Tourism Geographies An International Journal of Tourism Space, Place and Environment ISSN: 1461-6688 (Print) 1470-1340 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rtxg20 Exclave accessibility and cross-border travel: the pene-exclave of Ceuta, Spain Ioulia Poulaki, Andreas Papatheodorou, Alexandros Panagiotopoulos & Sotiroula Liasidou To cite this article: Ioulia Poulaki, Andreas Papatheodorou, Alexandros Panagiotopoulos & Sotiroula Liasidou (2020): Exclave accessibility and cross-border travel: the pene-exclave of Ceuta, Spain, Tourism Geographies To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2020.1786153 Published online: 07 Jul 2020. Submit your article to this journal View related articles View Crossmark data Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rtxg20 TOURISM GEOGRAPHIES https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2020.1786153 Exclave accessibility and cross-border travel: the pene-exclave of Ceuta, Spain a† aà b Ioulia Poulaki , Andreas Papatheodorou , Alexandros Panagiotopoulos and Sotiroula Liasidouc aDepartment of Business Administration, University of the Aegean, Chios, Greece; bTransport & Railway Engineer, Athens, Greece; cDepartment of Hotel & Tourism Management, Cyprus University of Technology, Lemesos, Cyprus ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY Exclaves are characterized by several advantages and disadvan- Received 28 January 2019 tages related to physical, economic, historical, social and cultural Accepted 2 June 2020 attributes; these depend on the owner- and the host-state as well as on relationship between the two. Using the case of Ceuta, a KEYWORDS Spanish pene-exclave located in north-western Africa bordering Exclaves; accessibility; airport choice; cross-border Morocco, air travel mobility and accessibility issues faced by resi- tourism; tourism for peace; dents are identified and discussed primarily in the context of out- discrete choice analysis bound tourism. The empirical research uses a mixed method approach of data collection based on questionnaires distributed 关键词 to Ceuta residents and participant observation of the local com- 飞地; 可达性; 机场选择; munity. Findings suggest that while enhancing accessibility is 跨境旅游; 和平旅游; 离散 generally considered to be positive for travel, the reality is more 选择分析 complex in the case of exclaves and pene-exclaves, where geo- graphical discontinuity and lack of land transport connections with the mainland and hinterland of the owner state may co-exist with geo-political conflicts between the owner and the host coun- tries, i.e. Spain and Morocco respectively in the present context. Based on the concept of tourism for peace and its implications for border tourism and the scaling-up of spatial interaction between neighboring regions belonging to different countries, simpler border-crossing procedures along with innovative destin- ation management policies at local level are proposed to improve exclave accessibility and travel mobility in practice to the benefit of both local residents and inbound tourists. 摘要 飞地依据其物理、经济、历史、社会和文化属性有其优缺点。这 些优缺点取决于飞地所属国和东道国以及两者之间的关系。本文 以休达(一个位于非洲西北部与摩洛哥接壤的西班牙飞地)为例, 在 出境游的背景下确定和讨论了居民面临的航空旅行流动性和可达 性问题。实证研究采用以向休达居民发放问卷和对当地社区参与 观察为基础的混合数据收集方法。研究结果表明,尽管可达性提升 通常被认为对旅行来说是积极方面,就飞地和全飞地（pene- exclaves）来说, 现实情况更为复杂, 那里地理不连续, 与飞地所有 国缺乏陆地交通连接大陆和腹地, 可能与飞地所属国和东道国之 间的地缘政治冲突共同存在,例如西班牙和摩洛哥目前冲突。基于 CONTACT Andreas Papatheodorou [email protected] à University of New South Wales, Australia †Department of Tourism Management, University of Patras, Greece ß 2020 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group 2 I. POULAKI ET AL. 旅游和平的概念及其对边境旅游、分属不同国家的临近地区空间 互动的按比例增加的启示, 本文提出在地方层面简化过境手续以 及创新目的地管理政策, 以改善飞地的可达性和旅游流动性, 从实 务上惠及入境游客和当地居民。 Introduction Regional development, trade and tourism are largely dependent on accessibility often in non-linear ways (Koo & Papatheodorou, 2017; Fujita & Krugman, 2003) characterized by two-way causality (Brugnoli et al., 2018). In the presence of severe discontinuity and isolation because of either physical (e.g. islands) and/or political (e.g. border regions) geography, securing and improving accessibility may prove important for eco- nomic prosperity and social welfare. Exclaves and pene-exclaves are a good example of such areas. An exclave is a small piece of a country (i.e. the owner), fully sur- rounded by the territory of another one, i.e. the host. Moreover, it cannot share a fron- tier with any other country or be an independent entity; and it will most probably never be self-governed (Gelbman & Timothy, 2011; Vinokurov, 2007; Suzuki & Inohara, 2015). A pene-exclave refers to an outlier slightly connected to its homeland or not fully surrounded by the other country, but accessible by surface transport, only through the territory of the latter (Gelbman & Timothy, 2011; Vinokurov, 2007). This is different from a quasi-exclave which may no longer serve as an exclave (Robinson, 1959). Exclave societies try to balance their existence between the owner state and the host one often facing physical and political barriers. The host country’s network and transport infrastructure may prove significant for the exclave’s society daily rou- tine facilitation, but political and administrative issues provoked by the occasional con- flicts between the two states (owner and host) often lead societies to seek alternatives. In fact, Catudal (1972) discussed the 1971 exchange of West Berlin exclaves with East German enclaves as a unique case of peaceful resolution of such a contested territorial matter. Tourism may have an important economic and social impact on exclaves (Timothy, 1995, 1996, 2000). In Europe, most exclaves relate to owner and host states both belonging to European Union (e.g. Baarle-Hertog/Nassau a Belgian exclave in the Netherlands) and thus, physical, political and social boundaries are easy to overcome to the benefit of tourism mobility and development. Nevertheless, there are exclaves with EU member as owner state and non-EU member as host such as the Spanish autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla surrounded by Morocco in North Africa, where, unresolved political and administrative issues may hinder cross-border travel as well as inbound and outbound tourism (Eckert, 2011; Lagiewski & Revelas, 2004); although, cross-border travel restrictions are evident globally (e.g. North and South Korea – see Prideaux & Kim, 2018; Republic of Cyprus and the north of the island – see Stergiou, 2016), the impact of such issues is exacerbated in exclaves due to their small size and territorial dependency on their host. Not surprisingly, mobility in tourism has been studied extensively in the literature (Chen & Chang, 2015; Cohen & Cohen, 2015; Coles, Hall & Duval, 2006; Eckert, 2011; TOURISM GEOGRAPHIES 3 Hall, 2015). Mobility refers first to the ability to move, overcoming physical and polit- ical/legal impediments, and second to the direction of moving per se (Gelbman & Timothy, 2019). Leaving political/legal barriers aside, an improvement in accessibility thanks to new transport infrastructure is a necessary but not a sufficient condition to increase tourism mobility, i.e. spatial interaction explicitly depends on travel demand, which may not be easy to generate and/or to sustain in peripheral regions with low levels of perceived tourism potential (Fageda et al., 2018; Hazledine & Collins, 2011; Prokkola, 2007). As infrastructure relates to sunk (i.e. non-recoupable) costs, it may, therefore, prove commercially sensible to improve accessibility of remoter regions by relying initially on air transport, which requires lower levels of infrastructure vis-a-vis surface transport. In addition, the latter is not applicable in islands located too far from the mainland to connect by bridges. Sea transport may offer a much better alter- native to air scale-wise, but ships are much slower than airplanes and cannot be used in land-locked peripheral areas. Therefore, prioritizing air transport is strategically important to address accessibility problems of remoter regions and facilitate trade and tourism (Liasidou, 2013; Poulaki & Papatheodorou, 2016; Spasojevic et al., 2018). Indicatively, Abreu et al. (2018) while referring to the Canary Islands, characterize air transport as essential to overcome insularity and assist supply-chain operations, mobil- ity of inhabitants, and the prosperity of the local tourism sector. Intermodal solutions may also prove effective to extend an airport catchment’s area in remoter regions located in its vicinity (Poulaki et al., 2017). The above may be interestingly applied in the context of Ceuta, a pene-exclave and Spanish autonomous city with a population of 82,000 citizens bordering the Moroccan region of Tangier-Tetouan-Al Hoceima, close to the Straits of Gibraltar and half-surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea. Two main reasons justify the study: the first relates to the remoteness of Ceuta given the spatial discontinuity and lack of seamless transport connections between Ceuta and the Spanish mainland (Poulaki & Papatheodorou, 2016). The second concerns its relative tourism potential mainly due to the fruitful blend of the European and Arab worlds. In 2017, Ceuta recorded 75,800 tourist arrivals (i.e. almost equal to its population) with 63% originating from Spain and 37% from other countries (Procesa, 2016). Official hotel accommodation in Ceuta includes 13 units and a total of 782 beds with 2.3 overnights on average (Regional Government of Alicante, 2018). Accessing Ceuta may prove cumbersome, since traveling