hymns. In it, Palgrave attempts to foster both piety and an enthusiasm for the fine arts.

2.40 Ode for the Twenty-First of June. Oxford: Clarendon, 1887. (Op.4)

Privately printed in 25 copies, this ode was written to celebrate Victoria's golden jubilee. Palgrave told Macmillan that it "is a sort of official production, which the Oxford authorities are complimentary enough to wish to adopt" (Macmillan Papers, British Library, 8 June 1887). It also appears under the title of Ode for the Twentieth of June (1887), and was reprinted as an appendix to the Cassell National Library edition of Visions of England (2.34).

2.41 Chaucer and the Italian Renaissance. London: K. Paul Trench, 1888. New York: International News Company, 1888.

Extracted from the Nineteenth Century (4.22), this article is a reprint of one of Palgrave's Oxford lectures, delivered 31 May 1888, from the series on the Renaissance in English Literature.

2.42 Glen Desseray and Other Poems by J. C. Shairp, ed. Francis Turner Palgrave. London: Macmillan, 1888.

Principal Shairp was an old Balliol friend who preceded Palgrave as Professor of Poetry at Oxford. Palgrave undertook to edit this collection, whose title-poem celebrates the Balliol men of the early forties in the style of Clough's "Scholar Gypsy," in much the same spirit as he had written Clough's memoir, and as he would later work with the biographers of Jowett and Tennyson: he wished to protect the reputations and writings of his friends from the unkind scrutiny of the world.

2.43* Address to the Students, delivered on the prize-day of the Salisbury School of Science and Art. Salisbury: privately printed, 1889. (Op. 4)

This lecture was printed privately at the offices of the Salisbury and Winchester Journal by Edward Hulse after Palgrave had delivered it on 25 Jan. 1889. 227

2.44 The Treasury of Sacred Song Selected from the English Lyrical Poetry of Four Centuries, ed. Francis Turner Palgrave. Oxford: Clarendon, 1889. Reprinted 1890, 1891, 1892 1906, 1907.

Palgrave's only "Treasury" outside Macmillan, the Sacred Song was requested by "the authorities of the Clarendon Press" and by Benjamin Jowett, who had expressed a wish that Palgrave "should compile such a Treasury while so closely connected with the University of Oxford" (Life, p. 212). The handsome red cloth binding with vellum spine distinguishes it from the small green or blue pocket format of the regular Macmillan Treasuries, although the great success of the signed large-paper limited edition (600 sold out in three days) prompted Macmillan to produce special limited editions of the 1890 and 1891 expanded editions in a similar large format. The book never attained the success of the original Treasury, partly because his selection of sacred poetry is such a personal one: he includes four poems by Donne and 38 by Henry Vaughan; five by Milton and 23 by Keble; five by Tennyson and 32 by Newman. As is usual in his other Treasuries, Palgrave states that poetic "excellence," rather than moral worthiness, as his editorial criterion because "the aim at direct usefulness to the individual or to the Church has unquestionably led to the neglect of Poetry in religious verse; and Art, we may truly say, has here revenged herself upon Religion" (p. vi). Following his normal practice, Palgrave routinely modernises the spelling and adapts the text through omissions in order to "ensure a more equably sustained excellence in poetry" (p. viii). He divides the volume into three unequal "books": Dunbar to Jeremy Taylor; Cowley to Mrs. Barbauld; and Keble to Tennyson. In spite of the stated objectivity of his critical principles, the book's obvious bias towards the Oxford Movement perhaps explains the book's limited success. It was reviewed in the Spectator, 6 (9 Nov. 1889), 635, and the Dial, 10 (Feb. 1890), 282.

2.45 Palgrave, William Gifford. A Vision of Life: Semblance and Reality, ed. Francis Turner Palgrave. London: Macmillan, 1891.

Although Gifford had worked on this long philosophical poem for several years before his death in Montevideo in 1888, he did not live to see it published. Francis Turner completed negotiations with Macmillan, did the final editing, and saw the book through the press.

2.46 Amenophis and Other Poems, Sacred and Secular. London: Macmillan,

Published in the format of the Golden Treasury Series, but not a member of the series, Palgrave's final collection of original verse is heavily burdened with notes and divided into two sections, "Hymns and Meditations" and "Varia"; the latter, including the long title poem, "Amenophis," "based on ideas of the existence of God before such ideas had been consciously analysed," was condemned by the critics for its obscurity (Life, p. 228). Most of the poems are reprinted from Hymns, Lyrical Poems, and A Lyme. Garland, along with a number from periodicals, including memorial verses for Robert Browning and others. Generally, the critics were kinder to this 228

volume than to previous ones, although they were unanimous in condemning Palgrave's technical ineptitude: "Mr. Palgrave has little care for technique: his rhymes are hackneyed; he uses loose stanza forms, in which the first and third lines are unrhymed: always the thought is more to him than its metrical setting" (Chambers, p. 29). The book was reviewed in The Times, 25 Nov. 1893, p. 3; by G. A. Simcox in The Bookman, 3 (3 Jan. 1893), 122-3; and by Edmund Chambers in the Academy, 43 (14 Jan. 1893), 29-30.

2.47* Prothalamion, 6th July 1893: On the Occasion of the Wedding of the Duke of York and Princess Mary of Teck. London: privately printed, 1893.

A limited edition, similar to the Jubilee Ode (2.40), but no information is available on the circumstances surrounding this limited edition poem.

2.48 Materials for a Life of A[lfred] Tfennyson], Collected for my Children, ed. [Hallam Tennyson], 4 vols. London: privately printed, 1894-5.

Palgrave contributed extensively to the 4-volume Materials, an earlier version of Tennyson's Memoir published as a 32-set trial book by Hallam Tennyson. Palgrave wrote reminiscences of his various trips with Tennyson (vol. 2, 86-91, 223-5, 309-17, 366-70 and vol. 3, 59-65), a letter to Hallam about Tennyson's late son, Lionel (vol. 4, 123-37) which was reprinted in the Tennyson Research Bulletin in 1972 (6.24), and some "Recollections" of Tennyson (vol. 4, 286-330). All but the "Recollections" were excised by Hallam Tennyson in the final published edition of 1897 (2.49, following). Palgrave's input into the Materials and Memoir is discussed at length by Philip Elliot in The Making of the Memoir (Greensville, N. C: privately printed, 1978).

2.49 "Personal Recollections by F. T. Palgrave (Including Some Criticisms by Tennyson)," in Alfred Tennyson: a Memoir, ed. Hallam Tennyson. 2 vols. London: Macmillan, 1897, 2, 484-512. (Op. 4)

This 28-page effusive reminiscence of Tennyson is all that remains of Palgrave's considerable input into Tennyson's posthumous Memoir. He also proof-read and copy-edited the final version, and apparently suggested the title. He was, as his work in destroying Tennyson's papers shows, as eager as the Tennyson family to protect the image of the Poet Laureate.

2.50 The Golden Treasury Selected from the Best Songs and Lyrical Poems in the English Language. Second Series. London: Macmillan, 1897.

A "fifth book," consisting of work by poets still alive in 1850, and hence excluded from the original edition, the "Second Series" was published only a week before Palgrave's death in October 1897. The critics savaged it with such comments as: "the present selection will only baffle and distress everybody who believed, as we did, in Mr. Palgrave's preparedness for his task. Its sins of omission and commission alike are mortal and past blotting 229

out" (Academy, 52 [23 Oct. 1897], 317). Palgrave was unable to appreciate the work of the younger poets of the nineties, and filled the book with the work of minor mid-Victorian poets, such as Charles Tennyson Turner and the Duke of Argyll, who were also his close friends. The book did, however, start the tradition of "fifth books" of contemporary verse chosen by poets, the most famous being those by C. Day Lewis and Laurence Binyon. Reviewed in the Academy, 52 (23 Oct. 1897), 317; Athenaeum, 110 (23 Oct. 1897), 555; Spectator, 79 (30 Oct. 1897), 591-2; Bookman, 13 (Nov. 1897), 47; Bookman, 6 (Jan. 1898), 470-1; Spectator, 80 (1 Jan. 1898), 20.

2.51 Landscape in Poetry from Homer to Tennyson. London: Macmillan, 1897.

Palgrave's only book of literary criticism, which consists of his final series of Oxford poetry lectures given in 1895, did not appear until after his death in October 1897. Of little critical importance, this highly derivative survey of the treatment of landscape in poetry contains so many quotations that Palgrave said it "might be strictly named an anthology." The critics noted his debt to Ruskin: "[w]hat Mr. Ruskin has done, with always a leading reference to the art of Turner, Mr. Palgrave has attempted...with reference to poetry alone" (Taylor, p. 29). But they also damned Palgrave's inaccurate translations from the Greek; his apparently faulty knowledge of the poets; and his "meagre and trivial" examples (Collins, p. 237). The book does reflect Palgrave's conviction that the Greeks reached unparalleled heights of poetic excellence, and that all subsequent poets have been unable to rival those achievements. In Arnoldian fashion, Palgrave also compares "Hebrew" and "Hellene" in poetry, insisting on a balance between Greek perfection of form and Hebraic content or "soul." The book was widely reviewed: J. C. Collins in his Ephemera Critica, (London: Constable, 1901), pp. 236-249; Spectator, 78 (6 Mar. 1897), 331-2; Nation, 64 (29 Apr. 1897), 326; Athenaeum, 109 (15 May 1897), 643; Critic, 30, NS 27 (12 June 1897), 403-4; 0. Kuhns in Critic, 31, NS 28 (24 July 1897), 47 and (28 Aug. 1897), 118; Dial, 23 (1 Sept. 1897), 119; U. Taylor in Edinburgh Review, 193 (Jan. 1901), 28-55.

2.52* The Genealogy of an University for Eight Hundred Years.

Palgrave prepared this printed address for the opening session of the University of North Wales at Bangor in the fall of 1897, but his failing health prevented him from delivering it. It was read by a proxy, and later printed, but no publication information exists.

2.53 Long Lov'd, Long Honour'd Queen. London: Novello and Ewer, 1897.

This ode, set to music by Battison Haynes and published for the Diamond Jubilee, is a companion to the Golden Jubilee Ode (2.40). 230

2.54* _Trafalgar_ , Ballad for Chorus and Orchestra. London: Novello,

Set to music by Hugh Blair, this lyric from the Visions was originally printed in Macmillan's Magazine (7.12).

2.55 Oxford Lectures on Poetry, ed. with intro. by Mine Okachi. Tokyo: Taibundo, 1973. (In English)

This Japanese scholar, who has also published three articles in Japanese on Palgrave's literary criticism, produced this English edition of Palgrave's "Fine Art" series of Oxford lectures (4.16, 4.18, 4.20) in 1973, adding Palgrave's 1869 lecture "On the Scientific Study of Poetry" as an Appendix (4.12). The title is misleading; Palgrave gave at least three other lecture series as Oxford Professor of Poetry (see the Appendix to Part I, Section iv of this bibliography). 231

SECTION iii: ART CRITICISM

3.1 "Michaelangelo's 'Raising of Lazarus' in the National Gallery." Sharpe's London Magazine, 6 (Apr. 1848), 121-2. (Op. 1)

This very early article both praises Michaelangelo's "Lazarus" because its Biblical subject makes it accessible to a general audience in a way that classical subjects are not, and because it also reflects Palgrave's life-long conviction that such an audience is entirely capable of appreciating fine pictures: "We have sometimes amused ourselves on the afternoon of a fine summer's day, whilst we accompanied round the eloquent walls of the National Gallery some chance party of rough visitors—and listened to the remarks which their natural taste gave birth to at the sight of the several pictures."

3.2 "A Few Words on the Study of Architecture." Educational Expositor, 2 (Apr. 1854), 142-4. (Op. 1)

One of the lectures which he gave to his poorhouse-teacher trainees at Kneller Hall, and published in the house journal of the fledgling Education Office, this piece emphasises the importance of cultivating public taste in architecture through the schools in order both to improve the education of the designers and to teach England's history through its architecture.

3.3 "Essay on the First Century of Italian Engraving," an essay attached to F. T. Kugler's Handbook of Italian Art (London: John Murray, 1855), pp. 1-40. Second edition, 1869, pp. 517-56. (Op. 1)

Palgrave believed himself to be an authority on engravings, particularly early Italian ones. In this article, an examination of the first flowering the engraving in Italy from 1450 to 1550, he challenges the European taste for neo-classicism. Art-lovers should, he insists, turn instead to the "grace," "truth," and "refinement" of the Greek originals. This article is also the earliest expression of his belief in the importance of a country's art as a reflection of that country's greatness.

3.4 "Mr. Rogers' Pictures." Saturday Review, 1 (26 Apr. 1856), 519-20.

This article deals with the Christies' sale of Rogers' art collection which contained not only paintings by Stothard and Reynolds, but also some by Velasquez and Raphael. Palgrave suggests several works which should not be bought by the National Gallery.

3.5 "Taste in France." Fraser's Magazine, 55 (May 1857), 583-9. (Op. 1)

This three-part discussion of French architecture reflects Palgrave's general distaste for the French government practice of legislating architectural style. Parts one and two, "Modern French Gothic" and "Church Restoration," quote from Ruskin in order to condemn the French government's plans to restore churches and public buildings in "true" Gothic style. Part three, "The Louvre," however, suggests that the designers of the prospective National Gallery have something to learn from the layout of the Louvre. 232

3.6 "The 'Finding of Christ in the Temple' by Mr. Holman Hunt." Fraser's Magazine, 61 (May 1860), 643-7. (Op. 1)

Palgrave was a well-known champion of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood in general, and of Hunt, Madox Brown, and Woolner In particular. This article hails Hunt as the founder of a new school of religious art which Palgrave suggests will surpass the works of Leonardo. See also "Mr. Hunt's New Pictures" (3.26).

3.7 "Historical Art in England." Fraser's Magazine, 63 (June 1861), 773-80. (Op. 1)

This obituary of the talented historical painter John Cross, who died in poverty, calls for more paintings with subjects from England's history because such works promote a sense of national pride.

3.8 "The Prince Consort's Memorial, Part One." Saturday Review, 16 (4 Apr. 1863), 432-3). Part Two (25 Apr. 1863), 526-8. (Essays, 280-298).1

These two articles on the design competition for the Albert Memorial attack all the submitted designs, but single out the neo-classical design and Scott's winning neo-Gothic entry for special criticism. As usual., the only sculptor exempted from criticism is his friend Woolner, whom Palgrave nominates for the job, but he concludes that perhaps the competition should be postponed until there are better sculptors from whom to choose.

3.9 "On the Theory of Design in Architecture." Fine Arts Quarterly, 1 (Summer 1863), 114-24. (Op. 1)

Another expression of his belief that architecture should both express and shape national character, this article also insists that for the quality of design in England to improve, all social classes should be trained in art history and included in the design process. (See also 3.2)

3.10 "Academicians versus Artists." Saturday Review, 16 (9 May 1863), 592-3.

Palgrave attacked the elitism and jobbery of the Royal Academy consistently throughout his career as an art critic, and this article sums up his position well. He insists that unless something is done quickly, "nothing can rescue the Royal Academy from sharing the well-deserved fate of all public bodies whose interest, wealth, and prosperity have seduced them into forgetfulness of their legitimate functions."

All articles reprinted in Palgrave's Essays in Art (1866) are identified thus. Note also that there are slight alterations in the titles of the reprinted articles. 233

3.11 "The Royal Academy [Exhibition, 1863]." Five essays in Saturday Review, 16 (16 May), 627-9; (23 May), 661-2; (30 May), 693-4; (6 June), 726-8; (13 June), 759-60. (Essays, 1-44)

These five reviews of the gigantic Royal Academy summer exhibition cover the highly-controversial hanging methods of the Academy, then under heavy criticism for favouritism; the refusal of the government to hire the Pre-Raphaelites to paint the historical frescoes in the Houses of Parliament; the rise of landscape painting, which Palgrave calls the "most national thing in our art"; the vogue for portraits which he argues encourages mediocrity; and his favourite hobby-horse, the degenerate state of contemporary sculpture, which he blames on the patronage system.

3.12 "The Cruikshank Exhibition." Saturday Review, 16 (25 July 1863), 121-2. (Essays, 177-184)

This review calls for a revival of interest in the neglected "tragic power and comic genius" of "old George Cruikshank." Cruikshank was greatly touched by the review; see his letter of 25 July 1863, Life, p. 79.

3.13 "Japanese Art." Saturday Review, 16 (15 Aug. 1863), 219-20. (Essays, 185-92)

This discussion of John Leighton's Royal Institution lecture praises Japanese decorative art because it "is based on the same principles as pictorial art," although Palgrave concludes regretfully that in spite of "its unafffected na?vet§, its excellent but limited conventionality, and its unfailing success in colour," it ultimately does not transcend the boundaries of decorative art and become "pictorial."

3.14 "Sensational Art." Saturday Review, 16 (22 Aug. 1863), 252-4. (Essays, 193-201)

This article is one of the best expressions of Palgrave's hatred of "muscular" or "sensational" art, which favours "violent expression and facile force" at the expense of careful workmanship and moderation of expression.

3.15 "The Pretty and the Beautiful." Fine Arts Quarterly, 2 (Oct. 1863), 308-33. (Op. 2)

This article challenges contemporary taste for "prettiness" at the expense of the "flat, even, measured quality" of Greek art's "honest beauty" or ugliness.

3.16 "New Paris." Saturday Review, 16 (28 Nov. 1863), 702-3. (Essays, 308-15)

This article compares the architecture of the rebuilt French capital with the low standard of English domestic and public architecture in order to insist that revival Gothic should be England's chosen domestic architectural style. Matthew Arnold praised this article in a letter of 2 Dec. 1863 to Palgrave for its unexpected good sense and "moderation" in "convey[ing] the true doctrine" (Life, pp. 84-5). 234

3.17 "An R. A. Painted by Himself." Saturday Review, 16 (5 Dec. 1863), 727-8.

Bevington, in his book The Saturday Review, 1855-1868 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1941, p. 366), labels this article "conjectural," but its support of the Pre-Raphaelites against the Royal Academy suggests Palgrave's hand. It quotes damningly from the testimony of William Frith, R. A., before one of the many Royal Commission enquiries into charges that the Royal Academy discriminated against younger artists in favour of the work of fellow Academicians.

3.18 "William Behnes the Sculptor." Saturday Review, 17 (30 Jan. 1864) 135-6. (Essays, 217-25)

This obituary for a neglected sculptor and gifted teacher echoes the memorial for John Cross (3.7) in condemning the patronage system which denied Behnes' material success and led to his death in poverty.

3.19 "Poetical and Prosaic Art." Saturday Review, 17 (13 Feb. 1864), 189-91. (Essays, 202-210)

A response to Charles Kingsley's attack on the Pre-Raphaelites in the second number of the Art Quarterly, this article challenges Kingsley's view that they pursue "purposeless ugliness and vulgarity." While Palgrave supports their careful realistic techniques, he Insists that ultimately the "greatness of art depends upon the quality of the artist's mind," rather than on his technique.

3.20 "William Dyce and William Hunt." Saturday Review, 17 (27 Feb. 1864) 256-8. (Essays, 135-43)

This article regrets the deaths of the historical and biblical fresco painter, William Dyce, first head of the government Schools of Design, and of the master water-colourist, William Hunt.

3.21 "Lost Treasures." Saturday Review, 17 (12 Mar. 1864), 317-8. (Essays, 211-216)

Palgrave's plea for better security and fire-proofing in both private and national collections of England is combined with an attack on poor acquisition practices by public galleries and museums, particularly the British Museum.

3.22 "Mulready at Kensington." Saturday Review, 17 (19 Mar. 1864), 350-1. (Essays, 125-34)

In an enthusiastic review of Mulready's large exhibition, Palgrave concentrates on his ability to "touch national sympathies" through his modern subjects, which Palgrave compares to Tennyson's "idyls." 235

3.23 "Sculpture and Society." Saturday Review, 17 (2 Apr. 1864), 412-3. (Essays, 245-63)

This strong attack on the anachronistic patronage system in sculpture blames it for the appalling quality of English sculpture, a fact which is exacerbated by the exaggerated respect which Englishmen have for Europeans at the expense of their native sculptors.

3.24 "The Royal Academy of 1864." Saturday Review, 17 (14 May 1864), 592-93; (21 May), 624-5; (28 May), 657-8; (4 June), 687-689; (11 June), 721-3. (Essays, 45-88)

Palgrave comments favourably on the improvement in hanging procedures after the serious criticisms made by the Royal Commission of 1863, but complains that the work of too many talented young men, especially the PRB, is missing. He praises the few Pre-Raphaelite paintings represented, along with those by Whistler, suggesting that their new domestic and historical subjects are England's greatest contemporary contributions to art.

3.25 "The National Gallery and the Royal Academy." Saturday Review, 17 (11 June 1864), 716-7.

Bevington (p. 366) labels this article conjectural, but its attack on government plans to move the National Gallery from Trafalgar Square to the less-accessible Royal Academy buildings in Burlington Gardens reflects Palgrave's commitment to the accessibility of public collections. The article disputes the belief that art should only be accessible to the "cognoscenti," arguing instead that great art should be made more widely available, especially to the working classes, because great art, and especially England's national collections, will inspire all who come into contact with it.

3.26 "Mr. Holman Hunt's New Pictures." Saturday Review, 17 (18 June 1864), 750-1. (Essays, 160-7)

Palgrave compares the Pre-Raphaelites' realistic studies of nature and their attacks on conventionality to Wordsworth's call for a revolution in poetic technique, and hails Holman Hunt as a genius whose "intellectual force and artistic intensity," are "a little in advance of his executive power." He also praises Hunt's fidelity to natural detail and the high quality of his workmanship.

3.27 "Mr. Herbert's and Other Frescoes." Saturday Review, 18 (16 July 1864), 86-7. (Essays, 151-9)

After praising Herbert's fresco for the new Parliament buildings, "The Delivery of the Law," as a development in historical and religious art, Palgrave admits that, while Herbert should be more generously reimbursed by the government, the painting fails as a depiction of a divine event. 236

3.28 "Landseer Among the Lions." Saturday Review, 18 (23 July 1864), 117-9. (Essays, 264-72)

Palgrave explains that the lengthy delay in the delivery of the lions for the base of Nelson's column can be blamed on the government's hiring of a painter rather than a sculptor. The artist, Edwin Landseer, had to waste months struggling to master sculptural techniques.

3.29 "The Farnese Antiques." Saturday Review, 18 (31 Dec. 1864), 806-7. (Essays, 237-44)

Palgrave attacks the expensive acquisition of the Farnese Marbles by the British Museum, arguing that they seem to be poor Roman copies of the Greek originals.

3.30 "Exhibition of Pictures by Mr. Madox Brown." Saturday Review, 19 (25 Mar. 1865), 345-6. (Essays, 168-76)

Palgrave praises the Pre-Raphaelite painter for his historical and religious paintings in particular, and for his painting technique in general. He commends the paintings' "truth, soundness, and originality," all of which challenge the contemporary taste for conventional sentimentalism. He concludes that Brown's genius lacks only "Hellenic moderation."

3.31 "The Royal Academy Exhibition [1865]." Saturday Review, 19, (13 May 1865), 592-3; (20 May), 601-2; (27 May), 635-6; (3 June), 665-7; (10 June), 698-700. (Essays, 89-124)

Palgrave comments on the general improvement in quality, but he labels the exhibition as "average" and again regrets the absence of many of the Pre-Raphaelites. He does praise the Pre-Raphaelites represented, particularly Holman Hunt and Arthur Hughes, and admires Whistler's landscapes and "English subjects," which he prefers to his Japanese experiments. Palgrave calls for fewer portraits and more landscape paintings, and as usual condemns the poor quality of the sculpture, but he approves of the numerous "semi-historical" subjects.

3.32 "Women and the Fine Arts [Part One]." Macmillan's Magazine, 12 (June 1865), 118-27; Part Two (July 1865), 209-21. (Op. 2)

This examination of the poor showing of women in the arts argues that the inadequate education system for women precludes any real possibility of success, particularly when it does not emphasise classical languages. He further suggests that this shortcoming is compounded by men's refusal to judge women's work by male standards. Part Two examines the work of women poets, pointing out that, although until the education system is improved, no real change can be expected, women must also learn not to rely so heavily on emotion at the expense of form and moderation. 3.33 "Baron Triqueti's 'Marmor Homericum'." Saturday Review, 19 (24 June 1865), 766-7. (Essays, 273-9)

This general discussion of appropriateness in architectural decoration and of the distinction between "ornamental" and "fine" art admires Triqueti's copies of Grecian inlaid-marble figures as architectural decorations but ultimately condemns their sterile neo-classicism.

3.34 "English Pictures in 1865." Fortnightly Review, 6 (Aug. 1865), 661-74. (Op. 3)

This review of "some of the leading aims of English art, with the more important works which have this year been exhibited" mourns Ruskin's retirement from art criticism, but expresses pleasure at the "widespread diffusion of public taste in England," particularly in the fine arts, although Palgrave regrets that sculpture is still so debased. He praises Whistler, Madox Brown, and Holman Hunt, commenting that English art's strength lies in its domestic and landscape paintings, and concludes that its weakness is its lack of Hellenic "severity."

3.35 "Thackeray in the Abbey." Saturday Review, 20 (16 Dec. 1865), 758-9. (Essays, 299-307)

This virulent attack on Palgrave's nemesis, Baron Marochetti, condemns his extremely-costly bust of Marochetti's friend and patron, Thackeray, which had been commissioned for Westminster Abbey, and which Palgrave argues is not only amateurish in technique but also a poor likeness. He concludes that the bust fails to convey the character of the most "thorough specimen of an Englishman of this century." See also 5.5.

3.36 "Public Statues in London, Part One." Broadway Magazine, 17 (Feb. 1868), 429-36; Part Two (Mar. 1868), 522-31. (Op. 2)

This brief survey of monumental statues is followed by a history of many of the public statues in London. Palgrave pinpoints 1790 as the date at which the patronage system destroyed English sculpture. He also gives a critical survey of the work of contemporary major sculptors before concluding that, in spite of these short-comings, "London contains more satisfactory public statues" than is at first apparent.

3.37 "How to Form a Good Taste in Art." Cornhill Magazine, 18 (Aug. 1868), 170-80. (Op. 2)

In this article, presented as a lecture at the Royal Institution in August 1868, Palgrave argues that the extraordinary quality of contemporary English art (excluding sculpture) surpasses all other except that of the Greeks. Palgrave warns, however, that the national passion for art must be educated by exposure to the rules of good taste, which he defines as knowledge of natural fact; knowledge of the natural conditions of each art; and acquaintance with the history and mental conditions of the age or country to which a work belongs. Taste based on these laws will bring the true end of art: "high, pure, and lasting pleasure." 238

3.38 "The Practical Laws of Decorative Art." Fortnightly Review, OS 13, NS 7 (Apr. 1870), 433-54. (Op. 3)

First given as a lecture at the School of Design, Cambridge, in 1869, this article applies the principles of 3.37 to the decorative arts for the benefit of his audience of newly-trained designers and craftsmen. Palgrave repeats Ruskin's condemnation of realistic designs in ornament, arguing that English decorative arts should follow the Japanese designers in rejecting illusion in favour of symmetry, and in subjugating decoration to the form of the article on which it appears.

3.39 "Some Notes on the Louvre Collections." Portfolio, 1 (Summer 1870), 28-32.

This unfavourable review of the French national gallery points out that not only should the paintings be glazed immmediately to stop the already-obvious ravages of pollution, but that the internal layout and hanging procedures should be severely revised.

3.40 "The Decline of Art." Nineteenth Century, 32 (Jan. 1888), 71-92. (Op. 4)

This long lecture delivered at the Midland Institute, Birmingham, on 28 November 1887 ended Palgrave's career as an art critic as it had begun: with a scandal. His point, that all art since the Greeks has been in a state of decline, was overshadowed by a well-supported criticism that the entire article had been plagiarised from Wyke Bayliss's book, The Witness of Art, published twelve years previously. In a long pamphlet, The Professor of Poetry at Oxford and the Witness of Art, a Curiosity of Modern Literature (London: W. H. Allen, 1888), Bayliss provides ample evidence for his claim that "if we do not say the same things in the same words, at least we contrive to say the same thing in the same place.... It is quite touching to see how our minds, while working out such different results, conceive the same ideas, and how we happen to quote the same authors at the same moment" (pp. 7-8). 239

SECTION iv: LITERARY CRITICISM

4.1 "A Tale of Florence: Some Account of the Youthful Life of Dante Alighieri." Sharpe's London Magazine, 5 (20 Nov. 1847), 74-6. (Op. 1)

Palgrave's first attempt at literary criticism, published while he was still at Oxford, examines Dante's Vita Nuova and translates one of its sonnets.

4.2 "Method of Lectures on English Literature [Part One]." The Educational Expositor, 1 (May 1853), 119-22. Part Two, (June 1853), 176-80. (Op. 1)

Written for his pupil teachers at Kneller Hall, this two-part imaginary dialogue between Wordsworth and Coleridge at Grasmere about the latter's London lectures on literature reflects Palgrave's early commitment to Wordsworth's own critical ideas, and also to the Aristotelian concept of "unity of treatment, unity of colouring, and unity of interest." It is also the earliest statement of his belief that poetry should return to its ancient role as vis Imperatrix.

4.3 "Germany. By C. Cornelius Tacitus [Part One]." The Educational Expositor, 2 (Aug. 1854), 305-9; Part Two, (Oct. 1854), 384-8; Part Three, (Dec. 1854), 457-63. (Op. 1)

Palgrave's only known Latin prose translation, "Germany" has a two-page introduction which encourages his pupil-teacher audience to read classical languages in the original rather than in translations in order "to enjoy lofty thoughts rendered with appropriate loftiness of language; the utmost vividness in details; and the eloquence of magnificent condensation." He also points out that Tacitus identifies the enduring characteristics of the English personality: "political freedom and household morality—the love of Nature and the love of home." The prose translation occupies the other two parts of this article.

4.4 "On Readers in 1760 and 1860." Macmillan's Magazine, 1 (Apr. 1860), 487-9. (Op. 1)

The earliest statement of Palgrave's commitment to touchstones and masterpieces, this article argues that "we read at once too much and too little," so that literature becomes "only another kind of gossip." He argues that "a good book not only puts the thoughts of its age in the sweeetest and highest form, but includes, by a natural Implication, the thousand lesser works contemporary."

4.5 "The Growth of English Poetry." Quarterly Review, 110 (Oct. 1861), 435-59. (Op. 1)

Ostensibly a review of Bell's Annotated English Poets—one of the sources for the Treasury—this article is in fact the first phase of Palgrave's three-part critical manifesto, inspired by putting the Golden 240

Treasury together the previous year and quoting heavily from the anthology in support of his ideas. The article begins with a survey of the history of English poetry, divided at 1660, which he labels the beginning of the "modern style." Poetry is further divided into "creative" periods, which produce new forms and subjects, and "retrospective" periods, "when poets looked back with regret to the brilliant time that had preceded them, and to models from which they were unwilling to depart." Palgrave uses the Elizabethan period as the basis for his belief that poetry can only flourish during times of "national confidence and energy." After dismissing Chaucer as a "retrospective" poet, Palgrave devotes the rest of the article to the Elizabethans, who, he concludes, were restricted in their poetic success because "our early poets, strong men as they were, were unable fully to master their materials, or to make their verse a complete expression of their ideas. They know not when they have spoken their thought; they are without moderation; they render simple things in language too fanciful or too prosaic; they grasp at much by figure and simile." In later articles (4.7 and 4.10), Palgrave completes his survey of poetry through to the present.

4.6 "Arthur Hugh Clough." Fraser's Magazine, 65 (Apr. 1862), 527-36. (Op. 1)

Palgrave published this memoir of his old Balliol friend Clough in Fraser's, before revising it slightly and using it as a preface to the first posthumous edition of Clough's Poetical Works (2.9). The memoir had a profound effect on the history of Clough criticism.

4.7 "English Poetry from Dryden to Cowper." Quarterly Review, 112 (July 1862) , 146-79. (Op. 1)

A continuation of Palgrave's critical manifesto (4.5), this article deals with the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It praises Dryden in particular for ushering in the "modern" school by putting poetry through the "critical process" so that it was "compelled to think clearly and briefly, to finish accurately, to take up into itself...the best elements of prose," in reaction to the Elizabethan excesses of "conceit in expression and caprice of thought," and for insisting on the "vast importance of Form and Finish." The "modern" school also made science, philosophy, and "common life" for the first time appropriate subjects for poetry.

4.8 "On Printing and Reprinting." Fraser's Magazine, 67 (June 1863), 777-82. (Op. 1)

This important article sums up Palgrave's editorial principles, and incidentally defines the popular audience for whom his own editions were intended. While admitting that editing practices should vary according to the intended audience, he argues "that great poetry should be read much, and by many, is the chief aim of those who have at heart the interests of a living literature." The editor of a popular edition is, therefore, entitled to do whatever is necessary to make poetry as attractive as possible. 241

4.9 "The Study of the English Language." The Light Blue, 1 (Apr. 1866), 79-84.

Palgrave calls for the replacement of Latin and Greek in popular education with English literature, not only to give students a sense of history and of pride in their country's "treasures of literature," but also because the "chief aim of all secular education should be to make a man a good citizen."

4.10 "Descriptive Poetry in England from Anne to Victoria." Fortnightly Review, 5 (15 June 1866), 298-320.

The conclusion of Palgrave's three-part critical manifesto (see 4.5 and 4.7), this article reiterates Palgrave's commitment both to viewing poetry within the context of national history and to using classical Greek poetry as a touchstone for modern critics and poets in its "simplicity and exquisiteness in the use of words, variety and beauty in metre, clearness of style, conciseness in phrase, moderation in colour, avoidance of commonplace, [and] poetical unity." The article also examines the development of the poetry of natural description, always his favourite, from the "trim gardens" of Gray, Collins, Goldsmith, and Cowper, to "the profusion of nature itself" in the works of Wordsworth. He examines the social upheavals of the period before concluding with a survey of Romantic poetry which places Wordsworth at the head of the movement because he was best able "to view the landscape which, as it is informed everywhere with soul, by itself alone deserves the most faithful and loving painting."

4.11 "A Glance at English Hymns since the Reformation. A lecture given at the Working Men's College, Great Ormond Street." A supplement to Good Words, 10 (1 Mar. 1869), 44-51. (Op. 3)

A three-part survey of the development of Anglican hymns: the Early Reformation up to Charles I; the Evangelical period of the eighteenth century from Addison to Cowper; and the last sixty years, culminating in the work of Newman and Keble. An interesting preamble to his later (1889) Treasury of Sacred Song, this lecture argues that the three periods reflect, respectively, the "didacticism, penitential fear, and fantasticality" of Herbert and Vaughan; the reverential faith and "ecstasy" of spirit of Cowper; the repressed passion of Keble and Newman's "severe purity of taste and pathetic simplicity."

4.12 "On the Scientific Study of Poetry." Fortnightly Review, OS 12, NS 6 (1 Aug. 1869), 163-78.

This lecture, given at the South London Working Men's College in January 1869, insists on the fundamental role which poetry should play in the lives of all adults "who wish to retain their souls in a state of full vitality." He argues that poetry can only be appreciated by those prepared to submit themselves to "scientific" principles of criticism: knowledge of the technical laws of poetry, wide reading, an understanding of the "larger laws of history and the development of the human race," and reference to the touchstone of Greek poetry. 242

4.13 "Robert Herrick." Macmillan's Magazine, 35 (Apr. 1877), 475-81. (Op. 3).

This article was adapted for the preface to his selection from Herrick's works (2.33) which appeared later that year.

4.14 "An Essay on the Minor Poems of Edmund Spenser." In The Complete Works of Edmund Spenser, ed. A. B. Grosart. 10 vols. London: the Spenser Society, 1882-1884, 1, pp. ix-cvii. (Op. 3)

This 98-page discussion of Spenser's minor verses first puts Spenser in the context of his "Immediate Predecessors," before covering "The Shephearde's Calendar," "Complaints," "Daphnaida," "Colin Clout," "Amoretti," "Fowre Hymns, "Prothalamion," and "Astrophel" in a discussion which shows how much wider Palgrave's appreciation of Spenser is than the single poem in the Treasury would imply. The Saturday said of this essay that it is the "least known of [his] essays, but the best" (84 [30 Oct. 1897], 457).

4.15 "The Province and Study of Poetry." Macmillan's Magazine, 53 (Mar. 1886), 332-47. (Op. 4)

Palgrave's introductory lecture as Professor of Poetry at Oxford, after his 1885 election, this lecture reiterates that poetry is "a high and holy Art, as a motive power over men" which is not only the voice of "the passions and imaginations of the race and the individual" but also "a mediator between man's heart and mind, and the world." Palgrave quotes from Arnold's "Maurice de Guerin" on the power of poetry to reveal the "real nature of things" and to reveal the beauty of "the barren commonplaces of life," and repeats his own conviction that the teaching of English poetry in schools should be based on the study of Greek and Latin poetry.

4.16 "Poetry compared with the Other Fine Arts." National Review, 7 (July 1886), 634-48. (Op. 4)

The first lecture in his first series compares Poetry to each of the Fine Arts in turn: Poetry has Architecture's enduring beauty and memorials to the past, as opposed to the "prose" of Architecture's utility; Sculpture's sense of the sublime and "absolute" beauty presented with tenderness and intensity; Painting's symbolism and variety of subjects; and Music's "spiritual influence on the hearer." Poetry must differ from the other Arts by adhering to the technical restraints of metre and rhyme in order to give a classical balance between form and substance.

4.17 "William Barnes and his Poems of Rural Life in the Dorset Dialect." National Review, 8 (Feb. 1887), 818-39. (Op. 4)

This lecture was intercalated into Palgrave's Oxford lecture series on the "Fine Arts" when Barnes died unexpectedly. Palgrave admired Barnes's dialect verses because they escape the affectation and intrusive moralising of the Pastoral by pursuing a "purely objective, impersonal manner" which reproduces the best qualities of classical Greek poetry: sanity, simplicity, and sincerity. 243

4.18 "On the Direct Influence over Style in Poetry, Exercised by the Other Fine Arts, Sculpture and Painting especially; with illustrations • ancient and modern." National Review, 9 (May 1887), 352-69. (Op. 4)

In this second lecture in the three-part "Fine Arts" series, Palgrave expands on 4.16 in praising Greek poetry for its ability to reproduce the characteristics of sculpture, which he believes is Greece's greatest achievement, just as he believes Homer is the world's greatest poet. He concludes by calling for English poets to reject their characteristically "pictorial" poetry in favour of classical "sculptural" effects.

4.19 "On the Songs from the Music-Books of the Elizabethan Age [Part One]." Leisure Hour, 35 (May 1887), 305-9. Part Two (June 1887), 388-93. (Op. 4)

Internal evidence suggests that this is one of Palgrave's lectures on the "Renaissance Movement in English Poetry," although no formal identification has been made. Palgrave covered the same ground in his review of Bullen's selections from the song-books (5.30). This article, which consists mostly of quotations from the newly-reprinted Elizabethan song-books, underlines Palgrave's preference for the madrigal-lyrics over the conventional lyric-poetry of the Elizabethan era. He praises the lack of "egotism or sentimentality" in the songs, along with their "sweetness," "simplicity," and "straightforward yet imaginative rendering of scene or sentiment." He concludes by asking Bullen to re-edit the book as an inexpensive and accessible "treasury" in order to make the poems as widely known as possible.

4.20 "On the Direct Influence over Style in Poetry, Exercised by the Other Fine Arts, Sculpture and Painting especially; with illustrations ancient and modern." National Review, 10 (Oct. 1887), 202-18. (Op. 4)

This last lecture in the "Fine Arts" series reasserts Palgrave's conviction that English poetry has had "the fullest, richest, and most continuous course from the earliest days of the nation" and that it has been at the same time the "most representative of the varying currents of thought and emotion" and "the most intensely individual." Palgrave examines the "sculptural" and "objective" Greek lyric, regretting that no other language is so suited to the "clear-cut impersonal severity" and "self-restraint" of the Homeric lyric before turning to Latin poetry, which he condemns for its "frosty rhetorical glitter" and for its sentimentalism. In English poetry, he condemns Shakepeare because "no-one can be simpler than he chooses; the only regret left, is that he has not oftener preferred simplicity." He concludes with another discussion of the "pictorial" qualities of English poetry, with illustrations from Keats and Coleridge.

4.21 "The Oxford Movement of the Fifteenth Century." Nineteenth Century, 28 (Nov. 1890), 812-30. (Op. 4)

After dismissing Chaucer as an essentially medieval and backward-looking poet, Palgrave dates the beginning of modern literature at the early 244

fifteenth century, when Oxford was stimulated by the influence of Renaissance classicism in the form of imported Italian scholars who revived the study of Greek and Latin. Palgrave violently attacks the Reformation, which he argues nearly destroyed the universities with its combination of religious fanaticism and its condemnation of classical learning.

4.22 "Chaucer and the Italian Renaissance." Nineteenth Century, 24 (Sept 1888) , 340-59. (Op. 4)

This lecture also appeared as a pamphlet (2.42), and Palgrave wrote separately to the editor of the Academy concerning the issue of Chaucer's debt to the early Italian Renaissance (6.19). Although Chaucer, he says, owes to his "Italianization" that "variety of range, that heightening of style, that improvement in poetical form, which liberated and gave full play to his splendid natural gifts," he argues that "Chaucer, though deeply and vitally moved by Italy and her culture, is yet essentially English in mind." He also dismisses claims that Chaucer initiated the modern period of English literature: "in his brilliant criticisms of the humours of his day, in his freshness and lucidity of style, in the movement of his narrative, he is modern. But in the choice of subjects...in the feelings with which he seems to look upon life, he scarcely rises above the showy court-atmosphere of Edward's re ign."

4.23 "Miss Austen and Lyme, Part One." The Grove, 1 (June 1891), 58-63. Part Two (July 1891), 141-6. (Op. 4)

This article in a short-lived Lyme Regis magazine is a discussion of Persuasion, much of which takes place in Lyme Regis, where Palgrave had a country house.

4.24 "Henry Vaughan of Scethrog, 1622-1695: some notes on his life and characteristics as a poet of Welsh descent." Y Cymmrodor, 11 (May 1892), 190-223. (Op. 4)

Read before the Welsh Cymmrodorion Society on 27 May 1891, and also before members of Vaughan's own college, Jesus College, Oxford on 29 May, this lecture may belong to the final Oxford series on poets "who have failed to obtain due honour" (Life, p. 189). Palgrave classifies Vaughan, along with Donne and Herbert, as having an essentially "Welsh genius," which he defines in Arnold's words from "On the Study of Celtic Literature" as being based on "sentiment" and, like Greek poets, having "the power of quick and strong perception and emotion, which is one of the very prime constituents of genius" (Arnold, p. 100 in the 1867 edition). Palgrave also praises Vaughan for being the poet who "of all our poets until we reach Wordsworth...affords decidedly the most varied and the most delicate pictures from Nature." Palgrave refutes the common notion, fuelled by Vaughan himself, that he was influenced by Herbert, arguing instead that Vaughan is much the greater writer, whose only defect as a poet lies in his lack of "the Greeks' measure, their reserve, their lucidity...their architectonic power." 245

4.25 "Keats, John." Chambers Cyclopedia of English Literature (1890). (Op. 4)

One of five short articles written for Chambers (see also 4.26-9), this one reflects Palgrave's admiration for Keats, whom he considered almost Wordsworth's equal in landscape description.

4.26 "Sidney, Sir Philip." Chambers Cyclopedia of English Literature (1892). (Op. 4)

This article reflects Palgrave's conviction that Sidney was one of England's most neglected lyricists. He included several extra Sidney poems in the expanded editions of the Treasury.

4.27 "Tennyson, Alfred." Chambers Cyclopedia of English Literature (1892). (Op. 4)

In an undated letter apparently written shortly before Tennyson's death, Palgrave requested permission from Hallam Tennyson to write this article, which he restricted to "a survey of facts not of attempts at critical judgment, which I could not think of offering" (TRC Letter 6085, 3 Dec. [1891],

4.28 "Turner, Charles Tennyson." Chambers Cyclopedia of English Literature (1892). (Op. 4)

Palgrave greatly admired the work of Tennyson's brother Charles, and included several of his poems in the "Second Series" of the Treasury in 1897.

4.29 "Wordsworth, William." Chambers Cyclopedia of English Literature (1892). (Op. 4)

A reiteration of Palgrave's enormous critical admiration for Wordsworth's lyric poetry, which is Palgrave's ultimate English lyric touchstone.

APPENDIX: PALGRAVE'S LECTURES AS PROFESSOR OF POETRY AT OXFORD

As Professor of Poetry at Oxford for two five-year terms (1885 to 1895), Palgrave had limited responsibilities: he gave the Creweian Oration in Latin at Commencement in alternate years, and he gave four three-part lecture series. In his lectures Palgrave followed the example set by Matthew Arnold, who had been the first Professor of Poetry at Oxford to give his lectures in English rather than in Latin. Unlike many of his predecessors, Palgrave did not regard the position as a sinecure, and he put considerable effort into his lectures, which were nevertheless widely regarded as both dull and unoriginal. Palgrave was delighted to be finally elected in 1885 after unsuccessfully contesting the election twice: in 1867 after Arnold's resignation, and in 1877 when the contest, against J. A. Symonds and Walter Pater amongst others, was extremely acrimonious, and ended in Palgrave's 246

withdrawal in favour of his friend Principal Shairp, whose premature death in 1884 opened the contest for Palgrave's victory in 1885. Lectures are dated wherever possible.

Introduction (25 February 1886): "The Province and Study of Poetry" (4.15).

First Series: "Poetry Compared with the Other Fine Arts."

All three lectures in this series were published (4.16, 4.18, 4.20). An obituary lecture on William Barnes, the Dorset dialect poet, delivered 11 November 1886, was intercalated between the first and second lectures and published as 4.17. This series was reprinted in 1973 (2.55).

Second Series: "The Renaissance Movement in English Poetry."

Two lectures, one on Chaucer (4.22), delivered 31 May 1888, and one on the revival of learning at Oxford (4.21) were published. A conjectural third is his article on Elizabethan song-books (4.19).

Third Series: on poets who "failed to gain due honour" (Life, p. 189).

None of these lectures have been identified, although the article on Vaughan may have been one (4.24).

Fourth Series: "Landscape in Poetry," which appeared as his book, 2.51.

None of these lectures was apparently published serially, and when the book appeared, a few weeks after his death, it was accorded only a tepid critical reception.

The Creweian Oration:

As Professor of Poetry, Palgrave was called upon to deliver the Creweian Oration in Latin at Commemoration in alternate years. No texts of these appear to have survived, but he is known to have given a eulogy for Matthew Arnold, himself a former Professor of Poetry, when Arnold died suddenly in 1888. Palgrave offered the Latin text of the eulogy to Macmillan's Magazine in a letter of 14 November 1888 as "a condensed edition of his work, with some picture of the man," but Macmillan refused it. 247

SECTION v: REVIEWS

5.1 "Review of De Quincey's Autobiography, with some Remarks on English Prose-Writing." Educational Expositor, 1 (Dec. 1853), 447-52. (Op. 1)

Palgrave noted that "this little review gave much pleasure to the distinguished author," whom he praises as "the greatest master of English prose, in a century when professors of that art are beyond recorded example numerous." This early article shows Palgrave's early admiration of "eminent clearnesss" of structure and "simplicity in language" and also reflects his belief in touchstones: "the secrets of true mastery can be studied only in masterpieces."

5.2 Review of Doctor Waagen's Treasures of Art in Great Britain. Westminster Review, OS 62, NS 6 (July 1854), 304-10. (Op. 1)

After general praise for Waagen's catalogue of public and private treasures, Palgrave criticises him for his reluctance to distinguish between masterpieces and lesser works and his readiness to assess the quality of an art work by comparing it to another art work, rather than to Nature.

5.3 Review of The Works of Alfred de Musset. The Oxford Essays, contributed by Members of the University. London: John W. Parker, 1855, pp. 80-104. (Op. 1)

This review of de Musset's six volumes of novels, stories, comedies, proverbs, and poetry reflects both Palgrave's early admiration for Greek art and his accompanying hatred of neo-classicism: "the error of the 'Classical School' [is] that they endeavoured, more or less, to force into an Athenian form the thoughts which are only so far valuable as they expressed the feelings of Frenchmen living under the epoch of Versailles."

5.4 Review of Gilchrist's Life of Etty. Fraser's Magazine, 52 (Aug. 1855) , 232-5. (Op. 1)

After praising Etty for painting "the human form with a power and a beauty unknown in art since the great days of Venice," Palgrave concludes bitterly that Etty's "genius" ensured for him "a lifetime of .neglect." Palgrave also reviewed Gilchrist's later Life of Blake (5.7 and 5.8).

5.5 "W. M. Thackeray as Novelist and Photographer." Westminster Review, OS 74, NS 18 (Oct. 1860), 500-23.

After Macmillan's Magazine refused to publish this highly-critical survey of Thackeray's works, saying "we cannot touch Thackeray," Palgrave offered it successfully to the Westminster. He criticises Thackeray on the grounds that his art more closely resembles photography in its mindless fidelity to detail, than the fine arts, which should distinguish between significant and minor detail. Palgrave goes on to attack Thackeray for his cynicism, and for his "indoor" nature, which deals only with polite society, and compares his work unsatisfactorily with the healthier "outdoor" world of Scott's novels. See also 3.35. 248

5.6 Review of The Roman Poets of the Republic. Fraser's Magazine, 68 (Aug. 1863) , 246-52. (Op. 1)

Palgrave was eager to review this critical study by his old Balliol friend, W. Y. Sellar. He greets the book with delight, praising its "sound, historical, and scholarly learning" as an example of "what might be affected by a first-rate professor," and calls for more such good-quality criticism to stimulate an interest in the classics in schoolboys and undergraduates. Palgrave's only criticisms of the the book are that it is not more comprehensive, and that it neglects the debt which Latin poets owe to the Greeks.

5.7 Review of The Life of William Blake. Saturday Review, 16 (14 Nov. 1863), 650-1.

This article is the original version of the longer and better-known Quarterly article (5.8 following).

5.8 Review of Gilchrist's The Life of William Blake. Quarterly Review, 117 (Jan. 1865), 1-27. (Op. 1)

This review covers much of the same ground as 5.7, and was apparently written, as Palgrave said to his publishers, so that "it may clear off the rest of the stock" of the edition (Macmillan Papers 1 June 1864). Palgrave had long collected Blake's engravings, declaring that they are "works which, at once in their wildness and their originality, are without parallel in English art." His admiration for Blake's "Songs of Innocence" led him also to include several Blake lyrics in the expanded editions of the Treasury and the Children's Treasury, but he disliked Blake's poetic obscurity, and regretted that Blake's "extraordinary gift of imaginative intensity" was overwhelmed by the "distorting fog of religious mysticism."

5.9 Review of The Life of Thorvaldsen. Saturday Review, 19 (11 Feb. 1865) , 173-4. (Essays, 226-36)

In this review, another of his broadsides against the state of contemporary sculpture, Palgrave berates the biographer, Thiele, of this Danish sculptor for praising the work of this "mean, money-loving, and licentious character," whose art is that of a "charlatan" who hides his incompetence under a "Graeco-Roman disguise." He concludes that yet again the patronage system has been responsible for making the "fortune of a worthless man and an indifferent artist."

5.10 Review of The Life and Letters of Hippolyte Flandrin. Saturday Review, 19 (29 Apr. 1865), 512-3. (Essays, 144-50)

Palgrave praises this French church-mural painter, whom he compares with Blake, for his "effort to give Greek art Christian baptism," and also congratulates his biographer, M. H. Delaborde, for showing "how a biography of a painter should be written." 249

5.11 Review of G. E. Street's Some Account of Gothic Architecture in Spain. Fortnightly Review, 1 (15 May 1865), 125-7. (Op. 3)

Palgrave subscribes to Ruskin's view that revival Gothic was the most appropriate style for modern architecture, and in this review he praises one of England's best revival-Gothic architects, George Street, for his comprehensive history of a neglected form of Gothic. He calls on Street to write more such books, and to build not only more Gothic churches, but also "more houses in a style fit for civilized men to look at."

5.12 Review of E. Meteyard's The Life of Josiah Wedgwood. Fortnightly Review, 1 (1 July 1865), 510-11.

This short review compares Wedgwood's pottery favourably with that of the Greeks, and argues that his pottery also competes well "in colour with European porcelain."

5.13 Review of Facsimiles of Original Studies by Raffaelle and by Michel Angelo in the University Galleries, Oxford; Etched by Joseph Fisher. Fortnightly Review, 1 (15 July 1865), 640.

This short review praises the "grace, or dramatic invention, or religious sentiment, or meditative intensity" of the etchings.

5.14 Review of Art applied to Industry: Lectures by W. Burges. Fortnightly Review, 2 (1 Sept. 1865), 254-5.

This review enthusiastically endorses both Burges' own Gothic architectural style and his views on the need for a revolution in art before it can be applied successfully to industry. Palgrave identifies the shortcomings as "the want (1) of a distinctive architecture, (2) of a good costume, (3) of sufficient teaching of the figure."

5.15 Review of The Poems of Winthrop Mackworth Praed and Selections from the Poetical Works of Richard Monckton Milnes, Lord Houghton. Quarterly Review, 118 (Oct. 1865), 403-30. (Op. 2)

Palgrave noted in the Opuscula that "the poet [Milnes, a close friend] was but moderately satisfied (I fear) with the result, which I was absurd enough to think would gratify him." This guarded discussion of vers de societe focusses first on the shortcoming of Praed's poetry—it is written mainly for "young persons in the upper classes about to marry"—and then turns to that of his friend Milnes, whom Palgrave admires for his ability "to throw into verse the emotions and the thoughts which society...suggested to a cultivated man, who is himself an actor in what he describes." He concludes that both men reflect the "humanising and soul-enlarging influence" of a classical education. 250

5.16 Review of Christianity in the Cartoons. By W. Watkiss Lloyd. Fortnightly Review, 3 (1 Dec. 1865), 248-50.

Palgrave criticises Lloyd's attempt to "unite a description of Raphael's celebrated Cartoons with an analysis of the facts upon which he considers that those portions of the New Testament represented in the Cartoons rest," rather than simply concentrating on the art. He does, however, praise the "taste and technical exactness" of Lloyd's art criticism, and suggests that Lloyd reprint the art criticism section separately in order to "give eyes" to those "who will otherwise see them [the Cartoons] with little profit and pleasure in the absence of a fit interpreter."

5.17 Review of Drawing from Nature; a Series of Progessive Instructions in Sketching. With Illustrations. By G. Barnard, Professor of Drawing in Rugby School. Fortnightly Review, 3 (1 Feb. 1866), 773-5.

Palgrave criticises Barnard's book for being simply "an abundance of pretty bits, and proofs of careful observation, but nothing finished, and no system or order," and points out that Barnard cannot argue that drawing should be an indispensable part of a boy's education when his own drawing manual is so amateurish and "rather qualified to produce that imperfect imitation of second-rate work which is the bane of amateur water-colours." He concludes that "elementary drawing is within everybody's reach, but art, in the strict sense, is the business of a life."

5.18 "On a Translation of Virgil's Aeneid [Part One]." Macmillan's Magazine, 15 (Jan. 1867), 196-206. Part Two (Mar. 1867), 401-12. (Op. 2)

Palgrave praises this translation of the Aeneid in ballad metre by one of his old Oxford friends, John Conington, Professor of Latin at Oxford on the grounds that it is more accurate than any previous translation, before passing to his main purpose, which is to attack Matthew Arnold's "On Translating Homer," for its commitment to the authentic Greek quantitative hexameter for translations. Palgrave argues that Arnold, "whose refined insight is hardly ever at fault except when he quits literature for politics or is satirical upon his countrymen," errs not only in attempting to force a quantitative metre on an inflected language, but also in not perceiving that the major audience for translations is an uneducated one, which has not been trained to scan quantitatively. Palgrave argues that translations only exist in order to encourage unlettered audiences to become familiar enough with other literatures to make them want to read the originals.

5.19 "Mr. Seymour Haden's Etchings." Fine Arts Quarterly, NS 2 (Jan. 1867), 119-37. (Op. 2)

This book of reproductions and commentaries on the work of the engraver, written in French by Philippe Burty, attests to Haden's considerable reputation in France, although he was largely ignored in his native land. Palgrave praises Haden as "a true though limited artist," whose work was always "fine in idea...never showy, never aiming at deceptive finish, never transcending the bounds of the process he has adopted." 251

5.20 "A Few Words on 'E. V. B.' and Female Artists." Macmillan's Magazine, 15 (Feb. 1867), 327-30. (Op. 2)

An examination of the illustrations by Eleanor V. Boyle to a children's book, In the Fir Wood, gives Palgrave an opportunity to repeat the views of 3.32 about the lack of achievement by women in the fine arts. He expresses some appreciation of "E. V. B."'s work, praising her "refined conception of the landscape," her "poetical and inventive treatment of details," and her "grace and expressiveness in giving the look and forms of childhood," which he compares to the style of "old Blake."

5.21 "Dore's Bible Illustrations." The Light Blue, 2 (Mar. 1867), 177-82.

Palgrave praises Dore's book, saying that it is "a Work indeed of the greatest originality" in the difficult field of religious illustrations, although he complains that Dore's work is too "theatrical." He uses the review as an opportunity to make a plea for popular art education, which he calls "the greatest possible blessing of a nation," and arguing that private publishers have been for too long been responsible for educating the public through such books as this one.

5.22 Review of William Michael Rossetti's Fine Art, Chiefly Contemporary. Pall Mall Gazette, 6 (28 Oct. 1867), 9.

Palgrave was not only a good friend of William Michael Rossetti, but also had the greatest respect for his art criticism, and in this article he returns the favour which his friend did him in reviewing his own Essays in Art (2.15) in the FAQ. He was, however, critical of Rossetti because "like many of our ablest men in art, he is rather too Gothic, ignoring that much of what is best in medieval Europe is only Greek thought or feeling transformed and angularized."

5.23 "On Royal and Other Diaries and Letters: a Letter to a Friend in Bombay." Macmillan's Magazine, 17 (Mar. 1868), 379-87. (Op. 2)

After pointing out the extreme difficulty of exceeding "the average level" of this genre, he concludes diplomatically that Queen Victoria's diary "within the class of writing to which [it belongs]...takes a good place, and is in every way creditable to the natural gifts, training, and good taste of the writer."

5.24 Review of Contributions to the Literature of the Fine Arts: Second Series by C. L. Eastlake. Quarterly Review, 128 (April 1870), 410-32. (Op. 3)

Palgrave had advised his cousin Lady Eastlake on the memoir appended to this volume (2.28), and this review praises Eastlake's character and compares Eastlake's paintings to the Greek in their "indescribable tenderness." See also a letter to the FAQ (6.10). 252

5.25 "Drawings by the Old Masters." Portfolio, 1 (1870), 127-8.

A review of Robinson's edition of the Michaelangelo and Raphael drawings in the Oxford University Galleries and the Burlington Fine Arts' Club Catalogue of the same two artists. Palgrave concentrates on the inability of photography to convey their true genius.

5.26 "Woodward's Autotypes from the Old Masters." Saturday Review, 29 (2 Apr. 1870), 459-60.

Palgrave praises Woodward for making national treasures from the Royal Collections available, but criticises the quality of the photographs.

5.27 "Thomas Watson the Poet." North American Review, 117 (Jan. 1872), 87-110. (Op. 3)

This review of one of Arber's English Reprint Series (begun in 1870) praises Arber for his reprints of rare early English poetry, invaluable sources for the expanded editions of the Treasury, before discussing Watson: "no room for comparison between him and any other man in Europe, from Chaucer before to Milton after, nor then, again (we hold), till we reach Sterne and three or four writers of this century." Interestingly, there are no Watson poems in any of the Treasury editions.

5.28 Review of David Masson's Life of Milton, vols. 1 and 2. Quarterly Review, 132 (Apr. 1872), 393-423. (Op. 3)

After condemning Masson for the long delays in producing the book, Palgrave criticises him for his emphasis on politics and for following Froude's biographical practice of printing unpleasant details about his subjects.

5.29 Review of John Stuart Mill's Autobiography. Quarterly Review, 136 (Jan. 1874), 150-179. (Op. 3)

After expressing his horror at Mill's rigorous education, which in excluding poetry condemned Mill to a Calvinist vision of life as a Godless "battlefield in darkness," Palgrave attacks Mill's intellectual indulgence, which he blames on Mill's narrow social circle. Although Palgrave is pleased that "Wordsworth exerted over him the sanative (sic) influence which it was that great poet's hope that his work would exercise," he concludes that Mill's unnatural education rendered him at once "too emotional for the scientific reader and too severe for the sentimental." 253

5.30 "The Song Books of the Elizabethan Age [Part One]." New York Independent, 40 (27 Dec. 1888), 1669-70. Part Two, 41 (3. Jan. 1889), 1-2. Part Three, 41 (10 Jan. 1889), 35-6. (Op. 4)

Similar in content to 4.19, this article praises Bullen's selection from Elizabethan songs as reflecting the "golden treasury-profusion of the later Elizabethan age" in these songs which are "intensely and absolutely English at heart," but which are "moulded and polished by the powerful influence of the Italian poetry, which in its turn had undergone a similar process through the classical spirit." Palgrave admired this alternative Elizabethan poetic tradition so much that he included more than twenty of the poems in the expanded editions of the Treasury. 254

SECTION vi: MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES

6.1 "Stella: a Fairy Tale." Monthly Packet of Evening Readings for Members of the English Church, 6 (Dec. 1853), 448-54.

A children's play, of which he wrote a number, particularly after he had children of his own.

6.2 "A Fortnight in Portugal in 1859 [Part One]." Under the Crown, 1 (Jan. 1859), 3-13. Part Two, 1 (Feb. 1869), 113-22. (Op. 1)

These articles, dedicated to Tennyson, are portions of a diary which Palgrave wrote while on holiday with Tennyson in Portugal.

6.3* "Entr'Acte: a Few Words on Weber." Libretto of the Monday Popular Concerts for 21 January 1862, 29-30. (Op. 1)

Palgrave's only known article on music, although his biography documents his enthusiasm for it. The most important result of his interest was the "symphonic" principle of organisation of the poems in the Treasury.

6.4 A Letter to the Editor. The Times, 17 May 1862, p. 11.

This letter counters some of the criticisms of Palgrave's Handbook made by "J. 0." in a series of letters to The Times, 15 May 1862, p. 9; 16 May 1862, p. 12; and 19 May 1862, p. 9.

6.5 A Letter to the Editor. The Times, 19 May 1862, p. 9.

A further letter responding to "J. 0."'s criticisms, and announcing that the book was being withdrawn as requested by the Exhibition's Commissioners. "J. 0."'s letters provoked others to respond: W. Calder Marshall, W. F. Woodington, and Edward Stephens.signed a joint letter of censure which appeared on 16 May and G. D. Leslie wrote the same day in defence of his late father's sculptures; Thomas Woolner wrote supporting Palgrave and defending himself on 17 May; George Adams wrote the same day; on 19 May, William Holman Hunt wrote in support, while John Millais and G. F. Watts wrote jointly in criticism.

6.6 A Letter to the Editor. Athenaeum, 1808 (21 June 1862), 829.

This letter responds to general criticism of Palgrave's Handbook.

6.7 "Children of This World." Fraser's Magazine, 69 (May 1864), 586-90. (Op. 2)

This attack on the pursuit of fame through patronage states that "to be Children of this World is something distinct from being simply and downrightly worldly. It means doing your duty with energy, pushing your way without philosophical scruples, and making fame and money on the road by all methods consistent (of course) with the highest principles of honour." 255

6.8 "Palgrave's 'Arabia' and the Quarterly Review." Spectator, 62 (Jan. 1866) , 1-7. (Op. 2)

This article, also published as a pamphlet (2.13) defends Palgrave's brother Gifford, the Arabian traveller, from charges of inaccuracy brought by the Quarterly. Gifford was in the Middle East at the time and hence unable to defend himself.

6.9 "A Plain View of Ritualism." Macmillan's Magazine, 17 (Dec. 1867), 114-22. (Op. 2)

Palgrave surveys the revolution in church building, decoration, and particularly in ritual which followed the Oxford Movement in order to prove that it owes as much to the universal contemporary interest in the fine arts as to theology. He suggests that the controversy over ritualism in the churches is ridiculous because, as the doctrines of Tractarianism had already been widely accepted, it is ridiculous to "wage war against its dress and furniture."

6.10 A Letter to the Editor. Fine Arts Quarterly, NS 1 (Summer 1866), 75-9. (Op. 2)

This eulogy for Palgrave's friend, the late Sir Charles Eastlake, Director of the National Gallery, President of the Royal Academy, and painter, praises him for his "sincerity," "fine taste," "exquisite sensibility," and the "triumphant success" of his administration of the National Gallery before praising his paintings for their "finish," "grace," and "air of distinction." See also 5.24.

6.11 "The Prospects of the Conservative Party." The Light Blue, 2 (Jan. 1867) , 1-5.

One of Palgrave's few comments on politics, made at the very time when Disraeli was secretly preparing the second Reform Bill, this article calls for an expansion of the franchise on the grounds that "the considerable advance which the working classes have made in intelligence and general welfare since 1832 demands some revisal of the electoral qualification" before concluding that Disraeli would probably make no such changes.

6.12 A Letter to the Editor. Pall Mall Gazette, 8 (4 May 1868), 2-3.

Palgrave champions the cause of his former employer and friend in this letter criticising Lord C. Hamilton's speech which unflatteringly compared Gladstone's Bill for the Disestablishment of the Irish Church with Louis XIV's Edict of Nantes: "the fabricator of this above delicious piece of historical criticism evidently considers that disestablishment and destruction are quite synonymous." 256

6.8 "Palgrave's 'Arabia' and the Quarterly Review." Spectator, 62 (Jan. 1866) , 1-7. (Op. 2)

This article, also published as a pamphlet (2.13) defends Palgrave's brother Gifford, the Arabian traveller, from charges of inaccuracy brought by the Quarterly. Gifford was in the Middle East at the time and hence unable to defend himself.

6.9 "A Plain View of Ritualism." Macmillan's Magazine, 17 (Dec. 1867), 114-22. (Op. 2)

Palgrave surveys the revolution in church building, decoration, and particularly in ritual which followed the Oxford Movement in order to prove that it owes as much to the universal contemporary interest in the fine arts as to theology. He suggests that the controversy over ritualism in the churches is ridiculous because, as the doctrines of Tractarianism had already been widely accepted, it is ridiculous to "wage war against its dress and furniture."

6.10 A Letter to the Editor. Fine Arts Quarterly, NS 1 (Summer 1866), 75-9. (Op. 2)

This eulogy for Palgrave's friend, the late Sir Charles Eastlake, Director of the National Gallery, President of the Royal Academy, and painter, praises him for his "sincerity," "fine taste," "exquisite sensibility," and the "triumphant success" of his administration of the National Gallery before praising his paintings for their "finish," "grace," and "air of distinction." See also 5.24.

6.11 "The Prospects of the Conservative Party." The Light Blue, 2 (Jan. 1867) , 1-5.

One of Palgrave's few comments on politics, made at the very time when Disraeli was secretly preparing the second Reform Bill, this article calls for an expansion of the franchise on the grounds that "the considerable advance which the working classes have made in intelligence and general welfare since 1832 demands some revisal of the electoral qualification" before concluding that Disraeli would probably make no such changes.

6.12 A Letter to the Editor. Pall Mall Gazette, 8 (4 May 1868), 2-3.

Palgrave champions the cause of his former employer and friend in this letter criticising Lord C. Hamilton's speech which unflatteringly compared Gladstone's Bill for the Disestablishment of the Irish Church with Louis XIVs Edict of Nantes: "the fabricator of this above delicious piece of historical criticism evidently considers that disestablishment and destruction are quite synonymous." 257

6.13 "Solus Cum Sola: a Dialogue." Cornhill, 24 (Dec. 1871), 730-7. (Op. 3)

A dialogue between "Susan" and "Henry," much after the style of the earlier novel, Preciosa, in which a young couple, stranded by the tide, discuss society's treatment of women. It includes a verse proposal, "The Question," and ends with an engagement.

6.14* "Princess Snowdrop: a Magic Play for Children at Home." Monthly Packet, NS 28 (July 1879), 1-18. (Op. 3)

Another of Palgrave's writings for children, this play was performed by his own children for a large audience of friends.

6.15* "Obituary of W. G. Palgrave." Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, NS 10 (Nov. 1888), 713-5. (Op. 4)

This obituary of his brother, Gifford, the Arabian traveller, was partly written by Palgrave.

6.16 A Letter to the Editor. Academy, 26 (5 Jan. 1884), 10-11.

Palgrave questions Edmund Gosse's belief, as stated in his Academy review (22 Dec. 1883) of H. Buxton Forman's edition of Keats, that Shelley's "Prometheus" influenced Keats. Palgrave argues that Keats disliked Shelley. Palgrave's letter follows one from Forman himself (p. 9).

6.17 "Miss Ingram of Poulett House." The Lyme Church Parish Magazine, Mar. 1884, n.p. (Op. 4)

An obituary of a prominent Lyme Regis citizen.

6.18 "A Royal Visit to Hog's Norton: a Play." Monthly Packet, 3rd ser., 18 (Dec. 1889), 501-9. (Op. 4)

This satirical play deals with the snobbery and posturing which surrounds a Royal visit.

6.19 "Chaucer's 'House of Fame' and Professor Ten Brink": a Letter to the Editor. Academy, 36 (4 May 1889), 305-6.

This response to C. H. Herford's review of Ten Brink's history of medieval literature refutes Ten Brink's assertion that Chaucer's House of Fame is based on Dante's Commedia. Herford responded 18 May, pp. 342-3.

6.20* "My Sister Cecilia." The Grove, 4 (Aug. 1891) to 11 (May 1892), [n. p.] .

Only incomplete information is available on this serialized novel, which apparently ran for most of the life of this shortlived Lyme Regis magazine, and is probably named for his eldest daughter. 258

6.21 "The Late Master of Balliol": a Letter to the Editor. Academy, 44 (14 Oct. 1893), 321.

A response to the Academy's review of Abbott and Campbell's Life of Benjamin Jowett (7 October 1893), to which Palgrave had contributed. Palgrave supplements the review with "a few words" on Jowett's hard-working life and on his constant urging of his friends to greater heights of achievement, and concludes that "no one, we might perhaps say, can have better earned his Resquiescat in pace." Palgrave's correspondence with Abbott and Campbell is at Balliol College, Oxford. (1.6)

6.22 "A Latter-Day Young Lady: Charade in Action; in Three Acts." Atalanta, 3 (Dec. 1889), 192-9. (Op. 4)

This short play parodies the modern young lady, following her through consecutive crazes for "New Gallery" aestheticism, education, and women's rights, before leaving her enjoying more frivolous pursuits.

6.23 A Letter to the Editor. Athenaeum, 3559 (11 Jan. 1896), 354.

Palgrave publishes a short letter from Robert Browning, dated 1 April 1869, which he found while "looking over some old letters," preparatory to destroying much of his correspondence: "it is in reply to some remonstrance I had ventured to make on the quantity which Browning assigned to the word metamorphosis, the penultimate syllable of which is long in Greek."

6.24 "A Letter from F. T. Palgrave to Lord Tennyson." Tennyson Research Bulletin, 2 (1972), 15-24.

A reprint of this long letter about Hallam Tennyson's late brother, Lionel, was "discovered in the Tennyson Research Centre and had apparently been prepared for publication in The Nineteenth Century during 1899. The copy had been type-set and proof-corrected but never published" (p. 15). Palgrave wrote the letter originally for inclusion in Tennyson's Memoir (2.49, [1897]), and it appeared in the Materials (2.48, [1895]), but it was omitted from the final published version of the Memoir. 259

SECTION vii: FUGITIVE POETRY

7.1 Academy

"In Memory of Two Friends of John Keats." 20 (16 Aug. 1879), 123.

7.2 Athenaeum

"At 29, De Vere Gardens. 28th December 1889." 3248 (25 Jan. 1890), 116. (rpt. 2.46, under title "In Memory of Robert Browning") (Op. 4)

7.3 Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine

"Inscription for a Statue in Chelsea." 132 (Dec. 1882), 810. (rpt. 2.46) (Op. 3)

A parodic memorial inscription in Latin attacking Froude and Carlyle, both of whom Palgrave loathed: "Pseudo-Sophi-Vatis-Historici: Pseudo-omnia!"

7.4 The Church Guardian

"The Church of Christ in England." 45 (3 Dec. 1890), 1940. (rpt. 2.46)

This poem has a footnote that it will be "set to music by Arthur H. Brown, and will shortly be published."

7.5 Contemporary Review

"The Lost Euridyce, 24th March 1878." 32 (May 1878), 257-8. (rpt. 2.46)

7.6 Cornhill Magazine

"Reine d'Amour." 19 (Feb. 1869), 243. (rpt. 2.46)

"Brecon Bridge." 22 (July 1870), 98. (rpt. 2.29)

7.7 Fraser's Magazine

"Castelrovinato." 67 (Apr. 1863), 527. (rpt. 2.29)

7.8 Good Words

"The Child-Martyr." 9 (July 1868), 29. (rpt. as "Margaret Wilson" in 2.29) 260

7.9 The Grove (Lyme Regis)

"A Late Spring: the Marriage of Zephyrus and Chloris." 4 (Aug. 1891), 212-13. (Op. 4)

"In Spring." 1 (May 1890), 19. (rpt. 2.46)

7.10 The Literary Churchman

"Hymn for Infant Baptism." 30 (23 Nov. 1883), 489. (Op. 3)

"Hymn for Holy Communion." 30 (23 Nov. 1883), 520. (Op. 3)

"A Marriage Hymn." 30 (21 Dec. 1883), 543. (Op. 3)

"Christian Burial." 30 (21 Dec. 1883), n.p. (Op. 3)

7.11 Living Age

"Chislehurst, June 1879." 142 (2 Aug. 1879), 258.

"Farewell to Italy." 223 (11 Mar. 1897), 354.

7.12 Macmillan's Magazine

"The Reign of Law." 17 (Jan. 1867), 34-7. (rpt. in slightly different versions in 2.16, 3rd ed; 2.29, 2.46)

"The Voices of Nature." 19 (Dec. 1868), 120-5. (rpt. 2.29)

"Elegy in Memory of Percy, Lord Strangford." 19 (Feb. 1869), 355-6. (rpt. 2.29)

"Trafalgar [a Palinode]." 39 (Jan. 1879), 208-10. (rpt. 2.34 and 2.54)

"Pausanias and Cleonice: an Old-Hellenic Ballad." 54 (Aug. 1886), 280-6. (rpt. 2.46) (Op. 4)

"A Halcyon Day in Summer." 58 (Oct. 1888), 471. (rpt. 2.46)

7.13 The Monthly Packet

"On the Love of Children." NS 25 (Mar. 1878), 201-2. (rpt. 2.46)

"The Sun-Dial." NS 26 (Nov. 1878), 537-8. (rpt. 2.46)

"The New Eleusis (In Memoriam, 21 March 1872) for a Baby Died in Infancy." NS 27 (Mar. 1879), 209-10. (rpt. 2.46) 261

"The Captive Child, Carisbrook Castle, September 8, 1650." NS 29 (Feb. 1880), 323-25. (rpt. 2.46)

"A Crusader's Tomb: 1220." 3rd. ser. 1 (Mar. 1881), 214-6. (rpt. 2.34, 2nd. ed.)

"In the Vineyard." 4th ser. 1 (Feb. 1891), 147-8.

7.14 New York Independent

"Pere la Chaise." 41 (14 Feb. 1889), 193. (Op. 4)

"An Autumn Song in England to Eugenia." 41 (3 Oct. 1889), 1265. (rpt. 2.46) (Op. 4)

"Between Night and Morning in South-Western England." 41 (19 Dec. 1889), 1677. (rpt. 2.46) (Op. 4)

7.15 Nineteenth Century

"In Pace." 32 (Nov. 1892), 837-9. (Op. 4)

An elegy for Alfred Tennyson, published here by the editor, Tennyson-acolyte James Knowles, after the Times rejected it.

7.16 Spectator

"Mentana." 40 (30 Nov. 1867), 42. (rpt. 2.29)

"Pro Mortuis." 42 (7 Aug. 1869), 930. (rpt. 2.29)

"At Lyme Regis, September 1870." 43 (17 Sept. 1870), 1121. (rpt. 2.29)

^."Eutopia." 78 (30 Jan. 1897), 174.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHOLOGIES

7.17 Adams, W. Davenport, ed. Lyrics of Love, from Shakespeare to Tennyson. London: Henry S. King, 1874, p. 118.

"Love's Protestation."

7.18 Sharp, William, ed. Sonnets of this Century. London: Walter Scott, 1886, p. 155.

"In Memory of F. C. C., 6th May 1886." 262

7.19 Randolph, Henry F, ed. Fifty Years of English Song. 4 vols. New York: Anson D. F. Randolph, 1888, 2, pp. 135-1A2.

"The Reign of Law," "Two Graves at Rome," "The Three Ages," "To a Child."

7.20 Shipley, Orbey, ed. Carmina Mariana: An English Anthology in Verse in Honour of or in Relation to the Blessed Virgin Mary. London: Spottiswoode, 1893, pp. 284-86.

"Virgini Deiparae."

7.21 Miles, Alfred H., ed. The Poets and Poetry of the Century. 10 vols. London: Hutchinson, 1983, 5, pp. 2A5-262; 10, pp. A89-50A.

In volume five: "A Song of Life," "Eugenia," "A Song of Spring and Autumn," "Eutopia," "The Hereafter," "Past and Present," "The Linnet in November," "The Three Ages," "William Wordsworth," "Paulinus and Eden," "Edith of England," "The Childless Mother," "Trafalgar." In volume ten: "At Ephesus," "An Incident at Mendrisio," "On the Love of Children," "Hymn to Our Saviour," "Christus Consolator," "The Garden of God," "A Hymn of Repentance," "Death and the Fear of It," "I am the Resurrection and the Life."

7.22 Stedman, Edmund K., ed. A Victorian Anthology: 1837-1895. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1895, pp. 239-41.

"The Ancient and Modern Muses," "Pro Mortuis," "A Little Child's Hymn," "William Wordsworth," "A Danish Barrow."

7.23 Moulton's Library of Literary Criticism of English and American Authors. New York: Malkan, 1910, 5, p. 634.

Moulton quoted extensively from "William Wordsworth" in his discussion of Wordsworth's poetry. 263

PART II: SECONDARY BIBLIOGRAPHY

SECTION i: BOOKS AND ARTICLES ON PALGRAVE

Anon. "Francis Turner Palgrave." Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th ed. (1911).

Bayliss,.Wyke. The Professor of Poetry and the Witness of Art, a Curiosity of Modern Literature. London: W. H. Allen, 1888.

Gibbs, H. J. "Francis Turner Palgrave" in The Poets and the Poetry of the Century, ed. Miles. 10 vols. London: Hutchinson, 1892, 5, p. 244.

Mackail, J. W. "Francis Turner Palgrave." Dictionary of National Biography (1921-22).

Okachi, Mine. "On Poetic Taste—Palgrave's Poetics.", Eigo Seinen, 118 (1972), 232-3. (In Japanese)

. "Poets and Patriotism—Palgrave's Poetics." Eigo Seinen, 118 (1972), 282-3. (In Japanese)

. "Scientific Research on Poetry—Palgrave's Poetics." Eigo Seinen, 118 (1972), 389-99. (In Japanese)

Owens, R. J. "Palgrave's Marginalia on Landor's Works." Notes & Queries, NS 8 (June 1961), 227-8.

The Palgrave Chronicle. Originally entitled The Palgrave Society Newsletter.

Published quarterly since 1973, the Chronicle is the organ of the Palgrave Society, which deals with general Palgrave family history.

Palgrave, Derek A, and Patrick T. R. Palgrave-Moore. The History and Lineage of the Palgraves. Doncaster: The Palgrave Society, 1983.

A sequel to Palgrave Family Memorials, see below.

Palgrave, Gwenllian F. Francis Turner Palgrave: his Journals and Memories of his Life. London: Longmans Green, 1899.

Reviewed by Louise Gurney, "The Golden Treasurer," Conservative Review, 2 (1899), 39-46, and anonymously in the Athenaeum, 113 (18 Mar. 1899), 332-3; Spectator, 82 (22 Apr. 1899), 557; Nation, 68 (1 June 1899), 426.

Palmer, Charles J. and Stephen I. Tucker. Palgrave Family Memorials. Norwich: privately printed, 1878.

Rossetti, William Michael. "Mr. Palgrave and Unprofessional Criticisms on Art," in Fine Art, Chiefly Contemporary: Notices Reprinted with Revisions. London and Cambridge: Macmillan, 1867, pp. 324-34. 264

Shaw, Marion. "Palgrave's In Memoriam." Victorian Poetry, 18 (Fall 1980), 199-201. (Reprinted in Shatto and Shaw's edition of In Memoriam.)

Waller, John 0. "Francis Turner Palgrave's Criticisms of Tennyson's In Memoriam." Victorian Newsletter, 52 (1977), 13-17.

SECTION ii: OBITUARIES

Academy, 52 (30 Oct. 1897), 353.

Athenaeum, 110 (30 Oct. 1897), 599-600.

Critic, 31, NS 28 (30 Oct. 1897), 253.

Illustrated London News, 111 (30 Oct. 1897), 601.

Collins, J. Churton. "An Appreciation of Professor Palgrave." Saturday Review, 84 (30 Oct. 1987), 487.

Anon., Saturday Review, 84 (30 Oct. 1897), 457.

"The Death of Mr. Palgrave." The Times, 26 Oct. 1897, 10.

SECTION iii: GOLDEN TREASURY BIBLIOGRAPHY

"H. I. B." [Idris Bell]. "The Original Manuscript of the Golden Treasury." British Museum Quarterly, 3 (1930), 85-6.

Bloom, Harold. Review of the Golden Treasury. Victorian Studies, 9 (Sept. 1963), 68-9.

Clausen, Christopher. "The Palgrave Version." Georgia Review, 34 (1980), 273-89.

Evans, B. Ifor. "Tennyson and the Origins of the Golden Treasury." TLS, 8 Dec. 1932, 941.

Foxon, David. "The Golden Treasury, 1861." Book Collector, 4 (Autumn 1955), 252-3.

. "The Golden Treasury, 1861." Book Collector, 5 (Spring 1956), 75.

Home, Colin. "The Origins of the Golden Treasury." English Association Studies, NS 2 (1949), 54-63.

Larkin, P. A. "Palgrave's Last Anthology: A. E. Housman's Copy." Review of English Studies, 22 (1971), 312-16. 265

Lewis, Naomi. "Palgrave and his Golden Treasury." Listener, 4 Jan 1962, 23, 26.

Mayes, Stanley. "Victorian Parnassus." Listener, 4 Jan. 1962, 10.

Nowell-Smith, Simon. "Contemporary Collectors XLI: The Ewelme Collection." Book Collector, 14 (Summer 1965), 185-193.

Prideaux, W. F. "Palgrave's Golden Treasury." Notes & Queries, 10th Ser. 7 (16 Nov 1907), 393.

Prosky, Murray. "Lamb, Palgrave and the Elizabethans in T. S. Eliot's The Wasteland." Studies in the Humanities, 2 (Fall/Winter 1970-1), 11-16.

Waller, A. R. "Palgrave's Golden Treasury." Notes & Queries, 10th Ser., 8 (16 Nov. 1907), 393-4.

Wheeler, Hugh. "Golden Treasury, 1861." Bibliographical Notes & Queries, 1 (Jan. 1935), 2.

SECTION iv: GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abbott, Evelyn and Lewis Campbell. The Life and Letters of Benjamin Jowett M.A., Master of Balliol College, Oxford. 2 vols. London: John Murray, 1897.

Abbott, Evelyn and Lewis Campbell, eds. The Letters of Benjamin Jowett, M.A. London: John Murray, 1899.

Adams, Henry. The Education of Henry Adams, ed. Ernest Samuels. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1974.

Adamson, John W. English Education 1789-1902. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1930.

Allan, Mea. Palgrave of Arabia: the Life of William Gifford Palgrave, 1826-1888. London: Macmillan, 1972.

Allingham, Helen and E. B. Williams, ed. Letters to William Allingham, London: Longmans Green, 1911.

Allingham, William. A Diary, ed. Helen Allingham and D. Radford. London: Macmillan, 1907.

Anderson, Warren D. Matthew Arnold and the Classical Tradition. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1965.

Argyll, the Dowager Duchess of. George Douglas, Eighth Duke of Argyll, K.G., K.T., 1823-1900. 2 vols. London: John Murray, 1906. 266

Armytage, W. H. G. Four Hundred Years of English Education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1964.

The Note-Books of Matthew Arnold, ed. Howard Foster, Karl Young and Waldo Hilary Dunn. London: Oxford University Press, 1952.

Matthew Arnold and the Education of the New Order: a Selection of his Writings on Education, ed. Peter Smith and Geoffrey Summerfield. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969.

Arnold, Matthew. Essays in Criticism, First Series. London: Macmillan, 1865.

. Lectures and Essays in Criticism, ed. R. H. Super and Sister Thomas Marion Procter. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1962.

Arnold, Thomas. Thomas Arnold on Education: a Selection from his Writings, ed. T. W. Bamfield. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970.

Baxter, Lucy ("Leader Scott"). The Life of William Barnes: Poet and Philologist. London: Macmillan, 1887.

Bevington, Merle M. The Saturday Review, 1855-1868. New York: Columbia University Press, 1941.

Biswas, Robindra Kumar. Arthur Hugh Clough: Towards a Reconsideration. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1972.

Brooke, Stopford. Four Poets: a Reconsideration of Clough, Arnold, Rossetti and Morris. New York: Putnam, 1908.

Brookfield, C. and F. Mrs. Brookfield and her Circle. London: Pitman, 1906.

Burton, J. H. "Sir Francis Palgrave and his Books." Blackwood's Magazine, 81 (June 1857), 731-47.

Bush, Douglas. Matthew Arnold: A Survey of His Poetry and Prose. London: Macmillan, 1971.

Campbell, G. A. The Civil Service in Britain. London: Duckworth, 1965.

Carter, John. Binding Variants in English Publishing, 1820-1900. London: Constable, 1932.

Cater, Harold Dean, ed. Henry Adams and His Friends: a Collection of Unpublished Letters. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1947.

The Diary of Lady Frederick Cavendish, ed. John Bailey. London: John Murray, 1927. 267

Chorley, Katharine. Arthur Hugh Clough: the Uncommitted Mind, a Study of his Life and Poetry. Oxford: Clarendon, 1962.

Church, M. C. The Life and Letters of Dean Church. London: Macmillan, 1897.

The Prose Remains of Arthur Hugh Clough, with a Selection from his Letters and a Memoir, edited by his wife. London: Macmillan, 1888.

Cohen, Emmeline W. The Growth of the British Civil Service 1780-1939. London: Frank Cass, 1965.

Coleridge, Ernest Hartley, ed. The Life and Correspondence of John Duke Coleridge. London: W. Heinemann, 1905.

Connell, W. F. The Educational Thought and Influence of Matthew Arnold. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1950.

Coulling, Sidney. "Matthew Arnold's 1853 Preface: Its Origin and Aftermath." Victorian Studies, 7 (Mar. 1964), 233-63.

Davidson, R. T. and W. Benham. The Life of Archibald Campbell Tait. London Macmillan, 1891.

Davis, Arthur Kyle. Arnold's Letters: a Descriptive Checklist. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1968.

Davis, H. W. Carless. A History of Balliol College, rev. R. H. C. Davis and Richard Hunt, supp. Harold Hartley et al. 2nd ed. 1899; rpt. Oxford: Blackwell, 1963.

Dawson, Carl, ed. Matthew Arnold: The Poetry; The Critical Heritage. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1973.

De Vane, William C. and Kenneth L. Knickerbocker, eds. New Letters of Robert Browning. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1950.

Dunn, Waldo Hilary. James Anthony Froude: 1818-1894. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon, 1961.

Edwards, Lewis. "A Remarkable Family: The Palgraves," in Remember the Days: Essays on Anglo-Jewish History Presented to Cecil Roth, ed. John M. Shaftesley. London: The Jewish Historical Society of England, 1966, pp. 303-22.

Elliott, Philip. The Making of the Memoir. Greenville, South Carolina: privately printed, 1978.

Endelman, Todd M. The Jews of Georgian England, 1714-1830: Tradition and Change in a Liberal Society. Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society of America, 1979. 268

Faber, Geoffrey. Jowett: a Portrait with Background. London: Faber and Faber, 1957.

Ford, Worthington Chauncey, ed. Letters of Henry Adams, 1858-1891. London: Constable, 1930.

, ed. Letters of Henry Adams, 1892-1918. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1938.

Fry, Geoffrey Kingdon. Statesmen in Disguise: the Changing Role of the Administrative Class of the British Civil Service, 1853-1966. London: Macmillan, 1969.

Gordon, Peter and John White. Philosophers as Educational Reformers. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979.

Grandsen, K. W. "Some Uncatalogued Manuscripts of Tennyson." Book Collector, 4 (Summer 1955), 159-62.

Graves, C. L. The Life and Letters of Alexander Macmillan. London: Macmillan, 1910.

Grosskurth, Phyllis. John Addington Symonds: a Biography. London: Longmans, 1964.

Hagen, June. Tennyson and his Publishers. London: Macmillan, 1979.

Hoge, James 0, ed. The Letters of Emily, Lady Tennyson. London: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1974.

Holman-Hunt, Diana. My Grandfather, His Wives and Loves. London: Hamish Hamilton, 1969.

Holman Hunt, William. Pre-Raphaelitism and the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. 2 vols. London: Macmillan, 1905. 2nd. edition, 2 vols., revised by Edith Holman Hunt, 1913.

Honan, Park. Matthew Arnold: a Life. New York: McGraw Hill, 1981.

Hood, Thurman L, ed. Letters of Robert Browning collected by Thomas J. Wise. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1933.

Houghton, Walter. Arthur Hugh Clough: an Essay in Revaluation. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1963.

Hughes, Thomas. A Memoir of Daniel Macmillan. London: Macmillan, 1882.

Hyder, Kenneth Clyde. Swinburne's Literary Career and Fame. New York: Russell and Russell, 1963. 269

Kingsmill, Hugh. Matthew Arnold. New York: Dial Press, 1928.

Knight, W. Principal Shairp and his Friends. London: John Murray, 1888.

Ladd, Henry. The Victorian Morality of Art. New York: Long and Smith, 1932.

Lang, Andrew. The Life, Letters and Diaries of Sir Stafford Northcote, first Earl of Iddesleigh. 2 vols. Edinburgh: Blackwoods, 1890.

Lang, Cecil, ed. The Swinburne Letters. 6 vols. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1962.

Lang, Cecil and Edgar Shannon Jr., eds. The Letters of Alfred, Lord Tennyson. Vol. 1: 1821-1850. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982.

Levy, Goldie. Arthur Hugh Clough: 1819-1860. London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1938.

Lowry, Howard Fraser, ed. The Letters of Matthew Arnold to Arthur Hugh Clough. London: Oxford University Press, 1932.

A Bibliographical Catalogue of Macmillan and Company's Publications from 1843 to 1889. London: Macmillan, 1891.

Macmillan, G. A., ed. Letters of Alexander Macmillan. London: privately printed, 1907.

Martin, Robert. Tennyson: the Unquiet Heart. Oxford: Clarendon, 1980.

Morgan, Charles. The House of Macmillan, 1843-1943. London: Macmillan, 1943.

Morley, John. The Life of William Ewart Gladstone. London: Macmillan, 1903.

Mulhauser, Frederick L., ed. The Correspondence of Arthur Hugh Clough. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1957.

Munby, A. L. The Cult of the Autograph Letter in England. London: Athlone Press, 1962.

Neiman, Fraser, ed. Essays, Letters and Reviews by Matthew Arnold. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1960.

Norton, Sara and N. A. Howe, eds. The Letters of Charles Eliot Norton. 2 vols. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1913.

Nowell-Smith, Simon, ed. Letters to Macmillan. London: Macmillan, 1967. 270

Ormond, Leonee. Tennyson and Thomas Woolner. Lincoln: Tennyson Society, 1981.

Paul, Herbert. The Life of Froude. London: Pitman, 1905.

Peattie, Roger William. "William Michael Rossetti as Critic and Editor, Together with a Consideration of his Life and Character." Dissertation, University College, London, 1966.

Pope-Hennessy, James. Richard Milnes, first Lord Houghton. 2 vols. New York: Farrar, Straus and Cudahy, 1955.

Prothero, R. E. The Life and Correspondence of Arthur Penrhyn Stanley between the Years 1829 and 1881. London: John Murray, 1893.

Reid. T. W. The Life, Letters and Friendships of Richard Monckton Milnes, First Lord Houghton. 2 vols. London: Cassell, 1890.

Ricks, Christopher. Tennyson. London: Macmillan, 1972.

Roach, J. Public Examinations in England 1850-1950. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971.

Robertson, David. Sir Charles Eastlake and the Victorian Art World. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978.

Rowse, A. L. Oxford in the History of the Nation. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1975.

Ruskin, John. Collected Works, ed. E. T. Cook and Alexander Wedderburn. 36 vols. London: George Allen, 1906.

Russell, George W. E., ed. Letters of Matthew Arnold 1848-1888. 2 vols. London: Macmillan, 1892.

Saintsbury, George. A History of English Criticism. Edinburgh and London: Blackwoods, 1911.

Samuels, Ernest. The Young Henry Adams. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1965.

Sandford, E. G., ed. Memoirs of Archbishop Temple by Seven Friends. 2 vols. London: Macmillan, 1906.

Schneller, Herbert M. and Robert Peters, eds. The Letters of John Addington Symonds. 3 vols. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1967.

Selleck, R. J. W. The New Education: the English Background, 1870-1914. London: Pitman, 1968.

Shmiefsky, Marvel. Sense at War with Soul: English Poetics 1865-1900. The Hague: Mouton, 1972. 271

Letters and Verses of Arthur Penrhyn Stanley between the Years 1829 and 1881. London; John Murray, 1895. ~~~~~ ~~

Stansky, Peter. Gladstone: a Progress in Politics. Boston: Little, Brown, 1979.

Stedman, E. K. The Victorian Poets. 13th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1899.

Stone, Lawrence, ed. The University in Society. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974.

Sturt, Mary. The Education of the People. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1967.

Tennyson's In Memoriam, ed. Susan Shatto and Marion Shaw. Oxford: Clarendon, 1982.

Tennyson, Charles. Alfred Tennyson. London: Macmillan, 1949.

Lady Tennyson's Journal, ed. James 0. Hoge. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1981.

Tennyson, Hallam. Alfred, Lord Tennyson: A Memoir by His Son. 2 vols. London: Macmillan, 1899.

, ed. Tennyson and his Friends. London: Macmillan, 1911.

Tholfsen, Trygve R. Sir James Kay-Shuttleworth and Popular Education. New York: Teachers' College Press, Columbia University, 1974.

Thorpe, Michael, ed. Clough: the Critical Heritage. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1972.

Trevelyan, G. M. British History in the Nineteenth Century, 1782-1901. London: Longmans, Green, 1927.

Trilling, Lionel. Matthew Arnold. New York: Columbia University Press, 1949.

Walker, Vera. "The Life and Work of William Bell Scott, 1811-1890." Dissertation, University of Durham, England, 1951.

Ward, W. R. Victorian Oxford. London: Frank Cass, 1965.

Warren, Alba H. Jr. English Poetic Theory, 1825-1865. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1950.

Thomas Woolner, R. A., Sculptor and Poet: His Life in Letters, ed. Amy Woolner. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1917.