Innovations and Development in Initial Teacher Education A selection of conference papers presented at The 4th ESCalate ITE conference, University of Cumbria - 16th May 2008
Edited by Dr Alison Jackson, University of Cumbria Innovation and Development in Initial Teacher Education
A selection of conference papers presented at The 4th ESCalate ITE conference, University of Cumbria, Carlisle campus 16th May 2008
Edited by Dr Alison Jackson, University of Cumbria Innovations and Development in Initial Teacher Education
1. The use of exemplification materials and descriptors to embed the 2007 7 revised standards for qualified teacher status (QTS) and to challenge trainee teachers to go beyond ‘satisfactory’. An analysis of feedback over the first year (2007-8). Kevin Mattinson and Andrew Connell: Keele University
2. Using Portfolios and Learning Journals in ITE 23 Lawry Price: Roehampton University
3. An Investigation into the Implementation of Using an Eportfolio as 30 a Record of Professional Development for Initial Teacher Trainees Robert Heath, Marc Smale and Sarah Weatherhead: University of Wolverhampton
4. Rights, roles and responsibilities 39 Sarah Weatherhead and Clair Jenkins: University of Wolverhampton
5. Teaching and Learning Project Report: Auditing and Assessing Subject 47 Knowledge in Initial Teacher Training using Online Method David Longman, Lynne Jones, Kerie Green and Barbara Kurzik: University of Wales, Newport
6. Embedding education for sustainable development in the Art and 53 Design curriculum: a digital media project with student teachers Pip McCormack: London South Bank University
7. Children and Diversity, the Effects of Schooling, and Implications for Initial 60 Teacher Education Sally Elton-Chalcraft: University of Cumbria
8. Welcome to the Creativity Café: Developing a network of shared creative 74 teaching practice amongst academic staff. Josie Harvey: University of Huddersfield
9. New Values – New Careers: examining the values of newly qualified teachers 82 in Norway, Germany and England Gerry Czerniawski: University of East London
10. Reflecting on Reflection: Towards a critical appraisal of ‘Learning about 97 Learning’ within Initial Teacher Education Kevin J. Flint and Deborah Robinson: Nottingham Trent University
11. From Values to Vocation: Designing and delivering Primary PG Masters 110 Modules at St Mary’s University College Maureen Glackin, Maria James: St Mary’s University College
12. Developing articulation of critical reflection in ITE: writing at Masters 116 level for a Professional Learning Portfolio Ruth Heilbronn, Shirley Lawes, John Yandell: Institute of Education, University of London
13. ‘Tell me what to do?’ 125 Andrew Slater, Susan Shaw, Andrew Read, Donna Hurford: University of Cumbria 2 Contents
14. Alternative and International Experiences 135 Tracy Whatmore: Newman University College, Birmingham
15. The use and development of ‘Teachers’ TV’ to support Initial Teacher 142 Training and in-service teachers’ Continuing Professional Development Jane Dixon: University of Cumbria
16. Developing Better Teachers; Innovative practice 146 within a standards based framework Peter Cook, Daryll Griffiths, Karen Griffiths, Sue Horder: Glyndwr^ University (formerly North East Wales Institute of Higher Education - NEWI)
17. Initial teacher education and the management of pupil behaviour: 153 what experiences, resources and interventions do students find helpful? Terry Haydn: University of East Anglia
18. Every Child/Youth Matters, a government programme for welfare reform; 160 the research findings of a Pilot Study conducted for a PhD research project that is focused on: exploring the impact of the Every Child/Youth Matters programmes on professional practice across the agencies of education, social services, health and youth justice Christine Hough: University of Cumbria
19. Initial teacher education - a sabre tooth tiger curriculum? 170 The evolving role of the teacher in Children’s Centres: implications for changes in initial teacher education Anne Renwick and Lin Savage, University of Cumbria
20. Investigating language for learning – 178 A collaborative approach in four primary schools Sue Hughes, Jane Andrews, Christine Screech: University of the West of England (UWE)
21. Travels with PowerPoint. Reflections on using slideware in teaching 187 John Lodge: Roehampton University
22. Ways of working with a school science technician during teaching practice; 196 perceptions of trainee science teachers Elaine Batchelor: University of Leicester
23. The process of changing identity: 204 Pit Stops and Magic Moments of New Teacher Educators. Elaine Batchelor and Carmen Mohamed: University of Leicester
24. An Olympic ITE Curriculum: how to become part of the legacy 212 Background Paper and Outcomes of a Round Table Discussion Neil Herrington: University of East London
Glossary of Acronyms 221
3 Innovations and Development in Initial Teacher Education
Introduction David Longman, Lynne Jones, Kerie Green The 2008 ESCalate Initial Teacher Education and Barbara Kurzik from the University of conference was held at the Carlisle campus Wales, Newport present a report on their of the University of Cumbria. The conference project to develop online tools for is firmly established in the Initial Teacher assessment of subject knowledge in Education calendar and attracted a wide teacher training. They recommend to us the range of symposia, workshops and round considerable potential of such tools. tables of a very high standard. This booklet draws together papers from the conference Pip McCormack from London South Bank and will be of interest to all staff in schools University argues that student teachers need and Higher Education Institutions concerned to be given the opportunity to explore the with Initial Teacher Education. There is a complexities of Education for Sustainable wide selection of topics in these papers Development and outlines a case study which reflects the equally wide-ranging which highlighted this need. conference themes. Thanks are due to all our contributors who have provided the sector Sally Elton-Chalcraft from the University of with such a wealth of interesting and Cumbria discusses children and diversity thought-provoking papers. and shares her findings from research conducted in English and German primary Kevin Mattinson and Andrew Connell from schools into children’s multicultural Keele university start us off with an in-depth awareness. study of the revised standards for classroom teachers (TDA, 2007) and The theme of Creativity is discussed by discuss exemplification materials for the Josie Harvey from the University of assessment of trainee teachers. Huddersfield whoand suggests to us the benefits of University Creativity cafés. Lawry Price from Roehampton University asks us to consider anew the widespread What happens to our student teachers once use of portfolios and learning journals and they are out in the world? Gerry Czerniawski challenges us to question the value and from the University of East London considers purpose of these learning tools. the experiences of a sample of Newly Qualified Teachers from Norway, England Robert Heath, Marc Smale and Sarah and Germany faced with the global trends of Weatherhead from the University of convergence and homogenisation. Wolverhampton guide us through the possibility of making the Record of Kevin Flint and Deborah Robinson from Professional Development for the Nottingham Trent University Standards into an electronic rather than raise questions concerning the need for a paper – based system. more differentiated language of reflection. They ask us to examine with them forms of Sarah Weatherhead and Clair Jenkins from reflection used within ITE and give us the University of Wolverhampton introduced suggestions to continue the debate. and embedded e-portfolios into Level One teaching modules with an aim to developing Maureen Glackin and Maria James from St reflection. Mary’s University College share with us their journey into Masters level PGCE and offer a glimpse into the transformational potential of Masters.
4 Introduction
Ruth Heilbronn, Shirley Lawes and, John Every Child Matters is not a momentary Yandell from the Institute of Education, whim and Christine Hough from the University of London discuss Masters level University of Cumbria reminds us of its and its implications for the teaching importance with an in-depth investigation of profession, with particular reference here to the questions raised by, and findings of her the development of critical reflection. study to date.
Do your students expect you to tell them Anne Renwick and Lin Savage from the what to do? Andrew Slater, Susan Shaw, University of Cumbria suggest a need to Andrew Read and Donna Hurford from the reflect the developing role of Early Years University of Cumbria explain teachers and prepare them for the a new Education Studies course which looks complexities of leading pedagogy in multi- to develop independent learning and give agency teams within Children’s Centres. opportunities for reflection and collaborative engagement. Sue Hughes, Jane Andrews and Christine Screech from the University of the West of Tracy Whatmore from Newman University England (UWE) report on their research into College, Birmingham shares ideas on the inter-relationships between language and alternative and international placements learning and their intention to develop with us. The report on the ESCalate trainees’ understanding of children’s Placement Plus Day to which she refers can learning through language. be found at www.escalate.ac.uk/4889 and videos of the students’ presentations can be Have you considered your inevitable use of found at www.escalate.ac.uk/5167 . PowerPoint lately? John Lodge from Roehampton University challenges us to Jane Dixon from the University of Cumbria consider its use … and over-use. recommends that we take another look at the potential of Teachers’ TV and outlines Elaine Batchelor from the University of the development of two programmes on the Leicester presented a poster on working role of the mentor in schools. with a science technician during teaching practice at the conference, and here she Peter Cook, Daryll Griffiths, Karen Griffiths, explains the research she undertook on this. Sue Horder from Glyndwr^ University The need to work with other professionals is (formerly North East Wales Institute of Higher paramount for teachers and the Education – NEWI - at the time of the effectiveness of this cannot be taken for conference) urge) urge us towards granted. Elaine’s study highlights the innovative practice to develop existing skills importance of building relationships. to impact on the improvement of teaching and learning. Elaine is joined by Carmen Mohammed, also from the University of Leicester for a paper Do student teachers feel prepared to with which every New Teacher Educator manage pupil behaviour? Terry Haydn from will empathise. They trace how they made the University of East Anglia explores the the transition into Higher Education following effectiveness of HEI input into this most attendance at the ESCalate workshop on essential of skills. Becoming a Teacher Educator and how they ‘recovered’ from the shock of changing sectors!
5 Innovations and Development in Initial Teacher Education
Neil Herrington from the University of East ESCalate is the Education Subject Centre London closes our proceedings for this year of the Higher Education Academy, asking us to look forward to 2012 as he advancing learning and teaching in explains the background to his fascinating education. ESCalate at the University of round table presentation at the conference Cumbria has responsibility for Initial which drew on a research project Teacher Education, with particular considering the educational legacy of reference to schools. mega-events.
6 The use of exemplification materials and descriptors to embed the 2007 revised standards for qualified teacher status (QTS) and to challenge trainee teachers to go beyond ‘satisfactory’
1. The use of exemplification materials and descriptors to embed the 2007 revised standards for qualified teacher status (QTS) and to challenge trainee teachers to go beyond ‘satisfactory’. An analysis of feedback over the first year (2007-8)
Kevin Mattinson and Andrew Connell: Keele University
Summary In September 2007, all teacher training institutions in England had to begin to use revised standards for qualified teacher status (QTS). This paper reflects on the development, introduction and impact of ‘in house’ exemplification documentation and descriptors, written to co-exist with official guidance from the Training and Development Agency for Schools (TDA), on a successful Initial Teacher Education (ITE) course.
The Paper reflects on and discusses the use of new ‘grade descriptors’ and internally and externally developed exemplification materials used to support the assessment of trainee teachers, from September 2007. It considers the opportunities and challenges in the introduction of new documents and evaluates the initial impact of these documents, over a twelve month period, on a successful ITE course. Research identifies that the documentation is impacting positively on practice, but that further development of stakeholders is required to improve consistency of engagement. It also notes some differences in practice between Professional (Senior) Tutors in schools and Subject Mentors. This may be a reflection of the relative roles of these school-based colleagues.
Key Words Professional Standards for Qualified Teacher Status / Grade/Level Descriptors / Ofsted / Training and Development Agency for Schools /School-based tutors (Professional Tutors and Subject Mentors) / Assessment against the Standards / Standards exemplification / Review and target setting
Introduction teachers would not be qualified to teach and In September 2007 the Training and that the institution could have its role to train Development Agency for Schools (TDA) in new teachers removed. England introduced a revised set of Standards to be met by trainee teachers in Keele University is a campus-based order to receive the award of Qualified university in the middle of England. Keele Teacher Status (QTS) (TDA, 2007). In the University School of Public Policy and light of this revision to the QTS Standards, Professional Practice runs Post/Professional Universities and other organisations involved Graduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) in the training and education of new and courses in a range of Secondary age group beginning teachers had to re-examine their (11-16 plus post 16 enhancement and 14-19) assessment processes and documentation. specialist subjects. The Keele Initial Teacher Assessment that failed to address all the Education (ITE) Management Group saw the QTS 2007 Standards would make the revision of the QTS Standards as an courses non-compliant, meaning that trainee opportunity to move the assessment practice
7 Innovations and Development in Initial Teacher Education
on its PGCE courses forward in line with the benchmarked Standards. Some institutions vision of the ITE management and the wider were already advanced in their thinking and team. This paper is a reflection on the practice (Crewe+Alsager CHE, 1991). The development of new documentation for the first national Standards for QTS were Keele PGCE courses in the Summer of 2007, introduced for September 1992. the training and development of stakeholders At approximately the same time, the Teacher in its use and its implementation from Training Agency (TTA) was established by September 2007 and the impact over the the government to manage teacher supply 2007/8 academic year. An initial small scale and recruitment for the sector. Allocations to evaluation of the impact of the new initial teacher education (ITE) institutions documentation, from the perspective of were largely determined by the outcomes of different stakeholders, was undertaken in Ofsted Inspections. Spring 2008. This was followed up by a more extensive evaluation with school-based Revisions to the Standards 1998, 2002 colleagues in the Summer of 2008. The The Professional Standards for QTS were findings will be summarised and possible developed at the same time as a ‘sea future developments discussed. change’ in the balance of the relationship between the university sector and schools Background was brought about by the Conservative Government. The move to a minimum The Introduction of Standards, 1992 requirement for days in professional Concerns about the quality of Initial Teacher placement, from September 1992, meant Education led to important changes in the that schools had to have a much firmer monitoring and inspection of provision. understanding of their role. As a key element These were, at least in part, in line with within this, there was a significant change changes for the school sector. The setting between the ITE provider and schools, in up of the Office for Standards in Education respect of assessment of trainee teacher (Ofsted) brought about a more rigorous and capability – both formatively and frequent inspection of training in the summatively. Consistency of practice could university sector. only be brought about if there was a clear framework in place on a national level. There was a need to ensure higher levels of consistency of training across the sector Revised Standards in 1998 provided for a and, within this, a more robust and higher degree of ‘prescription’. Despite the consistent assessment framework. perceived tensions in some academics’ Competency/Standards-based assessment minds between the desire for autonomy and was being developed in a number of professional determinism within Universities occupational areas as a framework of and the ‘mechanistic’ approach of National Vocational Qualifications was Standards, effective practice ensured that developed by the National Council for standards of training – as defined by Ofsted Vocational Qualifications (NCVQ), working – showed a year-on-year improvement. In with Occupational Area Lead Bodies. addition, the Standards provided a language Despite debate about whether teaching for analysis and assessment of capability – should follow a similar pathway, the with ongoing professional development symbiotic relationship between academic through target setting. work and professional practice was retained through the continued predominance of HEI- Institutions worked with schools to develop based training. However, courses would in exemplar and support materials to enable future work within a national framework of school-based trainers to develop an
8 The use of exemplification materials and descriptors to embed the 2007 revised standards for qualified teacher status (QTS) and to challenge trainee teachers to go beyond ‘satisfactory’
understanding of the Standards. The TTA amongst the sector that their professional also produced exemplification material. opinions were being listened to and a number of significant ‘players’ from ITE The replacement of 4/98 by 02/02 reduced providers in the university sector were the number of Standards. There was a appointed to development groups. conscious attempt to reduce atomisation and repetition. Changes also took account The new Standards provide for greater of revisions to the National Curriculum. autonomy and flexibility. The University sector has, over the past decade, Concerns about a purely Standards-based demonstrated a strong upward move in approach to training respect of quality (Ofsted, 2007) and the new From a university perspective, the principled Standards are a reflection of this. belief that the development of beginning teachers was about much more than The Standards have built in the need for ‘competence and compliance’ meant that theoretical underpinning and criticality in the education and training required an teaching force (TDA, 2007) They also appropriate theoretical underpinning, which recognise developments in the English was assessed through academic output. curriculum and in the changing expectations The Standards on their own did not of and from learners – personalised and recognise this. Genuine reflective and individualised learning and Every Child reflexive practice could only come about Matters (Connell, Edwards and Hammond, though the synergistic relationship between 2007). the work within the universities and the education and training within school-based For the first time, the Standards for QTS fit settings. within a framework that sets out and reflects the requirements for Continuing Professional The development of levelled descriptors Development (CPD). Standards have been against each Standard/set of Standards by developed for every stage of a classroom many ITE providers, therefore, aimed to teacher’s career (TDA, 2007). The serve a dual purpose: firstly, the detail Professional Standards are also ‘nested’ provided essential support for school-based within the common framework for trainers in the development of their professionals working with children and understanding of the Standards to ensure young adults (DfES, 2005). consistency of assessment – in turn ‘protecting’ Higher Education Institutions At an institutional level, the authors were (HEIs) in respect of the inspection of their keen to ensure that the Keele provision provision by Ofsted; secondly, descriptors reflected this principle of CPD. In addition, provided a framework for target setting and the apparent ‘contradiction’ between an development that should enable individual inspection framework that grades each trainees to progress to and beyond base-line trainee and institutions and a set of competence. Standards that are ‘pass/fail’ informed the authors’ work to develop new ‘level/grade 2007 Revision of the QTS Standards descriptors’ to ensure that training and In the authors’ view, the consultation assessment of beginning teachers took process in the development and introduction place within a structure of incremental of new Standards in 2007 was seen by ITE development. Evidence from internal practitioners to offer greater opportunities to evaluations over a number of years indicated engage in genuine dialogue than had that school-based staff were effective at previously been the case. There was a belief using Standards and levelled descriptors to
9 Innovations and Development in Initial Teacher Education
inform understanding at the pass/fail A further restructuring of the management of boundary. There was less consistency of Initial Teacher Education occurred in 2006/7, practice in respect of moving the trainees to with the appointment of new staff to the higher levels of capability – with the University. In particular, a Senior Manager consequent effect of a plateauing in (second co-author) from the Secondary ITE performance. In too many instances, there sector at a post 92 institution was recruited has been an explicit or implicit acceptance to work with and support the Director of ITE that ‘satisfactory’ (i.e. achievement of base- in driving forward a change agenda in line line capability) will suffice. This runs counter with the vision. to principles of CPD and to notions of individualised and personalised learning. The announcement of revised QTS The experience of Initial Teacher Education Standards for September 2007 meant that at Keele University is one that has been Keele University, like all teacher replicated across the sector and has been training/education institutions, was required identified in all ITE training routes (Ofsted, to review policy and practice. The co- 2008a). authors, along with the Director of Partnership, recognised the opportunities Recent history of the Keele PGCE offered by the revision of the Standards to Following an unsuccessful Ofsted inspection move practice further in alignment with the in 2003/4, the University made changes to its vision. Particular challenges would include: management structure for ITE. A Director of changing school culture to that of moving all Initial Teacher Education was appointed (co- trainee teachers beyond the baseline of QTS author). A range of new processes, compliance; the lack of awareness of the procedures and documentation were revised Standards and the new professional introduced by the Director. A significant competencies for the whole teaching amount of work was undertaken with schools profession. that were in partnership with the University to develop assessment policies and practices The development of Keele ‘in-house’ in order that trainee teachers were assessed exemplification material more effectively against the QTS Standards. In the consultation process that informed the development of the new Standards, there The PGCE was re-inspected in 2004/5 and was concern about the delay in the was graded as ‘2’ (good) for Management development of support and exemplification and Quality Assurance. In addition, four full materials by the TDA. subject inspections resulted in grade 2s for Training and for Standards. Despite this The need to ensure that the University had progress, there still existed a culture in some new documentation in place and that training schools of doing enough with trainees to programmes for school-based mentors make sure they achieved QTS i.e. passed, taking place in the summer term were but not of challenging them to go beyond appropriate created a momentum for the this in their development. This was in authors to develop materials for Keele conflict with the vision of the Keele University stakeholders. A further driver for prompt ITE Director that development of new action was that the University would be teachers was about much more that just inspected in the 2007/8 academic year by getting QTS. Much good work was done Ofsted. within Keele to challenge trainees but the school culture had a major influence on The development of Keele ‘in-house’ trainee teachers and was a barrier to meeting exemplification material would be in parallel the vision. to, and support, the new assessment
10 The use of exemplification materials and descriptors to embed the 2007 revised standards for qualified teacher status (QTS) and to challenge trainee teachers to go beyond ‘satisfactory’
documentation that would need to be compliance culture in both trainees and in produced. schools.
One of the authors was a writer and editor on The authors were conscious that, whatever the project to produce exemplification for the documentation was produced, it would need subject of Information and Communication to build upon that which had been developed Technology (ICT) (Connell, Edwards and in the previous three years, in order that Hammond, 2007). This significantly informed successful transition could take place. In the writing at Keele. In writing the new addition, materials would need to be documentation, the authors sought to also manageable. Over a period of time, practice take into account the move to offer level 7 with trainees at the University had developed (Masters) outcomes in the PGCE. successfully so that a culture of reflection and self-review and assessment, against Our principles/ethos/vision descriptors, had become established as Whilst acknowledging that the primary role practice – although there was variability in required of the PGCE by its funding agency, the level and way in which trainees used the TDA, is to produce teachers who meet these. The variability in respect of school- the required QTS Standards, the authors’ based staff was much greater; whilst there vision is to prepare new teachers who are was a strong and effective impact at the subject specialists and who can demonstrate pass/fail boundary (leading to greater the qualities of flexibility, innovation, consistency in judgements being reached criticality, reflexivity, creativity and risk- about base-line capability), practice in taking. In a period of change and uncertainty respect of moving trainees beyond this was in the world of education, teachers need to less consistent – particularly in terms of be capable of engaging with change in a formative assessment. critical and positive way. Beginning teachers will need to cope with change, manage it and Descriptors and exemplification to hopefully be agents of future change. scaffold development Further, every trainee has an entitlement to Descriptors have been a proven model, not receive a ‘personalised and individualised’ only at Keele but across the university training experience in that there should be a sector. The authors chose to keep a levelled constant challenge – with structure and descriptor model that had been introduced in support- to move practice forward. September 2004. This had been effective in bringing about immediate change in the The authors recognise that a compliance quality of training and assessment in the culture in schools, brought about by training partnership. The descriptors as successive government education policies, developed were in need of review, presents tensions between the models of the irrespective of the fact that the TDA was teacher presented in the university sector developing new national Standards on behalf and the opportunities and training of the government. It had been recognised expectations within the school-based that the language of the descriptors did not professional dimension of initial teacher provide for the needs of the most able education. Robinson (2005) suggests an trainees. additional dimension, in that new trainee teachers are likely to be products of the Given that the new Standards were less ‘compliance’ culture of education brought mechanistic and atomised than previous about with the National Curriculum. If versions, this gave scope for teacher Robinson is right, we face the dual challenge trainers. However, there was concern that of meeting our vision and overcoming the this could lead to misunderstanding and
11 Innovations and Development in Initial Teacher Education
missed opportunities, the more so as the an experiential learning process. The lack of exemplification materials at the point programme is underpinned by the principles of launching the Standards with colleagues of Kolb and Fry’s Experiential Learning Cycle in schools and colleges provided an (1975) and by the work of Honey and immediate challenge in respect of Mumford (1982); however, recognising the commonality and consistency of critiques of Kolb’s work in respect of the understanding, interpretation and culture of organisations (Vince, 1998), the expectations. The authors, therefore, cultural aspects of self (Beard and Wilson, developed new descriptors which, it was 2002) and the greater emphasis on the need hoped, would offer clear and unambiguous for personal reflection (Atherton, 2002; Boud levelled statements. These were designed to et al., 1983), the descriptors are central to ensure that the training and associated informing and supporting the growth of assessment would be consistent and trainees and challenging and developing the effective; further, it would enable practice to work of school-based mentors. become stronger in relation to structure incremental ongoing professional Managing the change development. ‘Can do’ was a base-line minimum requirement for all trainees. Agreeing the vision (Appendix 1 shows an example of two The need for change was brought about by Standards from the Keele descriptors). internal (evaluation cycle and expectation of Ofsted inspection) and external drivers Progressive descriptors were written that (revision to the QTS Standards). Before recognised that many trainees progressed change can take place effectively, a clear beyond ‘pass’. The descriptors also sought vision has to be articulated and shared. An to embed the Keele vision of what was seen important step for the Keele University PGCE to be the ‘model of an effective and was for the management group to agree successful teacher’ (Keele, 2008). Some of what the vision for the programme was and the descriptors that emerged overlapped then to share it with all stakeholders. The with the Core Standards for all qualified authors led this process. They began by teachers but this reflects the reality of the reflecting on the vision for the PGCE range of capability across the profession. In programme as expressed by the Director, addition, descriptors at the ‘top end’ enjoyed the existing culture in Keele and the culture some similarity to the Standards that were in schools, the overarching Keele University being introduced for ‘Advanced Skills and vision statement, external influences and Excellent ‘teachers in the profession (TDA, possible futures for Secondary education. 2007). The descriptors sought to recognise They drafted a proposed vision statement, the need to respond to an agenda of building on that which had emerged in the establishing cultures of continuing previous three years, and presented it to the professional development and of preparing ITE management team. A statement was the ‘teachers of tomorrow’ for leadership agreed, but to be useful, it then had to be roles. shared by all other stakeholders in the programme (Hillman and Stoll, 1994; Peters The level descriptors that were introduced and Waterman, 1995; NCSL, 2006). are one tool in a framework that is employed to encourage reflection, development and Selling the vision to stakeholders assessment (both formative and summative). The process commences at the point of the ‘A shared vision is one to which many people initial interview for a place on the PGCE at are fully committed, because it reflects their the University. A teacher training course is own personal vision’ Daiktere (2004). The
12 The use of exemplification materials and descriptors to embed the 2007 revised standards for qualified teacher status (QTS) and to challenge trainee teachers to go beyond ‘satisfactory’
vision of the authors reflected that of many of Technology subject area as a lead pilot in the the Keele University ITE Curriculum Tutor development of the descriptors. The group team, making the acceptance of it by them of ICT mentors had already been involved in less problematic that might have been the working with one of the authors in writing case. This was an essential element of the subject exemplification materials for a revision process, as the curriculum tutors national subject association; they therefore would be the people selling the vision to the had some familiarity with the new standards. subject mentors in school. If they were not in As with the Initial Teacher Education Steering agreement with the vision, this would be Committee, they had the opportunity to difficult for them to achieve. review and discuss drafts of level descriptors and to provide feedback. University tutors and school-based mentors were comfortable with the principle of using Following feedback, from the various groups, descriptors: the challenge was to gain the authors developed the final version of the acceptance of the new style of descriptors, descriptors and planned the introduction and of how to apply them and to respond to the dissemination of these to all stakeholders. A higher level of expectations that were series of development events took place in embedded within them. Summer 2007. There were two foci in the dissemination events: in the first instance, ‘The hallmark of any successful organisation there was a need to explain the new is a shared sense amongst members about Standards, outlining key changes from the what they are trying to accomplish’ Peters previous version that had been in operation and Waterman (1995). The ITE Steering since 2002. This process was supported by (Partnership) Committee was consulted drawing on the new exemplification materials throughout the drafting process. Feedback that had been developed. The second focus was drawn on to develop revisions. Concern was to train University staff and school- was expressed about the greater level of based mentors in the use of the descriptors detail that was being presented in the new and to reinforce existing practice as well as descriptors and what that would mean for to raise expectations in respect of how the work of mentors and tutors, particularly trainees should be supported and challenged those who were school-based. Whilst this in future. Mentor training and development was acknowledged, it was felt that this was a in the University had drawn extensively on necessity: the lack of guidance available at the ideas of Daloz (1986) in respect of the time of development meant that there support and challenge and the new was a significant ‘risk’ in respect of quality descriptors were intended to provide a and practice without clarity of expectations; language to articulate the expectations and further, the desire to bring about further appropriateness to meet this goal. improvements in practice, to facilitate higher levels of trainees’ performance, meant that Feedback at the summer events was, for the the additional demands being made (at least most part, extremely positive. The initially) were appropriate. improvements, when compared to the descriptors for the 2002 Standards, were Drafting documentation and consulting recognised. There were some expressions stakeholders of concern about workload for school-based ‘Vision without action is merely a dream. staff. Revisions to other elements of Action without vision just passes the time. documents, which meant that the use of Vision with action can change the world’ descriptors was more effectively embedded Barker (1991). A decision was taken to use within practice throughout the duration of the the Information and Communication training, meant that these concerns were
13 Innovations and Development in Initial Teacher Education
alleviated. The descriptors underpinned a I Trainees more readily used Keele continuous process of review, reflection and University exemplification material than target setting, so that summative that provided by the TDA. (This may be assessment was clearly informed by the due to Keele tutors and mentors giving a formative process. higher profile to Keele documentation than to the TDA exemplification document); Impact and Evaluation - Discussion and I The majority of subject mentors of the Conclusions trainees used the exemplification material in their work with the trainees, to help set Stakeholder feedback (Internal), April targets, to arrive at judgement at 2008 summative review points and to inform A small scale initial survey was undertaken decisions about the appropriateness of with a group of trainees on the PGCE to evidence against the standards; investigate levels of engagement with the I There was some variability across descriptors and exemplification materials mentors in practice, with a minority not (Keele, Connell and Mattinson, 2007 and fully engaging with the descriptors or TDA, 2007) and views on their effectiveness exemplification materials; in helping them develop as beginning I Despite the use of descriptors, a teachers. In addition a small number of significant minority of the trainees found subject mentors and professional tutors were them of limited value and may be drawing questioned. on other sources of evidence (written feedback on lesson observations and Feedback from the trainee sample was professional discussions at regular review positive, showing good levels of engagement meetings) to support the target setting from the majority of the trainees sampled. process. This sample was approximately 12% of the total cohort, so, whilst not necessarily fully In the April 2008 survey, subject mentors had representative, the authors felt it was been contacted. However, the number who significant enough to draw initial conclusions responded was too small to draw meaningful from and to inform possible future actions. conclusions. There were a number of interesting features from mentor feedback Key findings from the April 2008 sample which correlated with evidence from other were: sources of evaluation. Mentors who I Trainees did use the descriptors to engaged with the materials seemed to have support the formative review and target found them useful, but not all mentors setting process; engaged with the requirements. In addition, I Trainees found the descriptors helpful in mentor practice appeared to be particularly this process; strong at the summative review points and I Trainees were able to use the descriptors the quality of judgements was robust. and exemplification documents, both in However, some mentors failed to make full arriving in judgements about appropriate use of the descriptors and exemplification to evidence to demonstrate achievement in inform the formative review and target specific standards and in determining setting process. Although there was some actions that would enable them to provide lack of full engagement, the quality of trainee further evidence of capability; outcome and the accuracy of assessment I The level descriptors were valuable in were good. However, this raised an informing and framing the dialogue interesting question: if they were all fully between the trainees and mentors in engaged in the formative use of the school; materials, what impact could there be on the
14 The use of exemplification materials and descriptors to embed the 2007 revised standards for qualified teacher status (QTS) and to challenge trainee teachers to go beyond ‘satisfactory’
quality of outcomes, in respect of trainee Whilst the returns were disappointing, they performance? The authors decided, were sufficient in number to validate the therefore, to conduct a wider survey in the research and to be able to draw informed summer, following further mentor conclusions, which in turn are to be used to development activities. influence future practice.
External Feedback The questions asked of Professional Tutors A number of other ITE institutions are using and Subject Mentors were similar, the exemplification materials that have been recognising the complementary roles that developed by the authors (either the Keele they play in the education and training of generic exemplifications or the ICT beginning teachers. Professional Tutors exemplification materials). Verbal feedback have an identified quality assurance role, as from these institutions is very positive. well as the responsibility for developing programmes of generic professional training Keele University’s ITE provision was within their own institution. It is the role of inspected by Ofsted in February 2008 the Subject Mentor, as the subject specialist, (Ofsted, 2008b) and was judged to be a to engage and challenge the trainee teacher grade one provider (Outstanding). The (referred to as Associate Teachers in the descriptors were identified as a key strength graphs in this paper). However, for both of practice. In common with our own initial roles to be undertaken successfully, there is evaluations, the inspection team found that an expectation that colleagues have a clear summative practice was excellent; however, understanding of the Standards and formative practice could be improved. associated documentation, and how these should be used to support the continuous Stakeholder feedback (Internal), developing of the trainee teacher when on June 2008 professional placement. A larger scale survey was undertaken with Keele Initial Teacher Education Partnership Figure 1 schools and colleges in the summer of 2008. Professional Tutors and Subject Mentors were provided with questionnaires that sought to explore perceptions of their respective roles and the changes that had been made for the 2007/8. Within the survey were contained questions relating to the new % of respondents Professional Standards and the associated support materials that had been developed. The analysis included in this paper relates directly to these questions; the questions formed part of a wider analysis of quality Whilst figure 1 might indicate that a assurance and mentoring and tutoring significant proportion of Professional Tutors practice, the outcomes of which are being are not using the Keele Level descriptors to utilised to inform improvement planning and review the progress of trainee teachers, the training and development with both information does indicate that progress has University and school-based staff. been made in the redefinition of the role of Professional Tutors. Prior to the Ofsted Approximately 20% of Professional Tutors inspection in February 2008, many replied to the questionnaire. A similar Professional Tutors saw their role as one that percentage of Subject Mentors responded. primarily was about the delivery of the
15 Innovations and Development in Initial Teacher Education
generic professional programme and the judging the ‘appropriateness’ of evidence monitoring of provision. Many undertook against each Standard. This change classroom observation of trainees as part of complements the introduction of the new quality assurance procedures but the use of Descriptors, which are in themselves more the Descriptors to set targets would often robust than those developed to support come as a result of intervention to deal with a assessment against the previous ‘Qualifying trainee who was giving cause for concern. In to Teach’ Standards (TTA, 2002). other words, their intervention was confirmatory prior to the initiation of a formal The evidence is that many Professional remediation procedure for trainees who were Tutors have used the descriptors successfully ‘at risk of failure’. Following the Ofsted in a number of ways and for a number of inspection, there has been an increased purposes, including: expectation that Professional Tutors should work along side Subject Mentors in the • to inform dialogue with an Associate regular monitoring of trainees and in the Teacher, providing a language for review setting of professional development targets. and target setting; However, the fact that approximately one- • to support the moderation of practice third of Professional Tutors either indicate across all Subject Mentors, validating the that they did not use the Level Descriptors to work of the mentors; set targets and review progress or did not reply to the questions may indicate that there • to challenge trainees to review their own is still work to undertake in respect of progress; redefining the role of Professional Tutors and • to review progress at summative points; in developing their understanding of this role. • to inform the process of completing the Career Entry Development Profile (CEDP); Figure 2 • to support the completion of the end of placement report.
However, a number of Professional Tutors appear to see the process of review, using the descriptors, as something that takes place between trainees and Subject % of respondents Mentors. Further, as the descriptors are used by trainees to self-review, a number of Professional Tutors see this as the responsibility of trainees and part of the University’s requirements. Although they Levels of engagement with the Level engage with the descriptors to support Descriptors by Professional Tutors appear to dialogue, this is at the level of ‘generic be stronger when dealing with the professional’ matters. development of trainee teachers’ evidence against the Professional Standards for QTS. This does raise ongoing training questions for At the same time as the new Standards were the University, given the expectation that introduced, the University reviewed and descriptors serve both formative and revised its process of ‘evidence gathering’ by summative functions and that the Descriptors trainees. The replacement of ‘records of form a central part of the end of placement experience’ with ‘records of evidence’ has report process. It also reinforces the question given a ‘harder edge’ to the practice of raised during the Ofsted inspection; namely, if
16 The use of exemplification materials and descriptors to embed the 2007 revised standards for qualified teacher status (QTS) and to challenge trainee teachers to go beyond ‘satisfactory’
Figure 3 Figure 5 % of respondents % of respondents
Figure 4 Figure 6 % of respondents % of respondents
there were higher levels of engagement with appears to be the case to support them in the the Descriptors to inform formative practice, development of their own understanding and what impact would there be on the final requirements of the new Standards. outcomes of the trainees? Subject Mentors indicate that that they find the Level Descriptors particularly valuable: In figures 3 and 4, it is evident that greater use is made of the Keele exemplification material • in setting points for discussions in weekly to inform judgements on the evidence base for review meetings; the Standards than the TDA materials. This is • in providing a language for commentary on not surprising, given the involvement of a lesson observation; Professional Tutors in the development of these materials, both in trialling the resources • in support the feedback process after a and through engaging with them at training lesson observation; and development events. • to highlight areas where action is required;
In respect of both sets of exemplification • in supporting trainees in self-review; material, however, the regular use of the • in moderating judgement across subject material to inform judgements is low. Whilst staff involved in observation; there is little in the evidence to date to indicate that there are any concerns about the • in informing professional dialogue with appropriateness of the evidence bases that other teachers involved in training, to trainees develop (as they appear to be making establish a common framework of quite extensive use of the exemplification understanding and expectations. material, particularly that developed at Keele), it might have been expected that school- Figures 5 and 6 indicate high levels of usage based staff would draw on these more than of the Descriptors. However, approximately
17 Innovations and Development in Initial Teacher Education
Figure 7 Figure 8 % of respondents % of respondents
15% of Subject Mentors indicated that the mentors who responded indicated that the descriptors are of limited help or have made descriptors were helpful in providing points a nil response. As noted elsewhere, the for discussion and in offering reference points implication of this on trainee development is against which judgements about progress uncertain and is a question for further could be made. However, those who were exploration. less positive about the descriptors focused their criticisms around the complexity of them The outcomes in figure 7 are important in light and how they found them less helpful in of Ofsted’s findings in February 2008. In dealing with subject issues in the classroom; common with many ITE Providers, there are in particular, the nature of Standards Q10 and ongoing issues about the quality of feedback Q25 (which are two of the most important and target setting from some Subject Standards in respect of knowledge, Mentors. Comments tend to lack focus, are understanding and practice in the classroom) sometimes devoid of subject –related were seen to require further ‘deconstruction’ comments, focusing on generic classroom so that mentors could work with elements of management issues, and targets are broad these in a more ‘structured’ manner, and are insufficiently scaffolded. With less addressing smaller elements of a Standard at than 10% of Subject Mentors indicating that any one time. they find the level Descriptors very helpful in supporting comments on observation A similar development issue may be feedback and during the weekly review emerging in respect of the use of Descriptors meetings, it does raise questions about the to judgement the appropriateness of extent to which mentors are fully engaged in trainees’ evidence (figure 8). Less than two- the process and the extent to which the thirds of Subject Mentors use the descriptors Standards are ‘embedded’ as a language of frequently to support judgements about review, evaluation, and analysis. A majority of evidence. The new Standards had been in
Figure 9 Figure 10 % of respondents % of respondents
18 The use of exemplification materials and descriptors to embed the 2007 revised standards for qualified teacher status (QTS) and to challenge trainee teachers to go beyond ‘satisfactory’
use for one year when the survey was of the exemplification tools; therefore, a undertaken and the extent to which they concern is the minority of mentors who do have firmly ‘embedded’ in practice is not yet not find any of the support materials clear. For the first time, Standards extend particularly useful. Therefore, is there a more beyond initial training and the NQT year, and general issue about how mentors engage, or hopes and expectations have been that the do not engage, with evidence to support extension of Standards to all teachers would judgements that they make? lead to improvements in levels of A final issue that has emerged in the survey, engagement and understanding; however, it and one that is of particular concern, is that may be too early to note what impact their Subject Mentors (figures 9 and 10) appear to introduction has had on teacher practice engage with exemplification materials to a more generally. lesser extent than Professional Tutors (figures 3 and 4). Yet, it is the Subject Further, figures 9 and 10 indicate that the Mentors who have formal responsibility for number of Subject Mentors who use developing the expertise of the trainees and exemplification on a regular basis to support for monitoring their progress against the judgements against the Standards is not Standards. Trainee profiles at the end of the high. As with Professional Tutors, the Keele academic year, and the exit review tutorials exemplification material is in greater use than undertaken by University staff, confirm that is the case with the TDA exemplification outcomes are secure and show a year on material; however, might it have been an year improvement; however, as already expectation that there would have been noted, would the outcomes be even stronger greater use of exemplification materials in if there was a higher and more consistent the first year of new Standards. As the level engagement in the training and review of use of Descriptors to judge the evidence process – using support materials – from of trainees for the Standards is higher than school-based colleagues? either of the exemplification tools, might it be that Subject Mentors are using the Challenges for the future Descriptors to fulfil the verification role and The Keele University ITE descriptors and that they see only a limited role for the exemplifications documents are effective exemplification materials? This appears to and supportive when trainees and school- be confirmed by the data in figure 11, based tutors are fully engaged with them and whereby exemplification material seems to follow the procedures, as detailed in the be used in a limited manner by the majority handbooks and training materials. However, of Subject Mentors. An analysis of the evaluative research conducted during the evidence indicates that the same Subject 2007-2008 academic year shows us that not Mentors tend to use the Descriptors and one all stakeholders are yet fully engaged with these. This finding is consistent with our Figure 11 experience of practice is respect of earlier documentation and evidence across the sector.
The new documentation that has been developed at the University does promote the improvements in practice we set out to
% of respondents achieve. The challenge to the institution is to continue to evaluate practice and impact more extensively and to revisit the training
19 Innovations and Development in Initial Teacher Education
and development of school based mentors Advanced Study in Education (Manchester). to bring about higher and more consistent Kevin is Head of Teacher Education at Keele levels of use. To this end, a detailed survey University. He has previously worked at of all trainee teachers has recently been Edge Hill University and Manchester undertaken and the outcomes of this survey Metropolitan University. Before entering the will form the basis of further research and University Sector, Kevin worked for ten years actions. in Secondary schools. A particular focus for development is the use Kevin represents Keele University on a of the documents and training materials for number of UCET Committees and has formative assessment of trainee progress served on QCA and TDA/Ofsted/DfES and the setting of development targets. This Advisory Groups. He has also worked with a will be reviewed during the 2008/9 academic number of universities as External Examiner year and the information will be important in and as External Consultant for validations influencing any decision to revise the and revalidations of courses (within the UK descriptors in the medium term, as we align and overseas) and for Ofsted Inspections. our practice to ensure that we meet the demands of the new Ofsted Inspection Research interests: framework and the TDA’s SED (Self- Post-Compulsory Education and the Evaluation Document) process. development of the 14-19 curriculum Economics and Business Education Biographies Student decision making and recruitment to Mr Andrew John Connell Higher Education, with specific reference to Qualifications: BSc. Hons. (Sunderland), Initial Teacher Education and Training PGCE (Leeds), MA (Manchester Metropolitan Models of training and development, with University.) specific reference to employment/school- Andrew is the Course leader for PGCE ICT based Initial Teacher Education and Training and the PGCE ICT Development Co- Quality Assurance in Initial Teacher ordinator at Keele University. He is a Education member of the ITE management group. Development of Teacher Education He has worked with other universities as Frameworks across European Union External Examiner and as External Countries Consultant for revalidations of courses. He is a founding member of the West Midlands References DT and ICT ITE Steering Group. Prior to the Atherton, J.S. (2002), Learning and Teaching: post, Andrew was Associate Director of Learning from Experience. Secondary PGCE, Course Leader Secondary [on line]:UK: ICT PGCE, Education Deanery Senior http://www/learningandteaching.info/learnin Manager and Senior Lecturer in Education at g/experience.htm (accessed 5.11.08.). Liverpool Hope University. Before that Andrew taught in secondary schools for 11 Barker, J. (1991) The Power of Vision years. (Minnesota, USA, Charthouse International) (video). Research Interests: ICT teaching - pedagogy and practice Creativity in ICT Beard, C. and Wilson, P. (2002) Experiential Improving beginning teacher performance Learning: Best Practice Handbook for Educators and Trainers: UK: Kogan-Page Kevin Mattinson (there is now a second edition 2006) ISBN 0 Qualifications: BSc (Bradford), MA 7494 4489 4. (Lancaster), PGCE (Leeds), Diploma in
20 The use of exemplification materials and descriptors to embed the 2007 revised standards for qualified teacher status (QTS) and to challenge trainee teachers to go beyond ‘satisfactory’
Boud, D. et al. (eds) (1985) Reflection. Keele University (2008) Programme Turning Experience into learning Handbook for the Post/Professional (London, Kogan Page). Graduate Certificate in Education (UK, Keele Connell A., Edwards, A. and Hammond M. University). (2007) An exemplification of the revised standards for qualified teacher status Kolb, D.A. and Fry, R. (1975) Towards an in Secondary ICT – a applied theory of experiential learning, in C. discussion and support document (UK, ITTE) Cooper (Ed.) Theories of Group Process (London, John Wiley). Connell, A. and Mattinson, K. (2007) An exemplification of the revised standards NCSL (2006) Developing a strategic for qualified teacher status - A support educational vision, NPQH module 1.1 document for Curriculum Tutors, (Nottingham, England, NCSL). Education tutors, Professional Tutors and Subject Mentors in the Keele ITE Ofsted (2007) The Annual Report of Her Partnership. (UK, Keele University). Majesty’s Chief Inspector of Schools 2006/07 (UK, Ofsted). Crewe+Alsager College of Higher Education (1991), Competencies for Ofsted (2008a) Rising to the challenge: a Initial Teacher Training (UK, MMU). review of the Teach First initial teacher training programme (UK, Ofsted). Daiktere, I. (2004) School Principal’s Role in Affecting School Culture, Paper from Ofsted (2008b) A secondary initial teacher Lazaridou A., Papanikos G. & Pappas N. training short inspection report 2007/08 (Eds), Education Concepts and Practices (Keele University, UK, Ofsted). (2004) (Greece, Athens Institute For Education and Research). Peters, T. and Waterman, R. (1995) In Search of Excellence: Lessons from America’s Best Daloz, L. (1986) A Model of Support and Run Companies (New York, USA, Harper and Challenge in Mentoring (San-Francisco, Row). Jossey-Bass). Robinson, M. (2005) Uncertainty and DfES (2005) Common Core of Skills and Innovation, Journal of Education for Knowledge for the Children’s Workforce Teaching Vol. 31, No. 4, November 2005 (Nottingham, UK, DfES). (UK, Routledge).
DfES (2004) Every Child Matters: Change for TDA (2007) Professional Standards for Children in Schools (Nottingham, UK, DfES). Qualified Teacher Status and Requirements for Initial Teacher Training (London, TDA). Hillman, J. and Stoll, L. (1994) ‘Building Vision’ in SIN Research Matters No. 2 TTA – Teacher Training Agency (2002) (London, UK, University of London Institute Qualifying to Teach, London, TTA. of Education). Honey, P. & Mumford, A. (1982) Manual of Vince, R. (1998) Behind and Beyond Kolb’s Learning Styles (London, P. Honey). Learning Cycle, Journal of Management Education 22 (3) pp 304-319.
21 Innovations and Development in Initial Teacher Education Consistently fails to: share learning objectives; give clear instructions; use directed questioning; interact with pupils; sequence and structure learning activities; provide opportunities to reflect on learning and assessment. Does not use differentiated resource. Very little or no use of technology. Does not take account of equal opportunities and inclusion issues. Within lessons, is consistently unable to manage and monitor the learning that is taking place. Is unable or unwilling to respond to individual, group and whole class need to maximise learning. Uses a range of strategies within lessons and across sequences of lessons. These include: shared learning objectives; clear instructions; directed questioning; interaction with pupils; sequencing and structuring of learning activities; opportunities to reflect on learning and assessment. Appropriate differentiated resources are used, including technology. Practice takes account of equal opportunities and inclusion issues. Within lessons, able to manage and monitor the learning that is taking place. Is able to respond individual, group and whole class need to maximise learning. Effective use of a range strategies within and across lessons. Uses resources that take account of individual need. Appropriate use of technology, including e-learning. Practice takes account of equal opportunities and inclusion issues. Within lessons, manages and regularly monitors the learning that is taking place. Responds to individual, group and whole class need to maximise learning. Effective use of a wide range of strategies within and across lessons. Confident use of resources that take account of individual need. Teaching strategies demonstrate creativity, including use of e-learning. Effective approach to equal opportunities and inclusion. Effective in managing, monitoring and tracking the leaning that is taking place within and across lessons. Able to adjust teaching activities in response to evidence. At times, gives pupils some choice over activities in lessons order to support their learning. Confident and effective use of a wide range of strategies within and across lessons. Confident and flexible use of resources that take account of individual need. Teaching strategies demonstrate creativity and innovation, including innovative use of e- learning. A proactive and effective approach to equal opportunities and inclusion. Consistent and effective in managing, monitoring and tracking the leaning that is taking place within and across lessons. Flexible and confident within the classroom, being able to adjust teaching activities in response to evidence. Is prepared to give learners some influence over the flow of activities in lessons order to support their learning. Q25 Teach lessons and sequences of across the age ability range for which they are trained in they: Q25 (a) use a range of teaching strategies and resources, including e-learning, taking practical account diversity promoting equality and inclusion Q25 (d) demonstrate the ability to manage learning of individuals, groups and whole classes, modifying their teaching suit the stage of lesson APPENDIX 1 – Keele University Level Descriptors for the Professional Standards Qualified Teacher Status •
22 Using Portfolios and Learning Journals in ITE
2. Using Portfolios and Learning Journals in ITE
Lawry Price: Roehampton University
Summary The use of portfolios and learning journals (or even logs or diaries) to support learning and teaching is commonplace practice across the HEI sector. Whether they are used as integral parts of taught courses within programmes, as assessment tools in their own right, or merely as ‘bolt on’ parts used for a whole range or variety of purposes, they undoubtedly represent a characteristic feature of the student experience. This paper describes four different versions of what might, for categorisation sake, be called either portfolios or journals in use at the writer’s university. It also poses a set of questions for consideration by colleagues engaged in ITE as to the value and purpose of these learning tools.
Keywords Portfolio / Journal / Learning Support / Initial Teacher Education
Introduction • Quality of Learning and Teaching - In a broad sense the use of portfolios and development of student evaluation journals can contribute to meeting the strategies; incorporation of innovative demands of commonly cited and current teaching methods. strategic educational developments within the university sector. These include: Within Initial Teacher Education (ITE) specifically, the importance of students • Diversity – enhancing the quality of becoming self critical, reflective practitioners learning; contributing to giving students a is a well defined goal. The use of diaries, greater sense of achievement through an logs, journals or portfolios for tracking, increased use of formative assessment; recording and setting future targets contributes markedly to this goal. • Distributed/blended learning - Log, journal, portfolio – whatever we call a developing distance learning maintained record of achievement or approaches/resources to support experiences gathered together in one learning; particular format, they are in essence a flexible and useful mechanism to monitor the • Employability, Development of Skills student experience, the evidence base for and Work Based learning - using logging skills, increased knowledge and assessment to integrate skills understanding as well as a possible ‘vehicle development with the testing of for reflection’ (Moon, 2006). traditional academic learning; employability skills embedded in the In general terms there is plenty of evidence in curriculum; acknowledging that the use of journals as a tool to support learning in the university • ‘Learning to Learn’ - development of sector has become more widespread since discipline specific learning support 1998. The advent of personal development packages; planning/profiling (PDP) in the UK might have prompted and kick-started this unique development but it is now possible to
23 Innovations and Development in Initial Teacher Education
witness reflective activity as a recognised The profile of professional development element of (particularly) undergraduate This is a well established piece of practice. This is witnessed by the fact that documentation that both monitors and tracks relatively few subject areas do not use some the student experience throughout their recognisable form of documentation which training and specifically their teaching would register as a learning journal of some practices. It contains a comprehensive description. That many of the tools for record of all taught courses undertaken as personal development are, in effect, highly part of the training programme and the structured journals adds weight to the students’ performance within these. The significance of this trend in Higher Education. main body of the documentation provides commentary points for the student to field The use of log/journals as a tool to aid and the evidence that contributes to the support learning has long been a practice in Standards for QTS, as well as reports from key professions. Nursing, the medical others involved in the training process, for profession generally and teaching have example classteachers and mentors. consistently built into their training provision the need for the logging of events and key The personalisation and reflective potential activities to support knowledge and skills lies in the students’ own commentary development. That this might be in the form sections where they record their own of a log, a journal or a portfolio is not for thoughts about the progress being made and debate here. What is of interest is the use of used to target future plans for professional these as pedagogic tools which emphasise development. Importantly too, provision is learning through reflection. Drawing from also included for feeding into Career Entry Initial Teacher Education practice specifically, Development Profiles as the last step from the best example might be the Initial Teacher Education (ITE) to Newly documentation that supports trainee teachers Qualified Teacher (NQT) status. Alongside through teaching practice. The keeping of these formal recordings the individual files and the mapping of the skills derived student will also draw from the School from the overall experience both informs and Experience files they maintain, containing is the evidence base for considering progress planning and assessment detail for the work made towards meeting the required they have been doing in school settings. Standards for Teaching, and clearly reflection Evaluations of personal performance for upon this is crucial to the process. activities conducted with children offer a further mechanism by which thoughtful This paper looks at the prescribed function reflection can happen, in addition to the and purpose of four particular types of feedback received from teachers and ‘learning journal’, all currently in use at my mentors about their practice. own university. Two of these are more mature examples than the others, another is The Profile of Professional Development is an example much more recently implemented therefore both an assessment tool and a into programme delivery, and the other is a record of experience for the individual recent innovation to support professional trainee. It serves as an essential mechanism development within the field of primary for all parties engaging with teacher trainees physical education. What they have in and has the in-built advantage of serving common is that they seek to draw from the postgraduate (PGCE) and undergraduate student user analysis and the reflection on routes. It is also adaptive to the changes progress being made at specific times of the that beset ITE on a regular basis (for example students’ personal, and in three of the cases the revision of Qualifying to Teach (QTS) professional, development. Standards) and is a model for personal
24 Using Portfolios and Learning Journals in ITE
tutoring adopted across subject areas within management skills. This is the students’ the Higher Education Institution (HEI) under focus when recording their progress and discussion here. gives ample opportunity to meet the pronounced aims of the PDP process which The personal development plan (PDP) is to help and ensure that students are able Personal Development Planning is ‘a to be successful throughout their course and structured and supported process cope with the demands of Higher Education. undertaken by an individual to reflect on their The PDP is ‘an important tool that students own learning, performance and/or can use to manage their own learning to be achievement and to plan for their personal, used continuously to reflect, review and educational and career development’ record their progress’ (PDP, Roehampton (Quality Assurance Agency for Higher University 2005). Education (QAAHE) Progress Files Policy Paper, paras 30, 31). Originally the Personal Development Plan was paper based but a review of It is intended to help students: implementation and usage has led to • Become more effective, independent and electronic recording of the process. It may confident self-directed learners; be significant to note that student • Understand how they are learning and engagement is better when the PDP is an relate their learning to a wider context; integrated part of programme or module delivery, in other words it forms part of the • Articulate their personal goals and assessment requirements. Where it is ‘an evaluate progress towards their extra’ evidence there is a suggestion that achievement; there is a reluctance to fully participate in • Encourage a positive attitude to learning what the PDP requires, although embedding throughout life. the culture from the outset and the follow through rigour from overseeing tutors is a The process of Personal Development key to future success. As the process further Planning requires students to engage with a embeds itself the optimistic view is that its process which takes them through the usefulness will become more widely ‘where are you now…where do you want to accepted but only if a value is placed on its be…and how to get there’ line of questioning content. and is introduced to all year one students as a requirement of their programme of study. The primary physical education There is the expectation that this is subject log/journal maintained throughout the remainder of their From a personal perspective the use of a programme and may be used as a basis for log/journal to support student learning was personal tutorials, group seminars and the an integral part of the design of the first assessment feedback process. At the Physical Education subject specialism completion of the course undertaken programme (within the Primary Education students are positioned to select aspects of degree programme) at my own university. their PDP as a particular presentation of The intention of including it as part of the themselves to potential employers. overall student experience was conceived as a useful support mechanism in its own right The skills set which undergraduates are as it requires students to develop their expected to achieve by graduation are subject knowledge beyond taught sessions. clustered around three key areas – study Additionally, the individual student is asked skills, research skills and career to annotate the contents they include within
25 Innovations and Development in Initial Teacher Education
the journal, thus contributing to their perspective. That it also contributes to the reflective skills. As a stated part of the development of personal philosophies for the teaching and learning methods adopted by teaching of the subject to young children is this part of the programme it is also used in to all intents and purposes a bonus, but personal tutoring sessions and helps to clearly a very beneficial one. monitor student progress over and above attendance at taught sessions and through The Early Years and primary professional module assessments. portfolio of professional development for physical education The intentions and purpose of keeping the The trialling of this particular portfolio has log/journal are clearly described in the taken place over the past year. It has programme handbook as ‘a cumulative stemmed from an identified need to equip record of aspects of the students’ those in training with a record of their experience related to an individual course or achievements to help them devise action programme’ (Physical Education Subject plans for personal development, and Specialist Handbook, 2007) and helps and includes a training checklist to help ensure supports students to demonstrate specific that there are gains made from the skills accumulation by: experience and training provided that will • Identifying relevant experience(s) for lead to ‘high quality learning experiences for observation and critical reflection; all pupils. • Showing discrimination in selecting significant features of the experience for Supported by the Training and Development recording purposes; Agency for Schools (TDA), and a result of a project conducted by the national ITTE • Being reflective and analytic rather than network for PE, the portfolio is designed to purely descriptive; be used flexibly in order to meet the differing • Relating the experience to appropriate needs of trainees and the very different theoretical and/or practical knowledge structures and systems adopted by the developed within the course; range of training providers that exist. It makes a point about training to become a • Demonstrating the significance of teacher not finishing when initial training is recorded experiences for her/his own completed. The portfolio facilitates keeping development, knowledge or enhanced a record of the training, skills and knowledge understanding within the course. accrued and helps to inform the planning process for ongoing training needs in the first The major outcomes of completing such a years of training. The roles of training journal are most vividly seen when the three providers and those responsible for CPD are year programme nears its end and when the stressed to ‘ensure that you develop fully as accumulation of the whole learning a teacher and as a potential subject leader’. experience comes into play. The journal stands as an additional tool in informing The portfolio is divided into four distinct Career Entry Development Profiles sections. These are: (Transition Point One) statements. The • Initial audit of experience and need – keynote for this particular journal is that it is this provides the trainee with the not an assessment tool but does inform and opportunities to identify knowledge and service the broader agenda of professional experience before training begins and to development through training and into first plan for further development through post from a specific subject area training.
26 Using Portfolios and Learning Journals in ITE
• On course audit of experience and informed judgement to take place on a fairly need – this section enables the student regular basis (once a term), it has proven to to develop a portfolio of Physical be a useful device within its defined purpose. Education knowledge and experience The standard of what might be considered a and helps to identify what personal needs ‘final’ product at the end of three years is exist to help in the provision of high inevitably variable, but the engagement in the quality learning experiences for all pupils. process is what is important and serves a • Course completion review/planning for primary task of reflection on both subject future professional development – this knowledge and practical application in the enables the student to identify the level of teaching situation. If the ultimate purpose at knowledge and experience achieved the outset was to facilitate the tracking of PE during training and to plan for ongoing subject specialists’ subject knowledge training needs as they enter the teaching development and their evolving personal profession. rationales/philosophies for the teaching of primary PE, then this has been achieved with • Subject Leadership Log – this section successive cohorts of students. enables those who aspire to become Physical Education subject leaders to Such developments have been reported on a record experiences and information regular basis at various conferences over a relevant to the role. period of time since their inception in 1998. Additionally, the usage of the PE log/journal The student is encouraged to add to each has proven to be of use as an evaluative tool section on a regular basis and to take feeding into annual programme review, new responsibility for personal reflection and programme validations, and as a mechanism development. The engagement with a range to inform CPD provision across the period. It of personnel is advocated throughout the has played its role too in feeding into the process – ‘you should reflect on your work adoption of the attempt to introduce a with children, mentors, teachers and all national scheme for those training to teach in those involved in your development as a primary schools with a specialism in the teacher’. There is an inference for subject area. It might be that a watershed maintaining this well into career not just the has been reached with the introduction of a early years. formalised approach to tracking competencies through the ITE Portfolio of The intention is to roll this model out to all Professional Development for EYS and those training specialists for primary PE, but Primary PE and clearly an evaluation of its clearly it has mileage for other subject impact will prove insightful over time. adoption across age phases. Linked as it is to QTS Standards it is a potential tool to An awareness of a growing usage of similar, support learning and practical application but in their own way uniquely different, types from initial training through to threshold and of logs/journals and portfolios at my own beyond. institution has led me to the point of considering whether this is common practice Overview at other HEIs. If there is a proliferation of My own personal interest in the use of such tools across the sector, are there journals or portfolios to support learning different types and how effective are they in originally stemmed from a need to monitor serving the function and purposes for which and track students learning beyond taught they are designed? This is the key line of sessions. As a vehicle to allow some questioning in mind here.
27 Innovations and Development in Initial Teacher Education
Discussion Points Biography The content of this paper therefore leads to a Lawry Price is currently Assistant Dean number of questions to which a wider (Learning & Teaching)in the School of audience might contribute having considered Education. He also lectures Physical the use of logs/journals/portfolios described Education on undergraduate and and in use at one particular HEI. An postgraduate programmes. Research overriding purpose for the presentation of interests lie in the fields of Motor this paper at this conference was to attempt Development and the advancement of a to elicit from colleagues from across the developmental approach to teaching quality sector feedback on what is in use of a similar physical education. Current investigative or contrasting type of such tools to support research focuses on tracking students student learning. This perspective leads to a through from undergraduate training through set of probing and therefore potentially to NQT, and potentially beyond into first informative questions as follows: responsibility posts in schools. Lawry Price, School of Education, How widespread is the use of such tools Roehampton University that monitor the progression of student [email protected] learning in other HEIs?
Where they are used what are the primary References functions? Are they solely used as Moon, J.A. (2006) Learning Journals – A support for subject knowledge Handbook for Reflective Practice and development and/or for tracking Professional Development (Oxon, professional development? Or are they Routledge). used as an assessment tool? Or for other purposes? Primary Physical Education Log/Journal (Roehampton University 1998-2008). Are there other comparable/contrasting PE ITE Portfolio for Early Years and Primary examples of their usage and application (PE ITTE Network, 2007). within the HEI sector? Profile of Professional Development (Roehampton University, 2007). Can we qualify and quantify their Personal Development Plan (Roehampton practicability, relevance and overall University, 2005). usefulness/effectiveness in supporting student learning? Further Reading Barry, K. and King, L. (1998) Beginning If the maintenance and monitoring of their Teaching and beyond, Katoomba (NSW, use is time consuming and difficult to Social Science Press). achieve are ePortfolios the answer? If so are there further challenges to confront if Cohen, L., Mannion, L. and Morrison, K. this becomes an adopted strategy (2004) A Guide to Teaching Practice regarding ethics, appropriateness and (London, Routledge Falmer). manageability issues? Evans, L. (2002) What is teacher I welcome responses and contributions from development?Oxforddevelopment? Oxford colleagues in lending insight from their own Review of Education, 28: 123-137. personal experience of working with portfolios and journals.
28 Using Portfolios and Learning Journals in ITE
Green, K. (2000) Exploring everyday Pickup, I. and Price, L. (2006) The Primary philosophies of physical education teachers Physical Educator: Reflections on the from a sociological perspective, Sport process of becoming a PE specialist, Education and Society, 5(2): 109-129. Physical Education Matters, Vol. 1 No 2 pp 41-47. Martin, M. (2004) Reflection in Teacher Education: how can it be supported? Price, L. and Pickup, I. (2003) Meeting Conference Paper presented at ECER, Crete subject knowledge QTS Standards: tracking 2004. reflective commentaries on personal learning by primary PE specialists through Pickup, I. and Price, L. (2004) The undergraduate ITE, Conference paper development of trainee primary teachers presented at SERA, November 2003. rationales and philosophies for teaching physical education, Conference Paper Rossi, T. and Cassidy, T. (1999) presented at ICSSPE Pre Olympic Congress, Knowledgeable Teachers in physical Thessaloniki 2004. education: a view of teacher’s knowledge, in C.A. Hardy and M. Mawer (eds), Learning Pickup, I. and Price, L. (2004) The and Teaching in Physical Education (London, development of a rationale for teaching Falmer Press). primary PE: tracking trainee teacher’s perceptions of the subject via use of Log/Journals, BAALPE Bulletin of PE, 40(2): 201-237.
29 Innovations and Development in Initial Teacher Education
3. An Investigation into the Implementation of Using an Eportfolio as a Record of Professional Development for Initial Teacher Trainees
Robert Heath, Marc Smale and Sarah Weatherhead: University of Wolverhampton
Summary Students taking a course in teacher training need to gain Qualified Teacher Status (QTS). In order to do this they have to show evidence that they have achieved the required level of competence in the ‘Q Standards’ which are determined by the Training and Development Agency for schools (TDA, 2007). There are currently 33 Standards that trainees have to show evidence of their competence in e.g. • Standard 4: Communicate effectively with children, young people, colleagues, parents and carers and • Standard 22: Plan for progression across the age and ability range for which you are trained, designing effective learning sequences within lessons and across series of lessons and demonstrating secure subject/curriculum knowledge.
Currently the Record of Professional Development (RoPD) is a paper based system but it was felt that the technology existed for this to now become an electronic system. In the second example above, a paper copy of a lesson plan would provide good evidence but in the first example, Standard 4, how much better the evidence would be if the student could include an audio example of good communication.
Keywords Electronic portfolio / electronic record of professional development / record of professional development / handheld technology / Q Standards / trainee teachers
Context There is some discussion in academic circles article on twenty first century learning by that says the current Higher Education commenting that ‘twenty first century student is a habitual user of technology, learning transforms the ways 21st century including a variety of handheld devices such citizens communicate with each other and as mobile phones and iPods (mp3 players), provides 21st century learners with a variety uses the Internet with confidence and ease of learning methods.’ (p.238) and has embraced Web 2.0 technology extensively (Facebook, MySpace etc). This Further in their article Leh, Kouba and Davis may or may not be the case, and this would quote from the work of Weiser who first make an interesting research topic in itself, proposed the concept of ‘ubiquitous but it is certainly clear that more and more computing’ and this sums up the reason for resources, used by students, are in trialling this electronic method of producing electronic form and are ever more detailed evidence. Weiser (in Leh, Kouba and Davis, and complex. This is highlighted by Leh, 2005) puts forward the proposition that: Kouba and Davis (2005) who introduce the
30 An Investigation into the Implementation of Using an Eportfolio as a Record of Professional Development for Initial Teacher Trainees
Ubiquitous computing names the third suggests that in a context where wave in computing, just now beginning. innovation, diffusion and reinvention are First were main-frames, each shared by valued ePortfolio design practices, the use lots of people. Now we are in the personal of ePortfolios can enrich the professional computing era, person and machine development of mathematics teachers. staring uneasily at each other across the (p.92) desktop. Next comes the ubiquitous computing, or the age of calm technology, So in their conclusion Hartmann suggests when technology recedes into the that the eRoPD could add to the professional background of our lives. (p.243) development of the trainees and the work of Meeus, Questier and Derks (2006) suggests The ‘blended’ approach to teaching and that the ability to be able to assemble all the learning is one that students find appealing information and evidence available using an as it allows a flexibility in learning that has ePortfolio is a recent technique ‘which until previously not been available. You have only very recently was unimaginable.’ (p.134) to see the speed with which images and video taken on mobile phones appear on In addition PebblePad has the facility to be news broadcasts and on the Internet to viewed from mobile devices that can receive understand the power and immediacy of this the Internet (and more and more devices growing technology. Podcasts of lectures have this facility, either using a local wireless are regularly downloaded and used in a connection or a 3G connection) but further, variety of innovative ways by students and there is a facility (within PebblePad) to send a many other resources are available to the text message directly to a student ePortfolio, 21st century student. cutting out the requirement for an Internet connection. These observations led to the idea that the ePortfolio, PebblePad, could be used to It was also clear that, although much of the make the paper based RoPD, used by evidence students used in their RoPD was students undergoing training to become text based e.g. lesson plans produced on a primary school teachers, an electronic word processor (usually Microsoft Word) or system. PebblePad was chosen because all lesson observations (usually hand written by the students and tutors had access to it as it the university tutor or the school based is a University wide resource and in addition, mentor), there was also a great deal of most of the evidence that students were evidence that was not in text form e.g. presenting in their paper RoPD were in photographs, video of games/PE lessons, electronic form and so, if included in the discussions with the mentor and tutor that electronic RoPD (eRoPD), the resource just was at present not able to be included in the needed ‘pointing to’ from the relevant part of RoPD. For this reason all the participating the PebblePad document rather than the students were loaned an iPod or a small mp3 paper evidence being duplicated many voice recorder to enable them to produce times. Hartmann and Calandra (2007), in and upload audio evidence to their eRoPD. their work on using the ePortfolio to enhance the learning of teachers, concluded that Another major benefit of this system was that following experience in ePortfolios the PebblePad documents could be shared by method used to develop the teachers use of the student with other students or, more the ePortfolio … importantly, with their tutor in the University and their school based tutor, both of whom could then comment on any evidence
31 Innovations and Development in Initial Teacher Education
submitted without having to make a time redefinitions as necessary, so as to bring consuming visit to the student. In addition about lasting benefit to the ongoing this intervention could take place wherever process itself rather than to some future and whenever the tutor chose in the same occasions. spirit as the blended approach to learning. This keeps the student at the heart of this During the year there were to be many work something that can easily be forgotten. occasions that modifications had to be made Meeus, Questier and Derks (2006) are careful to many aspects of the work and several to remind us that: different methods were used to gather the evidence which led to these changes. These Educational innovation is not the same as methods were: following fashion. Genuine educational • Pilot production of the profile which was innovation is aimed at benefiting students then modified; in one way or another.’ (p.137) • Feedback from students in training sessions, when in school and by email; The methodology adopted for this initiative was an action research approach. The • Feedback from mentors in training reason for this was that the problem that we sessions and during school visits; were trying to solve i.e. how to develop the • Discussions between the academics current paper based method of recording the involved in this pilot; Standards achieved by trainee teachers into • Information gained through Surveyor. an electronic based system, would need to be carefully and regularly monitored. The amendments made as the research was The evidence gained led to changes in the progressing to ensure that the student was in project which were addressed through no way penalised for taking part in the further training sessions with students and research and that the final outcome – the mentors. Much of this training was of a evidence produced for the recommendation technical nature as the tutors and students of Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) – would be became more aware of the requirements of of a quality at least equal to that of a student the ePortfolio in terms of file types and sizes. employing the traditional paper-based Some students were trying to submit approach and ideally, would be able to show evidence in an inappropriate way, thinking evidence of wider variety and in a way that that the technology demanded it; a good would enable the student, the university tutor example of this being a student who took and the school based tutor to work in a photographs of her lesson plans when the closer and more meaningful way to enhance Word document already existed and would the experience in school for the student. have been a more appropriate way of This approach is outlined by Cohen and submitting evidence. Manion, 1994 (cited in Bell 2003:8): The innovation (action research is) essentially an on-the- The first task was to identify the students and spot procedure designed to deal with a academics that would be involved in this concrete problem located in an immediate project. The choice of academics was situation. This means ideally, the step-by- straightforward and consisted of the two step process is constantly monitored over tutors who had devised the project and a varying periods of time and by a variety of further two tutors who had an interest and mechanisms so that the ensuing feedback expertise in the use of PebblePad. The may be translated into modifications, decision about the choice of students led to adjustments, directional changes, the one year PGCE group being the target group. This was for two reasons, firstly their
32 An Investigation into the Implementation of Using an Eportfolio as a Record of Professional Development for Initial Teacher Trainees
course was only one year in length and so technical issues involving school ICT any research could be completed within one systems, firewalls etc which were beyond the year. Secondly, the ‘Standards’ had recently scope of the academic team and so a changed and the PGCE students would be ‘trouble shooter’ was identified who would amongst the first students to train under the be able to offer assistance in schools should new Standards and so it made good sense it be necessary (in fact this was not a to develop a system under the new problem and all students and mentors were Standards, which would in time be used able to access PebblePad from school and throughout teacher training, rather than use home, although one or two log in problems an old system which would need did occur). modification in the future. The next task was to present the Standards It was clear form the outset that there would in a form that would assist the students in be problems but careful planning and presenting and organising their evidence. It training for all those involved would hopefully was decided to use a new tool in PebblePad eliminate as many of these as possible. The which enables the production for a new most major problem was identified as being profile this enables a custom form to be the ability of mentors in school to use the produced. This profile tool was used to PebblePad system. Sharing of PebblePad produce the same RoPD format assets was not an issue within the University electronically that was currently available to as all members of the University have a the students only in paper format. A PebblePad account but mentors in school do screenshot of this first portfolio is shown in not have an account and so it was hoped the Appendix. (see fig. i) that the ability to share a PebblePad asset by email address to individuals without a As can be seen, one of the benefits of this PebblePad account would be made use of. ‘tool’ is that when the mouse pointer hovers The second problem was identified as the over one of the standards more information students’ and mentors’ unfamiliarity with about what is required to meet that standard PebblePad but this was to be addressed is revealed. This was the first version of the through training sessions. profile and as will be indicated later many modifications were required between the It was decided to pilot this project in the first initial concept of this new method of working year using 8 PGCE students, giving each and the final version at the end of the PGCE tutor 2 students to supervise. The students trial year. were approached by their tutors and invited to take part. In these early stages the An initial training session for the students technical ability of the students was not and their mentors was arranged before the known but this was not a problem, as for this students began their first block placement. system of gathering and presenting evidence This had two advantages, firstly the students to work with the whole student population, it and the mentors were able to work together must be capable of working with all abilities, and learn about a new technology at the those who have an aptitude for technology same speed and secondly we knew that the and those who find using technology a mentors had some experience of using challenge. Several of the Standards now PebblePad. Training was about 4 hours in all require trainees to have an ability to use ICT and during this time the students and in their teaching and so a certain level of mentors were introduced to the various technical competence needs to be gained by aspects of PebblePad that would be used all students during training in any case. and had experience of uploading evidence. It was anticipated that there may be some
33 Innovations and Development in Initial Teacher Education
A particularly useful facility set up by the Outcomes researchers at this stage was to develop a It is clear, from looking at the comments from blog in PebblePad in which thoughts and the students, that there is still much work to comments could be recorded as to how the be done. Particular areas that stand out are project was progressing and provide a focus the technical issue of access to PebblePad of discussion which could be referred to at a and the uploading of evidence; clearly there later date when, for example, the project was are training issues here in terms of checking being written up. student systems for the suitability of their system to use PebblePad, and the most It was clear, following the first block suitable ways of uploading files, and the placement, that problems were occurring in format of those files. Also some school school and that, in some cases, to based tutors are not comfortable using troubleshoot these problems was going to PebblePad and so in these cases the student cause the student to have a less successful experience was restricted. placement and so in many cases the students were advised to leave the electronic It was clear however, that the competence evidence collection and to continue with the with which the students used the profile, and paper based system. Clearly there was more the quality of the evidence being submitted training to be done and this was arranged developed greatly as the second school during the next period of time the students placement progressed. Initially the evidence spent in university. An additional was word processed documents, mostly complication arose at this time as the trained lesson plans, which were referenced for the mentors would not be the students’ mentors ability to plan, for differentiation and subject for the next placement and so there was a knowledge. This evidence in itself was an need to train the new group of mentors improvement to the current system as which was done along side the students as specific areas of a lesson plan could be before. referenced and highlighted for the tutors to see where the specific evidence was to be The second time the students went into found within the lesson plan. As the school the process of uploading evidence to confidence and competence of the students the PebblePad profile was much more developed they became aware of the successful and a higher proportion of the potential of electronic evidence and the students ended the placement with evidence range of evidence submitted grew in quantity in their profile that would provide good and quality. You can see in the Appendix evidence towards the Standards. A second (see fig.ii) the way the evidence built up and training session for students and mentors was presented by the student: was delivered and this built on the findings from placement one and on comments from One student in particular used the facility of a mentors, students and university tutors. scanner to include a variety of pupils’ work to Several students embraced this new evidence some of the standards. There was technology and produced some outstanding wide use of digital photographs of work, examples of evidence and became very displays etc in many of the eRoPDs and this skilled in the manipulation of different file added to the quality of evidence provided. formats and uploading techniques. Some students chose to use a digital camera or phone to take photographs of pupils’ written work and this proved to be less successful than using a scanned image due to lack of clarity in the final image with the photograph often being very difficult to read.
34 An Investigation into the Implementation of Using an Eportfolio as a Record of Professional Development for Initial Teacher Trainees
Meeus, Questier and Derks (2006:135) This comment suggests that this student consider the portfolio in education to be: was very comfortable with the process and the early ‘teething problems’ did not have a 1. Student centred, lasting effect on their perception of the 2. Competence orientated benefits of the project. Another student also 3. Cyclical with regard to action and wrote in a positive way about the project but reflection was perceptive enough to see that it needed 4. Multimedia orientated further work:
This study fulfilled the first and last points ‘The idea and the concept are very here, was developing in terms of the exciting and make a lot more sense that competence of the students but needed the paper version as all the information is more work to make the work by the students synthesised in one area. Keep’s it all nice more cyclical in terms of action and and organised, much better than paper reflection. version. I did worry about how it would work in interviews though. However, I Benefits would still advise another trial year after The main benefit of this method of recording this one as there have been a few teething a student’s progress towards the Standards problems.’ lies in two areas. Firstly the ability to present evidence in a variety of forms not previously It was also good to see that school mentors available to the students and to be able to were starting to become familiar with the use evidence that is already in electronic technology by the time the students had form without the need to print off large completed their second placement; an quantities of evidence. Secondly the facility example can be found in the Appendix (see for tutors to have access to student evidence fig.iii) which shows an example of a mentor whenever and wherever they want to look at ‘signing off’ the student work. (You can also it was invaluable and certainly proved of see another benefit of an eRoPD in that there great benefit to the students who embraced is a hyperlink directly to the Standards so the this project and worked hard in the early student does not have to have the paper stages to overcome the early problems. copy with them to fill in evidence successfully). It was clear from the final survey of student opinions of this project that they could also Evaluation see the benefits of having the evidence The outcomes of this first phase of this recorded in this way. One student summed project are encouraging but it is clear that up the experience as follows: more work needs to be done, with an increased number of students taking part, ‘I think it is a very good idea and will be before this method of recording a students’ very useful to demonstrate ICT ability and Record of Professional Development could also have experience with a variety of ICT be considered for adoption by the whole resources. It allows students to confirm Phase (i.e. the Primary Teacher Training with their mentor if the evidence is Phase of the School of Education). appropriate for their RoPD. So far the The students who saw the potential of process of uploading evidence has been recording their work in electronic form and easy to understand.’ who felt comfortable with the technology being used produced a RoPD which contained more quality evidence and more evidence than would not normally be
35 Innovations and Development in Initial Teacher Education
presented, than is normally the case with Future developments paper based RoPDs. What we were starting We have worked closely with Pebble to see was the pattern of design influence Learning on this project and several shown by Hartmann and Calandra (2007) problems that we encountered when setting who, in common with Meeus, Questier and up the profile have been solved. There Derks (2006), saw the potential in a process remain two main developments that we which allows the student to share with fellow would like to see developed to make this students and reinvent and develop their system more ‘user friendly’ for both students thinking to refine and improve their work. In and tutors. Firstly, one of the features we brief the process outlined by Hartmann and liked on the profile was the traffic light as this Calandra (p.83) was: enables a tutor to see which Standards have had evidence added at a glance. Red Context © Innovation © Reinvention © indicates nothing has been added, green Reinvention and diffusion © Adoption. indicates evidence has been submitted. There is an intermediate stage of an amber This will be an area of future development. light but this is not available at the moment and this is something we are hoping will be These students also persevered with the developed for this profile. Our hope is that a technical problems that arose to a point red traffic light will indicate nothing has been where the presentation of evidence in added, whereas an amber light will indicate PebblePad became second nature. the addition of some evidence and the light Problems arose with students who felt less would only change to green once the tutor comfortable, either with the technology or was satisfied that the evidence submitted PebblePad as a tool and so made little effort was of a quality to award that Standard. In to present their evidence using the this way the quality of mentoring could be ePortfolio. The reason for the lack of enhanced as the university tutor could look confidence in using an electronic method of at the profile before visiting the student in evidence collection and presentation can be school and already know specific areas that tracked to the early phase of this project the student needed to have evidence for and where the tool being used in PebblePad was so help the student obtain that evidence in development and so had periods where during the visit. aspects were not working or had been changed. This made the early training The second area that would greatly enhance difficult and caused the first attempt to use this profile would be to alert the tutor by this method to be abandoned with some email that evidence has been submitted. At students. This has clear implications for it stands at the moment the tutor has to go training in the next phase and it is therefore through all the Standards showing green to hoped that all students will feel comfortable find out what has been newly added and this with the system from the outset. can be very time consuming and negates the value of the system as a time saving facility. A clear benefit of using PebblePad in this At the moment tutors are dependant on the context is the facility for the tutor to look at students emailing them to give notice of the progress of the student at all stages of evidence added. There is the facility to add their placement in school. This enables early an RSS feed from the profile but this only intervention and thus enables the student to notifies of a change in the profile and not work on areas for development earlier than where that change has been made. would be the norm and also to build on identified strengths from an earlier point. A future development which is in the hands of the students is one that is an issue for both the paper based and the electronic systems
36 An Investigation into the Implementation of Using an Eportfolio as a Record of Professional Development for Initial Teacher Trainees
and that is the apparent reluctance of the Biographies students to keep up to date with the addition Robert Heath is a Senior Lecturer, Technology of evidence to their RoPD. Students with Supported Learning Coordinator at the evidence in their eRoPD (or RoPD) early in their University of Wolverhampton. school experience is rare and they have to be Marc Smale is a Senior Lecturer, Primary reminded at the first visit to ‘keep on top’ of Education at the University of Wolverhampton. this. This is something the school based tutors Sarah Weatherhead joined the University of could help with and something that was Wolverhampton in September 2006 as a highlighted in this study, the tutors that Senior Lecturer in the School of Education. reminded and helped the students identify She is passionate about teaching and excited evidence early in their school placement about the endless possibilities of using allowed the university based tutor to access Technology for Blended Learning and PDP. and comment on the evidence from the (Personal Development Plan) - whilst remaining student and those students were able to a realist! Her research mainly includes the use improve on their evidence much earlier in their of Technology to aid Reflective Practice and training. In the worst cases students were PDPs to aid continuing Professional leaving all their evidence recording to the end Development in a progressive educational of the placement and this meant that ‘gaps’ in climate. Sarah is currently developing, with their evidence were much harder to address. I colleagues, an e-version Record of think that there are two ways in which this can Professional Development (eRoPD) for primary be addressed, the first is more emphasis in the teacher trainees and partnership primary early stages of preparation for placement on schools. the need to submit evidence to the eRoPD and the second is to make this a requirement at the References time of the school visit. Bell, J. (2003) Doing your Research Project. 3rd edition (Maidenhead, Open University A further, student centred, development for the Press. next phase is to set up a blog between students and also to encourage the sharing of Hartmann, C., Calandra, B. (2007) Diffusion the eRoPD between students so that the and reinvention of ePortfolio design practices cyclical phase of action and reflection leading as a catalyst for teacher learning, Technology, to a greater quality of evidence as cited by Pedagogy and Education, 16(1) pp. 77-93. Meeus, Questier and Derks (2006:136) could be made more effective. Leh, A., Kouba, B. and Davis. D. (2005) Twenty-first century learning: communities, This project grew from an initial idea during a interaction and ubiquitous computing. meeting of ICT tutors reflecting on and thinking Educational Media International, 42(3) forward to future developments in the pp. 237-250. experiences that could be provided for trainee teachers. We believe that the research work Meesus, W., Questier, F. and Derks, T. (2006) this year demonstrates that the concept is Open source eportfolio: development and feasible and that the ePortfolio is, potentially, implementation of an institution-wide an appropriate place to host this system. electronic portfolio platform for students, Development and refining are needed but the Educational Media International, 43(2) basic idea remains sound. pp. 133-143.
TDA (Training and Development Agency for Schools) (2007), Revised Standards for Classroom Teachers (London, TDA).
37 Innovations and Development in Initial Teacher Education
Appendix
Fig (i). This profile tool was used to produce the same RoPD format electronically that was currently available to the students only in paper format. A screenshot of this first portfolio is shown.
Fig (ii). Evidence of a range of diverse evidence being uploaded and shared for discussion amongst University tutor, school mentor and trainee teacher.
Fig. (iii) Evidence of a mentor ‘signing off’ the student work. You can also see another benefit of an eRoPD in that there is a hyperlink directly to the Standards so the student does not have to have the paper copy with them to fill in evidence successfully.
38 Rights, roles and responsibilities
4. Rights, roles and responsibilities
Sarah Weatherhead and Clair Jenkins: University of Wolverhampton
Summary This paper will share the experiences of how e-portfolios were introduced and embedded into Level One teaching modules as part of a Pathway project ‘Embedding portfolios at Level One’ (ILE - Institute for Learning Enhancement at Wolverhampton University) that commenced in September 2007. Tutors from all schools at the Wolverhampton University were asked to design and implement module-based ePortfolio mediated Personal Development Planning (PDP) tasks. These tasks would facilitate reflection on a variety of learning related issues to enable learners to better meet the challenges of Higher Education. The Primary Team project in the ‘Initial Teacher training’ School of Education considers the effectiveness of the use of Technology Support Learning and web-based activities, such as PebblePad as a medium for learning into the Bachelor of Education (BEd) level one trainees. The outcome was to develop reflective communities with work-based settings to develop their Literacy subject knowledge and themselves as reflective practitioners.
Keywords E-portfolios / teaching webfolio / Literacy / reflective practice / ITE Level 1 trainees
Context be emphasised that the capacity to record The British Educational Communications and evidence about individual learners is no Technology Agency, (BECTA), is an agency guarantee that the evidence can or will be of the Department for Education and Skills used to personalise their learning experience (DfES) which led a study into the potential in a meaningful way’ (p.7). impact of eportfolios on learning and suggested that, ‘e-portfolios benefit learning The current three year Bachelor of Education most effectively when considered as part of a (BEd) course at Wolverhampton University is joined-up teaching and learning approach, designed to implement a range of ‘action rather than as a discrete entity’ (BECTA, learning’ components and strategies 2007:4). The Government’s e-Learning throughout all levels and in both Semesters 1 strategy (DfES, 2003) notes that the DfES and 2, such as school placements, focus has set the expectation that by spring 2008 days, school visits, short exams, peer every learner should have access to a teaching and so on. Through the modules, personalised on-line learning space and ‘Professional Studies’ and ‘English in the states, that ‘e-learning and e-delivery have Primary School’, the trainees were invited to the potential to offer complete and respond to these on-line activities, create personalised support for learners’ needs their own ‘digital space’ using the webfolio throughout the learning process’. Beetham template to access School based tasks (2005), an e-learning consultant, whilst (figure1) and share their reflective thoughts discussing the benefits of e-portfolios also with their tutor to develop themselves as has a balanced view believing that ‘it should practitioners.
39 Innovations and Development in Initial Teacher Education
Figure 1: Teaching page from the webfolio and a trainee’s response to one School Based Task.
Our trainees needed: to understand the The Primary Team project explored the purpose of a digital space; how digital challenges of implementing this as a space/web-based applications can enhance ‘medium for learning’ for trainees to extend learning and teaching; and how digital their subject knowledge and to develop their space/web-based applications can be reflective thinking as deep surface learners. managed and inevitably change how we During the initial stages of this project, learn and teach. Personal Development discussion transcended and developed Planning (PDP) is defined by Cottrell as, ‘...a questions such as; in what ways can this structured reflective process (figure 2) which learning experience of using ‘asynchronous gives individuals greater insight into their on-line discussions’ (figure 3) as a medium own development with opportunities to for learning be improved? How new digital explore what is valuable to learner’s technologies may transform how we educate personal, professional and academic new teachers? development’ (Cottrell, 2003).
Figure 2: The reflective process - Reflective podcast and an extract from a trainee’s Reflective Blog
40 Rights, roles and responsibilities
Figure 3: On-line discussion amongst the trainees Figure 5: ‘Professional Dialogue between Tutor and in a Learning Group Trainee’. (p.2)
How was PebblePad being used? The introduction of this teaching method was For the tutor, it was an ‘on-line space’ where unknown territory and the trainees’ response tasks and information were provided via the could have gone either way. In face to face ‘Teaching Pages’ (figure4) to model the use sessions, ‘Learning Groups’ were introduced of PebblePad and support learning and to encourage professional dialogue (figure 5) teaching, giving immediate feedback and and team work in developing the subject support for trainees (formative assessment). knowledge. The intervention of these tasks For the trainee, opportunities were provided meant that those trainees who find speaking for the trainee to organise on-line documents in larger groups difficult could take and information (digital ring-binder), develop advantage of the organisational element of an action plan, and submit school based the tasks which lend themselves to tasks (assessment tasks) and to keep an ‘asynchronous on-line discussions’ to electronic portfolio, including a learning log. develop their thinking skill as reflective The examples shared are from the cohort of practitioners. Level One trainees (2007 / 2008).
Figure 4: Teaching Pages from Level 1 English Teaching webfolio.
41 Innovations and Development in Initial Teacher Education
The choice to implement this TSL The new ‘tool’ for encouraging development (Technology- Supported Learning) was to of subject knowledge in English has already consider whether the PebblePad activities proven to be a success and it is evident that would assist them to make the link between critical reflective thinking is progressing in its theoretical conceptual base and their own quality, showing an awareness of the practice, and encourage deep-surface pedagogy in schools. The trainees having learning. Wilson and Fowler (2005) state that been given this experience are able to whilst the typically deep surface learners were successfully highlight areas for their engaged and motivated to complete these continuing professional development. components, the surface learners utilised the strategies of a deep learner but did not mirror Learning that transpires throughout the the motivational aspect to become deep modules can not be just a spectator sport learners. The study, (Watkins and Akande, listening to the lecture impart information. It is 1994; Cassidy and Eachus, 2000 in Wilson vital that the trainees have the opportunity to and Fowler, 2005) supports this view that the talk about what they are learning and build on use of group learning may contribute towards previous subject knowledge. This is a greater shift in their learning. supported by Ramsden (1979), ‘motivation is the product of good teaching’. However, introducing an e-portfolio and developing more effective use of technology Face to face sessions versus Blended supported learning requires tutors to re-create Learning materials and consider the ‘intelligent Face to face learning is said to provide a transference’ of teaching to the online flexible environment that allows the facilitator environment to respond to a learner needs as it allows the (http://www.jiscinfonet.ac.uk/InfoKits/effective educator to conduct ongoing needs -use-of-VLEs). This could require an assessments in an informal manner, and improved tutor capability and, potentially, adjust accordingly, to assure relevance of further commitment to developing their discussions and content. Alverez, (2005) states practice and the curriculum (Wergerif, 2002). that ‘the online environment is not the ideal In this case, the curriculum had been setting for all types of learning. Classrooms are designed to incorporate technology and not perfect either…. That’s why so many encourage a flexible way of working and it teachers and corporate trainers are was acknowledged by team leaders that the concentrating their efforts on integrating success of technology supported learning internet-based technologies and classrooms would depend on a number of factors to create blended learning environments. It just including the structure of the organisation, the makes good sense’. culture, indivdual habits such as the way of working, and security (Holmes, 2003:142), as Blended learning allows the educators to well as a clarity of roles and expectations choose which learning activities they teach (http://www.jiscinfonet.ac.uk/infokits/change- within the classroom or online. It has been management/roles/index_html). This was also noted that instructors are more comfortable commented on by Kruger who referred to this and effective employing the teaching aspect as ‘evolutionary change’ techniques that come naturally to them. Using (http://www.12manage.com/i_co.html, 2008): an online course as an extension of the the attitudes and behaviours of the classroom allows instructors to apply their stakeholders, without doubt, significant and most effective traditional classroom methods in contributory factors in the success of the the physical classroom, while using the online project. portion of their course to gain advantages offered by an asynchronous space.
42 Rights, roles and responsibilities
What does research suggest? In a study by from using technology in a social setting to Dean et al. (2001) findings displayed that by using it to support learning and teaching. For providing several online options in addition some trainees, even those considered to be to traditional classroom training actually ‘digital natives’ (Prensky, 2008), transferring increased what students learned Another their personal ICT skills to the professional study showed that student interaction and workplace was challenging, and support for satisfaction improved, along with students these trainees was essential with regard to learning more in courses that incorporated enhancing their learning experience. This blended learning (DeLacey and Leonard, transference of skills is discussed and 2002). commented on by van’t Hooft (2008) and Responses from the trainees Wegerif (2002), this issue being a significant From evaluation of the verbal and written factor in technology supported learning. responses in April 2008, the trainees said they have felt less overwhelmed with the Further to this, it was interesting to consider concept of on-line activities since September the range of technology available to trainees 2007 and believe they are succeeding with in a social setting (including social the ‘on-line’ challenges. The tasks set are networking areas, blogs, instant messaging, more of an ‘asynchronous on-line activity’ as podcasts, vodcasts, gaming technology, some of the trainees stated they ‘…liked digital images) and those used within the having the time and option to think before professional workplace. Trainees were responding’. This is in line with Wegerif encouraged to consider how an improved (2002, p.4) who suggested that collaborative use of technology and a better distance learning can be more motivating understanding of the ‘digital tools’ may have and can stimulate higher quality thought than significant implications for learning as thinking together in the same classroom: the suggested by van’t Hooft (2008). time delay as well as the use of technology Exploring this available technology became a being an effective teaching and learning tool. catalyst for teaching and learning. In particular, it led to the introduction of the use This project has proven that it is possible to of podcasts to support the revision process. influence trainees and their approach to Trainees were expected to work learning from surface (instrumental, collaboratively with peers to develop a reproductive and minimalistic) to deep podcast for revision, sharing this with peers (striving for meaning and understanding) through PebblePad thus strengthening (Marton and Salijo, 1976; Entwistle, 1991). learning and developing a ‘collective intelligence’ (Oblinger, 2008). The peer One Level One trainee (2007/ 2008) stated supported element of creating these that ‘WOLF (Wolverhampton On-Line podcasts enabled all trainees to participate Framework) has been a positive experience and to learn new skills, but did not require through enabling me to keep in contact with technical support from tutors. The trainees peers and share thoughts and ideas and led this development gaining relevant skills consolidate learning through shared views independently, whereas the role of the tutor and reflecting on experiences’. Another said had been to provide permission for a way of that, ‘Using PebblePad has been really working and to allow trainees to access a useful. It introduced me to the concept of range of technology. online activities. It was a gentle way in’. Alongside this, some trainees produced However, it should be noted that for many Podcasts to capture their reflective thoughts, trainees there was a significant transition after attachment and at the end of the
43 Innovations and Development in Initial Teacher Education
‘academic year’. The styles are different and is important that the use of e-portfolios and complement their preferred ‘learning styles’. technology supported learning does not Schön (1993) brought ‘reflection’ into the increase workloads for trainees or tutors: the centre of what professionals do. The notion clear purpose being to enhance learning and of ‘reflection-in-action’ and ‘reflection-on- teaching. action’ is less familiar to trainees. What have we learnt from the project? Ways of working for trainees and tutors also There are potential barriers to the needs to be considered. For example, using introduction of technology supported PebblePad or other forms of e-portfolios and learning which are significant and should not a blended approach to learning rely on those be underrated. Successful change depends involved having reliable access to the on a number of factors including the internet, connectivity and compatibility. If structure of the organisation, the culture, these basic requirements are not fulfilled a indivdual habits such as the way of working, ‘digital divide’ is created (Oblinger, 2008) and and security, as well as a clarity of roles and the system may disadvantage some users. expectations In addition to this, when making more use of (http://www.jiscinfonet.ac.uk/infokits/change technology and on-line materials, van’t Hooft management/roles/index_html, 2008). (2008) warns that whilst the internet has become an established part of the system to The processes involved in with regard to access learning, there are some issues which implementing a different way of working need to be addressed when using the (http://www.businessballs.com/changemana internet as a source of information, not least, gement.htm, 2008) and the technology do the matter of authenticity of sites. not present a particular challenge as, at an instutional level, this was enabled and Technology supported learning has also supported. However, the culture and impacted on the learning environment as well capability of tutors and trainees is more as ways of working for trainees and tutors. difficult to change; the attitudes and For example, the use of PebblePad and an behaviours of the stakeholders are without assessment gateway has enabled tutors to doubt, significant and contributory factors in track when learning takes place: each the success of the project. document or modification to a webfolio being date stamped and time logged. In The experiential learning process may be addition to this, it is interesting to note the frustrating; trainees through informal time of blogs and communications to peers discussion do say they have learnt far more. and tutors: trainees often expect an The preconception that something might be immediate response, perhaps, the learning lost in the face to face delivery, overlooks the style being influenced by the immediacy of fact that this extends and projects learning the environment (Oblinger, 2008). opportunities across time and it supports experiential learning modalities that are not Tutors need to be aware of the expectations feasible in a face to face lecture room. of trainees when assessing on-line tasks and PebblePad could be seen as technology- documents. This case study has highlighted enabled pedagogical approach and the expectation of an immediate response encouraging trainees to engage in from trainees with regard to answering collaborative learning. However, technology questions, formative marking and summative is only an enabler; the challenge now is to comments, and the inevitable need to take those trainees further forward in their develop an e-marking policy. Furthermore, it reflective thinking and in their understanding
44 Rights, roles and responsibilities
of the pedagogy. The tutors are ever mindful in the area of technology supported learning of the ever increasing ICT capability that the and has explored the use of Professional trainees are bringing to these learning Development Profiles to support student environments and, as a result, the online progress. Peer support and the use of tasks are being reviewed and re-designed to Learning Journals have also become central match those needs. themes to her research profile and exemplify For the next academic year, and to sustain her interest in developing and extending and develop further work within this aspect pedagogy and practice. of teaching and learning, it is essential that the project team share their knowledge, Sarah Weatherhead joined the University of understanding and experience with trainees Wolverhampton in September 2006 as a and tutors and that this way of working Senior Lecturer in the School of Education. becomes embedded within the culture of the She is passionate about teaching and module. Further thought has already been excited about the endless possibilities of given to support those who are less using Technology for Blended Learning and confident with technology, tutors accepting PDP. (Personal Development Plan) - whilst that workshops are an essential element remaining a realist! Her research mainly when using technology supported learning. includes the use of Technology to aid However, it is important to acknowledge that Reflective Practice and PDPs to aid whilst it is our intention to support learners in continuing Professional Development in a using PebblePad, trainees will be expected progressive educational climate. Sarah is and encouraged to independently use other currently developing, with colleagues, an e- technologies available to them. Trainees will version Record of Professional Development also be expected to consider the wider use (eRoPD) for primary teacher trainees and of e-portfolios within their teaching and the partnership primary schools. relevant pedagogies to pupil progress.
It is not sufficient simply to have an References experience in order to learn. Without Alvarez, S. (2005) Blended learning solutions, reflecting upon this experience it may be in B. Hoffman (Ed.), Encyclopaedia of quickly forgotten or its learning potential Educational Technology. lost. It is from the feelings and thoughts emerging from this reflection that BECTA (2007) Becta: e-assessment and e- generalisations or concepts can be portfolios Dr Elizabeth Hartnell-Young et al. generated. And it is generalisations that allow new situations to be tackled Beetham, H. (2005) ‘e-portfolios in post-16 effectively. (Gibbs, 1998) learning in the UK: developments, issues and opportunities (http://excellence.qui.org.uk accessed 15.10.07). Biographies Cottrell, S. (2003) Skills for Success. The Clair Jenkins joined the University of Personal Development Planning Handbook Wolverhampton in January 2006 and is a (London, Palgrave Macmillan). dedicated primary practitioner and lecturer Dean, P., Stahl, M., Sylwester, D., and Pear, who is passionate about providing high J. (2001) Effectiveness of Combined Delivery quality teaching and learning experiences, Modalities for Distance Learning and responding to the challenge of an ever Resident Learning. Quarterly Review of changing educational landscape. Distance Education, 2(3), 247-254. Most recently Clair has undertaken research
45 Innovations and Development in Initial Teacher Education
DeLacey, B. J., and Leonard, D. A. (2002) Wergerif, R. (2002, September). Thinking Case study on technology and distance in Skills, technology and learning, education at the Harvard Business School, http://www.futurelab.org.uk/resources/ Educational Technology and Society, 5(2), documents/lit_reviews/Thinking_Skills_ 13-28. Review.pdf (accessed 1.11.08.). DfES, (2003) Towards a Unified e-Learning Strategy (DfES). Wilson, K. and Fowler, J. (2005) Assessing the impact of learning environments on Entwistle, N. J., McCune, V. and Walker, P. trainees’ approaches to learning: comparing (2000) Conceptions, styles and approaches conventional and action learning designs, within higher education: analytic abstractions Assessment and Evaluation in Higher and everyday experience, in R. J. Sternberg Education 30: 87-101. and L-F. Zhang (Eds.), Perspectives on Cognitive, Learning, and Thinking Styles url references (Mahwah, N. J., Lawrence Erlbaum). http://www.businessballs.com/changemana gement.htm. (2008) (accessed 22.8.08., from Gibbs, G. (1998) Learning by doing: A guide http://www.businessballs.com/: to teaching and Learning methods, (Oxford http://www.businessballs.com/ Further Education, Oxford Polytechnic). changemanagement.htm)
Marton, F., and Salijo, R. (1976) On http://www.jiscinfonet.ac.uk/infokits qualitative differences in learning: 1-outcome /change-management/roles/index_html. and process, British Journal of Educational (n.d.) (accessed 22.8.08, from Psychology, 46, 4-11. http://www.jiscinfonet.ac.uk/: http://www.jiscinfonet.ac.uk/infokits/ Oblinger, D. (2008) Growing up with Google: change-management/roles/index_html) What it means to education, Emerging Technologies for Learning , Volume 3. http://www.jiscinfonet.ac.uk/InfoKits/effectiv e-use-of-VLEs. (n.d.) (accessed 2.8.08, from Prensky, M. (2008) How to teach with http://www.jiscinfonet.ac.uk/: technology: keeping both teachers and http://www.jiscinfonet.ac.uk/InfoKits/effectiv students comfotable in an era of exponential e-use-of-VLEs) change (accessed 1.8.08. from www.marcpresky.com. http://www.12manage.com/i_co.html. (2008) (1.8.08, from http://www.12manage.com/ Ramsden, P. (1979) Student Learning and methods_change_management_ perceptions of the academic environment, iceberg.html ) Higher Education, 22, 411-427.
Schön, D. (1993) The Reflective Practitioner (London, Temple Smith). van’t Hooft, M. (2008) Mobile, wireless, connected. Information Clouds and Learning, Emerging Technologies for Learning: Volume 3 (March).
46 Teaching and Learning Project Report: Auditing and Assessing Subject Knowledge in Initial Teacher Training using Online Methods
5. Teaching and Learning Project Report: Auditing and Assessing Subject Knowledge in Initial Teacher Training using Online Methods
David Longman, Lynne Jones, Kerie Green and Barbara Kurzik: University of Wales, Newport
Summary This project developed online tools for auditing and assessing subject knowledge in English and Mathematics in primary and secondary initial teacher training courses. The objective was to design, implement and test online tools for formative and ipsative assessment. The tools provide immediate feedback to trainees including links to support materials. In addition the data was also used to inform tutors about areas for development across the cohort. In English a version of the audit tool was adapted for use as an online, summative examination (without the immediate feedback).
Keywords Audit / Online Assessment / Formative / Summative / Feedback / English / Mathematics / Knowledge.
Introduction This project built on earlier work carried out Interest in Personal Development Planning by members of the team at Newport since (PDP) is currently widespread across the 2001, all of it involved with building and using education sector. Usually in initial teacher versions of computer-based self-assessment training courses it is standard practice that tools in mathematics, English, ICT and the PDP process should include action science. Some of these have been reported, planning, reflection on achievement and the e.g. the ‘Use of Audits to measure change in regular monitoring and recording of progress ICT knowledge’ (Longman, 2001-2002) and against targets. This covers a range of ‘Primary Interview Audits’ (Green, Kurzik, professional requirements including Theophanides, 2004-2005)1, while other improving subject knowledge. In this examples have been ongoing: Jones and research online tools were developed and Longman at Newport have constructed and implemented to support assessment for trialled pilot versions of several subject learning, summative assessment (i.e. knowledge audits (using ASP2 and Access) assessment of learning), curriculum and more recently Theophanides worked development and professional development with Kurzik and Jones to develop an earlier planning. It therefore contributes to the wider version of the Primary English audit using an strategy behind PDP. application called ‘Question Mark Perception’ (QMP).
1 These are internal university reports – please contact the author for further details – [email protected] 2 ASP = Active Server Pages http://www.webwizguide.com/kb/asp_tutorials/what_is_asp.asp (accessed 8.10.08)
47 Innovations and Development in Initial Teacher Education
This project has been successful in of feedback to the learner. The style of producing prototype online tools; however reports that can be produced using the built- their integration into the wider practices of in authoring tools is limited. Nor is QMP very PDP in the Newport School of Education subtle in the way in which cohort level data is (NSE) will take longer and indeed will form generated and displayed, so it is difficult also the basis of future research. to present data to the teacher in useful ways. It is possible that the basic design model for Overview the version of QMP used is oriented toward a The online subject knowledge audits in ‘polling’ model of data capture in which the Secondary Mathematics and Primary English data subject does not expect to see the provide diagnostic feedback on subject individual results of data entry. QMP does knowledge to trainees and tutors. For not lend itself well to presenting useful trainees the feedback incorporates links to feedback to the learner - helpfully laid out support materials that help to focus on areas and organised to provide meaningful for development. In addition, a version of the information relating to the subject content of diagnostic audit was devised and the audit. implemented as an online examination in English for Primary Studies trainees. The Online Methods data generated from these audits and the (i) Mathematics subject knowledge audit examination were analysed to provide The rationale for the design of the module tutors with information relevant to mathematics audit was: curriculum planning for each cohort by • The pre-course expectation for Year 1 highlighting the areas needing focussed trainees on entry is mathematical work. knowledge equivalent to GCSE Higher Tier; QuestionMark Perception • GCSE level content is not covered as part QuestionMark Perception (QMP, 2008) was of the course (only the teaching and adopted as the ‘platform-of-choice’ for the learning of it); project because it is licensed and supported by the University. In broad terms the current • Trainees tend to overestimate their own version of QMP used by the project ability, particularly at GCSE level; appeared to offer the right kind of • Therefore an audit that monitors this functionality, namely support for authoring knowledge base is an essential tool for data capture forms and reporting on results. trainees to evaluate and update their However, for purposes of this research it was knowledge of secondary school found that QMP had a number of limitations. mathematics. A key element of any assessment for learning This audit was initially designed in three approach is a range of methods for collecting sections: data about learning. But on its own, data is 1. number and algebra not enough; it has to be presented in structured ways to make clear the underlying 2. shape, space and measures patterns and issues. Assessment for learning 3. data handling. should provide for two kinds of audience: the learner and the teacher. It was found that QMP is well designed for the data capture Each question is multiple choice, offering element of online self-assessment tests but four choices comprising the correct solution somewhat inflexible on the reporting side. It plus three typical misconceptions. The audit does not lend itself well to the presentation was developed to include randomisation of the order of each multiple choice list. Three
48 Teaching and Learning Project Report: Auditing and Assessing Subject Knowledge in Initial Teacher Training using Online Methods
equivalent versions of each audit question Questions are presented in a combination of were also created. At each ‘sitting’ therefore multiple choice format and free text entry (it is intended that the audits would be done where sentences and phrases are required to twice a year) each user has a one in twelve be typed. As for the mathematics audit, chance of being presented with the same questions are drawn randomly from a bank audit item. to minimise the chance that a repeat audit Trials were conducted with trainees, presents the trainee with the same secondary mathematics teachers and Year questions. The question banks range from 12 pupils as well as selected university staff three items to as many as ten and over time to ensure accuracy and coverage. Feedback it is planned to increase the size of each from these trials included some issues with question bank. Trials were conducted with presentation and length of time to complete trainees, secondary English teachers and the audit. The latter was reflected in a Year 12 pupils as well as selected university noticeable decline in achievement by the staff to ensure accuracy and coverage. As whole cohort in the later questions. As a with the mathematics audit user and tutor result, cosmetic changes were made in the feedback informed future developments. layout of some questions but more Again, submission of an audit generates importantly, the audit was separated so that immediate feedback on performance with each section became a standalone audit. hyperlinks to support materials. Submission of an audit generates immediate feedback on performance and includes verbal hints and hyperlinks to further learning (iii) The online examination materials. These are particularly successful An online English examination was devised aspects of the audit process as they support for Primary trainees. This was conducted the user in taking responsibility for their own under strict examination conditions and was learning. The audits therefore do not only in two parts: have a diagnostic purpose but facilitate 1. a test of trainees’ knowledge and assessment for learning. understanding of functional English (grammar, spelling, punctuation etc). This (ii) English subject knowledge audit part of the examination was a version of The rationale for the design of the English the audit but without random question audit was: selection and without user feedback; • An entry requirement for Year 1 trainees 2. an essay using a basic word processor is English language knowledge equivalent (no spelling or grammar check available) to GCSE grade B. on a seen question of pedagogical • Trainees are not all subject specialists but significance. all will be teachers of English. Feedback from trainees was predominantly • Therefore an audit that monitors this positive. Aside from some unavoidable knowledge base is an essential tool for issues concerning comfort, room trainees to evaluate and update their temperature and background noise, the knowledge of English language. majority of trainees found the assessment The online audit was created with questions was relatively straightforward and caused no grouped into three sections: significant problems. However, one issue 1. lexical understanding that emerged is to make the alteration of earlier answers before final submission of the 2. grammatical understanding test less prone to error. 3. textual understanding.
49 Innovations and Development in Initial Teacher Education
Data Analysis deviation. A particularly useful feature in The data that forms the feedback provided to Excel is conditional formatting which allows the individual is straightforward and helps a for automated colour coding of cells that trainee address, clarify or remediate any meet certain criteria. Given that the data underlying difficulties or misconceptions tables generated from a cohort can be quite within the subject. However, it was found large and dense such colour coding enables that the collective data for the whole group the ready identification of aspects of the data or cohort had very significant value for the that require attention. For example, trainees tutor or programme leader. whose score does not reach a required standard will be highlighted according to A typical dataset for a group of trainees conditions specified. Similarly it is possible includes: to draw attention to audit questions where • the user identifier; the cohort, in general, scores poorly as a • the date; result of lack of knowledge or ambiguity in the wording of the question. A traffic light • the time started, finished and total time colour code system was used to taken; demonstrate stratification of the groups into • the answers as chosen or typed; three percentage bands i.e. red < 60%; amber 60% - 80%; green > 80% (any other • the score obtained per question. suitable stratification may be employed).
QMP allows for some reporting of data at the Figure 1 shows clearly that six secondary ‘cohort’ level but not in a format or layout mathematics trainees have difficulties with that is particularly useful for the purpose of shape and space having achieved < 60%. It identifying strengths and weaknesses in the also shows that three trainees have a knowledge base of an entire group. For this generally sound knowledge in this area reason the report data was exported to Excel having achieved > 80%. From the cohort for further organisation and analysis. Excel perspective it can be seen that question S39 was used to calculate descriptive statistical is either ambiguous or poorly understood as information such as the maximum/minimum only 25% answered correctly. The tutor score, the arithmetic mean and the standard needs to investigate. Also of potential
Figure 1: Shape and Space Results for Mathematics Audit A typical results table using Excel conditional formatting to highlight percentages
50 Teaching and Learning Project Report: Auditing and Assessing Subject Knowledge in Initial Teacher Training using Online Methods
concern is question S47 which was correctly English (the first was decontextualised, answered by the whole cohort. This question factual knowledge about syntax and may be too easy and not at an appropriate grammar) it could be reasonably expected level of difficulty. that there should be some relationship This cohort level data appears to have between knowledge and use of English considerable potential in relation to learning which would be evident in the scores and teaching. From the tutor’s perspective, obtained. This was investigated by individual trainees who have not met the converting scores of both sections to required standard can be examined for percentages for comparative purposes. diagnostic purposes and at the cohort level, Again the descriptive statistics informed on question items can be analysed to indicate the range (wider in the essay component) any potential general areas of weakness. and mean values (very closely correlated). This can provide tutors with a formative tool On the whole, trends of achievement were that allows them to target specific areas of consistent in both sections of the knowledge and perhaps inform curriculum examination. However, where a significant planning. disparity was indicated (>20%), the essays were selected for further scrutiny. These Some additional comments about the online indicators will also allow for targeted English examination are worth including in moderation. this report particularly in respect of the word processed essay component. Word Concluding remarks processing for assessment purposes This research has enabled the creation of assumes a trainee population with the effective resources relevant to learning and necessary typing skills3 but, although many teaching. The routine reporting of commented on the relative unfamiliarity of assessment data, whether formative or using a word processor to type an essay summative, is an important aspect of response under examination conditions, the learning and teaching. This project has majority of trainees welcomed the trade-off explored and developed, in a relatively small between speed of typing and ease of scale way, both aspects of this process. correction in their extended writing. All essays were saved under an individual The processes of creating these materials user identifier and printed for marking. The have generated significant expertise and essays were opened using MS Word and knowledge of the issues surrounding subjected electronically to the readability electronic methods of assessment. statistics (although this was not used for Subsequent research and development is assessment purposes there may be some anticipated and will be underpinned by potential here for this type of statistic to be findings of the project. used as an indicator in assessing trainee writing). In the marking strategy There is clearly considerable potential for typographical errors were ignored but such tools to support curriculum obvious and repeated spelling, grammatical development and planning through the and punctuation errors were taken into formative data they generate. Tutors can account. make use of the data to evaluate whole cohort patterns of trainees’ knowledge. Although the two sections of the online Where the data indicate shortfalls in examination examined different aspects of understanding or take up of concepts, tutors
3 There is a question here about sort of level is required, although we do not ask such questions about handwriting. Is 40 words a minute with 90% accuracy a suitable standard? 50 words a minute? Should we include typing skills as a key skill for all trainees (and school pupils)? What is a suitable standard to aim for?
51 Innovations and Development in Initial Teacher Education
might be able to respond by targeting Further reading particular aspects of the curriculum that they Barber, P., Heal, C. and Martyn, S. (2002) are teaching. Primary Teacher Trainees’ Mathematics Subject Knowledge - Progress in Developing The use of such online tools requires time Systems of Support? Paper presented at the and staff development to become a natural Annual Conference of the British Educational part of course management routines. Research Association, University of Exeter: However, some aspects are controversial [URL: http://www.maths- and here the use of online examination ed.org.uk/skima/ioebera2002.pdf ] techniques which have proved to be viable (accessed 20.9.08.). and acceptable to trainees may require a Faculty of Education, Anglia Ruskin more fundamental shift of values among University (2008) Subject Knowledge Booster staff, notwithstanding the fact that Course in Secondary Mathematics [WWW] substantial parts of the marking are http://www.anglia.ac.uk/ruskin/en/home/ instantaneous! faculties/education/courses/profcourses/ subject_knowledge.html (accessed 23.9.08.) To be effective, particularly as formative tools, knowledge audits need to be repeated French, D. (2005) Subject Knowledge and at sensible intervals. This needs to be Pedagogical Knowledge, Hull: Centre for embedded in the normal timetable. Educational Studies, University of Hull [URL: Contacts with external agencies and http://www.maths.manchester.ac.uk/~avb/ teachers in partner schools have allowed for pdf/DougFrenchSubjectKnowledge.pdf ] widening of interest in using the mathematics (accessed 20.09.08.). and English audits for both diagnostic and Goulding, M., Rowland, T. and Barber, P. support processes. Initial feedback from the (2002) Does it Matter? Primary Teacher two pilots conducted in school classrooms Trainees’ Subject Knowledge in Mathematics during the project have indicated that pupils, British Educational Research Journal 28, (5) like HE recruits, tend to overestimate their pp.689-704. level of knowledge. Indeed, we have found that the tools we have created have a wide Murphy, C. (2006). ‘Why do we have to do relevance and there is an opportunity to this?’ Primary trainee teachers’ views of a enhance our relationship with our partner subject knowledge audit in mathematics, training schools by making these materials British Educational Research Journal 32, (2) available for their use.4 pp.227-250. Smith, A. (2004) Making Mathematics Count: Biography Inquiry into Post-14 Mathematics Education, David Longman, Lynne Jones, Kerie Green London: Stationery Office Ltd. [URL: and Barbara Kurzik are Senior Lecturers in http://www.mathsinquiry.org.uk/report/Math the Newport School of Education. They sInquiryFinalReport.pdf] (accessed 20.9.08.). teach across a range of teacher education programmes and Masters courses. Training and Development Agency for Schools (TDA) (2008) QTS Skills Test, References http://www.tda.gov.uk/skillstests.aspx QMP (Questionmark) (2008) Questionmark (accessed 22.9.08.). Perception [WWW] http://www.qmark.co.uk/uk/perception/inde x.aspx (accessed 20.9.08.).
4 We are grateful to QuestionMark Computing Ltd for permission to vary the terms of the University license in order to extend this pilot phase into schools
52 Embedding education for sustainable development in the Art and Design curriculum: a digital media project with student teachers
6. Embedding education for sustainable development in the Art and Design curriculum: a digital media project with student teachers
Pip McCormack: London South Bank University
This is an edited version of a chapter from ‘Teachers for a Better World: Education for Sustainable Development/Global Citizenship in Initial Teacher Education’, Eds. Inman and Rogers (2008), CCCI, London South Bank University
Summary This case study explores how Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) can be embedded in the Art and Design curriculum using an integrated approach. Student teachers took part in a project which required them to make a short animated film about issues related to ESD. Student understanding of ESD was reviewed before and after the project. The case study highlights the need for students to be given the time and opportunity to explore the complex issues related to sustainable development, not only through discussion groups and seminars, but also in concrete and practical ways that they can then apply to the classroom.
Keywords Education / sustainability / creativity / integrated / digital / media /cross-curricular / art and design
Context and background the work of contemporary African artists who This case study builds on the considerable used recycled and reclaimed materials. research that has been undertaken by a Student teachers introduced this work to project team from the Centre for Cross children and it was used as a medium to Curricular Initiatives (CCCI) in the explore issues related to GC. Department of Education at London South Bank University. A recent publication by the In addition to sharing a commitment to the group in conjunction with World Wildlife importance of including ESD as part of the Fund (Inman and Rogers in Inman and curriculum there are appropriate vocational Rogers, 2006), involved exploring different reasons for doing so. There are, for example, areas of the curriculum to investigate how four government initiatives that are Education for Sustainable Development particularly relevant and significant: could be embedded in particular subject areas using a more integrated or thematic 1. The Primary Strategy document approach. The Art and Design curriculum in ‘Excellence and Enjoyment’ (DfES, particular can be used as a vehicle for 2003a). This document encourages a creative, interdisciplinary projects that more integrated approach to the teaching develop skills, attitudes and values that of the National Curriculum and has relate to sustainable development. This has provided teachers with the opportunity to already been demonstrated in the work done teach in more interdisciplinary ways. This by LaSER (2006) in Reading. Their project on in turn has provided opportunities to Art and Global Citizenship (GC) focussed on incorporate ESD into the curriculum.
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2. ‘Every Child Matters’ (DFES, 2003b) and ‘Schools can use the curriculum to the Children’s Act of 2004. The details of cultivate the knowledge, values and skills the outcomes of these documents that needed to act as globally aware citizens’ relate to ESD include requirements that (Sustainable Schools, National children should ‘... engage in decision Framework, 2006). Acting as a globally making and support the community and aware citizen is a crucial element in the the environment’, ‘live in decent homes development of a sustainable world. and sustainable communities’ and ‘develop positive relationships and Most recently the interim report from the choose not to bully or discriminate’. Primary Review (Alexander, 2007) has drawn attention to the importance of ESD issues. 3. The revised standards for QTS (Qualified The ‘Community Soundings – regional Teacher Status) which came into force in witness sessions’ (2007) highlighted the September 2007 require beginner concerns of both children and adults with teachers ‘to make effective provision for regard to climate change, environmental all learners and to take active and sustainability and global poverty. These practical account of the principles of concerns form some of the ‘significant equality, inclusion and diversity in their questions’ that have been generated during teaching’ (TDA, 2007). Equality and the consultation process and which will be diversity are key concepts of ESD (Wade considered in relation to other strands of the in Inman and Rogers, 2006) because ESD Review and the national soundings. concerns values and the way people choose to live their lives. A sustainable Case study development world will be one that challenges injustice The Primary and Early Years Post Graduate and inequality. It will also be a world and Professional Certificates in Education where communities can live together in (PGCE) courses at London South Bank peace. This will only be possible if those University aim to cater for a diverse group of communities are made up of people who students who have pursued a range of value difference and diversity. pathways into the teaching profession. The cohorts of students who took part in this 4. The present government’s focus on study were primary students being trained to ‘sustainable schools’ provides an teach KS1 and KS2 and started the twelve opportunity to embed sustainable month course in September 2006. This development education across the project was undertaken during the period curriculum. In England the government March and April 2007, towards the end of the has suggested eight ‘doorways’ through university based component of the course. which a school can pass on its journey to becoming a sustainable school The project involved students taking part in (Sustainable Schools, National two university based sessions in which they Framework, 2006). If you follow the links would learn how to use some simple digital through these doorways to the cameras and editing software. Using this sustainable schools framework you will equipment they would then go on to note that each doorway places an complete a short animated film which had emphasis on the contribution that can be subject matter that linked to sustainable made by the curriculum. For instance in development. Inspiration for this came from the ‘Global Dimension’ and ‘Purchasing the work of Miles Tandy5, who has made and Waste’ doorways it is stated that short films with primary school children as
5 Miles Tandy is Aspect Leader for Curriculum and Pedagogy in Warwickshire County Council’s Educational Development Service.
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young as reception age and Paul Feltz, a year 5/6 class teacher at Dulwich Hamlet Figure 1: Pre-project understanding – Primary School in South East London. Over questions the past few years he has made a series of animation and live action films with children 1. Briefly explain what you understand in the school. by the term ‘Sustainable Development’? The fact that other areas of the PGCE course 2. How much did you know about included reference to and discussion of ‘Sustainable Development’ before you sustainable development issues was critical, started the course? Please give as students had had opportunities to explore examples. issues surrounding ESD in a range of 3. How far do you think ESD should be contexts. This is evident for example in an important part in children’s Geography (Norman, 2006) where students education today? undertake activities related to investigating the diversity of their local environment, learn 4. How do you feel the course so far has about climate change, and explore issues further developed your understanding around stereotyping. In the specialist unit on of sustainable development and ESD? Equality, Inclusion and Citizenship (EIC) students have lectures and follow up seminars on subjects such as social class, Pre-project understanding of ESD race, ESD and global citizenship (Inman and The Art and Design animation sessions took Blunden in Inman and Rogers, 2006). In the place towards the end of the PGCE course. additional educational setting (AES) Before the students took part in these placements students are encouraged to sessions their views and understanding of spend time in educational environments that sustainable development and ESD were challenge their preconceptions and broaden assessed by giving a sample a questionnaire their understanding of the multi-layered to complete (Figure 1). The case study would concepts that relate to ESD (Blunden in involve two different cohorts of PGCE Inman and Rogers, 2006). Placements students, flexible primary and primary6. Each include special and alternative schools, of the two cohorts had been split into two community centres, hospitals and prisons. groups of approximately 25 students. This The university based sessions and meant that about 100 students would make experiences on the AES placements support the films. The sample of students consisted the development of the values and attitudes of one group from each cohort, this was fifty that are required of teachers in relation to students in all and responses were received ESD. These are, for example, the valuing of from twenty-two. The questionnaires could the physical environment, the valuing and be completed anonymously if the students celebrating of diversity, a commitment to wished. justice and equity, and respect for ourselves and others, including future generations Finally students were asked if they would be (Inman in Inman and Rogers, 2006). prepared to be interviewed. Six students volunteered to take part in a group interview that would take place after the project sessions had been completed.
6 The flexible-primary and primary students are trained to teach KS1 and KS2 children. The flexibility in the ‘flexi’ course allows some trainees to be part-time or alternatively they have the option to interrupt their course if needed. This means the trainees in this group are more likely to be mature students, some come into the profession from other careers and others have family commitments.
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up to three minutes. The films also showed a Figure 2: The project task range of technical expertise and understanding in both the use of the digital An integrated cross-curricular task: camera equipment and software, and in the • The task to make an animated video making of an animation film. In terms of sequence subject matter and content the films could be divided into two broad categories, those that • The video will be short and go some dealt with the more ‘physical’ side of way to answering the question sustainability such as deforestation, ‘What do we mean by a sustainable recycling, pollution, climate change and so world?’ on, and those that dealt more with the • No spoken word, you can use text if ‘social’ side such as respect, equality and you want to and music diversity etc. • You will need to work in groups of In reality it is not possible to separate the about 4 to complete the task ‘physical’ and ‘social’ sides of sustainable development, the two are interlinked. The The animation project ‘physical’ aspects, such as deforestation for The project consisted of two three hour example, do in fact have massive social sessions. During the first session the implications, both locally and globally. students were given the opportunity to However the content of the students’ films familiarise themselves with the equipment. and the way in which many of them referred They were also introduced to the task (Figure to ESD in their answers to the questionnaire 2). and subsequent interviews led to the construction of the categories in this way. The task was introduced in the form of a Breaking the subject matter down into two problem, in the hope that this would categories would hopefully give an indication encourage students to grapple with key of how many students had deepened their ideas and concepts around ESD. They were understanding of ESD to include the social asked to use the content of their film to implications and socially based solutions respond to the question ‘What do we mean that could support progress towards a more by a sustainable world?’ The task was sustainable world. designed to relate to the students’ own experience and enable them to make use of The following photographs are examples of the understanding and knowledge they had animated films from these two categories. developed so far during the PGCE course. Photo 1, ‘Look After Me’ is a short film By ‘problematising’ (Hiebert et al. in Murphy, concerned with a ‘physical’ theme relating to 1999) the activity in this way students were sustainable development. given an opportunity to link and integrate An animated green Earth is gradually curriculum areas and further their understanding of ESD, while at the same time providing a starting point that was firmly grounded in the Art and Design curriculum
Across the four groups, students made a total of twenty two films on a variety of themes connected to ESD. Some of the films were as short as thirty seconds, some lasted
56 Embedding education for sustainable development in the Art and Design curriculum: a digital media project with student teachers
overcome by rubbish and laid to waste, certainly seem to indicate that confidence finally the remains of the Earth form a had been gained: message, ‘Look After Me’. ‘it has been interesting to get right inside and Photo 2, the ‘Story of Blue’, is concerned see what you can do in the classroom rather with the ‘social’ side of ESD and has a theme than just talking about it, it wouldn’t have relating to equality and diversity. worked so well if we’d just talked about it.’ ‘I don’t think I’m the most creative person in the world, but I found that yesterday showed me that you can do it and it is quite simple and you can take what you want from any given subject and children could do that as well. I think it really could be applied to children.’
How far did the project go to develop the students’ own understanding and attitudes, did any of the discussion and problem solving move them on in any way? The It tells the story of the ‘blue balls’ who keep comments from the questionnaires that were to themselves. The red and green balls conducted before the project sessions however feel differently and enjoyed mixing indicated that many of the students had, with each other. A night at the disco finally during the course, developed their brings the two sides together, their shared understanding of sustainable development enjoyment of a favourite song helps them to as more than just recycling and global understand that they do have things in warming. If this was so, why was this not common and in many ways they are not so more evident in the themes the students different after all. chose for their animated films, especially as the films were made towards the end of the Out of the 22 films made 19 dealt with the course? Many of the students stated in their ‘physical’ side of ESD and 3 with the ‘social’ initial questionnaire that before they started side. the course they associated sustainable development with issues such as recycling, Evaluation pollution and global warming. This was the This project set out to explore an approach aspect of sustainable development that they to embedding ESD into the Art and Design felt most comfortable and most familiar with. curriculum in a way that was both integrated When embarking on a project which involved and creative and that also involved the use of using unfamiliar technologies it was not new technologies. It was intended that surprising then that they opted to explore students, having made some films more familiar territory, especially when the themselves, would feel confident enough to finished project was going to be shown to be able to take a similar project into the and judged by their peers. classroom. The final aim was to develop student understanding of issues related to Comments from the post project student ESD. The evaluation of the project included interviews showed some movement and the feedback from the group of students who development of ideas in terms of the way volunteered to take part in a group interview they viewed the place of ESD in the the day after the final project session. These curriculum: comments from two of those students
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‘First of all when I heard ‘sustainable However, in order to further develop the development’, recycling was all I could opportunities students have to increase their think of and then when I realised more and understanding of ESD issues, still more time more how complex it could be … then I is needed within the course to discuss and realised yesterday how easy it would be to develop ideas. It could prove difficult to find link it to other subjects, that’s where I was this space in the tightly packed PGCE sort of panicking at first, I can’t just teach it timetable unless a more joined-up approach on its own, I think because perhaps … I is taken and more integrated projects are learned that it’s separate, it’s kept in one developed across the ITT curriculum. box and everything else in another, whereas now I can see, well, yeah, you can Biography put that in PSHE, DT you name it! You can Pip McCormack is Senior Lecturer in get it in there in Geography, everything Education at London South Bank University. really.’ (Student A). She taught for a number of years in schools in South East London before moving into This statement further supports the higher education. She teaches Art and supposition that some students were finding Design on the Postgraduate and Professional it difficult to integrate ESD into the curriculum Certificates in Education courses, the partly because they had a limited Graduate Teacher and Registered Teacher understanding of some of the more complex Programmes. She is Unit Coordinator for the issues. Foundation Subjects and Course Director for the Primary Postgraduate and Professional On reflection it is clear that the project has Certificates in Education. She has a been useful in consolidating the particular interest in developing an integrated understanding that students have developed approach to teaching and learning across the on sustainable development throughout the curriculum areas. course. It has also provided them with a practical, integrated way of introducing ESD References into the curriculum. Following on from the Alexander, R. (2007) Community Soundings outcomes of this project, changes have been – The Primary Review regional witness made to the existing sessions. Students are sessions (Interim report), The Primary now explicitly asked to focus on equality and Review, University of Cambridge Faculty of diversity issues within the context of ESD Education. and GC. This has already produced more in depth discussion amongst the students Community Soundings during the planning stage of the film making. http://www.primaryreview.org.uk/ These sessions also now form part of the Downloads/Int_Reps/1.Com_Sdg/Primary_ assessments for the Foundation Subjects Review_Community_Soundings_report.pdf Unit, and this has made a difference too. (accessed 8.10.08.).
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DfES (Department for Education and Skills) LaSER, (2006) Making a difference: global (2003a) Excellence and Enjoyment: a citizenship in Initial Teacher Training, strategy for primary schools (DfES). CCCI .CCCI.
DfES (Department for Education and Skills) Sustainable Schools – National Framework (2003b) Every Child Matters (DFES). (2006) www.teachernet.gov.uk/sustaianbleschools/f Inman, S. and Rogers, M. (2006) (Ed) ramework (accessed 8.10.08). Building a Sustainable Future: Challenges for Initial Teacher Training, WWF-UK. Teachers TV (2006) KS1/2 Art 2D Animation Animation www.teacherstv/video/2743 Murphy, P. (ed.) (1999) Learning, Learners (accessed 8.10.08.). and Assessment (London, Paul Chapman Publishing in association with the Open TDA (Training and Development Agency for University Press). Schools) (2007), Revised Standards for Classroom Teachers (London, TDA).
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7. Children and Diversity, the Effects of Schooling, and Implications for Initial Teacher Education
Sally Elton-Chalcraft: University of Cumbria
Summary I present the findings and implications resulting from empirical research conducted in primary schools in central England and Southern Germany where I investigated 9 and 10 year old children’s multicultural awareness. I explored the opportunities for multicultural education in both the hidden and formal curricula for this age group. The project is located in the wider debate about cultural identity, racism, ‘equality’ and multiculturalism. The research draws on literature concerning multicultural and anti-racist education.
Methodologically I adopted a qualitative research paradigm and I was influenced by feminist methodology. The empirical work in England was more substantial and I employed a ‘least adult role’ and worked ‘with’ not ‘on’ the children. In Germany I worked to a more limited timeframe but nevertheless gained an insight into multicultural education in another European context.
I discovered that many children, whatever their background, displayed anti-racist behaviour and opinions, and that attending a school with a high proportion of minority ethnic children did not necessarily lead to anti-racist tendencies. Moreover, there were children from schools with a high proportion of minority ethnic backgrounds who displayed overtly racist behaviours. The organisation of the school curriculum and the school ethos in both England and Southern Germany had an influence on whether anti-racism was promoted or whether racism remained unchallenged. My research offers insights into aspects of white, Western privilege in both the formal and hidden curricula in the selected schools in England and Southern Germany. The paper concludes with a discussion of the influence of schooling on children’s multicultural awareness, and explores the implications of my findings for policy and practice in Initial Teacher Education Institutions.
Keywords Racism / Multiculturalism / anti-racist education / England / Southern Germany / white, western privilege
1. Research findings: England Racism and Children’s multicultural During the empirical work in England I awareness adopted a ‘least adult role’ (Mandell, 1991), The majority of the 9 and 10 year old working alongside the children in a non children, in my study were naturally anti- authoritarian way to investigate their racist whether they were knowledgeable knowledge of and attitudes towards their about other cultures or not. I would place own and other cultures (Elton-Chalcraft, them in quadrants A or B in table 1. A small 2008). I discovered that the children’s minority displayed racist or negative speech attitudes and knowledge could be or behaviour as identified in quadrants C and categorised (see table 1). D in table 1. I feel these findings are significant because they correlate with other
60 Children and Diversity, the Effects of Schooling, and Implications for Initial Teacher Education
research (Brown, 1998; 2001; Connolly, they have to go to Mosque and pray.’ 1998; Lewis, 2005) which identified that Zena: ‘And the girls like have to wear children often ‘learn’ to be racist/prejudicial long dresses and pray and go to a from society, but, these theorists state, they mosque [...]’ are not born so.
Table 1: A diagram charting children’s attitudes and knowledge
Anti-racist/ Positive
B A
Anti-racist/Positive Anti-racist/Positive Less Knowledgeable/ More Knowledgeable/ Less Multiculturally aware Multiculturally aware
Less Knowledgeable/Less Less Multiculturally aware Knowledgeable/ D C More Multiculturally aware Racist/Negative Racist/Negative Less Knowledgeable/ More Knowledgeable/ Less Multiculturally More Multiculturally aware aware Racist/Negative
Anti-racist and More Knowledgeable: Tazia: ‘If your hair comes out you have to Quadrant A cover it because you get bad luck you Approximately a third of children felt positive mustn’t be dirty. And if you like if you like about their own culture and so wanted to fart … miss you get a really bad look and accord the same degree of respect to those you have to go back to the toilet and of a different culture. wash yourself again.’ Sally: ‘Right…………..’ For example Tazia and Zena were fairly strict Tazia: ‘Ummm You know like Muslims, if Muslims, Zena wore the hijab (head they swear there’s a fairy on the shoulder, covering), and their religion provided their one is bad and one is good [....] And they moral code. (I use protective pseudonyms say that if you be, if you swear, a bad fairy throughout this paper (David et al., 2001). writes a line down and when you go to God he repeats it.’ Tazia: ‘You’re not allowed to eat other, White people’s meat because, in a day Anti-racist and Less Knowledgeable: we have to pray 5 times a day and we Quadrant B have to keep a scarf over our heads Approximately a half of children were anti- sometimes when we pray and Muslims, racist despite having limited knowledge of when it’s a special Friday, all the men other cultures and they thought it was
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‘important to be nice’. Also many were aware regretted, for example Rachel, of African of the need to be politically correct and thus heritage, at another high proportion minority displayed anti-racist speech and behaviour ethnic school, made offensive gestures when because they believed it to be the right thing speaking about British Chinese but almost to do (Troyna and Hatcher, 1992). instantly she said, ‘I shouldn’t have done that’ (Rachel). Racist and More Knowledgeable: Quadrant C There were three types within this category, Thirdly one child, from a high proportion firstly a few children who were generally minority ethnic school, whom I considered to knowledgeable about most cultures were, be knowledgeable, was described as both a however, negative about cultures with which racist and a bully to children of his own they were unfamiliar (Gittings, 2005). Tejpreet culture and also different cultures. and John, both British Asian, Sikh boys, and Marshall, of Black Caribbean heritage, Racist and Less Knowledgeable: Quadrant D claimed that British Chinese eat cats, dogs I deemed the minority of children who made and snakes. D school was a high proportion negative or racist comments to be less minority ethnic school which had no children knowledgeable about different cultures. of Chinese heritage. Most of these children were white, male, low ability and tended to be younger than the Marshall: ‘I don’t know much about other children in the study. Most negative Chinese people but I know they have plain comments came from the research which I faces and their eyes are a bit weird.’ undertook after the events of September Tejpreet: ‘They have snakes or stuff like 11th 2001 in B school, predominantly white. that.’ Their comments seemed full of anger and John :(at same time) ‘Not snakes do they?’ they felt threatened by what they perceived Marshall: ‘They don’t eat snakes, they eat to be ‘alien’ and ‘bad’ cultures. These cats and dogs that’s what Iv’e heard I children mainly seemed to be repeating the could be wrong and chickens everybody views they had heard from their parents or in eats chickens. the media. Bart from one of the The children expressed disgust at these predominantly white schools discussed eating habits. Such prejudicial attitudes British Asians: towards Chinese culture are discussed by Gittings (2005) and Hesler (2002). D school Sally: ‘Bart what did you put [in answer to was a high proportion minority ethnic school the question “what do you know about but there were no children of Chinese British Asians”]’? heritage. I would argue that these boys were Bart: ‘They are coloured.’ being negative because they were ignorant Sally: ‘Coloured?’ of Chinese culture. Throughout the rest of Bart: ‘Horrible.’ the interview these boys had been very anti- Sally: ‘Why did you put horrible?’ [all racist, and in the Interim report feedback children in interview giggle] session I conducted with the children, Bart: ‘Because I don’t like looking at them. Marshall in particular had been very They talk a lot...... Miss they wear vociferous about a ‘Rule out Racism’ rags, talk a lot and I don’t like the look of initiative which his school had been involved their faces.’ in. One of the most explicitly racist comments Secondly a few made a racist/negative was made during another interview in the remark or displayed racist/negative same predominantly white school. Max and behaviour which they subsequently Jeremy, both British white, said:
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Max: ‘My dad’s ermm a racist because he Organisation of education system in don’t like no brown skinned people but he Germany does like half caste ‘cos there’s a wrestler The German Education system is quite that’s half caste De Roc … but he does different to the British one in several like half castes, ’cos he’s just fine with half respects; children attend Kindergarten (aged castes, ’cos he used to take the rip out of 3-7 years old) before starting formal half castes but I said “‘don’t dad because Grundschule (primary school) at 7 years old it’s a bit nasty but you can take the rip out in Klasse 1. In Klasse 4 children undergo of Hindus because I don’t like them”’. tests and assessments to determine which ‘Cos it’s Bin Laden he’s like the boss of all secondary school they will attend. It is the Hindus. That’s about all I know … ‘ difficult to present definitive percentages and Jeremy: ‘My dad says like errmm: “I’m not obviously each local area is different but going to let you go to a generally I was told by one of my mosque because it’s not for your type and respondents in the German fieldwork: it’s only Pakis that go” and because my Dad doesn’t’ like ‘em.’ ‘About 30-50% go on to Gymnasium, age 10-18/19 (grammar school), and 20-30% 2. Influence of the School, conclusions attend Realschule age 10 - 16 (secondary drawn from research conducted in modern), the last group continue on to England and Southern Germany Hauptschule age 10-14 (for the less Despite the majority of children expressing academic children), which often has anti racist attitudes, nevertheless I also noted strong links with Berufschule (apprentice a ‘white western privilege’ stance in all four work).’ (Frau I) English schools, and this was also dominant in the German fieldwork. I drew conclusions I had a discussion with one mother at a local from my data concerning the influence of a Kindergarten who told me that this tier school on a child’s multicultural awareness. system did not work as well for borderline Firstly, I discovered that the organisation of children who may just have missed getting the curriculum in England and also in into the Gymnasium, and then they did less Southern Germany reinforces a white well than other children who managed to Western standpoint. Secondly, the formal attend the Gymnasium. Likewise, those who curriculum in England and also Southern just missed being placed in the Realschule Germany is often ineffectual at challenging and who ended up in the Hauptschule, were stereotyping, reducing prejudice and equally disadvantaged. A retired Gymnasium questioning the domination of a white teacher, Frau I, spoke of upper class Western perspective (Blair et al., 1999; Afghanistan, Italian and Iranian people who Kincheloe and Steinberg, 1997). Thirdly, the arrived in Germany 40 years ago and whose hidden curriculum in England sometimes children speak perfect German and who reinforces stereotyping and can implicitly usually go to the Gymnasium. These children communicate white Western privilege (Back are seen as ‘virtual’ Germans because they and Nyak, 1993; Jones, 1999; Gaine 2005). are from the upper classes of their countries, Finally, I suggest that some of the children in and yet the lower socio economic classes, the English schools seemed to be the migrant workers, who are also necessary dominated, either intentionally or to Germany as they provide cheap labour, unintentionally, by authoritarian teachers are viewed less favourably according to Frau who had a view of children as inferior I. She said most of these ‘lower class (James, 1995). I proceed to argue that the Ausländer’ go to the Realschule and then domination of children by adults may be take apprenticeships or go into the catering linked with the domination of white Western business: culture (Adorno et al., 1950).
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‘Many [lower class Ausländer] work in It is important to note that Germany does not restaurants. Most [indigenous] Germans have a private school system (fee paying don’t like to do that because the hours are schools) as exists in Britain and so the high unsociable and the pay isn’t very good.’ achievers go to the Gymnasium and the less (Frau I) able students tend to attend the Hauptschule. Herr R added: During an interview with Prof Boes, who had conducted research into immigration issues Herr R: ‘Hauptschulen are not very good and modes of multiculturalism (2000), a schools and no one wants to teach in similar point was made. He described the them – the children who attend are really difference between nationality and difficult. Hardly anyone from the citizenship in Germany: Hauptschule and very few from the Realschule make it to university.’ ‘Many immigrants try to ‘become’ German by applying for citizenship – there is a new Thus it could be argued that the organisation law about this, but there is resistance to of the schooling in Southern Germany this. There is a difference between discriminates against Ausländer who find it citizenship and nationality. Some difficult to get in to the Gymnasium and [immigrants] cannot gain German therefore their prospects of attending nationality – therefore they cannot be University are reduced, thus limiting their job voted into a democratic political position.’ prospects. This is a similar finding to Lewis (Prof Boes) (2005) who, in her study of American schools, claimed that Latinos and African American We discussed the consequence of this as children were disadvantaged because of the being the insular nature of German society schools they attended, and their life chances and the continued ostracisation of limited compared with their white peers who ‘Ausländer’ who were often seen and treated attended predominantly white schools in as second class citizens. This is consistent ‘nice’ neighbourhoods and went on to ‘get with claims by Boes (2000) and Hoff (1995). good jobs (2005:155).
Student teachers Herr R and Frau R, both of Organisation of Education system in Muslim background, discussed the factors England underlying immigrant underachievement: In England there are also different types of schools but currently parents can, to a certain Herr R:’ Immigrants often don’t speak extent, choose which school to send their German at the age of 6 or 7 when child to, for example community schools and compulsory education begins. Many do various types of faith-based schools (Francis not send their children to the Kindergarten and Lankshear, 1993; Parker-Jenkins et al., and so they don’t get to learn German – 2005). Also in England parents can choose to they are therefore at a disadvantage when send their children to fee paying schools they start in Klasse 1 and they never catch which, by nature, usually bar children from up. When they get to take the test at 10 low socio economic backgrounds, although [Klasse 4] they don’t do well and most go scholarships are sometimes available to Hauptschule.’ (Independent School, 2007). Frau R: ‘We both did well at Primary When considering racism Blair et al. (1999) school and we made it to Gymnasium but consider the very organisation of the most Ausländer go to Hauptschule.’ curriculum to be at the heart of the problem of the underachievement of minority ethnic children and they highlight, among other
64 Children and Diversity, the Effects of Schooling, and Implications for Initial Teacher Education
things, the very poor academic level of ethnic activities. Early Years educators who are monitoring nationally. This has improved in particularly interested in issues of recent years (DFES, 2007); however, it is still discrimination, for example Brown (1998, the case that minority ethnic pupils are often 2000) advocate a system which is more disadvantaged. The Training and ‘play’ orientated: Development Agency (TDA) funds a project, Multiverse, which developed a website for How we encourage children to learn is as supporting the achievement of minority important as, and inseparable from the ethnic pupils and exploring issues of content of what they learn. Active diversity (Multiverse, 2006). I would argue collaborative learning in small groups that minority ethnic children, in England, are can promote the development of beginning to receive a more ‘equal’ concepts, skills, attitudes and the ability education than previously after the to argue rationally. It is a challenging Macpherson Report (1999). approach which does not fit easily with a curriculum geared to compartmentalised Formal Curriculum: Germany knowledge, back to basics and formal In these sections I show how the design of teaching methods. (Brown, 1998:91) the curriculum in both Southern Germany and England promotes, to varying degrees, Thus the German system in Baden- white privilege (Heldke and O’Conner, 2004; Württemberg supports the ideologies of a Lewis, 2005). child-centred and ‘play’-led curriculum for the Early Years, yet ironically I would argue Education in Germany is decentralised and that the German system after pre-school is each of the provinces (Länder) have less child-centred. Similarly the pre-school autonomy (Hull, 2005) and in turn are curriculum in Southern Germany advocated influenced by the ideologies of the particular a more egalitarian ethos whereas the upper political party in power, for example the schools segregated children and Ausländer Christliche Demokratische Union or the often seemed to be at a disadvantage Green Party. Many parties have a Christian (Lähnemann, 2006). base for example the Christliche Demokratische Union, and so this is I would argue that the organisation of the transmitted into the school curriculum. The formal curriculum has an impact on the curriculum in the German province of Baden- development of the children’s Württemberg is set out in the Bildungsplan conceptualisation of learning. For example (syllabus), which all schools follow (Baden- Heimat and Sachunterricht (homeland and Württemberg, 1994). The schools in my topic) lessons I observed included a study of sample had a content-led rather than child- indigenous Germans and ‘others’ who have led curriculum. The teaching and learning come to live in Germany therefore creating, a which I observed was mainly whole class ‘them’ and ‘us’ culture. Religion lessons are teaching of a particular theme which had monitored by the Protestant and Catholic been dictated by the Bildungsplan (Baden- churches. Herr R told me that the newly Württemberg, 1994). However the Early instigated Islam Religion classes will be Years education in Baden-Württemberg was monitored by Muslim communities because very different. This was predominantly a very there is no formal hierarchy of Islam in child-centred curriculum. I visited one Early Germany comparable to the Evangelische or Year’s Setting, which was a Katholische Katholische churches. Teachers of religion Kindergarten (Catholic Pre-school) on a are expected to have a personal belief and all regular basis for two months and here the priests have an obligation to teach in schools children were engaged in Early Years each week whether they are particularly
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suited to this or not. Religion lessons are culture it’s important to swim. There was a mainly confessional in approach and Greek philosopher who said if you are appeared to concentrate on faith nurture educated you can read and write and which is in contrast to British Religious swim. So I explain to them it’s a part of our Education (RE), which, in community life. If you can’t swim you are stupid. In schools, focuses on ‘learning about’ and India they don’t swim. When you are born ‘learning from’ religion in an educative rather you have an instinct- you want to crawl, than faith nurture approach (QCA, 2004). walk and swim. You have to learn [to do However RE is given a very high status in them all]. Poseidon was a very high God – Germany which is different from many everyone ought to swim, including girls.’ schools in England where sometimes RE has a very low profile. Herr and Frau R both said Frau B made a clear distinction between the that Islamophobia had become a problem for Turkish immigrants and the indigenous Muslims and they felt it their responsibility to German children using ‘us’ and ‘them’ inform indigenous Germans, through the language and the indigenous Germans are curriculum, that Muslims, as well as others, definitely seen as the superior group. condemned the attack of September 11th, However this white western privilege attitude and that this was not ‘true Islam’ was not prevalent in all the schools in my (Lähnemann, 2006). Southern Germany study. Frau N, a class teacher in N school, talked about a Turkish There were opportunities for Multicultural girl in her class: and Intercultural education in the Lehrplan (Curriculum Syllabus) in the sections ‘Cross ‘We talk about her difficulties, yes, but Curricular themes’ which Baden- look at what she can do- she has 2 Württemberg teachers follow in the languages- she’s clever. My classes are Grundschule (Baden- Württemberg, 1994). very tolerant- today they clapped her [the The guidance states that Christians believe Turkish girl].’ that in spite of differences ‘we’ are ‘all God’s children’ and Biblical references are given Frau N was a very caring teacher who strove (Baden –Württemberg, 1994:173). Thus to address inclusion issues by not despite the good intentions of encouraging stereotyping. She had high expectations of these children from other lands to tell about all children and she kept behavioural their country, animals, religious beliefs, problems under control without being cuisine etc this is done from a monoculture authoritarian. perspective (Kincheloe and Steinberg, 1997). Formal Curriculum in England This monocultural, white, western, privilege In English faith-based schools, RE is often perspective is evidenced by Frau B, the confessional in nature, but the extent to headteacher of a Grundschule, and, perhaps which the faith community has an influence significantly, former Olympic swimmer, who on the curriculum is dependent on the status spoke of the ‘lazy’ and ‘wrong’ lifestyle of of the school (Francis and Lankshear, 1993; ‘Turkish immigrants’. When she was Parker-Jenkins et al., 2005). In all community describing what was covered in Heimat schools and many faith-based schools RE is (homeland) studies she said: taught as Religious Education and not faith nurture as set out in the Non-Statutory Frau B: ‘They [Turkish immigrants] do take National Framework for RE (QCA, 2004:3). In part in swimming lessons though, at least. my English research I found that children’s I think swimming is very important. In the multicultural awareness was often developed Turkish bath they just sit and talk. In our through the Religious Education curriculum
66 Children and Diversity, the Effects of Schooling, and Implications for Initial Teacher Education
as well as through the general school ethos. I would argue that teachers’ comments and Religious Education in England is determined ways of communicating with children had a by the local SACRE (the Standing Advisory bearing on the children’s multicultural Council for Religious Education) who awareness. I believe that the teacher’s view produce an Agreed Syllabus for all state of children (James, 1995) and the way they schools to follow (QCA, 2004). Faith-based behave towards children can be linked with a schools have their own diocesan or faith domineering ethos (Devine, 2003). Thus if syllabus. adults see children as inferior, then children grow to learn that inferiority and superiority I would argue that it is more likely for children exists, which in turn could be directed to be anti-racist and have positive attitudes towards different cultures being superior and towards different cultures if they have learnt inferior. This is a similar finding to Adorno et about them and learnt how to be respectful al. (1950). towards those who are ‘different’ from them. Unfortunately, despite these ‘worthy’ aims of In R school, Mr Denton had ‘favourites’ who RE, in England, in practice, the aims are not were encouraged and praised for always translated into effective teaching and contributions and only mildly rebuked if at all learning as I discovered in my research. For for misdemeanours. Conversely, the ‘non- example when I asked the children about favourites’ were often criticised for the same their curriculum, RE was nearly always one of behaviour which had been admissible for the the last subjects to be discussed. Despite ‘favourites’. For example, Rosanne, a white being in one predominantly white school for girl, was often singled out by Mr Denton as six weeks in the summer term, I did not being ‘annoying.’ During a music lesson in observe any RE lessons. Stuart told me Mr Denton’s class, children on the right hand about the Friday afternoon RE slot on the side of the class dominated the discussion timetable, ‘We don’t do RE if it’s sunny – we about tempo and style of music after do PE outside’ (Stuart, X school). listening to some excerpts from a Compact Disc. Terri especially became very animated However, the children of X school, despite and called out several times. However being arguably the least knowledgeable Rosanne called out an answer and was about different cultures, were not the most reprimanded by Mr Denton; ‘You are really racist. The most racist comments came from beginning to annoy me Rosanne Smith’. I white boys from B school, as I discussed think Mr Denton must have realised what I earlier in this paper. I noticed in the was thinking as he looked at me and then predominantly white schools, that Christo- stated; ‘The people over here, although over centric dating was used, dating systems AD excited, have something to say which is and BC, rather than BCE and CE (Before the relevant’. I was not convinced. This provided Common Era and the Common Era). more evidence pointing to the crucial role of the teacher in promoting children’s self Impact of the Hidden Curriculum on esteem. The teacher’s expectations also play children’s multicultural awareness a part in children’s achievement (Brown, I would argue that the hidden curriculum, or 1998; Arthur et al., 2006). Rosanne remained the ethos of the school, is influential on the silent for the rest of the lesson. Terri children’s multicultural development. As I had continued to exuberantly shout out answers an opportunity to spend longer in the English and was praised by Mr Denton. From my schools than in the Southern Germany ones observations I considered Mr Denton to be a my discussion here draws predominantly on caring and competent teacher, but the English context to explore this view nevertheless, I felt that he did not treat the further (Elton-Chalcraft, 2008). children with equal respect. This of course is
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very difficult to do when as a human being where ‘authority and control were regularly we naturally have preferences for certain asserted in dramatic fashion’ (2005:42). I types of people, usually people who are would suggest that some of the children in more like ourselves. the English schools seemed to be dominated, either intentionally or In D school Mrs Moser did not, I felt, treat the unintentionally, by authoritarian teachers. I misdemeanours of Melissa, a girl of would argue that the domination of children Caribbean heritage, with the same leniency by adults may be linked with the domination as other children. In fact both she and Mr of white Western culture. Cultures of Millan seemed very intolerant of Melissa. oppression (Devine, 2003) have institutional Melissa was described by both Mr Millan and settings, and the formal and hidden Mrs Moser as a ‘troublemaker’ and their curriculum (ethos) in each school provided expectations for her to act as such reinforced climates for the children’s positive or their assumptions. Mr Millan described her negative attitudes to thrive or remain as ‘a right pain. The children have to take it in unchallenged. turns to have her on their table’. Connolly (1998), Blair et al. (1999) and Lewis (2005) 3. Implications for Policy and Practice have all noted such behaviour, where African Finally I discuss several action points from Caribbean children were stereotyped. The my research findings which are particularly treatment of Melissa described above can be relevant for Initial Teacher Education (see contrasted with that of Rachel, an African also Elton-Chalcraft, 2009). heritage girl in the other high proportion minority ethnic school, whose behaviour had Planned Opportunities for Teaching and been recognised as ‘disruptive,’ but she was Learning in Different Types of Schools offered support in the form of ‘sharing Do Initial Teacher Education Institutions sessions’ with other children, inspired by the ensure student teachers recognise the work of Moseley (1998). Thus I would argue importance of incorporating planned that in comparing the treatment of these two opportunities, in curriculum time, for positive girls, Rachel’s school’s ethos reflects discussions about different cultures, and the egalitarian principles more so than Melissa’s diversity within as well as between cultures? school, which incidentally was also Roy’s I found that the most knowledgeable children school – the boy who was deemed a bully were also anti-racist because they respected and a racist in quadrant C. the variety of different perspectives on life from a variety of cultures with which they In X school, predominantly white, the high were familiar (quadrant A table 1). I am not turnover of staff, and also of headteachers, advocating a bland ‘acceptance of all’ had an influence on the relationships cultures without any critical analysis, rather between staff and children. I would argue that the planned opportunities should that the instability of staffing at this school encourage informed, rigorous debate led to an ethos of authoritarianism which was coupled with respect for difference. felt necessary to achieve and maintain discipline. There had been an arson attack ITE institutions need to dispel the myth that on the school by a former pupil the previous the ‘contact hypothesis’ (Troyna and year and several members of staff treated Hatcher, 1992; Connolly, 2000) alone can children as though they were soldiers in an eradicate racism and develop anti-racism. army being told what to do, rather than The ‘contact hypothesis’ is the belief that by children in a school engaging in learning. integrating children of different ethnicities in Lewis (2005), in her research at West City one school, children will necessarily be less Elementary school, noted a similar trend racist because they work alongside each
68 Children and Diversity, the Effects of Schooling, and Implications for Initial Teacher Education
other and thus will necessarily get on with 1998; 2001)? In my study I found that the each other. This has been challenged by most racist children were the youngest and Troyna and Hatcher (1992), and in my own least able, (in category D table 1). It has been research, because I discovered that there argued that prejudiced attitudes remain were racist children in the high proportion unchallenged throughout the primary phase minority ethnic schools and there were a and possibly continue into secondary great many anti-racist children in the education and adulthood (Brown, 1998; predominantly white schools. Thus teachers 2001). The use of Persona dolls can support in high proportion minority ethnic schools learning about different cultures and cannot rely on osmosis alone to eradicate encourage adopting positive attitudes racism and promote human equality. (Brown, 2001; Elton-Chalcraft, 2006). In order to eradicate racism I would argue that Nevertheless ITE institutions need to ensure racism needs to be ‘unlearned’ (Brown, that student teachers realise it is even more 1998). important to learn about different cultures for children in predominantly white schools Awareness of Macro and Micro Climate because they do not have the advantage of Many of the children in my research were high proportion minority ethnic schools in either naturally respectful or had learnt to be having a variety of cultures represented respectful towards those of another culture. (Troyna and Hatcher, 1992). But teachers in However, anti-racism is not just about ‘being predominantly white schools often fail to nice’ to a particular person (Blair et al., 1999), recognise the need for multicultural institutional racism must be avoided too education (Gaine, 2005; Jones, 1999). Gaine (Macpherson, 1999). I would agree with (2005), Jones (1999) and Lewis (2005) have Troyna and Hatcher (1992:37) that it is not all conducted research which correlates with sufficient to think about the ‘micro my own findings, namely that teachers in perspective’ of bullying and racist incidents predominantly white schools think that in the school without also taking into account multicultural education is for minority ethnic the ‘macro’ situation which could be children. Therefore it should be highlighted to described as ‘institutional racism’ ITE student teachers that planned (Macpherson, 1999; Lewis, 2005). Thus opportunities for multicultural and anti-racist issues of equality need to be extended education are crucial in all types of school to beyond the concept of equal opportunities combat both ignorance and potential racism. within the classroom to realise that equality Numerous resources are available to support is not in evidence in society at large (Troyna the teacher such as Dadzie (2000) and and Hatcher, 1992; Lewis, 2005). The Knowles and Ridley (2005), and websites implication is to encourage children to ‘be such as Oxfam Cool Planet (2007), and nice’ to each other in school, but also to Multiverse (2006). encourage them to acknowledge, explore and challenge injustices that they see in the Teaching and Learning: Starting Early to world outside the school gates. Eradicate Racism Do ITE courses in Early Years Education Awareness of White Western Privilege, encourage student teachers to foster in Promoting Anti Racism young children positive attitudes towards Do ITE courses encourage students to different cultures and discourage young consider the influence and dominance of children from copying the discriminatory white Western culture (Jones, 1999; Gaine, attitudes which surround them from, for 2005; Lewis, 2005)? I found that many example, the Media, their families, the children used white Western language and school, the local community etc (Brown, referred to white Western culture as being
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the ‘norm’. Some teachers argue that they Considering the Links between Racism do not want to discriminate between children and Bullying Behaviour of different ethnicities because this in itself is Are concepts such as ‘domination’ and racist and may lead to conflict but this has ‘oppression’ rigorously debated in ITE been disputed by Jones (1999). I would courses? As my research progressed I agree; such an attitude denies a child’s considered the links between domination of identity and also may deny that prejudice children, racism and oppression (Adorno et exists (Jones, 1999; Gaine, 2005). Thus al., 1950; Devine. 2003). Further research is teachers need to explore differences as well needed to correlate this finding, however I as similarities between peoples. I agree with believe it is important for teachers to both Gaine (1995; 2005) and Jones (1999) consider how they treat children; because if who acknowledge that racism can flourish there is a domination of teacher over child, or where there is ‘colour blindness’ and a denial child over child, then this could foster of difference. ‘domination tendencies’ which could result in racism and discrimination (Troyna and Also it is important for teachers to explore Hatcher, 1992; Devine, 2003). In my own the multi faceted nature of identity, (Back research, the one child who was deemed to and Nyak, 1993; Modood, 2007). People be racist and yet knowledgeable was also cannot be stereotyped into one category, deemed to be a bully (quadrant C table 1). and the concept of identity is an important issue which can be explored in the Racism is often linked with domination of classroom for example using ‘Philosophy for one group over another (Adorno et al., Children’ (P4C) to consider prejudicial and 1950).The influence of the school ‘climate’ stereotypical attitudes (Knowles and Ridley, should not be underestimated. Similarly if 2005; Philosophy for Children, 2006). teachers view children as ‘inferior’ and lacking in status (James, 1995), then they are I have found that the organisation of schools creating an atmosphere of antagonism which and the very curriculum itself may be partly could promote racism and prejudice. I would responsible for allowing racist attitudes to agree with Devine that ‘treating children flourish. This is a similar finding to earlier seriously as humans in their own right’ is a work by Troyna and Hatcher (1992) and to relatively new phenomena (2003:2). This is Lewis’s American study (2005). Guidance to despite the existence of a children’s rights support ITE and Continuing Professional movement which spans many decades Development (CPD) programmes includes (Parker-Jenkins, 1999). Policy on teacher the Multiverse (2006) and DfES (2007) training should more adequately reflect websites. There also needs to be an overhaul emerging norms and values concerning the of the curriculum which Parker-Jenkins et al. status and treatment of children. suggest is ‘at best Eurocentric and at worst Britocentric but rarely multicentric’ Teacher’s Mind Set (2005:145). My findings support this claim as What mind set do student teachers hold does Lewis’s work; she calls for schools to concerning diversity issues? When fulfil ‘the role they have been cast in- that of discussing different cultures with my the great equalisers’ (Lewis 2005:37). students, I often use the Dr Xargles: An Alien’s View of Earth Babies picture book (Willis and Ross, 1988), as an illustration of how language can be culturally biased. Dr Xargles, an alien teacher who instructs his
70 Children and Diversity, the Effects of Schooling, and Implications for Initial Teacher Education
class about ‘earthlets’ (human babies) uses Bibliography terminology from his own species or the Sally Elton-Chalcraft is Course Leader for the ‘jargon’ terminology of the humans, thus 4 yr QTS Primary Religious Education, demonstrating cultural dominance for Minority Ethnic Recruitment and Retention example: Project Co Ordinator.
They [earthlet babies] have one head and References only two eyes, two short tentacles with Adorno T., Frenkel-Brunswik E., Levinson D. feelers on the end and two long tentacles and Sanford, R. (1950) The Authoritarian called leggies. (1988:3) Personality (New York, Norton).
Dr Xargles has five eyes and two long Arthur J., Cremin, T., Wray, D. (eds) (2006) tentacles and is thus using his own cultural Learning to teach in the primary school language to describe another culture. This is (London, Routledge). similar to Kincheloe and Steinberg’s pluralist multiculturalism, ‘Hannuka is the Jewish Back, L. and Nayak, A. (1993) Black Christmas’ (1997) and in my own research Europeans? Black people in the new Europe one Sikh girl referred to the ‘Gurdwara’ (Sikh (Birmingham, All Faiths for One Race place of worship) as ‘Church’. Teachers (AFFOR). could avoid this by ensuring their mind set is non- biased and they refer to a religion or Baden -Württemberg (1994) Kulturs und culture using its own terminology (Elton- Unterricht -Bildungsplan für die Grundschule Chalcraft, 2006). I would agree with Brown Stuttgart: Ministeriums fuer Kulturs und who states (my italics): Sport Baden-Württemberg.
Racism and other social inequalities are Blair, M., Gillborn, D., Kemp, S., and deeply rooted in British history and still MacDonald, J., (1999) Institutional Racism, profoundly affect the lives of children and education and the Stephen Lawrence Inquiry, their families. These inequalities were Education and Social Justice Vol 1 no 3. created by and are being perpetuated by people so they can be changed by people. Boes, M. (2000) The Legal Construction of (Brown, 1988:2) Membership: Nationality Law in Germany and The United States in working paper - Note A version of this paper was first Centre for European Studies Harvard presented to the TEPE conference in University. Ljubljiana, Slovenia February 2008 (http://www.pef.uni-lj.si/tepe2008/papers.htm) Brown, B. (1998) Unlearning Discrimination in the Early Years (Stoke-on-Trent, Trentham).
Brown, B. (2001) Combating Discrimination Persona Dolls in Action (Stoke-on-Trent, Trentham).
Connolly, P. (1998) Racism, Gender Identities and Young Children (London, Routledge).
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Dadzie (2000) Toolkit for tackling Racism Hoff, G.R. (1995) Multicultural Education in (Trentham Books, Stoke-on-Trent). Germany: Historical Development and Current Status, pp 821-838 in Handbook of David, M. Edwards, R. & Alldred, P. (2001) research on Multicultural Education (eds) J.A. Children and school based Research: Banks and C.A. McGee Banks (New York, ‘informed consent’ or ‘educated consent’? Simon and Schuster Macmillan). British Education Research Journal Vol 27 No 3. Pp 347-365. Hull, J. M. (2005) Religious Education in Germany and England, BJRE Jan vol 27 no 1 Devine, D. (2003) Children Power and pp5-17. schooling (Stoke-on-Trent, Trentham). Kincheloe, J.L. & Steinberg, S.R. (1997) DfES (2007) The Standards Site Ethnic Changing Multiculturalism (Buckingham, Minority Achievement USA, OUP). http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/ethnicmin Independent School (2007) Website offering orities/raising_(accessed 11.7.07). information on the variety of independent schools in the UK Available at Elton-Chalcraft, S. (2006) Mind-set matters: http://www.schooladviser.co.uk/choices.stm Attainment Target ‘Anti-Racism’, Primary RE, (accessed 12.9.07). RE, RE Today Sept 2006. James, A. (1995) Methodologies of Elton-Chalcraft, S. (2008) It’s not just Black competence for a competent methodology, and White: An exploration of Children’s Paper for conference on Children and social Multicultural Awareness, PhD, PhD thesis competence, University of Surrey, Guildford, Derby: University of Derby July.
Elton-Chalcraft, S. (2009 forthcoming) It’s Jones, R. (1999) Teaching Racism or tackling not just Black and White, Miss: Children’s it? (Stoke-on-Trent, Trentham). awareness of Race (Stoke-on-Trent, Trentham). Knowles, E. and Ridley, W. (2005) Another Spanner in the Works (Stoke on Trent, Francis, J. and Lankshear, D.W. (eds) (1993) Trentham). Christian perspectives on church schools: a reader (Leominster, Gracewing). Lähnemann, J. (2006) The Training of Teachers for Islamic Religious Education at Gaine, C. (2005) We’re all white thanks: the German Universities: the Erlangen- persisting myth about white schools (Stoke- Nuremberg Project, Prospectus: Friedrich- on Trent, Trentham). Alexander-Universität ErlangenUniversität Erlangen-Nürnberg Intersidziplinäres Gittings, J. (2005) The Changing Face of Zentrum für Islamische Religionslehre (IZIR). China: From Mao to Market (Oxford, OUP). Heldke, L. and O’Conner, P. (2004) Lewis, A. E. (2005) Race in the Schoolyard: Oppression Privilege and Resistance Negotiating the Color [sic] Line in (London, McGraw-Hill). Classrooms and Communities (Piscataway New Jersey USA, Rutgers University Press). Hesler, P. (2002) River Town: Two Years on Macpherson, W. (1999) The Stephen the Yangzte (London, John Murray). Lawrence Enquiry (London, Stationary Office).
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Mandell, (1991) The ‘least adult role’ in Parker-Jenkins, M. Hartas, D. and Irving, B. studying children, in Waksler, F.C. (1991) A. (2005) In Good Faith: Schools Religion Studying the social worlds of children: and Public Funding (Aldershot, Ashgate). Sociological readings (London, Falmer Press). Philosophy for Children (2006) Philosophy for children website Modood, T. (2007) Multiculturalism www.sapere.org.uk (accessed 20.4.06.) (Cambridge, Polity Press). QCA (2004) Non-Statutory National Mosley (1998) More Quality Circle Time Framework for RE (London, QCA). (Wisbech, LDA). Troyna, B. &Hatcher, R. (1992) Racism in Multiverse (2006) TDA funded site exploring Children’s Lives (London, Routledge). issues of diversity and raising the achievement of minority ethnic children Willis, J. and Ross, T. (1988) Dr Xargles Book www.multiverse.ac.uk (accessed 12.3.06.). of Earthlets: An Alien’s view of earth babies (London, Red Fox). Oxfam Cool Planet (2007) www.oxfam.org.uk/coolplanet/kidsweb/ index.htm (accessed 14.3.07.)
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8. Welcome to the Creativity Café: Developing a network of shared creative teaching practice amongst academic staff
Josie Harvey: University of Huddersfield
Summary This paper presents the findings and developments to date of a TQEF (Teaching Quality Enhancement Fund) project on Creativity and Innovation in Teaching in Higher Education. The purpose of this project is to develop and promote creative and innovative teaching across the University.
Findings from the project suggest that academic staff want to share their creative and innovative teaching with colleagues from all disciplines, and that, presently, little is known about creativity elsewhere in the University. Creativity Cafés have been organised to give academic staff an opportunity to work together informally, to share best practice and germinate ‘Communities of Practice’ (Wenger, 1998) around four broad areas of creativity that have been identified.
The positive feedback from these events has been overwhelming and the sharing of good practice has engaged staff with different perspectives of creativity across the curriculum.
Keywords Creativity in teaching / Communities of Practice / Engaging students/ Encouraging learning / Networking
Introduction methodology. The second theme This TQEF project, ‘Developing and Building concentrates on how the idea and the Excellence – Creativity and Innovation in activities of the Café Menu were developed. Teaching in Higher Education’, funded by The third theme reflects on working with the HEFCE (Higher Education Funding Council ‘customers’, the effectiveness of cross- for England), started at the beginning of university involvement and some of the key 2007. Its purpose was to develop a unit learning points around creativity. The fourth which will encourage and support creative and final theme is the digestion of learning, and innovative practice within the University which analyses the benefits, or otherwise, of of Huddersfield and amongst its partners. the Café and its future.
This paper focuses on the following Theme 1 outcomes of this project; to stimulate, Building the café: the methodology evaluate and promote effective innovative behind the concept practice in teaching and learning that is In May 2007, initial meetings with over 40 key transferable between different disciplines, University academic staff took place to and the adoption of creative approaches that enquire into the first aim of the project; to facilitate learning amongst Higher Education identify examples of innovative and creative students. The first theme of the paper pedagogy across the University. considers how the Creativity Café was built. It concentrates on the inquiry that developed There had already been emerging at the start of the project and the emerging communities of practice (Wenger, 1999)
74 Welcome to the Creativity Café: Developing a network of shared creative teaching practice amongst academic staff
focused on innovative practice in Higher cannot be done, then you are more free to Education, built from recent activities and suggest a novel approach. achievements within the School of Education and Professional Development. (The School As a researcher, my experience was what has just been awarded a Centre for Mezirow (1990) called ‘transformative Excellence in Teacher Training, one of only learning’, using creative thinking skills of my eleven in England in 2007.) However, the own to solve novel problems: purpose of the TQEF project was to provide a basis for widening engagement with For the present purposes transformative pedagogic innovation, and to tap into a wider learning would enable people to break range of expertise and experience amongst away from seeing the new in terms of the all university staff, and not just the one past and always dealing with it in the same school. As Grainger, Barnes and Scoffham way as previously, and thus facilitate (2004:244) state: production of novelty. (Cropley, 2001:161)
If teachers and lecturers are to adopt Over the course of six weeks I set out to innovative ways forward, they need to collaborate and listen to staff interests in recognise the tension between the creativity. To ensure consistency, a checklist incessant drive for measurable standards of questions was used for these interviews. on the one hand and the development of These were: creative teaching on the other. Finding the energy and enterprise to respond flexibly 1. What is your connection with the to this working reality is a considerable project to date? challenge and teachers need to be 2. How do use Creative and Innovative convinced that creativity is a critical practice presently in your Teaching component in a world dominated by and Learning? If you do use this, technological innovations. what methods do you use? (e.g. workshops, role plays) The starting point, the puzzles I faced, the 3. How do you believe this helps emerging methodology and the subsequent facilitate learning in your discipline, learning from the Creativity Café has formed and why are creative and innovative the basis of this paper. approaches important to you? 4. How would you like to be involved Being new to the university, I had no with this project in the future? preconceptions of staff, university politics or barriers which might have influenced an The first question centred on tracking links existing staff member at the start of this with existing staff. It was interesting to find project. I felt like I had a blank canvas to be out who suggested particular contacts and able to contact who I wanted and to find out their connection, if any, with creativity or who would be valuable in my research. I was innovative practice in their teaching. This able to use a source of creativity which De information was transferred onto a network Bono (1996:43) calls ‘Innocence’: map of the University schools, so links between disciplines and staff could be seen If you do not know the usual approach, the visually. This also showed up the staff that usual solution, the usual concepts were key to this enquiry, and would involved, then you come up with a fresh continually provide a useful source of approach. Also, if you are not inhibited by contacts. knowing constraints and knowing what
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The second question generated a very Craft et al. (2001:39) identify four key interesting debate. What are creativity and environmental conditions for creative innovative practice in teaching? All agreed learning. The first is the need to be that the purpose of their creative ideas was challenged, by having goals set and being to engage the students and encourage helped to set our own. Secondly, negative learning. Responses from staff fell into four stress should be eliminated as this prevents broad categories: the brain functioning at a higher level. Thirdly, the need for high-quality feedback to acquire • The Process of Creative Thinking self-knowledge, deepen our self-esteem and • Creative Teaching Techniques continue to be motivated to learn. Finally, • Creativity in Community and Craft mentions the capacity to live with Employer Engagement uncertainty. Creative teachers cannot expect • Creative and Innovative Use of to have all the answers, but can offer robust Technology in Teaching and workable structures and processes to their students. Therefore, in addition to First, some staff considered creativity in fostering student engagement, attention teaching to be about making their students needs to be paid to the creative learning think more creatively, to ‘live outside the box’ environment. and to take risks with their ideas. Students are encouraged to analyse and sort Thirdly, creative use was made of employer problems out for themselves, to think and community engagement to bring real-life ‘laterally’ and find better ways of doing case study scenarios into the curriculum things. through problem-based and work-based learning. Increasingly, students need to have As Cropley (2001:158) points out: problem-solving, independence and critical thinking skills to deal with novel situations in ….people need to adjust to change that is organisations competing in ‘highly both rapid and sweeping, both for their competitive markets or in service industries own well being and for that of societies in that are underpinned by high levels of which they live…… to foster flexibility, accountability’ Craft (2001:4). openness, ability to cover novelty, ability to tolerate uncertainty and similar Finally, colleagues employed creative and properties – in other words, creativity. innovative ways to bring technology into the classroom, through utilising learning Secondly, there were staff members who platforms such as Second Life, wikis, and the focused on using creative teaching virtual learning environment, thereby techniques to engage the students with their facilitating communication between learners learning, making it more fun and memorable. and changing the way in which instructional Cropley (2001:160) comments that traditional resources might be organised and education favours linguistic and logical- presented. mathematical intelligence (left-brain learning), but neglects what Gardener (1983) The third question I asked staff was how they calls ‘intuitive’ intelligence (which is a feature thought creative and innovative teaching of the visual, imaginative and holistic right- enhanced learning, and why it was important brain learning). Many staff wanted to redress to them. All said it was about engaging the this balance by using all the senses in their students in their learning; preparing students students to nurture creativity. with skills and experiences to equip and prepare them for a world requiring more
76 Welcome to the Creativity Café: Developing a network of shared creative teaching practice amongst academic staff
transferable skills, enhanced by a creative- Schools if links exist. Thus a core of people thinking mind. could establish ‘communities of practice’ around their creative ideas, so assisting in The final question proved to be the most their practice, with a sustained and valuable interesting though, and this led to the effect on the organisation as a whole. The creation of the Café. All wanted to be concept of the Creativity Café emerged from involved in the project. Their enthusiasm was this. based on a lack of knowledge about creative and innovative teaching occurring in the Theme 2 university outside their immediate Creating a Menu – How the idea and department. They were not often aware of activities for the Creativity Café were their own departmental or school developed innovations, so they were keen to network The idea of a ‘Café’ emerged from the aim of and share creative ideas with colleagues providing an informal, but constructive day across disciplines. where staff could network and share good practice. As the project is about creativity Through the project, I have met many and innovation in teaching, the café needed academic staff, and often I asked whether to be ‘creative and innovative’ in its they knew a particular person in a different approach too. Therefore, the theme of a school who was working in a similar creative ‘café’ was used to design the day’s event. It way. Usually these staff did not know each needed to have impact and not be ‘just other and I started to realise how valuable it another conference’. would be to get them together. At first, I had little idea how to do this. I voiced my Tables were set out ‘bistro’ style, with dilemma to an interviewee, and she tablecloths, candles, flowers and napkin suggested getting everyone together in an holders with cards on each table identifying informal way to share ideas around creativity. the different themes that were going to be Normally staff do not have this opportunity addressed, and a menu showing the agenda and it would be well received. Wenger’s for the day. The facilitators at each table, (1999) communities of practice, where dressed as ‘waiters’ in black and white groups of people come together through uniforms, were there to help ‘spill’ ideas from shared common interests, was an influential the group onto the tablecloth and feedback guide here. the discussions; the purpose was to set the right ‘mood’ for the day. The participants In the context of organisations, such enjoyed the fun and creative feel to the room, communities might be professional groups and this encouraged them to be innovative in crossing organisational boundaries. their thinking too. Alternatively, these could be internal groups within organisations - not task, project or line As ‘diners’ entered the room, music played managed groups, but possibly a group of linking pictures with creative phrases such as women managers sharing experiences from ‘I break tradition’, ‘Speak the words on your different departments, having a common lips’, ‘Open the window’, and ‘Let the sun interest and culture and so communicating come in’, which helped ‘inspire’ our and sharing knowledge. In this context, a delegates for the activities ahead. All were group of University tutors may be seen as a given colour coded name badges for each of community of practice. The organisation the different University schools. As they sat does not force us to communicate, but down, one of the café rules was to sit with through the University intranet, we have the staff from a different School, and not beside ability to share knowledge across the anyone they already knew. Business cards
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were given with the participant’s e-mail share creative techniques they had address on, so that everyone could make at developed since the last café with the other least one link before they left the café, and ‘diners’. Sometimes they had an opportunity other informal networks could start and to think creatively for their teaching. For continue afterwards. example, in one exercise, each table was provided with a plate of sweets and fruit. The cafés have been organised around the Each ‘diner’ had to select an item, and think four creative categories. of a creative way to use it in one of their lessons. This activity was one that I thought • The Process of Creative Thinking would not work very well, but many of the • Creative Teaching Techniques in the delegates enjoyed this part the most, with Classroom some very practical activities developing • Links with employers/ clients from it. For example, items could be used for • Technical on-line developments a lesson on pricing strategy or supply chain. Others suggested that sweets could be The café had a Menu for the day. ‘Starters’ handed out to all students in a discussion to provided the introductions and aims, and give everyone a turn to talk. I was amazed at then the ‘Entrees’ began with the ‘Dips’. the variety of interesting ideas the delegates These were short talks given by a selection came up with. of staff who presented their own creative teaching techniques, which became a topic Before delegates finally departed, they were around at each table. For example, at the required to comply with the ‘café rules’. cafe on Creative Teaching Techniques, the Everyone should have handed out their topics included: use of music and games; ‘business cards’ to ensure they had use of metaphor; and the difference between networked with at least one new contact creative teaching and creative learning. during the day, and also that they had During ‘Cocktail Appetizers’ ‘diners’ got the ‘spilled their ideas’ about future events and opportunity to select a table with other staff ideas they had onto the tablecloths, so that they did not know, introduced themselves, the feedback could be used to plan for future and started networking, and shared networking. experiences and ideas. Theme 3 After 30 minutes, the delegates moved to a Working with the Customers: Reflections new table and selected a new topic to on the effectiveness of cross-university discuss. The ‘waiters’ stayed to capture the staff involvement and key learning points new discussion, and then at the end of the As academic staff chose to come to the next 30 minutes fed back to the whole café. event, they already had an interest in All the points were recorded on flipchart creativity and innovation in teaching, and paper so that they could be written up and brought a wide range of knowledge and distributed to the delegates after the event. It expertise. Some visited the cafe to find out was found that networks developed out of more and to be inspired by others, whereas the morning sessions carried on over lunch. others had been working creatively with their This created a very easy and informal students for a long time, and wanted to atmosphere which encouraged others to join network with other like-minded staff from in. Music played in the background to add to across the University. the ‘bistro’ feel. As the café was the first major event I had Afternoon activities varied at different cafes. organised since joining the project, a lot of Often delegates were given a chance to effort was placed on preparing for the café
78 Welcome to the Creativity Café: Developing a network of shared creative teaching practice amongst academic staff
and its activities. Fortunately, the Creativity Events Management module in another Café was well-received and the opportunity department.) This supports the work of to network and discuss their ideas around Senge (1990) where spaces such as this creativity in teaching was positively contribute to the breaking down of welcomed by the delegates. The atmosphere boundaries between different parts of the was relaxed, everyone was willing to make a organisation. There was a willingness contribution, and learn something from it. amongst colleagues from different faculties to engage in a creativity dialogue to look at The café evaluation forms showed that 30 possibilities from other areas of the out of 40 of participants found the most University. useful part of the day was meeting staff from across the University, discussing and sharing Although the Cafés have been successful ideas, and networking. The remaining 25% events, the outcomes and learning from it mentioned the usefulness of the actual need to be developed and sustained. It is activities. Examples of comments were: now part of the staff development calendar ‘Time out with others to focus on a particular next year and creativity lunches will be theme’; ‘sharing and learning from others’; introduced as staff do not always have the and the possibility of ‘networking luxury of devoting a whole day to developing opportunities’. creativity in their teaching, so offering one- hour Network Lunches at the Creativity Café One of the main points made to improve the gives more staff the opportunity to become day was to ‘give more time to discuss good part of the network system. practice already in existence’. One delegate said ‘More discussion and fewer exercises. As well as organised Café events, informal Feel we could make more progress with links made by staff through the sessions are longer.’ But others countered this view by starting to develop through the exchange of commenting ‘Timing was right-didn’t go on ‘business cards’, recognising valuable too long’ and ‘This day worked-no real associations for the future. One facilitator change.’ Some were disappointed that no believed that changes in creative thinking discussion time was given after the speakers would only be sustained through one-to-one at the first café. In the later cafes this has or small group discussions in this way. been addressed with enhanced discussion Partnership working can also expand space. through shared teaching across disciplines. For example, Media staff could offer Theme 4 sessions on Advertising to Business Studies Digestion of Learning: The benefits, or students, whilst Business Studies tutors otherwise of the Creativity Café, and the could offer Media students classes on way forward setting up a business. Departments have The benefits of the Creativity Cafés have approached the project team to provide been notable, making an impact on staff for creative workshops to offer the opportunity days afterwards. I have been thanked for an to communicate research and innovative inspirational day, and absentees wanted to ideas with their own colleagues. be involved in the next one. One of the factors contributing to this response was the Some of the ‘diners’ were keen to observe appreciation of support from peers, and other staff teaching to see creativity in the another from the benefits of networking with classroom in action. Teaching commitments other staff. (For example, one colleague is and time are potential barriers, so a DVD is raising money for equipment through the being compiled to record ‘cameos’ of help of a tutor and his students doing an creative teaching using staff from across the
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University for July 2008. This will enable Conclusion – Washing up and clearing viewers to observe different creative away teaching techniques, and the contents will This paper has focused on one outcome of also be downloaded onto a university the project, which was to stimulate, evaluate website, a vehicle for staff to access and promote effective creative and information about Creativity in the University. innovative practice in teaching and learning Also, the project team’s book ‘A Toolkit for across the University. After engaging with a Creative Teaching in Post-Compulsory large number of academic staff through Education’ is to be published by The Open utilising a collaborative methodology, it University in March 2009, offering staff emerged that many wanted to share their innovative teaching ideas to use with their ideas and network with others across the students. University. The concept of the Creativity Café was created from these discussions. This paper has presented a very positive view of the Creativity Café and its benefits, The aim of the Café was to provide an but there are issues to consider. Although informal, yet constructive setting where staff staff are keen to share ideas, teach and could network and explore issues around communicate across the University, would creativity and teaching. However, the ‘café’ this always be encouraged by senior process stressed that this was to be management when budgets and resources achieved through fun and creative means – are held by the individual Schools? How can with its ‘bistro style’ setting and its ‘waiters’. these links be supported, and who will pay The ‘menu’ of the day was organised around for them? the delegates’ four broad constructions of creativity generated by the initial Furthermore, developing creativity in the collaborative methodology. These were: The classroom often means taking risks. In an Process of Creative Thinking; Creative education system that is increasingly Teaching Techniques in the Classroom; measured by targets and results, how many Community and Employer Engagement; and staff would prefer to follow safer options Technical on-line developments. rather than risk failure? Eastwood and Ormondroyd (2007) comment ‘are teachers An overriding conclusion is that for this group really encouraged to take risks in their of participants the Creativity Café has had a teaching in an ever accountable and lasting effect. From the evaluation forms and unpredictable educational world?’ subsequent comments, all the delegates valued the opportunity to network with their The work so far on the Creativity Cafes has colleagues from other Schools. The not addressed diversity and inclusion in the construction of the café rules prompted and classroom. To what extent are gender and enabled such interaction. There was also ethnicity taken into account when calling overwhelming support for more of these upon others to consider different Cafes to take place in the future and these perspectives and potential change to have been planned. practice? Additionally, where is the student voice? Has this been listened to sufficiently However, questions remain concerning to determine what works and how they may sustainability and systemic tensions in the be involved in subsequent creative University. However, the informal networks, innovation? These puzzles form my next inclusion in the staff development calendar cycle of inquiry for this project. Finally, there and the DVD hope to alleviate potential is the issue of sustainability. Will there be problems and enhance the profile of creativity enough momentum generated by the key in teaching and learning at the University. staff once the project ends? Although the Creativity Cafes have created a
80 Welcome to the Creativity Café: Developing a network of shared creative teaching practice amongst academic staff
positive buzz around the University and Eastwood, L. and Ormondroyd, C. (2007). aided the formation of a community of Creativity or Conformity: Opening Doors or practice (Wenger, 1999), it is important that Closing Windows? (Internal Research the TQEF project stays focused on the value Document, University of Huddersfield). of creativity and innovation in teaching. To do this, other stakeholders and issues must Gardener, H. (1993) Frames of mind: The not be overlooked. For example, the views of theories of Multiple Intelligences (New York, students must be considered and also the Basic Books). importance of diversity and inclusion in the classroom. Grainger, T, Barnes, J, and Scoffham, S (2004). A Creative Cocktail: creative teaching Biography in initial teacher education. Journal of Josie Harvey is the research project leader Education for Teaching, 30 (3). for ‘Creativity and Innovation in Teaching in Higher Education’ and also a Senior Lecturer Senge, P. M. (1993) The Fifth Discipline: The in Post-Compulsory Education at the Art and Practice of the Learning Organisation University of Huddersfield. Until May 2007, (London, Century Business). she was a Senior Curriculum Manager in Business at Sutton Coldfield College, with Mezirow, J et al. (1990) Fostering Critical twenty-five years of teaching experience Reflection in Adulthood (San Francisco, across all levels from 14 year-olds to adult, Jossey Bass). specialising in finance. Her managerial role generated extensive experience of staff Wenger, E. (1999) Communities of Practice: development, curriculum design, and Learning, Meaning and Identity (Cambridge, operation. Presently, as part of the project Cambridge University Press). she is running creative teaching workshops, and writing a book on creative teaching techniques with an accompanying DVD.
References Craft, A., Jeffrey, B. and Leibling, M. (Eds) (2001) Creativity in Education (London, Continuum).
Cropley, A. (2001) Creativity in Education and Learning. A guide for teachers and educators (London, Kogan Page).
De Bono, E. (1996) Serious Creativity. Using the Power of Lateral Thinking to Create New Ideas (London, HarperCollins).
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9. New Values – New Careers: examining the values of newly qualified teachers in Norway, Germany and England
Gerry Czerniawski: University of East London
Summary Much literature (Hirst and Thompson, 2002; Green et al., 1999; Hartley, 2003) has been generated about globalisation exploring the dynamic interrelationship said to exist between economic convergence and integration, education systems, institutions and social actors at local levels. This paper problematises overly deterministic themes within the literature on globalisation as applied to the teaching profession in which a convergence and homogenisation of the profession is implied (Ritzer, 1993; Chappell, 1998; Ball, 1999). It achieves this by focusing on the early experiences of thirty-two newly qualified teachers in Norway, Germany and England and is part of a more extensive study (Czerniawski, 2007). Based on a grounded analysis of interview data with teachers at the end of their teacher training courses and throughout their first two years as qualified teachers, the study shows how the professional values of these teachers are mediated in different ways through the situatedness of key values surrounding becoming a teacher. The paper emphasises the role the institutional setting and individual agency play within professional identity formation that other literature has glossed over when addressing theories of globalisation.
Keywords Comparative education / professional identity / teachers’ values / Norway / Germany / England / globalisation / Newly Qualified Teachers
Introduction systems. He points to the existence of the Much literature (Hirst and Thompson, 2002; post-modern ‘reformed teacher’ who is Green et al., 1999; Hartley, 2003) has been ‘accountable, [and] primarily oriented to generated about globalisation exploring the performance indicators, competition and dynamic interrelationship said to exist comparison and responsiveness’(Ball, between economic convergence and 1999:26). integration, education systems, institutions and social actors at local levels. Explanations This paper problematises such overly that connect the processes of globalisation deterministic themes within the literature on to what takes place in the classroom globalisation as applied to the teaching abound. Ritzer (1993), for example, refers to profession in which a convergence and the ‘McDonaldization of society’ which leads homogenisation of the profession is implied to the ‘dehumanisation of education, the (Ritzer, 1993; Chappell, 1998; Ball, 1999). It elimination of a human teacher and of human achieves this by focusing on the early interaction between teacher and student experiences of thirty-two newly qualified (Ritzer, 1993:142). Ball (1999), referring to teachers in Norway, Germany and England ‘northern countries’ (Ball, 1999:5) describes a and is part of a more extensive study move towards a ‘paradigm convergence’ (Czerniawski, 2007) that posed three that can rework or ‘remake’ teachers within research questions: What values do the context of converging educational ‘becoming’ teachers hold in relation to their
82 New Values – New Careers: examining the values of newly qualified teachers in Norway, Germany and England
proposed occupation? What similarities and 2000). Teaching has been variously differences in teachers’ values are evident in described as a ‘vocation of care’ (Collay, three national settings under examination? 2006) and a ‘journey of the heart’ (Bogue, What part is played by national pedagogic 1992). By teachers’ ‘values’ I refer to what traditions, national policy contexts and teachers regard as worthwhile. These values institutional settings in the changing values are constructed over time, through social of newly qualified teachers? Based on a interaction in the home, school, community grounded analysis of interview data with and wider social setting. Values are carried teachers at the end of their teacher training by people but they can change, be extended courses and throughout their first two years and elaborated on through life experience. as qualified teachers, the study shows how Values are also not of a piece but can come the professional values of these teachers are into tension and conflict with the values that mediated in different ways through the circulate within the institutions in which situatedness of key values surrounding people work. This in turn can create becoming a teacher. The paper emphasises dissonance for teachers if these values differ the role the institutional setting and individual from some of their own. agency play within professional identity formation that other literature has glossed Research related to new teachers suggests over when addressing theories of that the first few years of teaching are globalisation. significant in relation to influencing teachers’ values and, for many, the decision whether The paper firstly examines some of the value or not to remain within the profession (see, ambiguities, tensions, conflicts and for example, Kelchtermans et al., 2002). The dilemmas that many writers (Hatch, 1999; first few months of teaching have been Hobson et al., 2005) argue make up this described as a period of ‘sink or swim’, a most dramatic period of teachers’ careers. term used by Hatch (1999) to describe the After introducing the reader to the isolated conditions of teachers work. methodology deployed in the study, aspects Referring to this initial period as one of of similarity and difference, convergence and ‘survival’, Shindler et al. (2004) argue that divergence between the three education this time can involve feelings of inadequacy, systems are then used to focus on generic as stress, confusion and disillusionment. In the well as culturally specific issues raised by UK Tickle (2003) is similarly pessimistic some of the interview extracts. These about many aspects of the transitions from extracts reveal important similarities and teacher training to classroom teaching differences between the teaching arguing that many classrooms are sites professions in the three countries under where ‘the crucifixion of teachers’ learning examination. occurs (Tickle, 2003:2). However, not all accounts of this transition are painted in this Research into teachers’ values negative light. Writing about Australian As a focus of research in education, the role teachers, Carter (2000) has suggested that of values in relation to teachers’ work, has the processes of becoming a teacher involve gained momentum in recent years (Collay, varying degrees of personal and professional 2006; Halstead, 1996; Hobson et al., 2005; growth. Nearly all of the beginning teachers Hofstede, 1997; Tan, 1997). Values involved in Carter’s study indicated that their associated with people wishing to become values concerning teaching had changed teachers have included a commitment to over the course of their first year as a teacher children’s welfare, justice, equality and to accommodate a broader social agenda. intellectual growth (Mimbs, 2000; Sachs, Serving as carer, role model, guide and
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teacher of life skills had become key aspects Layder (1993; 1998). Layder (1993) suggests of their work which they valued. This study a layered analytical approach to research indicates that the transition from university that focuses on macro phenomena (i.e. at the initial teacher education to full-time work can global, national, cultural and institutional broaden the stock of values for some levels) as well as micro phenomena (i.e. teachers as they encounter new roles, new those related to individual social interaction professional contacts and different and teacher identity). These layers can institutional expectations. operate on different ‘time scales’ in a social world that is complex, multi-faceted and The complex experience of being a newly densely compacted. Layder recognises the qualified teacher is frequently subject to existence of a social reality, with social chance placement in employment; structures and currents which have an institutional conditions of service; the views existence over and above the existence of of senior teachers about their own roles as individual actors. Yet he also recognises the professional tutors and mentors; along with significance of human agency in the assessors, and managers and their formation of those structures. conceptions of newly qualified teachers (Tickle, 2000). Tickle (2000) recognises the The practice of teaching does not take place complexities and ambiguities emergent in a vacuum but within a variety of often, teachers may experience: conflicting personal, social, political and ideological values that shift, vanish and often We should not, I believe, simply assume reappear – frequently under different guises. that continuity is achievable in some Research (McLean, 1990; Pepin, 1998) has smooth, transitional sense…Rather we attempted to demonstrate that while might be prepared for discontinuities; for globalising tendencies may well be at work at new radically different experiences; for influencing the world of teaching, national turbulence both between and within the cultural traditions can influence the system of pre-service, induction and in-service schooling in general, on national curricula, periods of professional education (Tickle, and on teachers’ values and classroom 2000:11). practices in schools. Dale (2004) argues that national filters: Turbulence may exist for many newly qualified teachers when the values that drive modify, mitigate, interpret, resist, shape, them are at odds with the values of the accommodate etc. all the external schools in which they gain first employment. pressures on national states and societies For many newly qualified teachers this period that have traditionally received more involves a transition from some of the attention than the nature of globalisation idealism and the theoretical input they have [p. 106] received during training to the relative isolation of being a full-time teacher. This In adopting a suitable analytical framework transition can provide a variety of value that acknowledges the contextual tensions that emerging teachers encounter specificities (Furlong et al., 2000) that relate once into the ‘reality shock’ (Veenman, 1984) both the ‘macro’ large scale structural of the classroom. processes that can influence the professional lives of teachers to the ‘micro’ small-scale Theoretical Framework individual actions and meanings important to This paper has been theoretically and me as a qualitative researcher and teacher I methodologically framed by questions have drawn on Layder’s (1993) work. He related to globalisation and the work of suggests, when embarking on the early
84 New Values – New Careers: examining the values of newly qualified teachers in Norway, Germany and England
stages of research, using the following used to initiate the research by providing resource/research map: ‘sensitising devices’ of theoretical thinking in relation to particular areas of fieldwork and This research map sets out ‘clusterings’ of during the coding of the data. Layder’s analytic and empirical characteristics which ‘context’ refers to the wider socio and represent levels or sectors of social life and economic environment in which the social social organisation. This ‘framework’ was activity of teaching is located. His map
Figure 1: The Research Map
Research Element Research Focus
Macro Social organisation CONTEXT Values, traditions, forms of social and economic organization and power relations e.g. legally sanctioned forms of ownership, control and distribution; state intervention
H Intermediate Social Organisation SETTING Work: Industrial, military and state bureaucracies; labour I markets; hospitals; social work agencies, domestic labour; penal and mental institutions
S Non-work: Social organization of leisure activities, sports and social clubs; religious and spiritual organisations T Social Activity O SITUATED Face-to-face activity involving symbolic communication ACTIVITY by participants in the above contexts and settings. R Focus on emergent meanings, understandings and definitions of the situation as these affect and are affected by contexts and settings (above) and subjective Y dispositions of individuals (below).
SELF Self-identity and individual social experience These are influenced by the above sectors and as they interact with the unique psychobiography of the individual.
Focus on the life career.
Figure 1 Derek Layder’s ‘Research Map’ (Adapted from Layder. D., (1993) “New Strategies in Social Research” (Blackwell) Cambridge)
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highlights how values are at the heart of this states) have a tripartite system of schooling category along with the significance he containing the following types of school: the places on tradition as macro-phenomena Hauptschule (providing a basic education worthy of analysis. Layder’s ‘setting’ has with preparation for employment in been used to focus on organisational manufacturing industry or manual work), the cultures and communities of practice Realschule (providing preparation for (Wenger, 1998); patterns of social activity employment in the technical, financial, and many of the power and authority commercial and middle management structures within the school in which the sectors) and the Gymnasium for which teachers in this study work. Layder’s (1993) teachers in this study were trained to teach. use of ‘self’ as a level of analysis focuses on Gymnasium pupils are generally considered how teachers’ identities might be influenced in Germany to be the most able pupils within by certain social situations. At the level of the German tripartite system. Broadly similar the ‘self’, a focal point for this research has to the English Grammar school, the been how teachers are affected and respond Gymnasium consists of lower and upper to certain social processes that reflect their secondary schools. Teacher training varies values and the values that circulate within depending on the type of school the teacher the contexts and settings in which they are is being prepared for and the federal state in located. which that teacher is being trained in. This training takes place within differentiated Three National Contexts contexts with Gymnasium teachers Previous research has characterised the accorded significantly higher status than Norwegian education system as one in which their colleagues in other forms of German equality is valued over and above cultural schooling. and academic achievements (Tjeldvoll, 2002). Generally speaking Norwegian The training of teachers in England takes schools are ‘schools for all’ i.e. place within a highly regulated system, under comprehensive and form the same system of a variety of pathways and within a much education that the Norwegian teachers greater diversity of types of school than in interviewed in this study experienced when either the Norwegian or the German settings. they were pupils. Setting and streaming does The teachers from England interviewed in not exist and goes against the Norwegian this study received their training on the cultural belief that everyone should be Postgraduate Certificate of Education treated in the same way (Stephens et al., (PGCE). This one-year training course 2004). Norwegian teachers are introduced, available to graduates who wish to become during their training, to an anti-authoritarian secondary school teachers is the most stance that is embedded within the teaching popular training route into secondary school profession (Korsgaard, 2002). The teaching. In contrast to both Norway and Norwegian teacher is trained to be a Germany, there is no relationship in England ‘guide/supervisor’ (Stephens et al., 2004) between the educational background (i.e. the rather than the more authoritarian notion of type of school the trainee has attended) and teaching not uncommon to the English or the type of school the trainee will eventually German school settings (Kron, 2000). qualify to teach in. Although all nine teachers interviewed in this study were teaching in While making generalisations about teaching London, their schooling backgrounds varied in Germany is problematic, previous research from comprehensive, to private (fee paying), has characterised its education system as to grammar school (schools targeting high hierarchical and fragmented (Kron, 2000). ability children) providing a rich and varied The majority of German Länder (federal set of values relating to what ‘being a
86 New Values – New Careers: examining the values of newly qualified teachers in Norway, Germany and England
teacher’ might conceivably mean. This Sample means that during their training these The study adopted a purposive sampling teachers will have encountered (directly or strategy composed of trainee teachers from through seminar discussions) a variety of the same teacher education courses within values related to teaching and learning in the three national settings. All the samples very different contexts. were small and in some ways not directly comparable. For example in relation to the Methodology Norwegian sample, these teachers were In this small-scale and interpretive study trained to teach a much wider age-range (six three groups of teachers (thirteen Norwegian, to fourteen) whereas those teachers used in ten German and nine English) have been the samples for Germany and England were interviewed three times (with the exception of trained to teach pupils from eleven to two teachers) during the course of two years eighteen/nineteen. However, from the onset making a total of ninety-two interviews. The of the study the focus was on values and first interviews were carried out in the final how they related to national context and weeks of initial teacher training with the institutional setting and that still stands in following two interviews taking place at this paper. approximately twelve month intervals. The method of data collection took the form of Details of the sample group in each country guided/semi-structured interviews which are given below in Tables I, II, and III. followed a format that borrowed much from my experience as a teacher and from a Table 1: The Norwegian Sample previous study (Czerniawski, 1999). Name of Age at Gender School Age range Age taught Interviews in Germany were mostly carried teacher first size in school (in years) interview (approx) out in German whereas all Norwegian Jacob 26 Male 320 6-16 10 interviews were carried out in English. Tine 34 Female 450 6-16 8-9 Inga 22 Female 300 6-16 13 The approach to data analysis adopted for Henning 25 Male 300 6-13 10-11 this study owes much to the grounded Albert 25 Male N/A N/A N/A Julie 21 Female 180 6-13 9/10/12 theory tradition associated with Glaser and Georg 26 Male 500 6-13 8-13 Strauss (1967). This tradition is not a Jens 23 Male 150 5-16 12 consistent single methodology but has a Jan 29 Male 160 12-15 12-15 number of interpretations (Charmaz, 2000; Svend 22 Male 420 6-13 11-12 Kvale, 1996). Using the sensitising Beate 22 Female 320 6-13 12-13 Vivi 34 Female 310 13-16 13-14 categories of ‘self’, ‘setting’ and ‘context’ Hanne 31 Female 500 6-13 11-12 from Layder’s (1993) research map (see above) the transcripts of the interview texts were coded. Initial open coding (Glaser and The Norwegian sample was taken from Strauss, 1967) forced me to make analytic student teachers in a city in Norway on the decisions about the data while last year of their teacher training. These selective/focused coding highlighted more trainees are qualified to teach all ages from frequently appearing initial codes to sort and six to fourteen, this latter point marking out a conceptualise the data sets (Charmaz, 2000). significant difference between their training Comparisons took place at a number of and early experiences of teaching compared levels i.e. individual teacher over period of with the English and German sample. research; teachers compared with members Because of the nature of their training this of same sample group; and common themes Norwegian group are ‘generalist’ teachers between the three sample groups. rather than ‘subject specialists’. They are trained in a variety of subjects and are
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expected to be able to deliver these subjects Table III: The English Sample across the 6-14 age range in comprehensive/unitary schools. In most Name of Age at Gender School Age range Age taught teacher first size in school (in years) cases they had gone straight into teacher interview (approx) training after leaving school. All trainees Liz 24 Female 1100 11-18 11-18 have attended comprehensive schools when Carmen 36 Female 1250 11-18 11-18 they were pupils. Most schools in which Eleanor 22 Female 900 11-19 14-19 these teachers eventually worked were Nora 23 Female 1400 11-18 11-18 Rob 23 Male 1350 11-18 11-18 located in the town in which they had Edward 27 Male 1700 11-18 11-18 received their training. Cara 24 Female 950 11-16 11-16 Jim 24 Male 1500 11-18 11-18 Sylvia 36 Female 1200 11-18 11-18 Name of Age at Gender School Age range Age taught teacher first size in school (in years) interview (approx) The English sample was taken from a cohort Magda 28 Female 900 11-18 11-18 of Postgraduate Certificate in Education Katarina 27 Female 780 11-18 11-18 (PGCE) students at a university in London. Harald 31 Male 700 11-19 11-19 As secondary PGCE student teachers they Claudia 29 Female 800 11-18 11-18 would be expected to teach pupils aged Elsa 32 Female 400 11-16 11-16 Nikolas 28 Male 950 11-18 11-18 between eleven and eighteen. The Ursula 36 Female 1100 11-19 11-19 catchment area of this particular teaching Michel 31 Male 950 11-18 11-18 college meant that many beginning teachers Anna 28 Female 1000 11-18 11-16 interviewed would be trained for, and Dagmar 30 Female 950 11-19 11-19 working in, different types of secondary Table II: The German Sample school within the inner city area.
The German sample consisted of ten trainee Findings teachers from Munich attached to one of the In this section the ways in which teachers are Gymnasium (the equivalent to English both positioned, and position themselves by Grammar schools) training schools. These the variety of values shaping what it is to be a teachers were initially based at a school that teacher in Norway, Germany and England specialised in the training of Gymnasium are discussed. The table below summarises teachers covering the age range of eleven to the dominant trends in the values of the eighteen. All trainees shared a Gymnasium teachers who participated in this original background as pupils themselves and were study. These trends are illustrated in more expecting to get work as teachers in Munich depth drawing on quotes from some of these after qualifying. All teachers qualified and participants: were employed in Gymnasium schools. In most cases these student teachers had gone directly into training, having completed a significantly longer period of study at university than either their Norwegian or English counterparts. These teachers are regarded, within the teaching profession, as subject specialists.
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Table IV: Table summarising the dominant matter’. I do get angry and I do, at times, trends in the values of teachers in this study tell them what to do and punish them and shout. It’s not the Norwegian way as you Values Norway Germany England Democratic say, but it’s my way.’ Beate (third Authoritarian interview) Control Child-centred Beate’s use of the phrase ‘I cannot be that Teacher-centred Subject-centred person a lot of the time’ highlights a dynamic Equality yet fragile process of developing not only her Professional Status values concerning teaching but her Humanistic professional identity as a teacher. An aspect Efficiency Inclusiveness of being a teacher i.e. the culturally expected Exclusiveness role of facilitator and democratic practitioner Creativity is, at times, part of her professional identity Friend i.e. how she perceives her ‘self’ as ‘teacher’ Care while at other times it is not. Collegiality Security (Job) Parent-oriented For many Norwegian teachers it is expected Promotion that parents have access to their home Staff Development telephone numbers and, that it is acceptable for many parents to call teachers in the Norway evenings or at weekends (Stephens et al., 2004). Hanna’s own experience of being The findings indicate that tensions in values both a mother and a teacher influences her generated between context, setting and self resentment of this particular aspect of the exist for some Norwegian teachers when work she does: cultural and professional values centred around democratic open relationships collide ‘The other day one parent said ‘I tried to with their personal values about the nature of call you this weekend but you wasn’t being a teacher. For Beate, these tensions [sic] home’. They were expecting me to are apparent between the democratic ideal apologise. “Sorry, I have been away.” I of teaching she values, the cultural feel that they expect it to be but I don’t expectation of what ‘being a teacher’ in think that is the right way. I don’t think Norway should be, and for her, what is that is the way it should be. In a way I pragmatically possible as classroom think that responsibility is put on me. practitioner: Some of the parents say “we don’t want to help them with their homework…you ‘I have worked both in American and are supposed to do that…you are Norwegian schools. The Norwegian way supposed to teach them so they is certainly more democratic. And I like it. understand so they can do their We resolve conflicts, we give voice to the homework at home alone’ and many pupils and there is a supposed equality of of the parents work and they don’t have status between the two [teachers and the time for it.” pupils]. But I find this does not reflect my Hanna (second interview) reality. I cannot be that person a lot of the time. When you have pupils that want to Hanna’s dual-identity as teacher and mother fight or come in from the playground collide and serve to play-off each other in a aggressive and rude then I am not going complex process of value deconstruction. to sit down and ask them ‘what is the
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She acknowledges her role as viewed by the As noted earlier, Gymnasium teachers are parents i.e. the responsibility placed on her trained as subject specialists of two to three to be there for them but she also subjects for a period of between five to eight acknowledges her own role as a parent in the years. The nature of the recruitment is such education process. By doing this she that Gymnasium trained teachers are all concludes that this responsibility is too former Gymnasium pupils. This lengthy much. period of training with teachers sharing similar educational experiences provides Norwegian values voiced by these teachers little disruption in the educational values clustered around notions of democracy, many of these teachers were introduced to child-centred teaching, inclusiveness and when they were themselves were pupils. equality. Norwegian teachers are, as we have Gymnasium teachers are trained to be seen, trained for a wider and younger age- subject ‘instructors’ with greater priority range and there is a propensity for them to being given to teaching and assessment than engage with values that are more child- to pastoral care. For some teachers however centred (Stephens et al., 2004). Child- this instructor role fuels frustration: centred values tend to be more common with teachers working in the early-years ‘You have to do the book [the particular sectors (Furlong and Maynard, 1995). This text she was teaching her pupils]…it’s a wider age-range necessitates a more shame because sometimes you would like generalist subject knowledge base which to do other things, like I said, read or do diminishes the importance of subject- more project work, in some classes its ok speciality. This also makes it less likely for but in one class there is a English for Norwegian teachers to define their pupils doing it as a second professional identities in terms of being language…they have Latin as a first subject specialists (Day et al., 1993). language and the book is crammed full…there are 42 texts I’ll never finish the Germany book …I’ll never finish the grammar…I The separateness of the various categories can’t do anything with them…I would love of teachers within the tripartite system in to show them a Monty Python video at the Germany, reflecting social selectivity at end…just have to always in one lesson a school level permeates the data from this set text…grammar and questions on the text of interviews: and It’s so boring and they hate it and I hate it too [laughs with frustration].’ ‘There is one fourth or one fifth of the Elsa (second interview) pupils that should not be in this class. That might sound hard but I think they should be in a different type of school. I do not think I should spend too much time revising things, doing the same things repeatedly in order to push them so that they can reach the next level and at the same time, may be four fifths of the class fall asleep because they are bored. When I talk about efficiency I mean I would rather focus on the majority of the class than the minority who should not be there’. Harald (second interview)
90 New Values – New Careers: examining the values of newly qualified teachers in Norway, Germany and England
While there is a desire amongst some of what do you do? I have spent so much these German teachers to deploy a variety of time worrying and trying to get counsellor strategies and ideas about education and police and his family are afraid for introduced during their training, many get him. And this worries me and when I see drawn into a Gymnasium ethos in his friends in class it’s difficult not to think communities of practice (Wenger, 1998) that of him and try to get them to get him to are content-driven and targeting narrow come back.’ ability ranges. Elsa experiences value Carmen (second interview) turbulence and discontinuity (Tickle, 2000) as her own values about teaching are in tension Critical incidents can be experienced by with a system in school that values content emerging teachers like Carmen and can lead over pedagogic delivery. to crises for some newly qualified teachers as they struggle, very often alone, to find a Both German and Norwegian teachers in this solution. For the teachers in this sample, the study share one common experience. These contextual factors of challenging schools in teachers have experienced, as pupils, the London provide many such ‘incidents’ and same forms of schooling they are trained for can serve to disrupt and interfere with those and employed in. And yet the differentiated sorts of values that attract many teachers and fragmented tripartite system of education into the profession in the first place. Such in Germany may provide significantly less incidents require the teacher to possess value disruption for these Gymnasium physical, mental and emotional stamina in teachers in their journey from pupil to school order to cope with the often painful process teacher than their Norwegian counterparts. of reappraising their personal and professional values in light of the real England experience of being a teacher. All teachers in England are responsible not only for the academic but also for the Teachers’ values are reformed and adapted pastoral care of the child (TDA, 2007). In her as they move from one period of their second interview, Carmen talks about how professional development to the next values related to both the pastoral and (Willemse et al., 2005). Sylvia’s enthusiasm academic can merge, albeit uncomfortably, radiated throughout the interview and this when ‘critical incidents’ take place (Tripp, was partly due to her work with trainee 1994). A critical incident refers to an teachers about which she was extremely experience which, as defined by the enthusiastic. However new interactions that respondent, results in a change of come about as a result of job promotion can professional behaviour: foster the emergence and development of new values and therefore the potential for ‘You do take the work home with you and new teacher identities (Ibarra, 2003). Thus my husband tells me off for this. Just while the English policy context is one that recently we had a boy who had been off very obviously, for some, is cause of stress, school for several days. A good boy from a tension and dilemmas, for others it provides caring family and he hasn’t been into a rich, dynamic environment that offers school now for a long time and he always future possibilities attends. I was worried and called home and was told that he had Discussion witnessed his older brother being attacked Insights gained from examining interviews at the door by a gang of youths with a from teachers coming from the social baseball bat. He was beaten in front of his democratic traditions of Norway (Esping- family and Anderson, 1990), the ‘corporatist welfare’
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regime seen in Germany (Jones, 2001) and interweave in ways that construct, inform, the more individualised, market-led contest and distort values about teaching to approach to education adopted in England complicate any generalisations made about (Stephens et al., 2004) provide contexts and teaching occupations in different countries. settings for a fruitful exploration of some of In all three national locations these teachers’ the dynamics behind the construction and values are mediated through tensions deconstruction of teachers’ values. The generated by conflicting constructions of historical processes associated with what teaching and learning is. This study globalisation could not possibly be explored reveals, on the one hand, clear patterns of in such a short time-scale. Nor are the study adherence, on the part of the teachers and its samples of teachers meant to be interviewed to national values and role representative of the whole teaching expectations about being a teacher. workforce within the national locations from However the study also reveals the many which the samples are taken. However this ways in which these teachers resist and qualitative and interpretive small-scale is deconstruct these values. illuminative in that it recognises the specificity of context and setting in which The second theme relates to the these teachers are located. In particular, the complexities in the reproduction of values in paper raises a number of issues about each of the three national contexts. teacher values in relation to global, national, Schooling is crucial in understanding the institutional and local contexts. Two values that some teachers absorb when they dominant themes are addressed below. The are pupils. It has for example, been argued first relates to the tensions experienced by (Lortie, 1975) that having experienced teachers in values circulating at national, classrooms for many years as students local and individual levels. The second themselves, teachers internalise many of the relates to the reproduction of values in each values of their own teachers through an of the three national contexts. ‘apprenticeship of observation’ (Lortie, 1975). What emerges in this study is that in In relation to the first of these themes, both Norwegian and German cases, teachers throughout these interviews the dominant are educated, trained and employed in one values in these three different locations that kind of system (Norwegian construct the role of the teacher are played unitary/comprehensive schooling and the off against the individual values of teachers German Gymnasiums). This contrasts as they gain experience. These values may strongly with the variety of pathways (or or may not necessarily match with national ‘apprenticeships of observation’) trainee values, expectations and assumptions about teachers in England experience in their the role of the teacher. National settings journey to become qualified teachers. construct what it means to be a teacher However this study also reveals that the while teachers simultaneously deconstruct degree of freedom teachers have to this meaning in relation to their own determine their own practice largely depends individual values and the values within the on the values of the ‘communities of locale where they work. I have, in this paper, practice’ (Wenger, 1998) they inhabit. To not attempted to show how teachers’ draw on Goffman’s (1959) dramaturgical identities and values are determined by the approach to identity, the social actor is, to a national culture which they inhabit but rather degree, free to interpret the script that to show, at a number of levels, how teachers’ she/he is given. The teachers interviewed identities and values are influenced by their are caught between conflicting values of national contexts, institutional settings and what kind of teachers they would like to be, personal biographies. These levels the kinds of teachers they think they are,
92 New Values – New Careers: examining the values of newly qualified teachers in Norway, Germany and England
what their training and the school in which values of the teachers in this study and their they work tell them about the role of the concerns for their students give rise to professional teacher and the forms of complex hope in exceedingly complex times. assessment teachers needed to deploy with There is an understandable tendency for their students. teachers to concentrate on their own policy setting and on their own institutional Common for many of the case study locations. Sharing the experiences of teachers in all three national locations, is teachers who do similar work but in different their recognition of a shift in teaching from a settings helps produce a more complex, more inductive and student-centred sophisticated and nuanced understanding of approach introduced to them during their what it is to be a teacher. training to a more teacher-centred one once they encountered the reality shock © Gerry Czerniawski – please note that this (Veenman, 1984) of the classroom. This paper is a first draft of work in progress. means that the values that most emerging Please do not quote from this paper without teachers have are not fixed or constant but the permission of the author. shift as they gain experience of teaching.
Concluding remarks Biography Three countries, three pasts and three Gerry Czerniawski is a Senior Lecturer presents - all with different cultural in Education at the University of East traditions and subject to the forces of London. economic globalisation that, for some, point to a more homogenised future and the end References of history as we know it (Fukuyama, 1992) Ball, S.J. (1999) Global Trends in Educational rather than the ‘glocalised’ (Held, 2004) Reform and the Struggle for the Soul of the heterogeneity that I have encountered Teacher, Paper presented at the British during this research. Strong versions of Educational Research Association Annual globalisation can reduce hope in an Conference, University of Sussex at Brighton, increasingly complex world. They can both September 2-5 1999, (Centre for Public frighten, and be used to frighten, all Policy Research – Kings College London). occupations including teaching. Often couched in terms of inevitability, the Bogue, E.G. (1992) The evidence for quality: pressures associated with economic Strengthening the tests of academic and globalisation can drain energy and administrative effectiveness (San Francisco, commitment from teachers. And yet this Jossey-Bass). study offers complex hope in these globalising times by showing how teachers’ Carter. M. (2000) Beginning Teachers and values are, in part, contingent on their own Workplace Learning: An exploration of the identities as well as local conditions and the process of becoming a teacher, paper local and national cultures in which teachers presented at the 13th Annual International are situated. The study indicates that Congress for School Effectiveness and expectations of what being a teacher means Improvement (ICSEI 2000), New South Wales can be constructed locally despite Department of Education and Training. converging tendencies at a global level. The
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Chappell, C. (1998) Teachers’ Identities in Furlong, J., Barton, L., Miles, S., Whitty, G. New Times (Sidney, University of Technology). (2000) Teacher Education in Transition (Buckingham, Open University Press) .). Charmaz, K. (2000) Qualitative Interviewing and Grounded Theory Analysis, in: J.F. Furlong, J., Maynard, T. (1995) Mentoring Gubrium and J.A. Holstein [eds] Handbook student teachers: The growth of professional of Interviewing (California, Sage). knowledge (London, Routledge).
Collay, M. (2006) Respecting Teacher Glaser, B.G., Strauss, A.L. (1967) The Professional Identity as a Foundational Discovery of Grounded Theory (Chicago, Reform Strategy (Seattle, New Horizons for Aldine). Learning). Goffman, E. (1959) The Presentation of Self Czerniawski, G. (1999) Self, Setting and in Everyday Life (New York, Doubleday Context – A Study of the Professional Anchor). Socialisation of Beginning and Newly Qualified Teachers (Department of Policy Green, A., Wolf, A., Leney, T. (1999) Studies – London University Institute of Convergence and Divergence in European Education) Dissertation submitted in partial Education and Training systems (London, fulfilment of the requirements for the award University of London Institute of Education). of MA Sociology of Education. Halstead, M. (1996) Values and values Czerniawski, G. (2007) Context, Setting and education in schools, In: J. M. Halstead & M. Teacher Identities: A comparative study of J. Taylor (Eds), Values in education and the values of newly qualified teachers in education in values pp. 3-14 (London, Falmer Norway, Germany and England (Department Press). of Education and Professional Studies – King’s College London) – PhD Thesis. Hartley, D. (2003) New Economy, New Pedagogy, Oxford Review of Education, Dale, R. (2004) The construction of a 9 (1). pp. 81-94. European education space and education policy, Paper presented at La mesure en Hatch, J.A. (1999) What Pre-service teachers éducation conference [the measurement in can learn from studies of teachers work, education], FOREDUC, 18–19 June, Paris. Teaching and Teacher Education, 15, pp 229-242. Day, C., Calderhead, J., Denicolo, P. (1993) Research on teacher thinking: understanding Held, D. (2004) A Globalising World? Culture, professional development (London, Falmer). economics, politics (London, The Open University). Esping-Anderson, G. (1990) The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (New Jersey, Hirst, P., Thompson, G. (2002) The Future of Princeton University Press). Globalisation, Cooperation and Conflict, 37 (3) pp. 247-265. Fukuyama F., (1992). The End of History and the Last Man, Free Press. Hobson, J.A., Kerr, K., Malderez, A. Pell, G., Tracey, L. (2005) Becoming a Teacher (Nottingham, University of Nottingham).
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Hofstede, G. (1997) Cultures and Mimbs, C.A. (2000) Retention of certified organizations: Software of the mind family and consumer sciences teachers: (New York, McGraw-Hill). Implications for teacher supply and demand, Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences Ibarra, H. (2003) Working Identities (Harvard, Education Retrieved from: Harvard Business School Press). http://www.natefacs.org/journal/vol18no1/ retention.htm . Jones, M. (2001) Becoming a Secondary Teacher in Germany: a trainee perspective Pepin, B. (1998) Curriculum, cultural on recent developments in initial teacher traditions and pedagogy: understanding the training in Germany, European Journal of work of teachers in England, France and Teacher Education, 23 (1), p66. Germany, Paper presented at the European Conference for Educational Research, Kelchtermans, G., Ballet, K. (2002) The University of Ljubljana (Open University) Micropolitics of Teacher Induction – a Slovenia September 17th to 20th 1998. narrative-biographical study on teacher socialisation, Teaching and Teacher Ritzer, G. (1993) The McDonaldization of Education no 18 pp.105-120. Society (London, Sage).
Korsgaard, O. (2002) A European Demos? Sachs, J. (2000) Rethinking the Practice of The Nordic Adult Education Tradition, Teacher Professionalism, in: C, Day, A, Comparative Education (38) 1. Fernandez, E. Trond, J. Moller [eds] (2000) The Life and Work of Teachers (London, Kron F.W., (2000) ‘Germany’ in: Brook C.; Falmer Press). Tulasiewicz W., [ed] Education in a Single Europe (London, Routledge). Shindler, J., Jones, A. Taylor, C. Cadenash, (2004) Don’t Smile till Christmas: Examining Kvale, S. (1996) Interviews – An introduction the Immersion of new Teachers into Existing to qualitative research interviewing (London, Urban School Climates (LA, Charter College Sage). of Education).
Layder, D. (1993) New Strategies in Social Stephens, P., Egil Tonnessen, F. Kyriacou, Research (Cambridge, Blackwell). C. (2004) Teacher Training and Teacher Education in England and Norway: a (Layder, D.1998) Sociological Practice: comparative study of policy goals, linking theory and social research (London, Comparative Education, 40 (1). Sage). Tan, S.K. (1997) Moral values and science Lortie, D. (1975) Schoolteacher – A teaching: A Malaysian school curriculum Sociological Study (Chicago, University of initiative, Science and Education, 6, pp. Chicago Press). 555-572.
McLean, M. (1990) Britain and a single TDA (Training and Development Agency for Market Europe (London, Kogan Page in Schools) (2007) The Professional Standards association with The Institute of Education, for Teachers – Qualified Teacher Status, (The University of London). Training and Development Agency for Schools) TOA313/06.07/COL.
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Tickle, L. (2000) Teacher Induction: The Way Veenman, S. (1984) Perceived Problems of Ahead (Buckingham, Open University Press). Beginning Teachers, Review of Educational Research, 54 (2), pp. 143-178. Tickle, L. (2003) New Directions in Teachers’ Working and Learning environment, paper Wenger, R. (1998) Communities of Practice: presented at 2003 ISATT Leiden, Learning, Meaning and Identity (Cambridge Netherlands. University Press).
Tripp, D. (1994) Teachers’ lives, critical Willemse, M., Lunenberg, M., Korthagen, F. incidents and professional practice, (2005) Values in Education: a challenge for Qualitative Studies in Education, 7 (1), pp. teacher educators, in: Teaching and Teacher 65-76. Education no 21, pp. 205-207.
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96 Reflecting on Reflection: Towards a critical appraisal of ‘Learning about Learning’ within Initial Teacher Education
10. Reflecting on Reflection: Towards a critical appraisal of ‘Learning about Learning’ within Initial Teacher Education
Kevin J. Flint and Deborah Robinson: Nottingham Trent University
Summary Against a background of issues concerned with student motivation and retention within Initial Teacher Education (ITE) at Nottingham Trent University and nationally that emerged at the turn of the Millennium, this paper explores the issue of reflection. It raises questions concerning the need for a more differentiated language of reflection incorporating ITE and the wider scope of teacher education provided by forms of lifelong learning and continued education (CE). Examples are given of the structures used at Nottingham Trent to provide a scaffold for student reflection and to open further discussion concerning the structures used in other institutions to support reflection in ITE. The paper concludes with a brief examination of three forms of reflection used within ITE and ends with some further questions as a basis for further possible debate.
Key Words Reflection / Critical reflection / Reflection-in-action / Initial Teacher Education / Learner identity / Self esteem / Transition / Journal
Background: Development of Learning • frequent, formative contact with about Learning oneuniversity tutor early in their The concept of ‘Learning about Learning’ programme first came to light in the development of • early feedback on work submitted practice of an eponymous module at together with structured and Nottingham Trent University (NTU) in ‘scaffolded’ approaches to study response to concerns about levels of • enhanced personal support with retention in Initial Teacher Education. study and integration into the styles of teaching and learning associated In 2002 within the context of Initial Teacher with higher education. Education (ITE) nationally, official figures at that time suggested a ‘drop out’ rate of 30%, At the time, one colleague at NTU, Chris although this data would appear to be no Slade, had developed a module entitled longer available1. Although our figures were ‘Learning to Learn’ which was designed to always well below the national average ‘drop support student induction into an out’ rate, within the BA Primary Programme undergraduate programme leading to a BA in at NTU, this figure had grown to 20% in Educational Psychology. In addition to the 2001/2. At that time, Deborah Robinson was provisions listed above, this module sought a member of the Recruitment and Retention to induct students into critical engagement Committee at NTU which involved itself in with the epistemology of this subject. analyses of NTU retention patterns. Three Contingently, what had been significant to key findings emerged concerning the Robinson were the group principles of structures that might enhance student ‘learner identity’, ‘self-esteem’ and ‘reflective retention: learning’ which were key elements of the pedagogy developed by Slade. In fact,
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Robinson’s principles occupied the same Inevitably, during the passage of time, the ground as McPhee and Skelton’s (2002) evolution of the module reflects both study, ‘Gaining access, gaining confidence’ ongoing evaluation and the particular that centred on the ‘Glasgow access to interests and experiences of the staff Primary Education project’, which had involved in teaching it. However over the last concluded that ‘motivation and self esteem three years at least two significant issues are key to academic success’. have emerged. First, in the light of changes within the framing of ITE we have continually Since the inception of the ‘Learning about sought pragmatic and practical resolutions Learning’ module the learning outcomes that work in our own practice to the complex associated with it have retained their integrity and abstract question of reflection and its and significance within the BA programme. relation to students’ development of Essentially these outcomes make reference practice. Secondly, in looking to the future to: development of the ‘Learning about Learning’ module it has been apparent to us • being self-critical, self-motivated and that the dynamic of our earlier evaluations of able to take responsibility for own the module were always ‘self-contained’ in professional development in an nature and have never sought to examine the independent and self-motivated way; implications of the ‘Learning about Learning’ • recognising a capacity to analyse pedagogy for the BA programme as a whole, situations and processes reflectively for wider ITE provision at NTU and for ITE (in relation to the learning of self, provision more generally. others and children); • accessing and critically interpreting a What is the purpose of this paper? wide range of intellectual resources, The aim of our paper is to open discussion theoretical perspectives and and invite debate about the process of academic disciplines to illuminate ‘reflection’ and its place within ITE. Given the understanding of education and the abstract nature of reflection, the paper contexts within which it takes place; begins by attempting to unpick and to • beginning to appreciate and to bring broaden out the notion of reflection. Such into question the complex and deconstruction provides the basis for a interactive nature of learning and proposal at the heart of this paper education. concerning a differentiated language for discoursing about students’ progression in One of the challenges in developing the their capacity for reflection. The specific ‘Learning about Learning’ module has context for such language is, of course, that involved foregrounding the complex question of the continually changing face of Initial of the changing identity of student Teacher Education. practitioners mediated by their journey towards such outcomes. In a sense, the The object of our paper is to make concrete module attempts to provide a structure and a what, for many, would be an abstract series of practical and interactive process of reflection in terms of the approaches that enables such a journey and practicalities of supporting undergraduates makes the abstract nature of ‘reflection’ in their first year of study. We would also like more concrete. For example, in figure 1 the to raise further questions about the place of illustration shows how a specific learning reflection in ITE, which we see as an experience has been designed to scaffold important foundation stone for Continued reflection on teaching and learning within the Education (CE) and Lifelong Learning. context of a model for ‘good practice’.
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Figure 1: Learning about Learning, Module Handbook 2007 p.6 Aims of the Module In relation to yourself and others (with ‘others’ meaning a particular emphasis on children) the module aims to: • develop your awareness and understanding of the abilities, attitudes, • To model practices and approaches that influence learning pedagogic • develop your awareness of possible ways in which learning processes proecesses might be developed or enhanced Being a and activities • develop your ability to value the different learning styles and strategies Teacher • To provide a for learning that others might have context for reflecting on • develop you independence and confidence in new learning situations these Key questions addressed by the Module How can I enhance my abilities as an How do I learn? independent learner?
How do How can children’s children learn? learning be enhanced? • To scaffold the 1. How do I learn? You will gain insights into your own style of learning, development ways of thinking, strengths, abilities and preferences through the process Being a of reflective of reflection. activity Learner • Thinking 2. How can I enhance my abilities as an independent learner? You will learn • Writing to learn with more self-awareness and self direction. In your reflective • Collaboration journal you will set your own personal and professional goals. • Teaching • Learning 3. How do children learn? You will learn about the theoretical underpinnings of children’s learning and relate these to your own experiences as a learner. 4. How can children’s learning be enhanced? You will learn about how learning environments and various approaches to teaching and designing learning experiences can enhance learning.
Figure 2: Ways of Being Teacher and a Learner Student Perception Official Standards Discourse
I will engage with it if I Related Professional can see myself in it. Standards I will take what is on Key Standards for the award of Qualified Teacher Status related to this module offer if I know that I Those recommended for the award of qualified teacher own it. status should; • Q7; (a) reflect on and improve their practice and take The place where I responsibility for identifying and meeting their developing professional development needs locate myself is me. • Q18; understand how children and young people and that the progress and well-being of learners are The story I tell is me. affected by a range of development factors • Q8; Have a creative and constructively critical It defines my past, approach towards innovation • Q10; Have a knowledge and understanding of a present and future and range of teaching and learning strategies, including shapes my allegiances how to personalise learning and attachments Module Handbook Page 9
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The ESCalate Conference Presentation professional ways of being. The module This particular presentation, ‘Learning about attempts to provide a scaffold for the Learning’: A module to support the Induction transition that new entrants to ITE take in and Retention of Year One Undergraduate assuming two principle roles: ‘being a ITE students’ centred on the changing teacher’ and ‘being a learner’, and identity of the self in transition from acknowledges the importance of trust and secondary or further education to Higher security within the institution of education. Education. Figure 2 points to some of the commonalities At issue in this paper is the complex question and differences between the official of reflection which is conceptualised in the institutional discourse of Professional module as a medium through which students Standards and the changing identity of an can make the transition to develop their idealised new student in transition. We capacity for scholarly, independent and suggest, on reflection, that one of the issues
Figure 3: Extracts from guidance given to help students structure their reflections
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here is to keep in play the two contrasting the professional challenge of inducting new discourses as a way of structuring support entrants into ITE. It raised questions about for students. an appropriate, practical framework for enabling students to engage meaningfully It was apparent from discussions at the with the process of reflection in their Conference that many colleagues identified practice. For example, on the first day of strongly with the issue of ‘transition’ and the their work with a reflective journal students need to manage this transition in ways that are given the guidelines presented in figure 3 help programmes to retain students and to and other similar ideas to structure their ensure their capacity for independence. work. In outlining the challenges faced by students at NTU (in terms of engaging them in the These guidelines are also supported by process of reflection) delegates were asked associate tutors (year two students) who whether they faced similar challenges; share their experiences of writing a reflective including, for example: journal, small group tutorials and formative feedback which is provided during the • Teaching trainees to learn how to module. The principle of modelling high learn expectations carries with it a responsibility to • Students thinking for themselves support the students in taking ‘a leap of faith’. • The dialectic of performativity 2 Experience suggests there is always a ‘leap culture and of the independent of faith’ required, on behalf of the students, to practitioner take the practical steps which we have • The interplay of constraints and structured and which aim to engender the freedoms within the ITE curriculum students’ trust in their own capacity for • The contradictory forces of ‘needy’ reflection and trust in our pedagogic students who are not always leadership. In Rogers’ (1995: 271) words, academically assertive ‘there is (an) attitude that stands out in those • Deeply ingrained student perceptions who are successful at learning… it is a basic of knowledge and teaching derived trust – a belief that somehow this other from their own experiences which person is somehow fundamentally provide both insights and sources of trustworthy’. Support for students who are understanding but also sometimes just beginning to take their first tentative serve to block entry into new forms of steps on a journey to writing a professional learning and reflective journal, in part takes the form of examples of reflective writing from students Delegates reflected on their own and tutors as well as alerting them to further programmes in which they had employed readings from the literature (figure 4). ‘study skills’ in response to the issues raised above. The limitations of this pedagogy were One of the distinct advantages of making a apparent. They warmed to the possibility of conference presentation about a particular exploring more directly the pedagogic aspect of one’s own practice is that in the approaches that we were presenting in terms changed context that it creates for practice of their potential to secure the development there is nearly always the grain of an idea of reflective ‘ways of being’. that has been around for sometime and deserves a little more attention. Here, the During the presentation there had been a issue of a differentiated language of shared sense of a moment, a tipping point, reflection as a contribution to developments where all delegates strongly identified with in ITE came into view.
1 These are internal university reports – please contact the author for further details – [email protected] 2 ASP = Active Server Pages http://www.webwizguide.com/kb/asp_tutorials/what_is_asp.asp (accessed 8.10.08 101 Innovations and Development in Initial Teacher Education
Figure 4: Examples of reflective writing taken from a student journal.
Towards a differentiated language of The ‘Learning about Learning’ module reflection for ITE currently incorporates three forms of It is proposed that we need a differentiated reflection, which are explored briefly as language of reflection which can be situated follows. within the context of the current professional • Instrumentalist, technicist and standards for QTS ‘Q7 and Q8’ 3. functionalist forms of ‘reflective action’ (Dewey, 1910, 1933)
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• Professional Reflection (Schön 1983, limitations of such instrumentality in 1987, 1991) practice. There remains the question of • Critical Reflection (Brookfield, 1995, the extent to which such ‘reflective 2004; Brookfield and Preskill, 2000; action’ is encouraged and facilitated Mezirow 1990; Mezirow and later within forms of ITE and CE Associates, 2000) provision.
1. Instrumentalist, technicist and Within Dewey’s writings, despite his functionalist forms of ‘reflective action’ notion of reflective thought always Bringing together Dewey’s (1910, 1933) looking for alternative possibilities, reflective teaching, characterised by open there remains, too, an unwritten mindedness, responsibility and whole assumption that all of the problems heartedness, with the more instrumentalist within the classroom can be fully demands made within the ‘apparatus of rationalised and ultimately may be education’, where there tends to remain a subject to scrutiny on the basis of the technicist and functionalist stress on the ‘principle of reason’: ‘nothing is without utility of practical results, carries with it the reason’. challenge of giving full attention to ‘alternative possibilities’ and an openness to In his exploration of the ‘swamps’ of the possibility of being in error. Such professional practice in his seminal instrumental demands made with the text, The Reflective Practitioner, Schön apparatus of education might include (1983), of course, rejected Dewey’s requirements: binary divide between reflective and unreflective practitioners and the • To engage in ‘plan, do, review’ cycles traditional view of reflective teaching as in attempts to develop a professional the application of professional response to a particular issue within expertise to the real situation of the the classroom, school or classroom. Rather than a straight community… rejection of Dewey’s conception of • To ensure that the objectives have ‘reflective action’, this paper works been met in a lesson from the standpoint that there are • To make things happen within the challenging aspects of this particular classroom, the school, the modality of reflection that deserve to be community… reworked and developed in the context • To make decisions concerning of the more instrumental demands particular actions made within ITE. • To take responsibility for decision making 2. Professional Reflection (Schön 1983, 1987, 1991) In the light of dominant forms of Under the umbrella of professional reflection instrumentalism within the apparatus of we have incorporated three types of education we suggest that Dewey’s reflection that Schön had identified in his (1910, 1930) ‘reflective teaching’ still exploration of the wider question of the has much to offer as a vital source of constitution of professional activity; namely: reflection within ITE. • Intuitive reflection On reflection, however, it is clear that • Reflection-in-action new entrants to the profession require • Reflection-on-action time to build up their own experiences to be able to recognise some of the
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Schön’s ‘intuitive reflection’ is very much …in situations when a teacher feels akin to Polanyi’s (1974) Tacit Knowledge. In secure in themselves and their own Educating the Reflective Practitioner, management of the class and they are Schön’s (1987: 25) intuitive reflection ‘is able to respond appropriately, so revealed in spontaneous, skilful execution of reshaping and redirecting social activity the performance’. And, in much the same within a classroom in ways that help to way as Polanyi he goes on to add the make its purpose and meaning clearer important caveat that ‘we are for some or all of the participants; characteristically unable to make’ such …in situations where a teacher is spontaneous performance ‘verbally explicit’ engaged in various forms of dynamic, (ibid: 25). Schön’s ‘intuitive reflection’ is which is on-going and questioning and similar to Dewey’s routine action, in that leads to the reshaping of their although reflection does not necessarily practice in ways that enhance the reflect an ‘active, persistent and careful’ engagement and interest and motivation consideration (Dewey, 1910: 6), it is none the of participants within their social group; less ‘skilful’. … in situations which require ‘intelligent In their reflections on Mentoring Student action’; as Ryle (1949) suggested, in Teachers and the Growth of Professional such cases the teacher is undertaking Knowledge, Furlong and Maynard (1995) one action and not two; recognise the possible emancipatory effects of Schön’s (1983) ‘reflection-in-action’, …in contingent situations encountered which for them opens the possibility for within the classroom in which such teachers ‘progressively to gain control of reflection-in-action make demands upon their own teaching’ (ibid: 49). a gestalt view of education within the community. Such contingencies can In Schön’s (1983) examination of arise from the particular settings in professional activity the issue of ‘reflection- which individuals or groups within a in-action’ arises in professional settings classroom may themselves be situated; characterised by uncertainty and the contingencies that arise from anywhere unknown. Schön (1983) notes how the along a number of complex continua of practitioner is able to bring ‘certain aspects human experience, from fear to humility, of their work to a level of consciousness and from trust to distrust, from constraint to to reflect on it and to reshape it without freedom… interrupting the flow’. In writing these words it is possible to recall examples from Such reflection-in-action requires sensitivity experience of ITE where students in the final to self and to others, which is the hallmark of stages of the professional training are the approach we have adopted in the sometimes able to move fluidly and fluently ‘Learning about Learning’ module, but there through a number of multi-layered decisions remain questions concerning the extent to and actions that subtly and meaningfully which, in the context of the contemporary Q reshape a particular episode in their work standards for ITE, such reflective with children without appearing to alter the conversations described by Schön (1983) in flow of their lesson. any way assist students in their practice, or, indeed, whether they actually take place in In the classroom ‘reflection-in-action’ may practice between students and their tutors. begin to unfold in a number of circumstances; for example:
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In ‘reflection-on-action’ (Schön, 1983; Certainly there is agreement that critical emphasis added) it is apparent, also, that the reflection is characterised by attempts to current design for the module presented at shine a light on the dynamics of power in the conference falls short of its full potential operation within a particular setting, and as to open more formal continuous reflection such again this process makes its own and sensitivity to the complex transformation demands on new entrants to ITE gaining from being a completely new entrant to the experience of such relations of power. profession through to moving on from Higher Tacitly, at least, they nearly all arrive in Education into a first teaching post as a newly Higher Education with much, often qualified teacher. Reflection-on-action in this unspoken, experience of such relations and sense draws attention to the way in which the in the ‘Learning about Learning’ developed at module design presented at the conference is NTU there is in place a direct source for already situated within a particular discourse critical reflection involving both students and and a particular form of institutional their tutors. machinery characteristic of a particular training regime situated, in this case, at NTU. In being critically reflective it is apparent that the reflective journal students are required to On further reflection it is apparent already produce, which forms the backbone of the that there has already been some critical ‘Learning about Learning’ module developed reflection in the on-going attempts to at NTU, is always in danger of turning into a examine and to rectify at least some of the ‘mandated confessional’ (Usher and hidden lacunae in the form of the unfolding Edwards, 1994) – ‘the educational argument. equivalents of tabloidlike, sensationalistic outpourings of talk show participants’ 3. Critical Reflection (Brookfield, 1995: 13). Such an approach to The implicit challenge of this form of the development of the module helps to reflection is to be able to look afresh and to inform, to structure and provide a rationale question and to take seriously what is for the approach to critical reflection happening within the context of a specific adopted. It is modelled within a clear episode within ITE. In Becoming a Critically framework for critical reflection where the Reflective Teacher, Brookfield (1995: 214- emphasis is placed on its status as a professional journal which may be used as a 220) provides ample support for the claim source of further reflection for other that critical reflection has received a rich interested professionals. coverage in the research literature. He also suggests that for theorists professional The question remains, however, concerning education has taken the ‘wrong turn in students’ perceptions and interpretations of seeing the role of the practitioner as the process. Informally, assistant tutors who interpreter, translator and implementer of have experienced writing their own journals, theory produced by academic thinkers and are also invited to discuss their experiences researchers’ (ibid: 215). Perhaps, such a with the first year students as part of their ‘false turn’, itself, reflects the complex induction into writing a reflective journal. It is interplay of the ‘polymorphous and also possible to obtain a more formal polyvalent’ 4 dynamics of power at work in evaluation and assessment of how students our institutions. have responded to the process. At NTU, students are given formative feedback
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Table 1: Extracts taken from members of the ‘Learning about Learning’ group writing about reflection
What does reflection mean to me? Being Reflective
Sometimes I can’t be bothered to reflect. I want to In the space and time of a moment’s reflection there switch off, put my feet up and watch a bit of telly. are always many possibilities in being reflective… Everyone needs a break and reflecting on things isn’t easy. If I start reflecting on things it means Being on the Moor putting in some effort; I might have to work really, really hard to resolve some confusion or other; I Not only words move might have to see myself for what I am; I might have Earth moves to say sorry; I might have to let go of my certainties. As a harbour for the heron and the whale I avoid it. I put it off. It can hurt. a fold that in its unfolding When I choose to reflect though, I know that I am Eliot is found with a cargo doing something that is good for me. I know that I of dead negroes and torn seine am taking responsibility. For me, reflection means thrown out over distant shores being active rather than passive. I am not watching where leaves gather the train as it passes me by, I am on it and the sun sometimes I am driving it! rising and falling.
There are times when I would rather watch Corrie In the play of the seasons though. I know myself well. I know that I am ruled words move, by my emotions and there are times when my not only in the signifier emotions lead to some irrational thinking. For as a monument on the page example, if I have a bad teaching session I can wind a gift to the signified myself up into quite a state of anxiety. I can think seeking to uncover things like; ‘I don’t deserve to be in this job.’ ‘What so many dissembled ways. good am I?’ and this may finish with something like A direction that is direction-less, ‘I just can’t get it right EVER!’ This style of thinking A point that is pointless does not help. When I reflect I can take a step back, in this endless twittering world. weigh up the evidence, put things into perspective Made and remade, and put unhelpful anxiety into abeyance. slaked moves on a dry canvass What reflection means to me towards a perfect world...
I used to think that reflection was something I did a Reflecting on reflecting lot of the time – a bit like talking to myself; the kind of chatter that runs through my head. At the The first thing I notice is that although I do reflect moment this includes things like: and do consider it important, I don’t quite know It’s a good idea that Debs has asked us to write a bit what ‘reflecting’ means… When faced with this about what we mean by reflection, and I want to do situation I might: it now, but I know I have a meeting in less than ten look at what somebody else has written about it minutes that I need to prepare for, and I’m not sure and see if that makes any connections for me; if I can do a decent job in that time… just ‘live with’ the question of what it is and as it runs in the ‘back of my mind’ see what comes I call it my chattering monkey – the incessant flow up. What I notice is that thoughts come up at of thoughts and their associated feelings in my unusual times when I’m not consciously head. reflecting at all; start a conversation with somebody and see what happens. I notice that ideas will start off being quite vague and will hopefully become more formed as the discussion develops…; just start writing and see what happens.
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regarding their journal at the midway stage in The module also makes a big play on the module. Experience suggests that given introducing students to reading the literature an appropriate structure for reflection, Usher critically. Students are presented with and Edwards’ (1994) criticism is a little wide extracts from a range of contemporary of the mark. literature, which they are invited to read. Again the aim is to open students to multiple Critical reflection, it is suggested, provides a interpretations of familiar situations within basis for informed action and a rationale for their own nascent practice. The texts open the development of practice. At the heart of them to new concepts, to the identities of the ‘Learning about Learning’ module is the new phenomena, to new ways of significance of the model it provides theoretically framing particular issues; students in working to develop pedagogy differences providing them with a rich source which is grounded in ‘democratic trust’5: in of critical reflection and the grounds for taking our new professionals seriously and shaping their own developing practice. attempting to model and to maintain an integrity, practice is directed towards helping Within the ‘Learning about Learning’ module students to make sense of the effects we support for such critical readings is provided have as teachers in working with others. by small group tutorials. At issue are A very important lens for critical reflection attempts to enable students to gain within the ‘Learning about Learning’ module confidence in their own perspectives and to is provided by students’ engagement in recognise that their peers sometimes hold writing a reflective journal. At NTU this quite different views based on quite different begins from the first day of the BA Primary assumptions about the same readings. education programme. In reflecting upon ‘the It is the beginnings of a model for critical self’ students are placed in the role of the reflection that continues to develop through ‘other’. Sometimes vicariously; in such a role the BA Primary education programme, where students become essentially connected to, the beginning teachers are encouraged to and increasingly aware of, what other find out how children and other colleagues students and children possibly may be may view their own practice; so making them experiencing. Through such self reflection aware of ‘those actions and assumptions students gradually develop clarity and a that either confirm or challenge existing more incisive awareness of the assumptions power relations within the classroom’ and instinctive reasoning framing (Brookfield, 2004: 30). professional practice. In thinking ahead, and in developing their The ‘Learning about Learning’ module also capacity for reflection, the BA Primary presents another lens for critical reflection education programme aims to provide the from Day 1 of the programme in the form of grounds for more experienced teachers to colleagues’ writings on the process of begin to recognise overarching forms of reflection (table 1). In using this lens the aim episteme in which their reflections are is to shine a light on a model of practice situated. which begins to open conversations between beginning teachers and their professional Reflection upon Reflection and ITE colleagues about phenomena of interest In the context of debates concerning lifelong within their practice; for example, ‘reflection’. learning and CE, we end this paper with a Students are introduced to, and become series of issues which we hope will open open to, the possibility of other ways of further debate concerning the development seeing phenomena within their developing of a differentiated language of reflection practice, including, for example, reflection. within ITE.
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Experience within Primary Education at NTU that everything we say can be considered suggests that, formally, reflective thinking, in in terms of two categories – the constative its various guises, has tended to remain and the performative. ‘A performative confined to the ‘Learning about Learning’ utterance is when you not only say module. Working on this paper has something but do something by saying it’. encouraged further reflection on the way in Performative utterances might include which we structure support for reflection ‘promises, threats, prayers, confessions, across the whole of ITE. What are the challenges… declarations of love, acts of experiences of other centres of ITE in naming (during baptism or in launching a structuring support for reflection across the ship) and acts of founding’ (Royle, whole of ITE? 2003:22). 3. Professional standards for Teachers Other forms of reflection are also evident, as published by the TDA (2007) include the a basis for refining and developing practice; following two Qualified Teacher Status not least, everyday and intuitive, pre- standards for ‘Personal Professional reflective forms of understanding along with Development’, Q7 a) Reflect on and reflection on episteme that overarch and improve their practice, and take structure ITE. What forms of reflection are responsibility for identifying and meeting identified by other centres of ITE? Is there, their developing professional needs. Q7 perhaps, a need for a more differentiated b) Identify priorities for their early language of reflection that provides the basis professional development in the context of for structured support and development induction. Q8 Have a creative and within ITE as a foundation for further lifelong constructively critical approach towards learning and CE? Should we, perhaps, make innovation, being prepared to adapt their time for more of a focus upon reflection at practice where benefits and other stages in our Primary Education improvements are identified. programme? 4. The phrase is borrowed from Michel Foucault (1994) These issues then highlighted the more 5. The term is borrowed from Stephen deeply seated issue of the role of reflection Brookfield (1995). within ITE. In looking to develop the process of reflection in ITE does this subject not Biographies deserve further research to uncover, first, Kevin Flint is a Senior Lecturer in Education at ‘some likely sources of metacognitive Nottingham Trent University. Kevin has rambles based on token observations of worked in secondary education in various minor aspects of teaching’ (Grushka et al., schools, with first hand experience of 2005) within the UK system, and, perhaps discourses of improvement. Doing doctoral more productively, a grounded basis for the study while teaching and engaging in development of a more differentiated mountaineering led to an interest in European language of reflection across ITE? philosophy and grounds for reflection that has changed his understanding of schooling and Endnotes education. Heideggerian philosophy and 1. Alastair McPhee and Fiona Skelton’s some of its descendants has provided a (2002) study of the Gaining access to framework for rethinking the fundamentals of Primary Education project’ in Glasgow had education. Kevin has published work concluded that ‘motivation and self challenging dominant ideas of teaching and esteem’are key to academic success’. learning, on the performance culture in 2. Performativity has its roots in J.L. Austin’s teaching, on the framing of lifelong learning (1975) remarkable book, How to Do Things and on the pervasive ethic of improvement with Words. Austin works with the notion (with Nick Peim).
108 Reflecting on Reflection: Towards a critical appraisal of ‘Learning about Learning’ within Initial Teacher Education
Deborah Robinson is a Senior Lecturer in Furlong, J. and Maynard, T. (1995) Mentoring Education at Nottingham Trent University, student teachers: the growth of professional where she has been the Year Leader for our knowledge (Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxford, 1st Year Primary BA in Education programme Routledge). for nine years. She has recently taken on a Grushka, K., McLeod, J.H. and Reynolds, R. new responsibility for leading developments (2005) Reflecting upon reflection: theory and in school-based training within primary practice in one Australian University teacher education. Deborah has worked in primary education program, Reflective Practice, 6 (2), education in schools in London, 239-246. Nottinghamshire and Nottingham city; she completed her work in this domain as a McPhee, A. and Skelton, F. (2002) Gaining deputy headteacher and SENCO in a large access, gaining confidence: a study of the junior school. She currently tutors on an Glasgow access to Primary Education project, Initial Teacher Training route; ‘Teach First’, Widening Participation and Lifelong Learning, which recruits high achieving graduates to 4(1), 1-28. work as teaches within secondary schools Mezirow, J. (1990) Fostering critical reflections that are situated within challenging in adulthood: a guide to transformative and communities. Deborah is an Associate emancipatory learning (New York, Jossey Lecturer for the Open University where her Bass). principle interest is the issue of ‘inclusion’. Mezirow, J. and Associates (2000) Learning as Bibliography transformation: critical perspectives on a Austin, J.L. (1975) How to do things with theory of progress (New York, Jossey Bass). words: The William James Lectures delivered Polanyi, M. (1974) Personal Knowledge: at Harvard University in 1955 (2nd Edition), Towards a Post-Critical Philosophy (Chicago, eds. J.O. Urmson and M. Sbisa (Oxford and University of Chicago Press). New York, Oxford University Press). Rogers, C. R. (1995) A way of being (Boston, Brookfield, S. D. (1995) Becoming a critically New York, Houghton Mifflin Company). reflective teacher (New York, Jossey Bass). Royle, N. (2003) Jacques Derrida (London and Brookfield, S. D. and Preskill, S. (2000) New York, Routledge). Discussion as a way of teaching (2nd Edition) Ryle, G. (1949) The Concept of Mind (London: (New York, Jossey Bass). Hutchinson). Brookfield, S. D. (2004) The power of critical Schön, D. A., (1983) The reflective practitioner, theory: liberating adult learning and teaching how professionals think in action (London, (New York, Jossey Bass). Temple Smith). Dewey, J. (1910, 1991) How We Think (New Schön, D.A. (1987) Educating the reflective York, Prometheus Books). practitioner (San Francisco, Jossey Bass). Dewey, J. (1933) How we think, a restatement Schön, D.A. (1991) The reflective turn: case of the relation of reflective thinking to the studies in and on educational practice (New educative process (Revised Edition) (Boston, York, Teachers Press, Columbia University). D. C. Heath). TDA (2007) Professional Standards for Foucault, M. (1994) Power: essential works of Qualified Teacher Status and Requirements Michel Foucault, volume 3, ed., J.D. Faubion, for Initial Teacher Training (London, TDA). trans. R. Hurley and others (New York, The Usher, R. and Edwards, R. (1994) New Press). Postmodernism and Education (London, Routledge).
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11. From Values to Vocation: Designing and delivering Primary PG Masters Modules at St Mary’s University College
Maureen Glackin, Maria James: St Mary’s University College
Summary As we prepared to introduce Masters level into the PGCE programmes, some lecturers voiced critical, pedagogical opposition to the imposition of Masters modules. Some students questioned their integrity and value. The process has nurtured and challenged students and lecturers into a growing awareness of themselves as educators and educational theorists, generating theories of practice. ‘From Values to Vocation’ elucidates this journey. This paper will contend that appropriate Masters modules are those that focus on the emergent teacher and not the teacher in practice, and a critical and reflective examination of self and the values that have led one to teaching. It is hoped that these modules will generate: a critical stance towards one’s own learning as pupil and teacher; research that is unique to the individual but resonates with and contributes to the academy; and a growing realisation that teachers can exert change in their own classroom and not only influence but also become policy makers.
Key words Self study action research / values / vocation / influence / accountability / integrity / ‘living contradiction’ /collaboration
The Context theory it is our claim that our values are We are two lecturers from the PGC ITE embodied and lived out in and through our Programmes at St Mary’s University College practice. As a team we have spent much time Twickenham. Like many other institutions in dialogue this year. A dialogue of equals, and in line with government policy (DCSF, engaged in different research processes, 2007 section 21; Internet 1) we introduced holding different epistemological stances and Masters modules to our courses in with background experience of various 2007/2008. methodologies of scholarship. However, whatever our respective research traditions, This paper is a reflection on this journey our collective ontological stance is that we see within a form of self study action research as ourselves as fellow learners alongside the proposed by McNiff and Whitehead (2005). colleagues and students in our care. We contend that this is a fitting methodology as we are practitioners studying our own For the purposes of this paper our inquiry practice in order to improve it and in so doing takes the form of the following questions: seek to inform the practice of others as well as enhancing the social formation of our • What was our concern? place of work. Therefore, this research has • Why were we concerned? been carried out with a social intent. • What experiences can we describe to show our concern? This report takes the form of living • What were we prepared to do? educational theory (Whitehead, 1989) which • What kind of evidence drawn from the draws on some empirical and traditional data do we have to reveal and explain forms of research. When speaking of living our educative influence?
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What is our concern? Why are we ‘Is this the means by which we value the concerned? What experiences can we development of classroom practice in the describe to show our concern? emergent teacher … theoretical study at Masters level instead of a focus on actual In 2007, in preparation for the integration of classroom practice?’ ‘M’ level modules at the start of the new academic year in September 2007, two These misgivings were also echoed in modules were co-opted from an existing students’ perceptions which revealed a Masters in Education programme into the reluctance to engage in what they PGC ITE (M). These modules focused on considered to be ‘extra’ study at an theories of educational leadership and the advanced level with limited relevance: change agenda driving education at macro and micro levels. The PG team had strong ‘I have come to be trained as a teacher.’ reservations about this process, with ‘I will do an MA later in my career.’ concerns focusing on three main issues: ‘It will be too much work on top of a busy year.’ Concern 1 Whilst acknowledging that the teacher can One student asked: be understood as a leader in the classroom (Owen, 2006; Cruz, 2003) the PG team felt ‘At interview will the head look more modules focussing on leadership, favourably on the additional work?’ innovation and change were incompatible with the incoming students’ perceptions of In considering these comments, whilst themselves as emergent teachers. The admitting to some sympathy with their views, proposed modules were part of a we were aware that they revealed successful Masters programme directed at perceptions around teachers’ identities and, it was felt, best suited to practitioner based on positivist assumptions of teachers. There was strong feeling that the educational research. vocabulary and the conceptual frameworks were not appropriate for the emergent Concern 3 teachers with whom we worked and tacitly In addition, there were the ontological (Polanyi, 1958) the team felt that these perceptions of some of the tutors who modules were not suited for purpose. This considered themselves as subject specialists was summed up by a colleague who asked: and felt unprepared and uncomfortable ‘How can we with any integrity deliver lecturing in a context that they perceived as modules focusing on innovation and change being beyond their discipline. Although often when the students will have little idea about holding Masters and other qualifications what they should be innovating or within their area of expertise, they did not changing? The title is not appropriate let feel equipped to teach prescribed Masters alone the content’. modules dealing with general pedagogical issues and methodologies of research: Concern 2 There were epistemological and pragmatic ‘I have been employed to dilemmas around whether having two MA teach...subject...I am highly qualified in it modules would better prepare or qualify the and that is my passion. I am out of my emergent teacher for the art of classroom comfort zone with this.’ teaching. One colleague questioned:
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Some felt there were issues around integrity; and to assess the impact on learning and they felt unqualified, epitomised in the teaching. following statements: Believing education to be a value led activity ‘As I do not have a Masters of my own, I (Ghaye and Ghaye, 1998; Pollard, 2005: felt rather hypocritical, teaching others Internet 2; Internet 3), we decided that a when I have no qualification to do so.’ consideration of values was of paramount ‘Although I have been studying for my concern. One practical reason for this was Masters, I have struggled with the work that we wished to avoid starting with the and felt rather negative towards having students as ‘teachers’ because of their to show myself in a weakened position of disparity of classroom practice and our lack knowledge.’ of knowledge of their personal experience. In Module 1 we wanted the students to unearth The issues outlined above indicate that the tacitly held values through reflection on their situation within which we were being placed own experiences of teaching and learning, as course tutors was challenging deeply yet thus bringing them to a fuller realisation of tacitly held professional and educational their importance in their further development values. In acknowledging this we came to as reflective practitioners. Module 2 gave realise that the manner in which this process them the opportunity to reflect and critically was being driven was compromising and engage with an educational issue emerging ignoring these values and causing us to from their reflection on values in Module 1. become what Whitehead defines as ‘living This was also practically explored with contradictions’ (Whitehead, 1989: section 2). reference to their classroom practice from their first block school experience, thus both What are we prepared to do? modules employed a strong element of self We shall deal with each concern separately. study, contributing to their critical ability to reflect on practice. In this way, the seminal Concern 1 importance of the critical link between With reference to the appropriateness of the reflection, scholarship and practice, and co-opted modules in leadership innovation college based and school based learning and change, the PG team challenged the was exemplified in a cohesive and synthetic process by which the modules were being fashion. Referencing the modules to the Q imposed and through dialogical and standards (Internet 4) further evinced this collaborative working, designed two relationship. modules that were felt to be more appropriate for the emergent teacher. Concern 3 With reference to the ontological perceptions Module 1: Values to Vocation of some tutors who felt unprepared and Aim: To develop students as reflective uncomfortable lecturing in a context that professionals through investigation, critical they perceived as being beyond their analysis and evaluation of their own values discipline it was decided that all sessions and beliefs concerning teaching and would be team taught. Teams would consist learning. of a colleague already holding a Masters qualification or above, and /or a colleague Module 2: The Emergent Teacher with some experience of working within the Aims: To reflect critically upon theories about self-study action research paradigm. This teaching and learning, their own and others. not only allowed the opportunity for a mixture To gain critical insights into issues of expertise but also, crucially, meant that no concerning diversity, inclusion and equality colleague felt disempowered by the subject
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matter or personally isolated within their I now know that my continuous self- teaching of it. As a result all colleagues on reflection will enable the transfer of my the PG team agreed to teach on the values to my professional life, where they modules. This decision had a profound effect matter most.’ on the manner in which the modules were delivered, in that it allowed the Masters to be This educative influence has also impacted seminar rather than lecture driven. Whilst on tutors’ thinking around the inclusion of agreeing that a number of lead lectures were Masters modules within the PG programme. necessary and desirable at certain points in As part of our journey we have also come to the process, it was clear that the nature of understand that the perceived contention the exploration that we were asking students and positivist positioning between M level to engage with demanded a relational research and classroom practice does not approach which was best suited to a seminar have to be an ‘either / or’ situation but can be environment. This was a brave step as a an ‘also /and’ experience. This comment more personalised approach ran the risk of from a tutor encapsulates how the process exposing our own insecurities within this has become one of life affirming and area to the students and further questioning challenging opportunity which many our own ontological and epistemological colleagues have embraced: assumptions around practitioner identities. However, as a team we believed that good ‘Still feel that there is an enormous practice would emerge and be modelled amount of work to do and that some through this collaborative process not least aren’t able to cope. Can see, however, in the inevitable questioning and renewal of that it has made the students more practice that is at the heart of good team reflective and aware of the bigger teaching (Buckley, 1999; Benjamin, 2000). picture, the purposes of education and what teaching and learning is. My What kind of evidence drawn from the personal confidence has increased too, data do we have to reveal and explain our realising that the modules are so rooted educative influence? in primary practice that we are all experts!’ Concern 2 With reference to the epistemological and This has led to a growing confidence pragmatic dilemmas around whether having amongst tutors as engagement with M level two MA modules would better prepare or work has led both students and tutors to qualify the emergent teacher for the art of realise that they are capable of theory classroom teaching, the response to this engagement and knowledge generation; this, concern is articulated in the assignments of in turn, has developed a growing the students themselves. These also provide understanding of the importance and validity evidence and an explanation of our of their contribution to the academic debate educative influence. One student wrote: in education (Stenhouse,1975). One student wrote: ‘The critical thinking skills I have acquired and the teaching I have ‘I was initially sceptical of the benefits practiced through the process of self- this work could bring, but through reflection have given me the skills to firsthand experience in the classroom support the children I teach in PE and and by using reflective techniques I can raise self esteem. This is the person I see how my own journey has brought me am, these are the qualities I bestow, and to an understanding of the teacher as
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researcher. I hope to be able to ‘I have actually grown to enjoy the work continually improve my practice and the interaction with the students. I feel throughout my career as a result of the more secure in my own knowledge as I am work I have done this year.’ at the end of my own Masters and have achieved within my modules. The students What has emerged is that both students and have progressed in their own learning and tutors have been involved in an increased this has been reflected through their culture of academia and research, which is conversations, in lectures and within their particularly important to the social formation written work.’ of St Mary’s as we aspire to grow from a University College to a University. This Drawing, therefore, on the criteria of sense of confidence has been further Whitehead and McNiff (2006) for validation of enhanced by the adoption of our Masters our claims to knowledge we maintain that we modules by other educational programmes have improved our learning, the learning of within the University College. others and the learning of our social formation through the manner in which the We believe that our account reveals not PG team has collaboratively developed and research ‘into’ education, but educational practically realised the PG Masters modules research; a type of research that educates all at St Mary’s University College. Arguably, involved in the process. Its educative what is of greatest significance is how this influence centres upon improvement of our has been achieved; the ability to work as a learning, the learning of others and the combined team exercising negotiation and learning of the social formation of which we compromise through dialogue where are a part. These claims are evinced through necessary has been tangible. We have all felt the assignments from both modules that empowered through the experience as we reveal students’ emerging realisation of have influenced and learned from each other themselves as capable of their own in a spirit of reciprocity: knowledge and theory generation. Evaluations from the work reveal the students as A vibrant professional culture depends on developing a growing confidence and ability a group of practitioners who have the to critically evaluate and reflect on their own freedom to continuously reinvent work and the writing of others. Ontologically, themselves via their research and students’ self-perceptions have altered as knowledge production. Teachers engaged they have been empowered to engage with in critical practice find it difficult to allow and talk more confidently in terms of their own top-down content standards and their research interests. In addition, tutors have poisonous effects to go unchallenged. been challenged to grow in their own practice: Such teachers cannot abide the deskilling and reduction in professional status that ‘I have enjoyed studying and teaching accompany these top-down reforms. around the ideas of Action Research. The Advocates of critical pedagogy focus on the individual gives students a understand that teacher empowerment personal and relevant topic to investigate, does not occur just because we wish it to. improve and continue to research. It links Instead it takes place when teachers into ECM and the CPD for life long develop knowledge-work skills, the power learners.’ of literacy, and the pedagogical abilities befitting the calling of teaching. Teacher research is a central dimension of a critical pedagogy. (Kincheloe, 2004:19)
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The integration of Master modules into the Kincheloe, J. (2004) Critical Pedagogy (Peter PG course of study has certainly challenged Lang Publishing, New York) (2nd edition, our professional values, however their 2008). realisation has reaffirmed and re-imagined our sense of vocation as teachers. McNiff, J. and Whitehead, J. (2005) All you need to know about action research (Sage Biographies Publications, London). Maria James is Chair of Kingston upon Thames SACRE (Standing Advisory Owen, H. (2006) Creating Leaders in the Council for Religious Education) and Classroom How Teachers Can Develop a senior lecturer in Religious Education at St New Generation of Leaders (Routledge, Mary’s University College. She teaches on London). BA ITE and PG courses. She is engaged in doctoral research about faith based practice Polanyi, M. (1958) Personal Knowledge through using a self-study action research Towards a Post-Critical Philosophy (The methodology. University of Chicago Press, Chicago).
Dr Maureen Glackin is the Programme Pollard, A. (2005) Reflective teaching: Director for PG ITE courses at St Mary’s Evidence – Informed Professional Practice University College. She is senior lecturer in (Continuum, London). Religious Education and teaches on BA ITE and PG courses. Her research interests Stenhouse, L. (1975) An Introduction to centre on chaplaincy in Catholic schools, Curriculum Research and Development Global Citizenship, SMSC (Spiritual, Moral, (Heinemann, Oxford). Social and Cultural) issues and pastoral care. Whitehead, J. (1989) Creating a living References educational theory from questions of the Benjamin, J. (2000) The Scholarship of kind, ‘how do I improve my practice? in The Teaching in Teams: what does it look like in Cambridge Journal of Education, Vol. 19, practice? in Higher Education Research & No.1, pp. 41-52. Development, July 2000, Vol. 19 Issue 2, pp191-204. Whitehead, J. and McNiff, J. (2006) Action Research Living Theory (Sage Publications, Buckley, F. J. (1999) Team Teaching. What, London). Why, and How? (Sage Publications, London). Internet 1: http://www.europaeum.org/ Cruz, D. J. (2003) ‘Teacher Leaders: Middle content/view/58/65/ School Mathematics Classrooms’ in Internet 2: http://curriculum.qca.org.uk/ Research in Middle Level Education Online, key-stages-1-and-2/Values-aims-and- Vol. 26 Issue 2, pp10-27. purposes/index.aspx
DCSF (2007) Children’s Plan Building Internet 3: http://www.primaryreview.org.uk/ Brighter Futures, a Summary (TSO, Norwich). Downloads/Int_Reps/5.Aims- values/Primary_Review_RS_1- Ghaye, A. and Ghaye, K. 1998 Teaching and 2_report_Aims_and_values_080118.pdf Learning through Critical Reflective Practice Internet4: http://www.tda.gov.uk/upload/ David Fulton, London resources/pdf/q/qts_itt_req.pdf
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12. Developing articulation of critical reflection in ITE: writing at Masters level for a Professional Learning Portfolio
Ruth Heilbronn, Shirley Lawes, John Yandell: Institute of Education, University of London
Summary A Masters in Teaching and Learning (MTL) for all teachers was recently announced, with a pilot of trainees in initial teacher education (ITE) due to begin in the academic year 2008-9 (DCSF, 2008). The MTL will eventually impact on all ITE programmes and routes, as trainees will need to gain a number of Masters level credits, which they will build on when they move into induction and Continuing Professional Development (CPD). It is to be hoped that the MTL qualification will bring CPD funding to enable teachers to buy into Masters courses of their own choice. However, fears remain that the MTL may be conceived in a more reductive manner, linked to the school effectiveness agenda and high stakes target setting. As with most Higher Education Institutions (HEIs), we view working at Masters level (M Level) as a critical engagement with theory and research. This paper results from experience during 2007-8 at the London Institute of Education. It focuses particularly on how to support ITE trainees to develop and articulate critical reflection on their practice, whilst simultaneously preparing them to gain accreditation as teachers and at Masters Level.
Keywords MTL / Professional Learning Portfolio / Philosophical statement / reflective writing / theory and practice / reflective practice / critical reflection
Introduction articulating applied theoretical elements and In developing our assignments we were critical reflection on professional learning. It conscious of the dual contexts and dual is clear that an M Level PGCE is a vocational, outcomes of M Level PGCE. For trainees to or a professional qualification, and therefore achieve the standards for the award of places different demands on the student Qualified Teacher Status (QTS), a heavy than those of a purely academic Masters emphasis needs to be placed on practical degree. Since ITE M Level courses need to teaching experience. From the trainees’ point deliver both a nationally recognised of view the school is primarily the site of qualification (QTS) and Masters level credits, practical teaching experience, where they and do so within tight time constraints, we where they learn by observing and doing. If have to conceive these requirements as part on an M Level trajectory, the HEI experience of one developmental process. Even without is one in which they are expected to write these external pressures, however, our academically at M Level, showing critical conception of initial teacher education is one reflection on practice, articulating the that insists on the inseparability of theory and practice through analysis, using research practice on the central, formative role of and theoretical elements. It may seem that critical reflection on the development of these requirements create two different kinds professional practice. of demands on the trainee. However, their M level writing needs to be both informed by As Winch (2004) argues, teaching is a form of practice and to show development in their high skilled vocational practice and learning practice. Writing at M level in ITE includes to teach requires ‘formation’ rather than
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‘training’. This formation requires assignments. At M Level trainees need to engagement with theoretical elements at a refer to the Masters level criteria and be high level. Applied theoretical elements are supported in producing pieces of scholarly reflected in the trainees’ examples and the writing on the areas studied. Creating a theory is drawn on and illuminated by portfolio of assignments can allow trainees to practice. It is not about theory on the one write on several topic areas, adding up to an hand and practice on the other. It is rather overall required word count. The use of that trainees need to articulate a scholarly portfolios in ITE and in professional view of their practice. We believe that shoe- development for teachers is a recent horning ITE into general M level criteria, as development (Lyons, 1998; Wenzlaff, 1998; happens in some HEIs, can raise issues Klenowski, 2002). Even so, there is evidence around the relevance of these criteria to the on their use in ITE assessment, testifying to kind of assignments trainees should fruitfully ‘the power of the portfolio’ (Goff, 2000) as an engage with. It is important to develop evaluation tool which ‘carries a wealth of grade-related descriptors rooted in the professional information’ (Andreko, 1998). complex context of learning to be a teacher, rather than attempting to apply generic Darling Hammond has suggested that: Masters criteria to PGCE M level assignments. early research on the effects of these assessments suggests that they may Early indications show that some institutions be more valid measures of teacher hold to the academic nature of their M Level knowledge and skill and that they may when applied to ITE and appear to help teachers improve their practice. foreground ‘academic objectivity’, The stimulus to teacher learning characterised perhaps by third person appears to occur through task register, even when trainees are reporting on structures that require teachers to a piece of small-scale action research. M learn new content and teaching Level needs to be conceived in terms of strategies as part of their professional learning, so that the trainee demonstration of performance and does not experience a split between the through the processes of required evidence- and research-informed contexts reflection about the relationships and skills, developed primarily by university between learning and teaching. tutors, and the experience of practical (Darling-Hammond, 2001, p. 11) teaching in school. It could be helpful for working groups of school-based and HEI or The work produced for a professional other consultant mentors to work together in learning/development portfolio should developing assignments, thinking about what exemplify critical reflection on practice and a professional M Level assignment should at its best the articulation of scholarly be. This means considering how such an teaching should be rooted in scholarship and assignment might need to be different from a research and the trainees’ own personal traditional M Level assignment, and how to experience of learning to teach. In 2007-8, apply M Level criteria to the kind of 320 trainees in 7 subject areas on the assignments which are required in ITE to London Institute of Education Secondary develop professional learning. PGCE course registered for a module called the Professional Learning Portfolio (PLP), Portfolios of professional learning consisting of several pieces of reflective Many of the traditional school-based and writing. A working party met regularly to reflective tasks which are normally set on ITE monitor and develop the module and support courses can be used as a basis for M Level QA and staff development.
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The Module aims and learning outcomes to reflect on what is happening in her were: practice by discussing, analysing and synthesising aspects of her experience. Such • To promote an understanding of the articulation can help to integrate the initial process of learning, by engaging in teaching ‘curriculum’ of the standards with critical reflection on own professional the experience of the trainee, within nested learning; contexts. Useful prompt questions for • To provide a critical, research and producing a statement are: enquiry-led approach to teaching and learning, which explores the • What do you view as the aims of relationship between practice, policy, education? theory and academic debate; • How does your view on aims • To support student teachers to relate to your role in the teaching articulate their learning; situations you have encountered? • To promote collegial relationships • How do the teaching methods you which enable professional dialogue. typically use reflect your interpretation of your role as a In taking the PLP Module, trainees learn to teacher? view the portfolio as a way of articulating their professional learning: The questions have proved good starting points for reflection, as teachers are not A portfolio is a narrative that tells a generally asked to reflect on the aims of coherent story of your learning education in the current, standards-driven experiences in the program, and context. When the questions are highlights thoughtful reflection on, and sympathetically and collaboratively analysis of, those experiences. It is not discussed, the teacher becomes an active simply an accumulation of pieces and participant in constructing her own learning products, it is an unfolding of your curriculum, based on her values and understandings about teaching and experiences. Further, in drafting the teaching learning, and about your development statement values are explicit (Heilbronn, as a professional. 2008:191-2). Farr Darling (2001:111) The following sections of the paper analyse I The philosophical statement the kind of writing involved in producing A key component in the PLP was a 1000- pieces of critically reflective writing and word Philosophical Statement. The argue for a view of ITE in which professional Philosophical Statement (PS) provides a Masters level work involves critical reflection synoptic overview and the other components on practice. relate to this statement, exemplify the points raised and depend on the PS for their II Cross Curricular reflective writing context and sense. These pieces of reflective Cross-curricular reflective writing provides writing represent the trainees’ understanding student teachers with the opportunity to and articulation of their learning journey in engage with differing perspectives on the widest sense. They are not narrowly teaching and learning and to draw on these defined in terms of a particular subject area, to develop a deeper understanding of their although they may be based on a topic that own subject teaching. The focus of a piece of arises in the context of subject studies. cross-curricular reflective writing should When mentoring and peer review are therefore be chosen carefully so that specific successful, the new teacher is generally able comparisons can be made that shed light on
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a particular question or problem and lead to academic texts to enable her to take a a broader understanding through critical position with regard to the teaching of reflection. This involves reviewing practical grammar in MFL, referring to a text: experience in relation to an articulated problem or issue of professional knowledge, The traditional role of grammar as a and in the light of knowledge acquired backbone providing rules and patterns through reading of principles, or of for the study of languages has in theoretical perspectives, gaining further recent years been somewhat ‘diluted’ insights that are then expressed through by the National Curriculum in favour of reflective writing. ‘other more communicative considerations’ (Meiring and Norman, In the piece of work considered here, Jane, a 2001:59), only to be reinstated once Modern Foreign Languages student teacher, more since the end of the 1990s, chose to consider the role of grammar reflecting research evidence to teaching in the foreign languages classroom, confirm its fundamental importance in by investigating how grammar is taught in language learning. (Town, 2008) English. In order to do this, she began by undertaking a range of background reading She demonstrated her knowledge and of policy documents relating to the two understanding of policy documents by secondary curriculum areas and the primary identifying key points and by making framework for literacy. Having already visited pertinent reference in passing to classroom a primary school, she was able to draw on observations. She quoted succinct extracts her experience of observing the daily ‘literacy of relevant materials, related these to her hour’ and discussions with a class teacher. practical teaching experience in a secondary With that background of information and school and commented on how a school experience, she then arranged to team up department interpreted policy. Jane then with an English PGCE student to observe went on to make links with her primary some lessons and have follow-up school observations, commenting: discussions with both her peer and the English Subject Mentor. Jane had also ‘The primary school where I observed observed a number of MFL (modern foreign lessons had daily objectives related to languages) lessons in which grammar had phonics, spelling vocabulary and been a focus, and had taught a number grammar… The sheer range of texts herself for which she had evaluations to refer and activities covered termly was to. Equally, of course, she had already been impressive, clearly providing a solid required to read a number of ‘key’ texts on foundation in grammar and the teaching of grammar in the foreign communication skills which the languages classroom. children would later be able to employ when learning a foreign language’ In a short piece of reflective writing of 1,500 (ibid.). words, Jane was able to demonstrate that she had grasped the issues and understood Jane then focused on lessons she had the objective problems, and also to show observed in the English and MFL that she was making sense of the issues in departments of her placement secondary relation to her own professional practice and school. Here she made specific comparisons outlook. How was this achieved? between the two subjects, commenting on To begin with, Jane had familiarised herself practices and then going on to raise a critical with both relevant policy documents and point:
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‘Both departments use schemes of The example of Jane’s short piece of work based on the National assessed coursework examined here in no Curriculum and KS3 National Strategy way implies that there is a ‘formula’ for frameworks…. Surprisingly little developing critical reflective writing. It is liaison occurs between them given the used to suggest that the essential feature of clear potential benefits of greater critical reflection is the consideration of an collaborative teaching in this area’ objective problem and an orientation (ibid.). towards the outside world, rather than inward-looking, personal reflection. She then reflected over the practice she had observed and discussed in the secondary III The point of writing – where theory and context with her experiences in the primary practice intersect school, observing that ‘it was striking that in We have suggested that one of the dangers a Year 7 grammar-based English class I of the move to Masters level might have observed… similar ground was covered to been a tendency to widen the gulf between the Year 4 objective’. She then raised a university- and school-based elements of the question for further consideration as to why course to encourage a view of the course as this should be the case. She had thus an oscillation between the distant poles of identified an issue of progression and theory and practice. The written continuity which she saw as problematic, assignments which we ask our students to both for English and MFL, but then went on produce are designed to cut across such to show her understanding of the dilemmas unhelpful oppositions. The act of writing is teachers face by recognising that the intended to provide our students with the teacher’s first responsibility is to use policy means to bring theory to bear on practice guidelines as a tool rather than allow them to and to mobilise practical experience in the dictate classroom practice: reading and critique of theory.
‘… teachers will naturally deviate from As has been seen in part 1 of this paper, (these) plans to attend to pupils’ individual central to the PGCE course on which we needs…’ (ibid.). teach is a conception of the role of the beginning teacher and of the nature and Jane finally arrived at professional principles function of school experience. Part of what that inform the practice she has observed, is involved in this is, necessarily, learning by drawing a tentative conclusion, that there is doing; an equally important part of the no single ‘right way’ and supports the notion learning entails standing back and reflecting of an eclectic approach with reference to the critically. In this sense, the student is literature. She had explored her own beliefs confronted with two kinds of text: one is the about the teaching of grammar in MFL body of research and scholarship that might, through a small investigation into another for the sake of convenience, be labelled curriculum subject and another school phase theory; the other is the particular site of and in so doing had begun to think critically schooling – the institutional setting, the about an area of fundamental importance to department, the classroom – in which the her as a teacher of modern foreign student is placed. And the student should be languages. She maintained a tight focus for encouraged to reflect critically on both kinds her reflection and through the process of of text. writing the piece, she learned to consider Halfway through the English and English with both policy and practice critically and to Drama PGCE course, at the point when the reflect on and finally confirm her views. students begin their second block of practical teaching experience, they are asked
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to write a 1 500-word essay on ‘The Place of response that this task elicited from one of English’. In preparation for this assignment, our students. Rob takes as his starting-point they are presented with extracts from a one of the course readings (Zancanella, variety of policy documents, ranging in time 1998) that opens up issues of canonicity and from the 1862 Revised Code (Maclure, 1969: curriculum design: 80) to part of QCA’s recent consultation on the future of the subject, English 21 Don Zancanella in ‘Inside the (Hackman, 2006). They explore these texts Literature Curriculum’ examines two collaboratively, are invited to consider points opposing philosophies of English of continuity and discontinuity with the pedagogy: one that encourages present and to think about the practice that students to assimilate into the they have met as observers and participants dominant culture of literature, in school. This is the brief for their written providing a point of access into high task: socio-economic statuses; the other encourages students to make an Drawing on your knowledge of policy evaluation of several different kinds of and practice, now and in the past, literature, especially ones more locally write about the place of English in the relevant to the area and ethnicity of curriculum. the school. (Stott, 2008) What place does English occupy? Why is this, and how might it be Zancanella’s essay is an account of the differently imagined in the future? literature and language arts curriculum developed by a single teacher in a school in The assignment, which encourages students New Mexico. It presents the possibility of a to engage with the discourses of policy, local curriculum – one that was constructed necessarily presents the curriculum subject by a teacher sensitive to the lives, as a product of historical processes, as a experiences, histories and cultures of his changing and contested space. At the same students – while acknowledging that the time, the assignment asks the students to majority of the department remained (for consider how the subject is instantiated in instrumental reasons, in that they felt that their the singular, specific sites of their teaching approach prepared students for the demands practice schools. What, in effect, does it of the next stage of education) committed to mean to do English here, now, in this school? ‘an English curriculum that focused on What histories lie behind these practices? canonical works of literature and traditional How can such practices be theorised? How modes of discourse’ (Zancanella, 1998:103). else might the subject be imagined? Rob’s summary indicates his understanding of the terms of this debate: it shows, in What the assignment seeks to enact is effect, that he can do scholarly reading. The precisely the integration of practice and question that confronts him, though, is a theory that we see as constitutive of the much more demanding one; what light can PCGE course. It demands, simultaneously, Zancanella’s account shed on the different engagement in the local, the particular of context of his own school? Can a curricular practice and critical reflection, the stepping initiative in New Mexico simply be back from practice to gain a wider transposed onto a school in East London? perspective. And, as in the earlier example What gives urgency to this enquiry is Rob’s of the exploration of the role of grammar sense of the specific characteristics and teaching, the trainee is reflecting in writing on needs of the school where he has been a problem that exists in the world. placed. It is an inner London school, In what follows, we look in some detail at the situated in an area of acute poverty and
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deprivation, a school where almost all the circumstances. And Rob’s attentiveness to students are from minority ethnic the context of his school leads him recognise communities, the large majority of them of that the question of the place of the subject Bangladeshi heritage. In this site, questions of cannot be dissociated from the bigger the relationship between school and question of the function of education. What is community, questions of curricular design and schooling for in this place? Whose interests access, questions of culture and identity, are must it serve? sharply posed. Rob understands what is at stake here. He ‘After reading this essay I was struck by recognises that schooling cannot be how unworkable both these teaching separated from issues of power. He approaches would be if transferred into acknowledges that some configurations of the my new school. I am very much of John subject can exclude and demean students’ Hardcastle’s opinion in “Carlos’ Task” subjectivities and affiliations just as surely as [Hardcastle, 2002] that by ignoring a other versions of English might create student’s origins you are reducing the curricular spaces in which important identity boundaries of that child’s self- work could be accomplished. And yet this expression. English, the subject, does not lead him to a position of simple, suddenly becomes a means of programmatic support for localised curricula devaluing certain voices; self- because he recognises the legitimacy of the knowledge is discarded in favour of demand from students, their parents and social assimilation. communities, that the school should provide them with access to cultural capital, to ‘the However, with the range of ability in dominant culture’. English in the school so great, and the overall prospects of advancement in Rob starts with a binary opposition – the the area surrounding the school being binary of Zancanella’s essay; a curriculum so small, a less “traditional” method of constructed from local and locally valued English teaching might be unpopular texts, reflecting the particularity of students’ with students, and their parents, who cultures and histories, or a curriculum whose would perhaps be appreciative of any content is derived from the high-status texts chance to study the dominant culture of the dominant culture? He uses the writing as a crucial point of social and of his own assignment to reflect on what these economic access. One could argue poles of attraction have to offer – to him and that diverting from the current to the school students whom he has just curriculum to suit the students would started to teach. What enables him to resolve, be more patronising to the community, or at least to move beyond, this opposition is as if they required exclusive assistance, that he shifts the focus from curricular content than if their culture had been ignored at to pedagogy: all’ (ibid.). ‘… attention should be diverted away Rob’s reading of Zancanella and Hardcastle from which texts are taught and provides him with perspectives from which he towards the status a text should can (re-)examine the issues that confront him assume in teaching. From my small in his placement school, partly because these experience in my new school, deciding readings, too, challenge any easy notion of how ethical one text is above another generalisability; to say that both papers are can be mind-bendingly complicated. engagements in specific, situated debates is What is important is how texts are not to deny their wider resonance, but it is to taught. Students should be allowed to insist on an attentiveness to local build up a range of perspectives to
122 Developing articulation of critical reflection in ITE: writing at Masters level for a Professional Learning Portfolio
inform their reading, rather possessing given the opportunity to articulate them within a set of useless nuggets of information a scholarly discourse that did not require them gleaned from the usual series of texts, to ‘take themselves out of the picture’ in a knowledge that might come in handy in discourse of academic ‘objectivity’. However, a pub quiz, but with little application this in itself required us to consider the kinds elsewhere’ (emphasis added) (ibid.). of activities and writing support that would enable articulation at the level, and of the kind Writing the assignment thus enables Rob to required. work towards a properly theorised practice – and one which restores, both to him as Biographies beginning teacher and to his students, a sense Ruth Heilbronn, is a lecturer in education at of their shared agency. the Institute of Education, University of London, specialist in teacher education, In conclusion languages in education and education and the In working on our Masters level Module The philosophy of education. She is currently Professional Learning Portfolio (PLP), we were engaged in teaching, research and PhD aware of the limitations of both the term supervision. She is a member of the editorial ‘teacher training’ and ‘teacher education’. committee for the website for support for MFL ‘Formation’ seemed to us to sum up better tutors in initial teacher education, ittmfl.org.uk what the student teachers were undertaking, and the Initial Teacher Training Working Group relating as it does to a ‘a deliberately of the Centre for Information on Language conducted practice’ (Dewey 1916:387). The Teaching and Research. Responsibilities have assignments set up in the PLP enabled a included subject leader for the PGCE MFL, discourse that recognised that: team leader for PGCE Professional Studies, and module leader for the Masters of teaching and learning as a human Teaching. Her most recent book is Teacher practice…(involves) not merely a Education and the Development of Practical fluency in skills and strategies of Judgement, (2008), London, Continuum. communication but also something qualitatively different: a commitment to Shirley Lawes is subject leader for the MFL teaching and learning as a distinctive PGCE at the Institute of Education, University way of being human in a world that is of London, editor of Francophonie, and a now one with an unprecedented member of National Centre for Languages plurality of lifestyles, value orientations Advisory Group on teacher training. Current and careers. (Hogan, 2003, p.209) responsibilities include teaching, research and PhD supervision. Recent publications include Teaching calls upon the resources and Modern Foreign Languages: Teaching School qualities of the teacher and learning to teach is Subjects 11 – 19 (19 (2007) Ed. with Norbert a particular kind of learning journey, related in Pachler and Michael Evans RoutledgeFalmer; some sense to self identity. Cultural Awareness and Visits Abroad (2005), More widely, as tutors we were able to be in Pachler N. (Ed), Teaching modern foreign comfortable with our interventions and languages in the secondary school: a practical tutoring of the student teachers’ writing, guide, RoutledgeFalmer ; Practice Makes because the mode of assignment prohibited a Imperfect, (2002) in Hayes, D. (ed) The false split between so called academic and RoutledgeFalmer Guide to Key Debates in theoretical elements on the one hand, and Education. skills and strategies learnt in practice, on the other. In undertaking the kind of assignments John Yandell taught in inner London required for the PLP, students were able to secondary schools for twenty years, including integrate their learning experiences and were eleven years as head of English at Kingsland
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School, Hackney, and three years as head of Heilbronn, R. (2008), Teacher education and the Ethnic Minority Achievement Team at the development of practical judgement, Haverstock School, Camden. He now leads (London, Continuum). the Secondary PGCE English and English Hogan, P. (2003). Teaching and learning as a with Drama course (Initial Teacher Education) way of life, Journal of Philosophy of at the Institute of Education, University of Education, 37, 2, 207 – 224. London. Recent publications have appeared in the British Educational Research Journal, Klenowski, V. (2002), Developing Portfolios the Cambridge Journal of Education, for Learning and Assessment: Processes and Changing English, English in Education and Principles (Principles (London and New York, English Teaching: Practice and Critique.He Routledge Falmer). is currently engaged in research on how Lyons, N. (1998), With Portfolio in Hand; literature is read in English classrooms. Validating the New Teacher Professionalism. [email protected]; New York and London: Teachers’ College [email protected]; [email protected] Press.
References Maclure, J. S. (1969) Educational Documents: Andreko, L. (1998), The case for the teacher England and Wales 1816-1968, (London, portfolio: Evaluation tool carries a wealth of Methuen). professional information, National Staff Meiring, L., Norman, N., (2001), ‘Grammar in Development Council: MFL Teaching revisited’, Language Learning http://www.nsdc.org/library/publications/jsd/ Journal, 23, pp 58-66. andrejko194.cfm (accessed 19.03.06). Stott, R., (2008) ‘The Place of English’, in Darling-Hammond, L. (2001), Teacher Testing Professional Learning Portfolio (June 2008), and the Improvement of Practice, Teaching Unpublished assignment extract, London, Education, 12(1), pp. 11-34(24). Institute of Education. Dewey, J. (1916), Democracy and Education Town, H. (2008) Language learning and the (NY, Macmillan Co). role of grammar, Professional Learning DCSF, (2008), New Masters Qualification To Portfolio (June 2008), Unpublished Boost Teaching. http://www.dfes.gov.uk/ assignment extract, London, Institute of Press Notice 2008/0044 (accessed Education. 14.03.08.). Wenzlaff (1998) Dispositions and portfolio Farr Darling, F. (2003), Portfolio as practice: development: is there a connection? the narratives of emerging teachers, Teaching http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=500 and Teacher Education, 17, 107-121. 1358541 , Project Innovation 2002 Gale Group (accessed 19.03.06.). Goff, L., Colton, A. and Langer, G. (2000), Power of the Portfolio, Winch, C. (2004). What do teachers need to http://www.nsdc.org/library/ know about teaching? A critical examination publications/jsd/goff214.cfm, National Staff of the occupational knowledge of teachers, Development Council, (accessed 19.03.06.). British Journal of Educational Studies, 52 (2) June 2004, pp. 180-196(17), Oxford, Hackman, S (2006) ‘Competence’ in Taking Blackwell Publishing. English forward: the four Cs, London, QCA, accessible at http://www.qca.org.uk/ Zancanella, D. (1998) Inside the Literature libraryAssets/media/qca-06 23-23the-four- Curriculum, Literary and Media Texts in cs.pdf . Secondary English: New Approaches, ed. A. Goodwyn (Goodwyn (London & New York, Hardcastle, J. (2002) Carlos’ task: pictures of Cassell). language and English teaching,Changing English 9.1, 7-22. 124 ‘Tell me what to do?’
13. ‘Tell me what to do?’
Andrew Slater, Susan Shaw, Andrew Read, Donna Hurford: University of Cumbria
Summary The paper discusses and critiques the development of a new Education Studies course for student teachers on a distance learning programme. The course was developed in line with the principles of Assessment for Learning with a strong focus on enabling independent learning. Students’ perceptions of independent learning are reviewed and an alternative strategy, designed to scaffold independent learning with a focus on success criteria, is trialed through the Round Table event. The significance of opportunities for reflection and collaborative engagement with new approaches is discussed.
Keywords: Independent learning / Assessment for Learning / success criteria / Professional Standards / distance learners
Introduction is discussed with recommendations for This paper reviews the rationale and further course-innovations. processes that led to the development of a new Education Studies course for Initial Rationale for the development of a new Teacher Education (ITE) students on a Education Studies course distance learning Professional Graduate Following the changes to the Professional Certificate in Education (PGCE) course. The Standards for Qualified Teacher Status (TDA, expectation that students would be self- 2007) the implementation of the Primary informed and critical participants in Strategy (DfES, 2003) in schools and the discussions on current educational policies development of the ‘big picture’ (QCA, 2008) and approaches is apparent through the it was felt appropriate to look at the content nature of the new course. Whilst the course of the Education Studies module, which is was built upon Assessment for Learning part of a wider Flexible Modular (FM) (Assessment Reform Group, 2002) principles Distance Learning Programme for student with a clear focus on independent learning teachers to study for a combined the paper also reveals that not all students qualification: QTS and PGCE. The FM embraced this approach. The notion of Programme attracts a wide variety of having unrealistic expectations about students who are looking for an opportunity students’ readiness for independent learning to study for QTS as distance learners. Many is discussed and the reasons why some of the students manage other commitments students found independent learning such as part-time work and care challenging and potentially de-motivating are responsibilities alongside their studies and explored. The paper goes on to present school placements. alternative strategies to scaffold student engagement with independent learning and The content was reviewed by Education AfL (Assessment for Learning). Learning Studies tutors, but also, importantly, gained from trialing a strategy to support students who had just finished the independent learning at a Round Table event programme and were now teaching. Their at the ESCalate conference in Carlisle, 2008 feedback provided the students’ perspective
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on how the Education Studies course Prior to the review of the Education Studies complemented the whole Programme, a view modules on the Flexible Modular Programme that subject-based tutors can often miss. the students were required to engage with Other colleagues including teachers from mainly summative, online, multiple-choice placement schools, the Programme Leader tests related to the old QTS standards as and the External Examiner were also involved well as submitting two PGCE assignments. in the critique of the old course and the The review highlighted the need to reduce development of the new version. the assessment load as students were feeling overwhelmed and there was little Discussion took place regarding key areas evidence of deep engagement with the that were felt to be important to explore online, multiple-choice tests. As the students through the nine Base Day, face-to-face are enrolled on a dual-award course the sessions e.g. Assessment for Learning, assessment had originally been designed to Behaviour Management and Planning. In rigorously assess their engagement with the view of the limited number of face-to-face TDA’s Professional Standards for QTS and to sessions, alternative pedagogies such as assess their capability to engage with interactive online units and the use of academic assessment at the appropriate discussion boards were also discussed. It PGCE level. However, after consultation with was also the opinion of the planning group the External Examiner and the Programme that there were fundamental underlying Leader it was agreed that the assessment themes that needed to be blended into the load could be significantly reduced and that seminars; these were reflective practice, school placements would provide sufficient inclusion and the Every Child Matters (DfES, scope to assess the student teachers’ 2004) agenda. capabilities to demonstrate their engagement with the Professional The philosophy for the new Education Standards. Studies course emerged from these initial discussions. It was apparent that the new In response to student feedback, that course would be based on the tutor team’s indicated that they did not always see the commitment to enabling the student links between the course and school teachers to ‘broaden(ing) responsibility…for practice, opportunities were sought to their own learning’ (Light and Cox, 2001:84) establish more overt connections between as independent learners and reflective the course and the students’ school-based practitioners. Students would be expected placements. These connections were to participate in discussions, during Base highlighted through questions for dialogue Day sessions and through on-line forums, between the students and their school- about educational issues from informed and based mentor. The intention was that these critically evaluative perspectives. The tutor discussions would guide the school-based would adopt the role of facilitator and would mentors and the student teachers, enabling be open and responsive to innovative ideas them both to make more informed reflections and pedagogies that could foster more and assessments of the student teacher’s effective independent learning. To achieve engagement with the QTS standards in the these aims the new course would redirect classroom. This formative method of the focus to formative feedback and feedback and was seen as more effective assessment and accommodate more assessment than using online multiple- personalised learning. choice questions and answers. The focus on formative assessment was closely aligned to the notion of Assessment for Learning in the classroom.
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Although the students were still required to degree of irony, this phenomenon: for all too submit two PGCE assignments for Education easily some students may perceive training Studies, which would count towards the to be simply about the achievement of summative assessment for their PGCE required ‘standards’ by the careful and award, the new course was developed somewhat mechanical following of tightly around these assignments. Sessions and focused advice and guidance. Of course, it activities related to the assignments were is important that this claim is not overplayed. incorporated into the face-to-face sessions The students who opt for the Flexible and the online discussion boards. It was Modular Distance Learning route to QTS made clear to the students from the start of have typically pursued a wide variety of the course that we would focus on enabling degree routes in their undergraduate studies. them to engage with the assignments by The differences between the students are at providing support for them as independent least as marked as any obvious similarities. learners. Personalised Learning was defined These days many degree programmes may by the Report of the Teaching and Learning be informed by a network of transferable in 2020 Review Group: ‘Put simply, work-related skills. But they are also personalised learning and teaching means characterised by huge variations in content taking a highly structured and responsive and approach. And no two students are the approach to each child’s and young person’s same. learning, in order that all are able to progress, achieve and participate…we must begin by Beyond differences in prior academic acknowledging that giving every single child achievement there are complex variations in the chance to achieve their full potential…is motivation, experience and confidence. The the fulfillment of it’. (Teaching and Learning students beginning the Flexible Modular in 2020 Review Group, 2006:6). As teacher Distance Learning PGCE course are faced educators we are no different in wanting our with the expectation that they will readily students to progress and achieve their full understand that a capacity to work potential. Through this personalised independently will prove beneficial. In approach to learning and assessment with practice students may initially vary in their our students we can model current capacity to cope with such work. Prior to classroom pedagogy. beginning the course students may have experienced undergraduate courses offering The new course is currently being trialed with meaningful opportunities for ‘independent students. There is on-going development of learning’. Yet there can be no easy the course as new classroom pedagogy and assumption that all of the students have risen government policies change the goal posts to the challenge presented by such for the students and require them to opportunities with equal success. embrace further new ideas. The changes embedded in the new Links between the new course and Education Studies modules represent a current educational policies and response to all of these factors, taking into approaches account the central imperative to cultivate a In an era when the concept of ‘teacher more obviously ‘personalised’ approach to training’ rather than ‘teacher education’ learning. At the same time the changes are tends to be prioritised there is a danger that designed to offer a framework which some students may approach the training supports the students as they continue to process with unrealistic expectations about develop as independent learners. The the path to be followed. The title of our developing approach is underpinned by a presentation captures, albeit with some determination to take the new emphasis
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upon Assessment for Learning seriously, development as confident, independent and drawing upon the work of the Assessment constructively reflective learners the revised Reform Group (2002). Research shows that Education Studies module seeks to promote the focus upon Assessment for Learning can this change. help to transform learning experiences in primary and secondary classrooms (Black The new Education Studies course and Wiliam, 1998). But how can progress at One of the key aims for the new course was school level be sustained? It is arguable that to move Base Day session content away from this implies a parallel willingness to innovate tutor-centred input and to provide instead in ITE programmes. Certainly it is important opportunities for students to participate in that student teachers recognise that the critical discussions informed by preparatory skilled application of the core approaches work. The new course framework (see Fig. 1) associated with Assessment for Learning will places high expectations on students to have a positive and enduring impact upon engage with online units related to specific children’s learning. session content. At the end of taught sessions, students are The new Professional Standards for Qualified directed to the online unit appropriate to the Teacher Status (TDA, 2007) are noteworthy next session. As noted the overview of Base in this context. The importance of formative Day sessions addresses themes and assessment and the provision of approaches, such as reflective and inclusive constructive feedback are clearly recognised practice, that run throughout the course. - see, for example, Standards Q12 and Q27. However, this could be critiqued on the basis Equally significant is a strong emphasis upon that, although students can access the reflection: Standard Q28, for example, overview, the ‘current themes and focuses upon the need to support and guide approaches’ are arguably often only implicit learners as they reflect upon their own in sessions. Students are also introduced to learning. tutor-facilitated discussion boards, via Blackboard, where forums continue to The continuing dialogue relating to the explore issues raised in face-to-face primary curriculum should also be sessions. highlighted. Currently the QCA’s ‘big picture’ identifies the need to encourage all children The online units follow a set model: after to become successful learners – that is, explicit reference to QTS standards, a series learners ‘who enjoy learning, make progress of questions lead to a range of relevant and achieve’ (QCA, 2008). In thinking about readings and web-based materials; the organisation of learning the ‘big picture’ reference to further reading and links to also stresses the need to ‘involve learners related units are also provided (see Fig. 2). proactively in their own learning’. The new course no longer requires online assessment: we felt that non-assessed study One key question must be raised. How can of the online units would allow students to student teachers genuinely gain the sense of engage at a higher level and therefore come imagination and vision which will encourage to face-to-face sessions with a deeper the adoption of innovative approaches to understanding of issues. The online units do learning in their own classroom work? One not provide answers but information and helpful starting point is surely to embed opinion, leaving students to develop their these approaches within the student own perspectives and understanding. By teachers’ learning experiences whilst dividing the online units into a series of accessing the PGCE course. By seeking to questions we felt that students would be able support student teachers in their continued to make choices about which areas to focus
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Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
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on, guided by their reflections on their own discussing parallels and conflicts between understanding. Subsequently we have the various elements of the case study and questioned our assumptions about the their own classroom practice. The case effectiveness of this question-led, arguably study itself is introduced within a taught personalised approach (Read and Hurford, session, allowing students to identify key 2008). issues in a supportive and, where appropriate, facilitative environment, before The placement handbook was designed to developing their thinking though the online again reflect and facilitate this integrated discussions. Generic feedback on the approach. Suggested questions for school- students’ contributions to these online based tutorials offer opportunities to further discussions is provided at the base day explore online and taught session content following the closing of the discussion within the school context. Students are forums. This allows students to familiarise directed to online units to prepare for tutorial themselves with tutor expectations and the discussion: this mirrors the online language of assessment feedback, and preparation-taught course model described provides opportunities to challenge students above, and reinforces the links between the to engage with reflective thinking at a higher course, independent learning and placement. level by identifying generic examples of Related QTS standards are also identified unreflective writing (see Fig.5). (see Fig.3). This more critical approach to evaluative Assessment of the course is through thinking also links to the QTS standards collaborative online discussion and individual related to personal professional development written submission on a devised case study, (Q7-9), emphasising the integration of face- consisting of a fictitious student teacher’s to-face sessions, independent study, and lesson plan and lesson evaluation sheet, and teaching practice that underpins the new a fictitious mentor’s evaluation of the same course. lesson (see Fig.4). The role of success criteria Students are required to draw on their own A mid-course evaluation had indicated that experience in school in both the collaborative not all of the students were comfortable with and individual elements, identifying and the course’s expectations for independent
Figure 4
130 ‘Tell me what to do?’
Figure 5
learning. Despite having planned and This would be an example of an unrealistic implemented a course that was designed to expectation, one that warranted more careful focus on enabling students to develop as scaffolding if all learners were to be included, independent learners it was apparent that whilst not perpetuating a state of some students found this approach dependency (Light and Cox, 2001:141). challenging and potentially de-motivating. Student feedback revealed how some found Some students indicated a preference for the the online modules overwhelming: ‘(I) need to guidance and re-assurance offered by know how to prioritise, (it) seems quite deadlines and assessment tasks ‘(I would) daunting at the moment, (it’s) difficult to Prefer more direction on where to start, like break down’ (student feedback, 2007). other subjects with unit assessment Comments on the lack of course direction on deadlines’ (student feedback, 2007). Noting how to engage with the online modules were this evidence of some students’ dependence re-iterated ’I don’t know where to start, what on external assessment to structure and to prioritise’ (student feedback, 2007). These possibly motivate their learning the tutor comments suggested the students were team looked for alternative scaffolds. The unfamiliar with having to identify their own Bridge Model ‘a tool for visioning and learning needs and choose appropriate planning, helping people to identify where sources from a selection of online materials. they are, where they want to be, and how to However, it could be argued that the problem bridge the gap between the two’ (VSO, arose because they were very unfamiliar with 2005:70) was identified as a possible the subject matter and therefore lacked scaffold. During a Base Day session, sufficient background knowledge to focusing on using assignment feedback effectively scaffold their own learning. If this formatively, the students were presented was the case it would suggest that the with generic assignment feedback from their course had been designed with the first PGCE Education Studies assignment. unrealistic expectation that students would They were asked to identify what a student know how to identify their learning needs, would need to do to move from writing a even when studying an unfamiliar subject weaker assignment to a stronger area. assignment. Their ideas were recorded on a version of the Bridge Model, see Fig 6.
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Figure 6
Weaker assignments How could you get from the weaker Stronger tended to provide to the stronger? Identify some assignments effective strategies. tended to provide
limited evaluation Back up Read more Reflect on evidence of without clear own critically – Is own analysis and reference to viewpoints this experience; reflection with wider reading with viewpoint analyse in clear reference to relevant backed up light of wider reading readings. with reading and evidence? other people’s experience.
What was apparent from the students’ for student teachers who struggle with engagement with the task was their independent approaches to learning?’ identification of success criteria alongside Colleagues were asked to share their the necessary strategies, e.g. ‘(I can) Read perceptions of students on their courses and more critically’ (see Fig. 6). The students’ how they demonstrated independent involvement with identifying success criteria learning. Colleagues were asked to imagine ‘I mirrors one of the core principles of can’ statements that students might share Assessment for Learning (Assessment indicating their levels of knowledge, Reform Group, 2002:3) and led the tutor confidence and skills when they described team to review how deepening themselves as learners, e.g. ‘I can reflect on understanding of success criteria could be my own strengths and weaknesses and integrated into the new course. apply this to my own practice’, see Fig. 7. Colleagues worked collaboratively on the Sharing the development of the new task and developed eleven different ‘I can’ Education Studies course with colleagues statements, see Fig. 7. from other HE institutions through a Round Table activity, at the ESCalate conference in Once the statements had been developed Carlisle, 2008, provided a further colleagues were asked to sequence them to collaborative opportunity to share ideas show progression from a statement that about course development. Involving suggested a preference for dependent colleagues, who were unfamiliar with the learning and limited reflection, see Fig.7, course, in an activity similar to one being statement 1, to a statement at the other end introduced to the students provided of the continuum, showing a confident and something of a test for the tutor team’s reflective approach to independent learning, emerging thinking about enabling see Fig 7, statement 10. Statements 7a were independent learning. Once colleagues had 7b were ranked equally. been introduced to the rationale for the changes to the course, the development of When the activity was discussed it was the new course’s philosophy and what it apparent that colleagues shared similar looked like in practice they were invited to perceptions of how students demonstrate consider: ‘What could be the success criteria independent learning. Arranging the
132 ‘Tell me what to do?’
Figure 7 Concluding Remarks The learning illustrated in this paper indicates 10. I can use a new strategy and I can reflect the importance of having opportunities to on why I implemented it and how I can reflect and collaborate when developing implement it in the future. innovative approaches for teaching and 9. I understand the relevance of advice learning. It is probably unsurprising that the given and I am able to adapt this to my first edition of the new Education Studies learning needs. course identified issues that had not been 8. I can initiate discussion with my mentor fully considered, such as the unrealistic on using a strategy that is new for me. expectation that all students would engage 7a. I can identify the area of my practice that with independent learning. Putting I need to change. (student supports this with Assessment for Learning (AfL) into practice critical reference to current practice) presents challenges for both learners and 7b. I can reflect on my own strengths and teachers or tutors. The challenge for weaknesses and apply this to my own teachers is illustrated by James and Pollard’s practice. research for the Primary Review that notes 6. I appreciate the value of independence in how some teachers struggle to move from learning. I can begin to take the initiative. the ‘letter of AfL’ (James and Pollard, 2008:12) i.e. Writing the learning objective on 5. I can listen to advice and respond to the feedback. the board to the ‘spirit of AfL’ (James and Pollard, 2008:12) i.e. Embedding the 4. I know what a critique is. principles of AfL into the lessons. ITE 3. What could I do to make this better? courses need to implement and evaluate 2. Something wasn’t right about that lesson strategies that enable student teachers to but I’m not sure what it was. engage with the challenge presented by AfL. 1. That was fine. A really inclusive lesson. I If they are to become confident and informed followed my plan. practitioners of AfL in their own learning and What could be the success criteria for as teachers they need to experience and student teachers who struggle with recognize the value of AfL for all learners. independent approaches to learning? Feedback from a student, engaged in identifying success criteria for a fictitious The student says student wanting to develop their assignment writing skills, suggested that she valued this statements in order provoked discussion but approach: ‘I wish we had done this earlier in there was sufficient agreement amongst the the course, this approach will be really participants to produce a shared outcome. helpful’. The challenge ahead is to ensure Clearly this activity was completed through that this Education Studies course continues HE tutors’ perceptions of students to provide student teachers with innovative demonstrating independent learning. These approaches, designed to enable perceptions were likely to have been independent learning and deeper influenced by their tacit understanding of understanding of AfL, both for them as independent learning and may not therefore learners and as classroom practitioners. be the same as students’ understanding of the concept. Based on these findings and Biographies the students’ engagement with the Bridge Susan J Shaw, S. Lecturer- Education Model it was decided that a similar activity Studies Co-ordinator, University of Cumbria. would be introduced to students to see if it [email protected] offered them a framework to scaffold their Andrew Slater, S. Lecturer- Education own engagement with independent learning. Studies, University of Cumbria.
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[email protected] Light, G. and Cox, R. (2001) Learning and Andrew Read, S. Lecturer- Education Teaching in Higher Education (London, Studies, University of Cumbria. Sage). [email protected] Donna Hurford, S. Lecturer- Education QCA (Qualifications and Curriculum Studies, University of Cumbria. Authority) (2008) A big picture of the [email protected] curriculum- working draft April – June 2008, available at: References http://www.qca.org.uk/libraryAssets/media/ Assessment Reform Group. (2002) Big_Picture_2008.pdf (accessed 31.10.08). Assessment for Learning: 10 Principles. London: Assessment Reform Group. Read, A. and Hurford, D. (2008) Opportunities for personalised learning: Black, P. and Wiliam, D. (1998) ‘Assessment enabling or overwhelming?, Practitioner and classroom learning’, Assessment in Research in Higher Education, 2 (1), Education 5(1), pp. 7-74. pp.43-50.
DfES (2004) Every Child Matters: change for Teaching and Learning in 2020 Review children in schools, available at Group (2006) Report of the Teaching and www.teachernet.gov.uk/publications Learning in 2020 Review Group, available at: (accessed 31October, 2008). http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/ personalisedlearning/about/ DfES (2003) Excellence and Enjoyment: A (accessed 29.10.08). Strategy for Primary Schools, available at www.teachernet.gov.uk/publications TDA (Training Development Agency) (2007) (accessed 31October, 2008). Professional Standards for Teachers, Why sit still in your career? (London, TDA). James, M. & Pollard, A. (2008) ‘Learning and Teaching in Primary Schools: evidence from VSO (Voluntary Service Overseas) (2005) TLRP.’ The Primary Review-Research Participatory Approaches: A facilitator’s Survey, 2/4. Available at: guide (London, VSO) http://www.primaryreview.org.uk/Downloads /Int_Reps/9.Teaching-learning/RS_2- 4_report_160508_Learning_teaching_from_T LRP.pdf (accessed 2.11.08).
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14. Alternative and International Experiences
Tracy Whatmore: Newman University College, Birmingham
Summary Undergraduate ITE students at Newman University College have the option to undertake a three or a four-year Initial Teacher Training (ITT) degree. If the students opt for the four-year degree programme, then in their third year they can undertake an international or alternative module and experience. Newman has been involved in the Erasmus European student exchange programme for a number of years, which had been evaluated very successfully by the students and institutions involved. The simultaneous legislative changes to include alternative settings as a placement opportunity, led to the decision to extend and develop alternative and international modules, as part of the validation of ITT provision. The modules would include extended experience in a range of alternative educationally based settings, or school based settings across the world. The Escalate Conference provided the ideal forum to outline the developments and to disseminate some of the initial findings.
Keywords International / Alternative / Educational Experiences
International and Alternative Experiences Erasmus is the European The Teacher Development Agency (TDA) Commission’s flagship educational produces statutory Requirements and programme for Higher Education Standards for Initial Teacher Training, which students, teachers and institutions. It include ‘settings’ as an alternative to was introduced with the aim of schools; ‘Time training in schools or settings increasing student mobility within requirement: That training programmes are Europe. Erasmus forms part of the EU designed to provide trainees with sufficient Lifelong Learning Programme (2007- time being trained in school and/or other 2013). It encourages student and staff settings to enable them to demonstrate they mobility for work and study, and have met the QTS standards’ (TDA, promotes trans-national co-operation 2008:R2.8, p.16). Thus, the opportunity to projects among universities across enable teacher training students to gain Europe. The scheme currently involves experience in non-traditional educational nine out of every ten European higher settings or in international educational education establishments and settings was one that was embraced by supports co-operation between the tutors and students alike. universities of 31 countries. Erasmus has developed beyond an educational Newman has developed a diverse range of programme - it has acquired the status ‘experiences’ for students over a number of of a social and cultural phenomenon. It years, including visits to the Gambia to work gives many European university with children in schools and nurseries. students their first chance to live and Students have also participated in the thrive abroad. Well over 1.5 million Erasmus scheme: students have benefited from Erasmus grants to date and the European Commission hopes to reach a total of 3 million by 2012. (British Council, 2008)
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The benefits to be gained from such • to investigate the structure and international experiences, for the children organisation of learning and teaching and teachers in the settings, and for the in international contexts; students and tutors, were clearly apparent in • to gain experience of international the evaluations and the feedback from all settings and the wider context of involved. Therefore, in order to formalise the educational provision; experiences, and to recognise the • to reflect critically on the requirements significance of these to professional of the Professional Standards for QTS development and personal growth and and other relevant legislation and understanding, the international and documentation. alternative modules were created and validated. Students spent a minimum of 20 days in an international, education-based setting and International Module and Experience undertook a range of activities with children The International module was designed to and staff. The students completed a daily give students an insight into the learning and journal in which they reflected on their teaching and development of skills in an experience and linked this to the international context, in one or more settings. Professional Standards. Students went to The module and experience encouraged the educational settings in a number of countries development of knowledge and including Austria, the Gambia, India, Ireland, understanding of international educational Japan and Spain. contexts, educational structure and organisation, the development of language Assessment skills and teaching EAL (English as an Students were required to undertake an additional language). The experience International placement, to keep a reflective focused on the ability to relate knowledge, journal and to produce a summative report. It understanding and skills gained to learning was necessary to successfully complete at and teaching in an international context and least 20 days in an international setting, setting, to monitor progress and assess working with children and adults, teaching a learning, and reflect on and analyse variety of lessons and activities. A report was professional development. completed by the setting against a number of specified criteria, and a tutor, who made a Aims of the module and experience visit to the student during the experience, • to extend knowledge, understanding also completed a report outlining the and skills in relation to learning and teaching and learning undertaken and the teaching in an international context; progress made. Students completed either; a • to gain experience of preparation for 1500 word analytical report based on the learning and teaching in an planning, preparation, implementation, international context; assessment and critical evaluation of • to demonstrate critical awareness of activities/programmes of how international settings and work/resources/packages in an international facilities can be used effectively to setting, and the consideration of the impact implement relevant curriculums; of the experience on professional • to critically analyse practical and development; or a 1500 word analytical pedagogical issues encountered in report based on comparative education and learning and teaching in an the impact of the international experience on international context; professional development.
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Evaluation • Japan: ‘It was a fantastic experience The students completed evaluations at the and gave me a lot of food for thought end of the experience, which were reviewed both within an education and a social and used to plan subsequent experiences. context. There was a language barrier The students’ analytical reports and journals (I had taken Japanese lessons from a were submitted and marked by the SE Japanese student for a few months (School Experience) co-ordinators and the before travelling) but all the children Programme Leader and a summary and staff were very welcoming. I document for dissemination to students and taught English and joined in with tutors was produced. Students were invited extra-curricular activities. I saw a to ‘present’ to the rest of the cohort and range of different approaches, which tutors as a non-assessed way of sharing their will impact on my own teaching, and experiences. A group of students also very different relationships between participated in a ‘Placement Plus’ ESCalate staff. The 1500 word assignment has Conference at the University of Cumbria not justified my experience, and don’t where students from a number of hold me to it, but I could have Universities shared their ‘real life stories’ of a easily written 5000!’ range of experiences they had undertaken. • India: ‘The whole experience was This was an inspiring Conference, valued excellent. Day to day contact with the highly by all involved, and reinforcing the children, building strong relationships, belief in gaining experience beyond the and it was brilliant to see the traditional. progression in the children’s art skills and capabilities over the four weeks. In the analytical Reports and evaluations, the We created a 30 metre mural and got students from Newman particularly noted: all the children involved, which was extremely different from the school’s • Austria: ‘With MFL becoming usual approach. The project gave statutory in KS2, the experience really them freedom to express their developed my language skills and my creativity and skills. I developed confidence in speaking other confidence, better understanding of languages. It has also given me a having high expectations regardless great deal of understanding about of language issues or different children who do not speak English- abilities, and the value of collaborative we had to undertake a lot of team teaching and team work.’ translation and it really emphasised • Spain: ‘The experience was excellent. the issues that children with EAL must I was able to work with both primary face in school. The insights I have and secondary departments. I gained gained will aid my teaching pupils from working with children from with EAL and pupils with SENs who different cultural backgrounds and may struggle to understand concepts. with teachers who had experience Teaching RE in English and German teaching in a range of different (with pupils between 6 and11 in two countries. I taught pupils and was schools) also gave me more involved in an extra curricular fencing confidence in my specialist subject club. It also showed me that I could area.’ be independent in a different country.’
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Alternative Module and Experience Professional Standards. Students gained The Alternative module was designed to give experiences in a range of alternative settings students a greater insight into the learning including: Nursery; Foundation Learning Unit; and teaching and development of skills in Children’s Centre; SureStart Children’s alternative settings across the Key Stages. It Centre; Primary Schools; Community encouraged the development of knowledge College; Secondary Schools; High School and understanding of alternative settings in (Learning Support Section); Special Schools; the wider context of educational provision. School and Centre for Motor Education; The experience focused on the students’ School Children’s Hospital; Activity Centre; ability: to relate knowledge, understanding School and Sports Centre; Family Support and skills gained to the practical implications Services; Farm Children’s Centre; Farms for of learning and teaching in an alternative City Children; Education Centre; Centre for educational setting; to monitor children’s Excluded Pupils; City Development progress and assess learning and teaching; Directorate, Culture and Leisure; Art Galleries and to critically reflect on and analyse the and Museums. experience and the impact on professional development. Assessment Students needed to undertake a minimum of Aims of the module and experience twenty days in an alternative setting and receive a successful report from the setting. • to analyse knowledge, understanding During their time in the setting the students and skills in relation to learning and were expected to work with children and teaching in a specialist focus area; adults and to develop their understanding of • to diversify experience of planning, learning and teaching. Students produced a implementing, monitoring and 1500 word analytical report based on evaluating strategies and approaches; planning, preparation, implementation, • to be critically aware of how settings assessment, and critical evaluation of and facilities can be used to activities/programmes of work/resources/ effectively implement curriculums; packages in an alternative setting, and the • to critically reflect and analyse impact of this on professional development. practical and pedagogical issues encountered in learning and teaching; Evaluation • to critically analyse the role of major Based on the students’ evaluations of the factors in the development of a key experience and the reports submitted, the focus area; following initial points were noted and • to extend experience of alternative disseminated at a presentation to the rest of settings and the wider context of the cohort: educational provision; • to critically reflect on the requirements • Outdoor Education Centre: ‘I was of Professional Standards for QTS given full training up to Activity and other relevant legislation and Instructor Position, a uniform and documentation. accommodation. I took sessions, planned a rota, undertook risk Students spent a minimum of 20 days in an assessments and worked as part of a alternative education based setting and team. I really valued seeing a more undertook a range of activities with children practical side of education and being and staff. The students completed a daily able to work with children and journal, in which they reflected on their teachers in a completely different experience and linked this to the situation.’
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• Education Centre (for Excluded will be useful in mainstream teaching. Pupils): ‘The children had very Although it was useful and interesting challenging behaviour that could I think that I would rather have spent change at any time, which meant less time there and had a ‘normal’ being very careful with what you said school placement as well.’ and using varied behaviour management strategies. I learnt so Professional Development much about behaviour management During the experiences students kept a and I believe this will really help when Journal and tracked their progress against I teach. I feel that the placement was QTS Standards. One standard that was so useful that it’s a shame others particularly cited in student Journals and can’t experience it.’ Reports related to working with children with • SureStart Children’s Centre: ‘I really EAL, with whom some of the students had valued the freedom to plan and teach had limited or no previous experience: my own creative activities inked to the Early Years Foundation Stage and Know how to make effective art/creative development and to show personalised provision for those they I could be an innovative practitioner. It teach, including those for who English was good to be able to observe and is an additional language or who have work with children learning through special educational needs or play in a relaxed, friendly disabilities and how to take practical environment, and researching and account of diversity and promote implementing elements of Reggio equality and inclusion in their Emilia philosophy. I gained a greater teaching. (TDA, 2008:Q19) insight into the Early Years, which will be useful for future experiences.’ One student that gained experience in a • Museum and Art Gallery: ‘I worked German speaking school in Austria noted: with primary and secondary pupils on school trips and a half-term activity ‘As the Grade 1 class had very limited week. I also planned and taught a experience in English it was important that lesson for home schooled children, teaching involved lots of kinetics or and helped the Education Officer with communication by bodily movement. ongoing family learning projects. The Fours aspects are relevant – smiling, head experience gave me a great insight nods, bodily relaxation and gestural into what is required of a class behaviour (Cohen, Manion and Morrison, teacher in preparation for a school trip 2005:186). These actions enabled us to to gain the best experience for the praise the children and to show them that children. I was able to work with older what they were doing was right. We pupils and a range of professionals.’ demonstrated a game using your hands • Learning Support Unit: ‘I supported which the children followed without pupils with special educational needs having to communicate verbally. in lessons and extra support sessions. Modelling what we wanted the children to It was useful to work with pupils and do enabled them to do tasks, and non- find out more about their needs and verbal communication could be used to how to support them. It was my show praise. knowledge and understanding of working with pupils with SENs, which
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The placement enabled me to appreciate confidence in their ability to learn” the difficulties children with EAL in English (Gibbons, 2002:11). This is a key idea, schools may face. I found from observing particularly when teaching languages. The lessons taught in German that a small children were encouraged to speak and basic picture can help explain an idea answer as best they could and to develop significantly and that body language and confidence in “having a go”.’ “acting” out can really help understanding. I now know what the saying “A picture Conclusions paints a thousand words” really means.’ The majority of students stated that they had gained considerably from the experiences The DfES (2005) noted that: ‘The cornerstone they had undertaken, and commented on the of the National Languages Strategy is the fundamental and significant impact of these introduction of language learning in all on their continued professional learning and primary schools by 2010. This means that all development. A student who undertook a pupils throughout KS2 will have the placement at a school in India stated: opportunity to learn a foreign language and develop their interest in the culture of other ‘Art is most specialist area and I was nations’. Thus, from 2010 all pupils in KS2 particularly interested in the differences must be taught a foreign language, and many between approaches to learning and of the students stated that the international teaching art. Balancing respect for experience had provided a significant colleagues’ approaches to art, whilst opportunity to consider this, in relation to sharing our approaches, helped develop their professional ability to be able to teach a my collaborative skills. The mural project foreign language in school. we undertook gave me experience of planning, organising and managing a One student, having completed experience large-scale project. This encouraged in an Austrian School, stated: critical reflection of my own practice and how I can further improve my ‘The placement also allowed me to see implementation of art in the classroom.’ how modern foreign languages can be taught in primary schools, as this was an Whilst another student wrote: area I had no previous experience of. I now feel more confident to teach MFL, ‘Undertaking the international and recognise the importance of placement in a Montessori school for developing conversational skills and being children with disabilities (in Ireland) able to give children practical knowledge has had an exceptionally positive of a language that they can use. The effect on my professional children were really excited about using development and future teaching the English they had learned and wanted career. I gained a significant amount to ask and answer questions in English. of knowledge about a variety of disabilities including cerebral palsy, “Learners’ attitudes to learning and their muscular dystrophy and epilepsy. I confidence in themselves as learners are have interacted with and taught key factors in successful learning. Feeling children with a range of disabilities; confident to have a go, without fear of spoken to their teachers and failure, and developing a positive attitude parents/carers and observed a to learning itself allows learners to develop number of therapy sessions such as
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physiotherapy, occupational therapy Bibliography and speech therapy. These Dr Tracy Whatmore is the Undergraduate experiences gave me an insight into Initial Teacher Education Programmes the support available beyond the Leader at Newman University College, classroom, and the way in which all Birmingham. She has worked in Higher practitioners need to work together to Education for fourteen years, on Teacher ensure children’s specific needs are Training and Early Childhood Education addressed’. degree courses. Prior to this she worked as an Early Years and Primary Teacher in There were issues that needed to be Worcestershire. Her particular fields of reviewed, based on the feedback from all interest include: Early Childhood Education, stakeholders involved and developments Policy and Practice; Comparative and and amendments will be made. Appropriate International Education; Developing preparation is fundamental to ensure that the Partnerships; and the impact of the maximum benefit can be gained by all those Environment on Learning and Teaching. involved in the experience. For example, International Experience students gained References from attending foreign language sessions British Council (2008) Erasmus programmes prior to travel, which supported effective www.britishcouncil.org/erasmus (accessed communication, learning and teaching. 1.10.08.) However students also needed the opportunity to consider the cultural aspects Cohen, L. Mannion, L. and Morrison, K. of working with children and adults in an (2005) (5th Ed) A Guide to Teaching Practice international context, which could be (London, RoutledgeFalmer). fundamentally different from any experiences previously gained. Thus the future onus on DfES (2005) KS2 Framework for languages more holistic preparation will be important, to (DfES). include: opportunities to discuss and buddy with students who undertook experiences Gibbons, P (2002) Scaffolding language, the previous year; input on cultural traditions scaffolding learning: Teaching second and practices; further liaison with visiting language learners in the mainstream Erasmus students to share their experiences; classroom (London, Greenwood Press). increased contact between a designated tutor and the alternative/international setting TDA (2008) Requirements and Standards for and student. The enthusiasm and Initial Teacher Training (DfES) exuberance of the students on return from www.tda.gov.uk/qts (accessed 28.10.08.). their respective experiences and the value of the experiences in terms of professional development and increased confidence were significant and bode well for the future.
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15. The use and development of ‘Teachers’ TV’ to support Initial Teacher Training and in-service teachers’ Continuing Professional Development
Jane Dixon: University of Cumbria
Summary This paper outlines how one university became involved in the development of two programmes for ‘Teachers TV’ on the role of the mentor in schools. The reasons were both practical, and developmental, with short and long term gains for students and teachers alike. The original idea was to provide up to date video material of student teachers and mentors, tailored to support the initial mentor training courses run by the university as part of in-service teachers’ Continuing Professional Development. Following the successful development of the programmes, they are now being used to demonstrate what makes for an effective mentor. The student teachers that took part were enthusiastic about the use of video as a starting point for discussion of their practice with their mentor, as featured in the programmes. The integration of such an approach is now being considered by those developing new QTS (Qualified Teacher Status) courses at the University of Cumbria. At the end of the process, both the students and the mentors felt that they had become more reflective practitioners. The materials have been picked up and used by other Initial Teacher Education providers and have proved valuable in their own context.
Keywords Continuing Professional Development (CPD) / reflective practitioner/ mentor / tailored TV
Why the students in terms of support, and There were several reasons why I wanted to the teachers in terms of their own work with ‘Teachers’ TV’ to develop continuing professional development; programmes on mentoring in schools, • The desire to show would-be students including: that teachers come from diverse backgrounds, and that it is an • A lack of availability of current video inclusive profession; thus supporting footage of mentors in action needed the Widening Participation Agenda. for teachers attending University of Cumbria Primary Mentor Training The Process courses; In June 2006 I contacted the Joint Head of • A desire for such programmes to Programmes at Teachers’ TV to find out consider our own contexts, such as whether they had any programmes on rural, small schools. By working with mentors that could be used with our initial ‘Teachers’ TV’ we hoped to end up mentor training courses. At the time, nothing with useful programmes that were was evident, and the response was that such tailored to our specific needs and a programme did not seem like it would were relevant and up to date; make for good television. The materials I had • The desire to encourage teachers who been using were really quite dated, so I was had not previously considered keen to pursue the issue, and developed a mentoring, that it is valuable both to couple of ideas and submitted them. After
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quite some time had elapsed, an self-esteem. It allowed them to be more independent television company was objective about their performance, than they appointed to work on the idea and from this would normally be when they relied on point on things moved quickly. I met with the ‘instinct’. editor, where we further developed ideas for the programmes, and I took on the task of ‘Downloadables’ finding suitable students. Due to financial Whilst the television company took the lead constraints, the filming schedule was tight, in the direction of travel for the programme, with little margin for error. However, the they very much gave over ownership to the students, mentors and children were all very accompanying ‘downloadables’ to me. enthusiastic, and the completed These were any resources that could be programmes which aired in September 2007, added to the ‘Teachers’ TV’ website, some fifteen months after the original idea including weblinks, case studies, relevant was muted, were relevant and professional. books and journals. I felt that I wanted to use these to encourage more teachers to The role of the author become mentors. To this end I developed As well as developing the original idea, my several downloadables including: role was to work closely with the television producer, to find students and schools • An outline of the television willing to take part, to provide extra resource programmes material, and to help with the final edit. • Why get involved in mentoring students? – this explored the benefits The filming to schools, teachers and children, of The filming of each student was completed having students in schools in a single day. The student and mentor • What skills and attributes does a were briefed before hand and had an idea mentor need? about what to expect. The television crew • What does the role of the mentor were professional and put everyone, involve? including the children, at their ease. They • What students say about mentors – filmed a whole lesson, which was then for this I canvassed 300 students and shown to the student and mentor for asked them what made for a good discussion. This discussion was also filmed, mentor. A selection of answers were and formed the main part of the programme. added to the website The students were able to see their own • What to do if a teacher is interested in ‘performance’ and comment on how they getting involved did. It was interesting to note, that on watching themselves, the students felt they Some issues did better than before they had seen the film. Development of ideas – as a professional This led to a discussion about the value of with a background in education, working using video footage to critically evaluate with people with a television background, we one’s own performance, taking steps to inevitably came to the project from different improve future practice and becoming a perspectives. I wanted to get across the role reflective practitioner. The students of the mentor, exploring their skills and commented that they felt this was the most qualities and what made them become a useful aspect of the whole process, and that mentor initially. The television producers other students would benefit from such an were very much concerned with the visual opportunity. Analysis of their teaching, element and the direction of the programme helped boost the students’ confidence and evolved from the earlier idea. It was through
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close dialogue that we ensured the essence Limited budget – this not only meant that the of the programmes was not lost, although at filming was done quickly, but also that it had times communication was not easy. to take place in the North West. I had hoped to be able to film from our London campus, Communication – this was sometimes a as I felt it might give a different perspective. problem as the deadline given to the It would have been interesting to have television company gave little time for contrasted our rural school, with a large inner planned collaboration as the project city primary, and to have compared the two progressed. I would often be teaching when mentoring experiences, exploring whether they needed to speak to me, so, on they were indeed different. occasion, decisions were taken that, at times, I was unaware of. The issues that arose were not insurmountable and were far outweighed by Selection of students – once the independent the benefits. television company was given the contract, the time scale was short. This meant that the The students who took part learned the number of students to consider was limited. importance of reflecting on practice and, At the time, we had second years of our through the process, felt they had a better three year QTS course on placement, and understanding of where they were and what our part time post graduate students doing they needed to do next to develop as their first two week block placement. I spent teachers. They reported increased a considerable amount of time trying to confidence and self-esteem. match up students and schools. This was difficult for several reasons, including the Students at the University of Cumbria have short notice given and the understandable two programmes to watch. These show what reluctance of some schools or students to a good mentor does and also demonstrate appear on television. On several occasions I what they should be doing as students, such had a willing mentor, but their student was as listening to advice, sharing practice and not, and vice versa. In the end, the students so forth. We were also given the rough video and mentors chosen worked very well and footage of each lesson the students taught. helped to challenge perceptions. In the rural This is proving useful both on the school we used, the mentor was Jude, a 24 undergraduate and mentor training courses. year old teacher, whilst her student was Students are being encouraged to make use Christabel, a thirty something mother of two, of other ‘Teachers’ TV’ programmes to with experience as a classroom assistant. support their studies, but are learning to On first meeting the pair, it was tempting to critically evaluate and reflect on what they think that Christabel was the teacher. The see. student from the second school was Emma, who, as a 19 year old might be seen as a Potential students can be challenged in their more ‘typical’ student, but her role as a part views about what makes for a ‘typical time carer for her mother, also challenges teacher’, and hopefully see that ITE is perceptions. Hopefully, as well as inclusive and may well be for them. challenging teachers’ perceptions as to what a typical student teacher might be, these two The mentors felt they had learned a great students might also encourage larger groups deal from the filming process. They felt they of people who might not normally consider were more aware of the importance of teaching as a career to do so, thus widening meeting the individual needs of students, participation in higher education. and their role in helping them become
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reflective practitioners. Through the use of Concluding thoughts the video footage to analyse the students’ This has been a positive and worthwhile lessons, the mentors were also able to reflect experience and one I would consider again. on their own practice. The process could equally be applied to those wishing to make ‘tailored’ TV Continuing Professional Development at programmes for students in ITE or in University of Cumbria - Teachers on initial schools. mentor training courses as part of their CPD, Biography have relevant and useful tailored television Jane Dixon is a senior lecturer at the programmes on the role of the mentor that University of Cumbria. She has worked in they are using to inform their own practice. Higher Education for eight years, having previously taught for fifteen years in primary Teachers nationally can gain insight into the and Eearly Yyears. She was a school mentor role of the mentor and decide if they wish to for several years, and is currently the co- become involved in student support. They ordinator for primary mentor training at the can also get an idea about the diverse nature University. She teaches on undergraduate of students. and postgraduate courses, with a particular interest in Early Years. She enjoys her work The author – I have been able to update and as a link tutor, working closely with schools improve the initial mentor training courses I in and around Cumbria. run. I have seen the value to the students of the filming process in helping them become References reflective practitioners, and it is something I www.teachers.tv/video/21778 will look into developing with my (Jude mentors Christabel) undergraduate students. The experience of film making was completely new for me, and www.teachers.tv/video/21791 really challenged and engaged me at every (Margaret mentors Emma) stage.
Unexpected bonus: Whilst the programmes aired in September 2007, they have been archived into the video library of ‘Teachers’ TV’ and are available for anyone to download and use. One ITE provider plans to use the programmes with their teachers and left a comment on the website: ‘Will be excellent to use with ITT mentors – thanks’. It is encouraging to think it has a nation wide audience. The next step is to look at sharing materials and practice with other ITE providers, thus enriching our courses and programmes even further.
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16. Developing Better Teachers; Innovative practice within a standards based framework
Peter Cook, Daryll Griffiths, Karen Griffiths, Sue Horder: Glyndwr^ University (formerly North East Wales Institute of Higher Education - NEWI)
Summary This paper examines the effectiveness of the ‘Innovation in Teaching and Learning’ module delivered as part of a PGCE programme at an HEI (Higher Education Institution). The module aims to: promote innovation in the pedagogy of subject disciplines; create opportunities for sharing best practice; embed the support of literacy and numeracy in classroom practice; and encourage scholarship in teaching and learning. The research involved ‘a case study approach’ aimed at identifying various innovative practices, the way they impacted on the individual’s teaching practice and whether the module was an effective learning experience for students.
Keywords Innovation practice / Creativity / Initial Teacher Training / Post-compulsory Education and Training (PcET)
Context The ‘Innovation in Teaching and Learning’ Innovation in teaching and learning has a module has a 66% weighting on the second substantial focus within the PGCE (PcET) phase of the PGCE programme and programme at Glyndwr^ University, reflecting students’ innovative practices are captured the importance the staff team place on the within two case studies where each learner continued development of existing teaching produces one with a teacher development skills, both for the teacher/lecturer and the focus in their subject area and one which learner, in terms of critical reflection and focuses on the integration of the Minimum evaluation that lead to the impact on the Core of Literacy, Language and Numeracy improvement of teaching and learning in the (LLN). The PGCE programme celebrates an post compulsory sector. exposition in June where all learners from the partnership share their innovation projects. It Learning activities that emphasise branching is intended that all innovation case studies out, finding out or inventing, such as are compiled within a publication to be discovery learning can be more effective shared with the wider learning and skills than traditional methods such as face to face sector community. lecturing Cropley, (2001:6). The Innovation module supports learners in testing new The Minimum Core of Literacy, Language situations in teaching and learning and the and Numeracy (LLN) has been introduced term ‘Innovation’ within the module is into all PGCE programmes nationally and defined by the staff team as an interactive attempts to equip all trainee teachers to process of engagement with new develop inclusive approaches to addressing understandings that impact on the the language, literacy and numeracy needs development of existing ‘curricula’ and of their learners. The intention of the teaching strategies . Minimum Core is to strengthen the focus on the minimum personal skill requirements of any teacher working in the learning and skills
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sector. Leitch (2006) reports that skills are The Glyndwr^ University PGCE experience increasingly the key lever to prosperity and encourages teachers to extend their fairness (p.3) with one in six young people knowledge, change their practice and be leaving school unable to read, write and innovative in their approaches to learning, add-up properly (p.14). teaching and assessment. Hefty word lengths that are usually associated with To address the aspiration of the UK undergraduate programmes of this nature becoming a world class leader in skills by are no more, as assessments of modules are 2020 (doubling the attainment at most negotiated with individuals to suit their levels) teachers need to develop inclusive preferred want, need, characteristic and approaches to learners that address style. Learners are now presenting their individual personal skill development. The learning and continued development gauntlet of challenge has been clearly through other media, examples of which presented to teachers in the learning and include e-portfolios, videos, textiles, skills sector with a target of 95% of adults to paintings etc. Literacy, Language and achieve the basic skills of functional literacy Numeracy is supported and developed in and numeracy (to achieve a total of 7.4 context with learner’s specific work based million adult attainments over the period) experience and recorded within the ( Leitch, 2006:14). Individual Learning Plan.
The PGCE, LLN and Glyndwr^ University The first phase of the programme involves The notion of learning in and for the learners addressing their own personal skill workplace is not new and the PGCE at development and also the embedding of LLN Glyndwr^ University embraces the broad within curriculum. Phase two has a module principles of Problem Based Learning (PBL) devoted to innovative practice in teaching and where learners address problems that arise learning and also the development of LLN from professional practice. The diversity of within learners’ own subject specialism. These the learning and skills sector is its strength practices are captured within case studies, where issues in practices can differ widely each learner producing one with a teacher according to curriculum areas. Through the development focus and one focusing on the identification of subject specific curricula, integration of LLN. learners are encouraged to become self directed, critical in their own teaching and The success of the programme at Glyndwr^ reflective in their continued development. University could be attributed to its The Individual Learning Plan (ILP) underpins interconnectivity with: continued development through reflection and critical engagement of experiences. It is • The individual’s own learning need, the ILP that enables initial capture of identified and recorded within the personal and interpersonal skills, LLN and ILP; learner’s beliefs and values. This is achieved • National standards together with the with some success, partly due to the efforts ‘Minimum Core’; of subject specific mentors who help trainee • Curriculum focus groups reinforced teachers to connect with their organisation, by personal mentors; learning and the development of specific • Innovative approaches to teaching, skills, and partly through the learner’s own learning and assessment that include commitment to the tutorial processes the development skills in Literacy, embedded within the PGCE. Language and Numeracy.
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Continuing professional development is a Sternberg (1999), Flynn (2007), Gardner central theme of the PGCE programme. (1983; 2003) and Cropley (2001) highlight the Mentors have opportunities to engage in inter-relationship between creativity, accredited training that encourages the intelligence and critical thinking. Students development of ‘communities of practice’ are informed as to the broad curricular base (Lave and Wenger, 1991:29). The for creative intervention within the PGCE, development of LLN skills can be further and the concept of the ‘three P’s ‘ - people, facilitated by subject mentors and processes and products - is explored programme tutors working together to through pro-active exercises, thus identify subject specific and generic combining self-esteem and confidence with development opportunities with students. creative skills and knowledge in order to Mentors are valued as an integral part of the produce the product outcomes of creative PGCE programme team as they enable a effort (Fisher and Williams, 2004). greater connection with the programme, work based learning and the individual, thus Distinctions between teaching creatively and strengthening the processes of learning teaching for (sic) creativity are made by defined by Kolb (1984:4). Jeffrey and Craft (2004), suggesting that the former relates to using more imaginative Literature Review approaches to make learning more Robinson (2001:11) suggests that all interesting and effective, while the latter students possess creative capacities, and defines forms of teaching that are intended that it is finding their cognisant ‘element’ or to develop young people’s own creative ‘flow’ that will allow them to utilise their thinking or behaviour. Jeffrey and Craft creative thoughts to produce innovative comment that teaching creatively could be actions which may enhance their teaching interpreted as ‘effective teaching’ and that style. For the purpose of initial teacher teaching for creativity may perhaps be training, instead of defining creativity, interpreted as having ‘learner empowerment’ concentration is focused on the processes as its main objective. required to produce novel, effective and innovative teaching strategies. However, Ogunleye (2002:177) suggests that there are initial barriers to overcome. Mann underachievement of adults is a problem (2001:13) makes clear the alienation of with 37% of adult learners in further creativity in students that are created by education in England not achieving their learning and power relationships in higher qualification aims. He argues that fostering education. The first task of the lecturer is to creativity in the learning process through guide students towards a positive appraisal creative curricula, teaching and instructional of their perception of creativity and techniques could be one answer to the innovation. This is achieved through pro- problem. Ogunleye (op. cit.) suggests that active sessions, introducing personal and creativity within the curriculum is a process professional characteristics of role models in and a product, as well as a condition of the their lives - the transformational mentor environment. In order to encourage students (Sternberg, 2002), a history of creative to apply knowledge and make new cultures - the rise of innovation as a distinct constructs, the underpinning knowledge cultural value (Negus and Pickering, 2004), needs to have an emphasis on both basic and an examination of explanations of the skills and subject specific knowledge. It is creative process by successfully creative suggested that the ability of students to icons past and present (Vernon, 1970 and make new constructs and find solutions to a Gibb and Gibb, 1999). given task or activity within the classroom,
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whilst improving academic achievement can The questionnaire design ensured both also extend to skills needed beyond the quantitative and qualitative approaches. classroom environment. The ‘Innovation in Quantitative questions were analysed using Teaching and Learning’ module supports an Excel spreadsheet. Tutor interviews were Ogunleye’s view through the two case conducted using the same questions asked studies, one related to developing innovative of the students, but from the context of the teaching methods within subject areas and tutor’s perception of the module and the the second developing the integration and learning outcomes demonstrated by the embedding of language, literacy and students. numeracy (basic skills) within the subject area. Validity and Reliability The questionnaire included relevant Methodology quantitative questions that offer valid data This study is a small scale action research from this study and tutor interviews enabled project using a case study approach at additional reliable data to be collected that Glyndwr^ University, employing students from backed up responses in the questionnaire the full time and part time PGCE while supporting triangulation of data programmes. The aim of action research is to collection. During the tutor interviews, arrive at recommendations for good practice responses were summarised and repeated to that will tackle a problem or enhance the the tutor to check that they had been organisation and individuals through recorded correctly. On reflection, interviews changes to the rules and procedures within with mentors within the placement which they operate (Denscombe, 2002). organisations may have ensured this study Critique of a case study approach, according was even more rigorous, however time to Bell (2005) and Newbold and Maddocks constraints influenced how many data (2006) is to question the value of a study of collection methods could be utilised in this single events as it can be difficult for research. researchers to cross-reference and check Ethics their findings. Whilst we agree, in part, with this view, in order to implement an effective Questionnaires were completed change in the delivery of the PcET anonymously, as was the recording of tutor programme, it is necessary to focus on one interviews, thus ensuring the confidentiality institution. of the responses in both methods. The reasons behind the study were explained to students taking part in both the survey Data Collection Methods questionnaire and the tutors being Data collection included the use of a interviewed and their permission sought to questionnaire to part time and full time use the findings in the study. participants of the PGCE (8 part-time and 18 full-time). Students were asked how effective Findings and Discussion the ‘Innovation in Teaching and Learning’ module was in terms of developing their own Out of 26 respondents, 8% scored the practice within a scale of 1 – 5, with 1 being module at 5; very effective, with 35% scoring ineffective and 5 being very effective. 4 and 38% scoring 3. No students perceived Interviews with tutors from within our the module as ineffective. franchise partners were utilised in order to understand the effectiveness of innovation When asked to comment on the within the PcET programme from a tutor effectiveness of the Innovation module perspective. responses included:
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• Improved confidence full-time and then out on placement during • Researched more widely the three pre-arranged periods in the • Opened eyes to new ideas 38% academic year. The part-time students’ • Greater awareness of integrating the responses were all positive; they are all in- Minimum Core into own practice 27% service and attending five hours a week.
Responses included two students who felt When asked which specific areas of practice that they were already innovative and one students developed as a result of student who felt confused as to how they undertaking this module, there were a wide might measure innovation. This student range of answers. Students commented on stated that what might be innovative to one a number of areas suggested and also student may not be innovative to another. commented on additional areas if they were not listed. The chart below identifies aspects of practice students felt they had developed.
Students were also asked to comment on the flexible delivery pattern offered by the institution with the majority of comments Students were asked to consider the extent being positive and most common responses to which the module made an impact on their included: approach to innovative practice. Using a • Moodle was useful 15% Students were asked to consider the extent • Directed studies and wider reading to which the module made an impact on their helped 12% approach to innovative practice. Using a scale of 1-5 with 1 being low impact and 5 There was however, a mixed response to the being high impact, 67% of respondents attendance pattern. The full-time group were agreed that the module had a relatively high expected to attend sessions two days a or high impact on their use of innovative week, with an additional day set aside as a approaches during phase 2 of the PGCE. ‘virtual day’. Attendance was sporadic and feedback during the study confirms this. Students were asked what they felt they Out of 18 respondents, 39% felt that the needed to develop as a result of undertaking flexibility enabled them to plan their time this module. The key area for development more effectively in terms of course workload in the future in order to support innovative and placement. In contrast, 33% felt that practice was Information Communication they would have preferred being in college Learning Technologies (ICLT) (38%),
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followed by a variety of Continuing methods, this development is supported in Professional Development (CPD) our student teachers. The Future of Higher requirements including; wider reading, Education (DfES, 2003) recognised the subject specific research, numeracy skills success of universities in the UK. Initial and time management. teacher training programmes need to embrace creative, innovative and flexible Tutors felt that the innovation module was programmes to support the diversity of very effective as it promoted autonomy and student teachers and to model practice that built confidence in students in terms of will encourage student teachers to embrace experimenting and developing their practice. this pedagogy. Innovation and creativity in One tutor commented that initially students teaching and learning can foster skills that were sceptical about the scope of involve individuals having the flexibility to innovation within the constraints of their respond to problems and the demands of subject areas. Following research and every day life (Banaji and Burn, 2007). The discussions with peers, they were able to LLUK standards (2007) support the identify innovative practice that had been development of teachers who are able to developed as a direct result of the module, use a range of effective and appropriate and examples include; presentation of work, teaching and learning techniques to engage interaction with the core curriculum; use of and motivate learners and encourage ILCT etc. independence.
Whilst students did not make connections This case study has examined the with the innovation module and scholarly effectiveness of the ‘Innovation in Teaching and Learning’ module delivered as part of activity, one tutor felt that the module ^ developed this indirectly as colleagues had the PGCE at Glyndwr University. The results observed their innovative practice and were from the study confirm that 81% of students developing their own practice as a result. perceive this module as effective/very There was also a view that whilst supporting effective in terms of the development of their the development of the minimum core in own practice. 38% of the students stated terms of the production of a case study the that the module opened their eyes to new module enabled students to develop their ideas, with 27% stating that they now had a skills in writing and critical analysis. greater awareness of integrating the Minimum Core into own practice. In order to Conclusions reach the target set by Leitch (2006:14) of There is a need in initial teacher training 95% of adults achieving basic skills of programmes to model best practice, functional literacy and numeracy, teachers according to Thomas and Pring (2004), who engaged in post-14 education and training note that modelling best practice is one must become innovative in their approach to thing that influences and encourages tutors teaching, learning and curriculum to change their practice to take account of development. Networks of professional new knowledge and is credible evidence communities need to establish best curricula that new approaches will enhance their practices that are specific to addressing LLN students’ learning. in specialist fields of learning. The teaching of LLN embedded in these fields of learning Ogunleye (2002) suggest that colleges need should be seamless in its presentation of to broaden the curriculum and encourage curricula and sufficiently challenging to staff development in teaching approaches promote continued critical reflection on and strategies. By offering a module that teaching practices with particular relevance focuses on innovative and creative teaching to practices and learning in the workplace.
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Bibliographies Lave, J. and Wenger, E. (1991) Situated The authors are Senior Lecturers in Learning. Legitimate peripheral participation Post-compulsory Education at (Cambridge, University of Cambridge). ^ Glyndwr University. Leitch, S. (2006) Prosperity for all in the global economy – world class skills final References report, HMSO. Banaji, S. and Burn, A. (2007) Creativity through a rhetorical lens: implications for LLUK (2007) New professional standards for schooling, literacy and media education, teachers, tutors and trainers in the lifelong UKLA Literacy Vol: 41, No. 2, pp 62 – 70. learning sector (London, LLUK). Bell, J. (2005) Doing Your Research Project, Mann, S. (2001) Alternative Perspectives on Fourth Edition (Maidenhead, Open University Student Experience: alienation and Press). engagement, Studies in Higher Education, 26(1): 7-19. Cropley, A.J., (2001) Creativity in Education and Teaching (Great Britain: Kogan Page). Negus, J & Pickering, M. (2004) Creativity, Communication and Cultural Value, (London, Denscombe, M. (2002) Ground Rules for Sage). Good Research: A 10 Point Guide for Social Researchers (Buckingham, Open University Newbold, C. and Maddocks, A. (2006) Press). Moving from Case Study to Empiricism: a basis for research into staff engagement with DfES (2003) The Future of Higher Education personal development planning (Norwich, The Stationery Office Limited). http://www.recordingachievement.org/ Fisher, R. and Williams, M. (2004) Unlocking special/IntlPres/CarolNewbold.doc Creativity: teaching across the curriculum (accessed 13.5 08.). (London, David Fulton Publishers). Ogunleye, J. (2002) ]Creative Approaches to Flynn, J. (2007) What is Intelligence?: Raising Achievement of Adult Learners in Beyond the Flynn Effect (Cambridge, English Further Education, Journal of Further Cambridge University Press). and Higher Education, Vol: 26, No. 2, pp 173 Gardner, H. (1983) Frames of Mind (New – 181. York, BasicBooks). Robinson, K. (2001) Out of Our Minds Gardner, H. (2003) Multiple Intelligences after (Oxford, Capstone Publishing Limited). 20 Years. A paper presented at the Sternberg, R.J. (1999) The Handbook of American Educational Research Association, Creativity (Cambridge, University Press). Chicago, April 21st 2003. Sternberg, R.J. (2002) The Teachers We Gibb, M., B., and Gibb, R. (1997) One Night Never Forget, APA Monitor, 33(8), 68. Only: Studio Interview, Eagle Vision, Thomas, G and Pring, R. eds. (2004) EREDV219. Evidence-Based Practice in Education. Jeffrey, B. and Craft, A. (2004) Teaching (Maidenhead, Open University Press). creatively and teaching for creativity: Vernon, P.E. (1970) Creativity (London, distinctions and relationships, Educational Penguin Books). Studies. Vol: 30: No.1, pp 77 -87. Kolb, D. A. (1984) Experiential Learning, Englewood Cliffs (NJ, Prentice Hall).
152 Initial teacher education and the management of pupil behaviour: what experiences, resources and interventions do students find helpful?
17. Initial teacher education and the management of pupil behaviour: what experiences, resources and interventions do students find helpful?
Terry Haydn: University of East Anglia
Summary The ability to manage pupil behaviour has always been an important part of competencies frameworks for student teachers in the UK. The 2006 Training and Development Agency for schools (TDA) survey of Newly Qualified Teachers (NQTs) found that only 25% of new teachers who had trained at our institution regarded their preparation for ‘establishing and maintaining a good standard of behaviour in the classroom was ‘very good’, so we made a conscious decision to devote more time to this aspect of our course. However, the 2007 survey (TDA, 2007) reported that even fewer (19%) of our students felt their preparation was very good, so we conducted a study to see which inputs and experiences they had found helpful, and which less so. The outcomes of the study are reported below.
Keywords Behaviour / initial teacher education / classroom management / competencies / teacher training / pre-service education
Context of the study The format of the TDA’s reports makes it The ability to manage pupil behaviour has possible for providers to examine the always been an important part of feedback from their own students, as well as competencies frameworks for student considering the feedback from NQTs across teachers in the UK. It is also an area of the sector as a whole. In the 2006 NQT professional practice that is a central survey (TDA, 2006), only 25% of our own concern (and cause of anxiety) for many students reported that their preparation was student teachers. ‘very good’ in the field of managing pupil behaviour (as against an average of 21% The Training and Development Agency for across the sector generally), so we made a schools’ annual survey of NQTs gives conscious decision to devote more time to feedback to Initial Teacher Education (ITE) this aspect of our course, more than providers on students’ perceptions of how doubling the time allocated to lectures and well they have been prepared in various seminars on pupil behaviour. However, the aspects of their teaching competence, feedback from the 2007 survey (TDA, 2007) including the area of managing pupil reported that only 19% of our students felt behaviour. In the 2007 survey, only 25% of that their preparation in the field of managing NQTs regarded their preparation for pupil behaviour had been very good, a ‘establishing and maintaining a good decline of 6%. Moreover, this figure had now standard of behaviour in the classroom as slipped to being below the average for the ‘very good’, and just under a third of new sector as a whole (23%), having been initially teachers regarded their preparation in this above the average for the sector. area as ‘adequate’ or ‘poor’ (TDA, 2007).
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These outcomes brought home the (perhaps were thought to be helpful: students across obvious) point that it is not simply a question all curriculum subjects identified very similar of providing more time for behaviour ‘impact moments’ in terms of aspects of the management issues, but of considering the course which they remembered as having impact of inputs and resources on behaviour influenced their practice and their confidence issues. As one teacher educator I spoke to in the area of pupil behaviour. pointed out, ‘You could devote the whole course to behaviour management issues and Student responses there would still be some students who thought it was not enough’. The To what extent did students feel that they disappointing outcomes of the 2007 NQT had made progress in their management survey in response to our more intensive and of pupil behaviour since the start of the time-generous approach to dealing with course? behaviour issues on the course led us to The first question on the questionnaire asked consider surveying our students towards the students to reflect on the extent to which end of the taught course at the university to they had made progress in managing pupil see which inputs, resources and strategies behaviour since the start of the course. Given had been thought to be useful, and which the prominence accorded to behaviour as an were not seen as relevant or helpful. We issue, and the generally high quality of hope that the experiences and resources students on the course, it would of course be identified by the students in this study, and surprising if they had not made at least some the methods used to elicit this information, progress in the course of the 22 weeks of will be helpful in enabling other ITE providers school and university based experience. to refine and adapt their approaches to the However, it was interesting to note the challenge of improving the capability and comparative proportion of students who self- confidence of their students in the area of reported making either ‘a lot of progress’ and managing pupil behaviour in an appropriate feeling ‘much more confident now’ (23 out of manner. The outcomes of the study will also the 72 respondents), as against ‘some be made available to this year’s cohort so progress’ and ‘a bit more confident’ (46 that they can reflect on what last year’s respondents). Three students reported that students found helpful in the field of they felt ‘about the same as at the start of the managing pupil behaviour. course’, and there were no students who felt that they had ‘got worse and lost confidence’ Research approach since the start of the course, although one Although we felt that a combination of student reported a loss of confidence in questionnaire and interview instruments response to another question, and three would be the most appropriate research students did not respond to this question. approach, time constraints precluded the use of interviews so the only instrument used To what extent had students taught in the survey was a questionnaire, which was classes that they felt were not fully under administered to 75 students in five their control? curriculum subjects in week 22 of the PGCE Given that some reports and comments on programme, the last full week of the taught behaviour in schools suggest that pupil programme, before students were to embark behaviour is only an issue in a minority of on their long second school placement. secondary schools (see for instance, Patten, Cross subject analysis of the student 1994, Clark, 2003, Ofsted, 2005), it was responses suggested that there were no interesting to explore what proportion of our major differences in terms of which students had encountered difficulties in interventions, resources and course inputs dealing with pupil behaviour with at least
154 Initial teacher education and the management of pupil behaviour: what experiences, resources and interventions do students find helpful?
some of their classes. In answer to the The eight areas of experience identified question ‘Have you sometimes had classes were: that were not fully under your control?’, only five students responded ‘Yes, lots of times’, a) My own experiences teaching classes but 35 reported that this had happened b) Observing experienced teachers ‘Sometimes’, and 23 ‘Occasionally’. Only one c) Advice from experienced teachers student reported that this had ‘never’ d) General Professional Development occurred. sessions at the university e) Curriculum Subject sessions at the In answer to the question, ‘Have you university sometimes had lessons where some pupils f) Lectures at the university were impeding the learning of others?’ 11 g) Reading about managing pupil students reported ‘Yes, lots of times’, 39, behaviour – hard copy and on the ‘Sometimes’ and 23, ‘Occasionally’. No internet students reported that this had never h) Talking to fellow student teachers occurred. As Fontana (1993:125) has pointed out, ‘We The responses suggested that nearly all of each of us receive a constant and varied the students had encountered difficulties in stream of experiences throughout our waking gaining relaxed and assured control of all moments, each one of which can potentially their teaching groups whilst on school give rise to learning, yet most of which placement. An important issue here is apparently vanish without trace from our student perceptions of whether this mental lives. Over the course of the PGCE constitutes ‘normal’ experience, ‘to be year, students encounter hundreds of expected’, or whether, as former Secretary experiences, pieces of advice, conversations, of State for Education Ruth Kelly suggested, and readings which might conceivably leave there is a ‘deficit model’ in operation here, some mark on their consciousness and and that something or somebody is to blame classroom practice and beliefs, but it is if there are deficits in the working possible that some inputs and resources are atmosphere in the classroom (Kelly, 2006). not remembered and applied. The questionnaire was a way of trying to find out Which aspects of the course did students what had been remembered, and what had feel had made the biggest contribution to been considered to be of use. their progress in managing pupil behaviour? a) What did students feel that they learned In terms of which aspects of the course had from their own experiences of teaching contributed most to ‘getting better at classes? managing pupil behaviour’, we identified Perhaps unsurprisingly, this facet of the eight different ‘inputs’ which might course elicited the highest proportion of conceivably have had an impact on students’ positive responses, with 55 students ability to manage pupil behaviour, and asked reporting that these experiences proved to be them to reflect on the influence of the eight a ‘major factor’ in their progress, and 20 areas on their practice on a four point Likert reporting that they played at least ‘some part’ Scale (‘Major factor in progress’/’Played in their progress. some part in progress’/’Peripheral to my progress’/’Played no part in my progress’).
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It was possible to code students’ responses described observing experienced teachers into a range of categories. In terms of as being ‘peripheral’ to their progress. describing what they learned from these experiences, the following points were In terms of what they felt they learned from mentioned by at least four of the students: observing experienced teachers, the following factors were mentioned by at least • Comments about consistently 4 students: applying rules/expectations/school policy (49 students) • Teachers talking in a calm manner • Not talking over pupils, being (e.g. ‘shouting does not help’) prepared to wait for them to be quiet (23 students) before starting to teach (11 students) • Teachers consistently giving and re- • Being prepared to send pupils out stating clear boundaries for pupils when necessary (and not leaving this (20 students) too late) (11 students) • Teachers using humour and/or polite • Use praise rather than negative tone and manner in talking to pupils comments/emphasise positive who were transgressing (11 students) behaviour, don’t dwell on poor • Teachers being prepared to send behaviour (9 students) pupils out of the classroom • Giving a clear warning before using (7 students) sanctions with gradual escalation of • Teachers writing pupil names on the sanctions(9 students) board as a quick way to indicate that • Act on low level disturbances before their misdemeanour had been noted things escalate (8 students) and would be dealt with later • Provide students with a ‘lower level of (7 students) offence’ choice (5 students) • Teachers being pointedly quiet when • Greet pupils at the doorway as they interrupted to make the point that come in (5 students) pupils needed to listen (6 students) • Don’t let attention seeking/disruptive • Teachers not getting drawn into pupils monopolise the lesson at the attention seeking behaviour expense of the other pupils (5 (6 students) students) • Teachers knowing and using pupils’ • Speak quietly rather than loudly (4 names (4 students) students) • Teachers greeting pupils as they • Don’t take things personally (4 came into the room (4 students) students) • Teachers’ skill at classroom • Learn pupils’ names as soon as you positioning and/or body language can (4 students) (4 students) b) What did students feel they learned c) What did students feel they learned in from observing experienced teachers? terms of advice from experienced This was the area of experience deemed to teachers? be of most value next to their own There were 24 students who felt that advice experiences of teaching classes. 35 students from experienced teachers constituted ‘a reported that observing experienced major factor’ in their progress in the area of teachers was ‘a major factor’ in their managing pupil behaviour, with 46 regarding progress, 37 stated that it ‘played some part’ this as ‘playing some part’ in their progress, in their progress, and only 3 students and only 5 students saying that this was a
156 Initial teacher education and the management of pupil behaviour: what experiences, resources and interventions do students find helpful?
‘peripheral’ influence on their progress. ‘Seeing the video extracts was really The following forms of advice were useful’ mentioned as having been helpful by at least ‘Just learning that different teachers four students. have different styles and approaches …’ ‘Just the fact that even experienced • Try to get across and enforce clear teachers sometimes have problems …’ and consistent rules for behaviour ‘They were entertaining and down to (18 students) earth.’ • Be prepared to keep pupils behind ‘I never felt lectures were useless or a after the lesson or at break/dinner/end waste of time.’ of school (10 students) ‘The head from X school was realistic • Use the school system for behaviour and inspiring.’ (10 students) Particular points remembered by four or • Have a good ‘starter’ activity to settle more students were: pupils and get them learning as soon as they come into the room • X’s idea of giving pupils a choice over (6 students) which path they want to take • Wait for silence before starting to talk (22 students) (6 students) • X’s idea of ‘take-up time’ (4 students) • Be prepared to move or send out • ‘Catch them being good’ and use of pupils who are not working or praise (4 students). misbehaving (5 students) • Don’t shout but try to sound confident e) What did students feel that they learned and relaxed when you are asking from curriculum and general professional pupils to comply with your requests development seminars at the university? and instructions (5 students) As with the lecture programme, these inputs • ‘Catch them being good’ and use emerged as less influential than school praise and rewards (5 students) based experiences, but nonetheless, a • Try to keep calm and not get flustered substantial majority of students reported that (4 students). they had played a part in their progress, and in a few cases, ‘a major part’. It is perhaps d) What did students feel they learned interesting to note that subject specific from the lectures on classroom sessions came out as being more influential management and pupil behaviour? than general professional development Lectures evinced less positive responses, seminars. The following were points made by with only three students reporting that four or more students: information gained in lectures had been ‘a major factor’ in their progress. However, it is • The importance of good lesson worth noting that more than half of the planning and its effect on pupil respondents (39) felt that attendance at the behaviour (16 students) lectures on managing pupil behaviour had • The session on body language (12 ‘played some part’ in their progress, and only students) one student reported that they had ‘played • The importance of waiting for silence no part’. There were fewer specific pieces of (6 students) advice that were mentioned by four or more • The opportunity to share ideas and students, but there were many generally experiences (4 students) positive comments, such as: • The idea of the ‘as if…’ tone (4 students).
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f) What had students found helpful in reading and discussions with peers had also terms of their reading? been helpful. The ‘any other comments’ In terms of named authors, Bill Rogers (15 section of the questionnaire provided a students) and Sue Cowley (10 students) number of very positive responses about the emerged as the two most commonly cited overall quality of preparation for the trials of influences, but the Behaviour for Learning the NQT year in relation to pupil behaviour, website (www.behaviour4learning.ac.uk) and as the following examples demonstrate: The teachers’ toolkit (Ginnis, 2002) were also mentioned by several students. More than ‘The course prepared me as well as half of the students surveyed felt that reading possible but learning from experience is had played ‘some part’ in their progress, and the most important.’ eight students regarded reading as playing ‘a ‘I feel I can manage most classes so you major part’ in their progress. Only four must have done your job OK.’ students reported that reading had played no part in their progress, although 27 regarded ‘Very good.’ reading as ‘peripheral’ to their progress. ‘The total package of lectures, g) What had students learned from talking curriculum, PD etc really helpful. I feel I to their peers? have been given the best possible Again, a substantial majority of students opportunity to improve my classroom reported that this facet of the course had management.’ impacted positively on their progress, with 12 students describing conversations and In terms of our feelings about the outcomes discussions as a ‘major factor’, and 45 of the survey, there are several tentative stating that it had ‘played some part’ in their points which might be made. First, there progress. appears to be some benefit in recapping, revisiting and reinforcing coverage of There were 29 students who made some form behaviour management issues, and the of reference to the fact that knowing other questionnaire was one way of doing this. It students were going through similar enabled us to also drop elements of the experiences and emotions was helpful, and 12 programme which evinced less positive students mentioned variants on ‘exchanging responses. Although some of the points ideas’ as helpful. Other comments included recalled by students seem quite obvious and ‘being strict and then easing off…’, ‘giving less than ‘rocket science’, it is possible that pupils something to think about when they we take for granted how much they have been sent out’, ‘discussing things like remember of lectures, seminars and reading, seating plans… should you let friends sit and that the questionnaire ‘brought back’ together?’, ‘using scoring systems for some of the learning experiences in a helpful behaviour’, and ‘the importance of following way. Many of our students read (and cite) the through threats and consequences’. works of Bill Rogers, but, when presented with a list of techniques for managing pupil Conclusions behaviour suggested by Rogers The findings of the survey suggest that acknowledged that they had forgotten some school experiences (teaching, observing and of the strategies, until prompted by a group receiving advice from experienced teachers) ‘revision’ exercise. were considered by students to have had the biggest impact on their practice in relation to The survey also provided helpful information managing pupil behaviour. However, nearly about which inputs students found all students reported that elements of the particularly useful. Some video extracts, university based course and their own teacher testimony and particular quotations
158 Initial teacher education and the management of pupil behaviour: what experiences, resources and interventions do students find helpful?
from the literature on behaviour management prove that this is as a direct result of getting clearly had a lasting impact on students. our students to reflect on what they have learned in the area of class management. One benefit of the survey was to make the Nor does this prove that they are actually point that problems of pupil behaviour are better at managing pupil behaviour. not, as Patten suggested ‘limited to a small However, it is possible that a greater number of pupils in a small number of proportion of our students feel confident in schools’ (Patten, 1994), and that in most the area of managing pupil behaviour as a schools in the UK, teachers have to grapple result of being asked to consciously reflect with problems of pupil behaviour – it is part on what they have learned. of the job of being a teacher and if you are having problems in your NQT year, this does Biography not necessarily mean that it is necessarily Terry Haydn is a Reader in Education at the ‘someone’s fault’ – whether it be the school University of East Anglia. He worked for you are working in, or your ITE course many years at an inner city school in (Haydn, 2007). Manchester before taking up a post in teacher education at the Institute of Another incidental benefit of the study was to Education, University of London. His draw attention to the breadth of issues which research interests are in the history have a bearing on class management and curriculum, the use of new technology in pupil behaviour. Student responses shed history education, and the working light on the ontology of managing pupil atmosphere in the classroom and he is behaviour – what is there to think about in author of Managing pupil behaviour (2007, relation to this phenomenon? (See slide 9 of London, Routledge). ‘Terry Haydn PowerPoint Presentation’; http://escalate.ac.uk/391). References Clark, T. (2003) Why behaviour training for Above all, the questionnaire gets students to schools? Address to TTA Conference, think about the complexity of issues relating Birmingham, 21 March. to the working atmosphere in the classroom Elliott, J. (2007) Keynote address at the and the range of factors that influence pupil Behaviour for Learning Annual Conference, behaviour. As Elliott (2007) has pointed out, University of Warwick, July. the issue of pupil behaviour cannot be solved Fontana, D. (1993) Psychology for teachers through simple formulae and ‘handy hints’. (London, Macmillan). Students particularly appreciated resources and interventions that ‘problematised’ the Ginnis, P. (2002) The teachers’ toolkit issues involved in classroom management, (London, Crown House). and led to discussions which illustrated the Haydn, T. (2007) Managing pupil behaviour importance of context, and experimenting (London, Routledge). with a range of approaches, rather than Kelly, R. (2006) Today Programme, Radio 4, ‘magic answers’ (see, for example, May 2006, quoted in Times Educational http://www.uea.ac.uk/~m242/historypgce/cl Supplement, 27 May. ass_management/welcome.htm). Ofsted (2005) Managing challenging behaviour (London, Ofsted). Finally, it is perhaps worth noting that in the Patten, J. (1994) quoted in The Observer, 3 2008 NQT survey, the proportion of our April. students reporting preparation to manage pupil behaviour as ‘very good’ has increased TDA (2006) NQT survey (London, TDA). by 6% and is once again above the sector TDA (2007) NQT survey (London, TDA). average. There is of course no evidence to
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18. Every Child/Youth Matters, a government programme for welfare reform; the research findings of a Pilot Study conducted for a PhD research project that is focused on: exploring the impact of the Every Child/Youth Matters programmes on professional practice across the agencies of education, social services, health and youth justice
Christine Hough: University of Cumbria
Summary Much has already been written and will continue to be written about the rationale for the Every Child Matters/Youth Matters (ECM/YM) programme (hereafter referred to as ECM). I chose it as the focus of my research proposal because I have a deep interest in the underlying principles that have led to the introduction of the ECM programmes as a result of my professional background. I have been a teacher and manager in schools for over thirty years and I worked as an Ofsted inspector from 2001 – 2005. As well as my research work, I also work in schools as an educational consultant for the Association of School and College Leaders (ASCL). My research for this PhD thesis focuses on just how the sweeping changes proposed through ECM are being implemented and the impact they may or not be having on the working practice of professionals across the welfare agencies.
The main purpose of this paper is to: • outline the processes of analysis and interpretation of these findings, for which I used selected tools from the Grounded Theory process; • explain how I was able to induct three hypotheses from the research findings and how these helped me to shape the focus and direction of my final study; • summarise the findings from my Pilot Study, which comprised a series of loosely- structured interviews with professionals and young people from across the agencies concerned. One of my intentions is to ground my writing and research firmly in the field of the workers, managers, children, parents and young people who are the direct recipients of the ECM agendas. These findings are drawn from original data and are in no way shaped around or attributable to what the legislation and government documentation tells us should be happening.
Keywords Integrated services / targeted support / vulnerability / performance indicators
Summary of the three key, inducted b) provide a meaningful evaluation of or findings from the Pilot Study research data judgement about, children and young people’s achievement. Induction 1 The intelligent use of ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ data by the different welfare agencies The actual process of identifying these hard- (education, health, social services and youth to-reach groups does not necessarily probe justice) helps to: the different cohorts (of children, young people a) pinpoint/identify need and vulnerability and their families) sufficiently to identify the amongst children, young people and their most vulnerable and the neediest. families and
160 Every Child/Youth Matters, a government programme for welfare reform
Questions arising Questions arising The Every Child Matters programmes for From the research data it appears that change have certainly raised awareness those teams that meet regularly and have across the different agencies of the a full representation across the agencies, heightened need to support the most exchange and use information effectively. vulnerable children and young people The research data also shows that often through effective, integrated services. the very localised nature of such a However the Pilot Study research data system is a major factor in its shows that the actual process of effectiveness. Therefore, is a national identifying these hard-to-reach groups database for the most vulnerable children does not work as well as it might because and young people really what is of the nature of the centralised, required? performance indicators used. Context and background of the research Induction 2 Support that is accurately The politics of New Labour provides an targeted at the most vulnerable children and interesting discourse through which to young people enables the effective analyse the language used by the integration of services to support them and government in its documentation for ECM monitors the circumstances that might make and the way in which it has structured the them more vulnerable. aims of the ECM programme for change. An important element of the Labour party’s Questions arising ‘third way’ governance that has underpinned Where support for children, young people many of its revised social policies is its and their families is targeted to match declared commitment to acting in their particular needs, there is evidence partnership with agencies to foster of an effective integration of services and community renewal and development. early intervention. This suggests an Nowhere has this aim been more clearly effective approach to providing welfare declared than within the ECM services that are driven by need rather documentation, evident in the emphasis than supply. However, if this type of placed on multi agency working, and the targeted support is triggered by need to involve ‘other schools….culture, centralised indicators, are those children sports and play organisations and the and young people who are not at the voluntary and community sector’ (DfES lowest end of the socio-economic 2004:12). ‘The reform of the state and spectrum having their needs identified government should be a basic orienting appropriately? Are they receiving less principle of third way politics – of deepening effective support from the universal and widening democracy. This new “mixed services? economy” can only be effective if existing welfare institutions are thoroughly Induction 3 The way agency teams are modernised’ (Giddens, 1998). It was this shift structured and how/why they meet, directly in thinking that prompted – amongst many affects how information on children and others - the transformational changes to young people is used to implement support social policy that championed the Every for them. Child/Youth Matters programmes. These programmes for change proposed to address the inequalities of the ‘old way’ social democracy, through a modernising agenda, where public services that are
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delivered locally, becoming more user- a more user-centred and tailored provision centred and focused. The government for children, young people and their families? recommended the implementation of a significant organisational change that would The processes of analysis and help achieve the aims of the ECM interpretation programmes; ‘key services for children My analysis of the findings from my Pilot should be integrated within a single Study was based on selected analytic tools organisational focus locally and nationally’ taken from the process of Grounded Theory. (DfES 2003:9). This issue of integrated It is important to state that I have been services figures significantly in one of the selective in the application of Glaser and findings of my Pilot Study. Another of the Strauss’s writings on Grounded Theory to aims of ECM is to address the achievement the analysis of my research data. I have gap that exists between children from the chosen to use those analytical tools that I opposite ends of the socio-economic identified as useful to my own research, spectrum. The government stated: rather than attempting to apply the process of Grounded Theory wholesale. The main • … the gap in achievement between tools I used were: different socio-economic classes, and the number of children who are the i. Coding and abstracting categories victims of crime; from the data; • … we need to do more to catch up ii. Comparing incident with incident; with other countries. Overall this is a iii. Dimensionalisation and integration of country where life chances are the categories. unequal; • Our aim is to ensure that every child In my analysis of the interview transcripts, I has the chance to fulfil their potential coded by hand the main categories by reducing levels of educational (identified through the literature review) failure, ill health, substance misuse, which included any additional references that teenage pregnancy, abuse, neglect, further encapsulated the essence of each crime and anti-social behaviour category. This helped to identify further among children and young people. categories as they emerged from the (DfES, 2003) ‘language of the research’ (Glaser and Strauss, 2007:107) and built up into an The intention of my research proposal was to extended list of coded categories. I also conduct a closer examination of these recorded analytic memos, which identified proposed aims of the ECM programme in the shifts in – or different emphases of – my order to gain an insight into the potential thinking in response to the data. Through conflict between what the government is comparing the incidence of each category actually proposing – or espousing - through across the interviews with respondents from these extensive welfare reforms and what is other agencies and in different roles, the actually engaged with ‘on the ground’ by the nature of the main categories changed and professionals who are to deliver these developed to reflect the many different changes. This has close links with the reality- nuances of their occurrence in the data. rhetoric dichotomy referred to by Fairclough Through this method of constant comparison (2000:142). At the heart of this paper is the the further development of categories question: are Labour’s proposed welfare emerged. The following is one example: reforms, through the ECM agenda delivering
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Managing change I was careful to transcribe and analyse the This category was constructed from the evidence given by respondents in such a Literature Review and referred to: way that made it clear whether they worked • how the new ECM programmes are at different levels of seniority within the same being managed within Children’s local authority or if their areas of Services in local authorities; responsibility were distinct from one another. • how the agencies are introducing the For example, with reference to the initial programmes into their own practice; category of ‘managing change’, the • how the programmes are actually respondent who managed the Youth facilitating the five outcomes and the Offending Team in a local authority talked chief aims of ECM. about aspects such as the size and structure a) After initial analysis, the new category of the team and streamlining of different of ‘structure and planning’ emerged roles. This reflected his strategic view of through ‘abstraction from the structure and change. The respondents who language’ (Glaser & Strauss, worked in education referred to aspects such 2007:107) of the research and as how the support for children and young comparison with incidents from other people was actually delivered within the interviews. Further, related categories communities. This reflected a more that emerged included: models for operational view of structure. change; new structures; co-ordination of support; re-structuring in response The polarisation apparent across this to ECM. dimensional continuum served further to b) ‘Structure and planning for ECM’ inform my identification of new emerged as the final, newly-defined categories/sub-categories that might emerge category, because the properties this as significant to my analysis. The above incorporates best encapsulate the process helped me to ‘begin thinking in way most respondents described how terms of the full range of types or continua of the new ECM programmes were the category, its dimensions, the conditions actually being implemented in their under which it is pronounced or minimised, particular domain. This newly-defined its major consequences….and its other category takes account of the properties’ (Glaser and Strauss, 2007:107). structure of management teams, support for the new programmes by Inducting hypotheses from the research senior management and the way findings support for the most vulnerable After analysing the interview transcripts I children and families was co- wrote out, in longhand, the findings from ordinated within the communities. each of the interviews and put these into a
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table format. From the first analysis of the of theory the findings that would help me to research data I identified some 12 categories set the direction for the final study for my and many more sub-categories. Within these thesis. there were many overlaps and duplications within the data, and through further analysis I Main findings from analysis of the Pilot was able to reduce the number of main Study research data categories to four, each with some 8 – 10 1. The first finding showed that the sub-categories. This process is what Glaser ECM programmes have certainly raised and Strauss describe as ‘taking out non- awareness within the welfare agencies relevant properties…integrating details of of the heightened need to support the properties…and – most important – most vulnerable children, young people reduction’ (2007:110). Further comparison and families through effective, and analysis gave rise to yet more reduction, integrated services. The research data until I was satisfied I had pinpointed the most also shows that the actual process of original and significant data with which to identifying these hard-to-reach groups consider drawing out my hypothesis or does not work as well as it might and theory. that the indicators may need to be re- assessed. In one local authority from The final set of research data I produced the Pilot Study, the agencies of youth from the above analysis, contained three justice and education worked together key issues that underpinned the resultant to identify isolated pockets of pressing three main findings – each of which had its need within the community that origins in both the categories and sub- hitherto had not been recognised. This categories. I was pleased with this outcome was achieved through the use of a new because each of the issues clearly reflected set of indicators that recognised many (as a result of applying the analytic tools) an different forms of vulnerability. A whole integration of the data and had extracted the new framework of indicators was most significant elements from the research pioneered that identified a number of data. Glaser and Strauss refer to these families who clearly had need of elements of data as ‘elements of theory’. My support, but historically had not final task was to induct, from these elements ‘scored’ the requisite number of
Elements of theory Leadership and management: systems have generated centralised performance indicators for assessment and evaluation. Category 1 These and other types of indicators are used to trigger support for children and young people and to evaluate their achievement. Induction 1 i. The intelligent use of ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ data (by the agencies) helps to: a) pinpoint/identify need and vulnerability amongst children, young people and their families and b) provide a meaningful evaluation of or judgement about, children and young people’s achievement. ii. The actual process of identifying these hard-to-reach groups does not necessarily probe the different cohorts (of children and young people) sufficiently to identify the most vulnerable and the neediest.
164 Every Child/Youth Matters, a government programme for welfare reform
Elements of theory Assessment of the needs of children and young people. Category 2 Targeted support for the most vulnerable children and young people enables early intervention. Induction 2 Support that is accurately targeted at the most vulnerable children and young people enables the effective integration of services to support them and monitors the circumstances that might make them more vulnerable.
government ‘indicators’ to trigger those centrally prescribed by the support. If significant degrees of government it poses a further question. vulnerability are not being identified Are those children and young people through application of these who are not at the extremes of need centralised government indicators, are receiving less effective support from they actually supporting the the universal services? Could this fundamental aims of the ECM mean that the quality of welfare programmes? Similarly, provision of support provided to children and services is also measured, or judged, young people through the ECM by the inspectorates using prescribed, programmes is actually favouring those centralised sets of indicators. So it identified as most vulnerable and might be that successful outcomes of perhaps failing to give effective support provision are being missed (and to ‘the rest’? similarly, inadequate outcomes misinterpreted as adequate), because 3. The third finding was concerned with the quantifiable outcome is what is the how effectively the welfare measured, not the underlying factors agencies worked together. From the that are qualitative – but no less research data, it is apparent that the significant. way agency teams are structured and how and why they meet directly affects 2. The second finding showed that how information on children, young where support for children, young people and their families is used to people and their families is targeted to structure support for them. Those match their particular needs and levels teams that meet regularly and have a of vulnerability, there is evidence of an full representation across the agencies effective integration of services and exchange and use information early intervention. This is evidence of a effectively, to trigger support and early multi disciplinary approach to providing intervention. Where teams met with the welfare services that more effective specific purpose of identifying the most because they are driven by need vulnerable children and young people, rather than supply. Targeted support early intervention was successful and also serves to monitor the most prevented them from getting into vulnerable people and help them avoid further trouble. The research data other causes of vulnerability such as shows that often it was precisely the mental health issues, alcohol and localised nature of such a system that drugs. If this type of targeted support is was the major factor in its triggered mainly by indicators such as effectiveness. Where teams are familiar
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Elements of theory Integrated services and the extent to which agencies work together to support children and young people. Category 3 The extent to which agency teams exchange and use information about children and young people. Induction 3 The way agency teams are structured and how/why they meet directly affects how information on children and young people is used to implement support for them.
with the information about children and whole new framework of indicators that young people it is readily exchanged identified a number of families who and issues that overlap across the clearly had need of support, thereby different agencies are therefore quickly successfully probing these hard-to- picked up. Often the managers reach children, young people and their themselves act on and implement the families. day to day interventions, obviating the (At no time during the Pilot Study did I need for communications through a come across any agencies using the time-consuming, ‘arms length’ chain of CAF - Common Assessment command. Framework - as a common means of assessing children’s needs.) Conclusions 2. There might be significant numbers of 1. Measuring performance – of pupils, children and young people who are in schools and the other welfare agencies receipt of universal welfare services - through national indicators ensures a that are less effectively integrated than compliance with at least minimal those supporting the most vulnerable standards. Is this good enough? Using and needy. What exactly is it about similar types of centrally prescribed targeted support that makes these indicators to assess the degrees of integrated services more effective – vulnerability of children, young people and why should there be a difference and their families may mean that many between targeted and universal are not identified as being in need of services? support, simply because they do not 3. The final finding of what represents an press the right ‘buttons’ that trigger the effective or ineffective multi-agency support. Both these and the indicators structure gives an interesting insight used by Ofsted and other into the whole issue of sharing inspectorates to make judgements information across the agencies. The about the providers of welfare services analysis of the research data shows are mostly quantitative, referring to that rationales for teams and meetings prescribed, centralised targets (HM are most effective when they are Government, 2007). In the local convened specifically for the purposes authority from the Pilot Study of identifying vulnerability and for mentioned, isolated pockets of sharing information about a specific pressing need within the community group of vulnerable young people. This were identified, through the use of a is all grounded in localised groupings new set of indicators that recognised of professionals who have a many different forms of vulnerability. comprehensive knowledge about the This Vulnerability Audit spawned a children or young people concerned.
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Such a concept would seem to be in work. To give a clear representation of the direct opposition to the government’s stages of the analytical process, I chose to proposals for a national database – or adapt an existing model called the Ashridge the newly-termed Contact Point - Diamond, or Model for Strategy. This model which seems still to be in the inception shows four key stages of the process of stages. Is a national database of all constructing a strategy for an organisation. children really what is required to Each stage incorporates sets of important improve information sharing? The elements that underpin different features of government promised to ‘remove the the rationale of the organisation and it is technical barriers to electronic through a process of integrating these information sharing through developing features that an articulation of the strategic a single unique identity number for position of the organisation is arrived at, or each child’ (DfES, 2003:10). In 2008 we induced. (See Diagram 1: The Ashridge are no nearer to the creation of such a Diamond – a model for strategy). This model database or to agreement on which provided me with a useful comparator for the children should be included or process of inducting a theory or – in my case exempted. There are many cultural and – a finding from my research data, as professional complexities implicit in outlined in the process of using Grounded working and sharing information across Theory. the boundaries of the different areas of In the original Ashridge model, the whole education, health, social services and process of constructing an organisational youth justice. Perhaps we should be strategy is iterative and the elements that asking what the key factors are that contribute to it are always in a state of contribute to the effective sharing of organisational ‘flux’, exerting an inevitable, and – more importantly using - mutual influence on and between one information about children and young another. In my adapted model, (Diagram 2), people. As already mentioned, the we can see that iteration occurs as a discrete rationale for the way teams are process in just two of the stages: stage 1, structured/convened appears to be a ‘the construction of categories’ and stage 2, critical factor in facilitating the flow of ‘processes’, (in which the specific analytic information across and between the tools of grounded theory are applied). The different agencies. Can the localised process of the application of the grounded nature of the successful multi agency theory tools constitutes the iteration, through teams from the Pilot Study be re- the coding, constant comparison, created, as a model of good practice dimensionalisation and integration of the for local authorities nationally? categories.
Appendix - Grounded Theory analysis of The three hypotheses I inducted from my Research Data: a Model. analysis served to direct me towards a more In writing about the process of Grounded sharply focused starting point for the final Theory analysis - as I applied it to my own research study. This enabled me to research data – I wanted to construct a commence the final study with a research model that could be used as practical tool by design that reflected the heart of the findings other researchers in the process of their from the Pilot Study.
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Diagram 1: The Ashridge Diamond - a model for strategy
Mission statement of the organisation
Strategic posistion of Beliefs and the organisation, values of the incorporating: Inducting a organisation 1. mission statement; strategy 2. values and beliefs; 3. professional boundries.
Professional boundries, codes of conduct and statutory requirements that regulate the organisation
Diagram 2: Model for applying Grounded Theory analysis to research data
1) Construction of categories and concepts from literature review and using professional experience
2) Process
Coding for categories. Application of 4) Induction Grounded Theory Comparing of theory (or processes incident with hypotheses) incident.
Dimentionalisin g the categories.
Integrating categories.
3) Analysis of elements of theoryexperience
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Biography Fairclough, N. (2000) New Labour, New Christine Hough currently works as a Language? (London, Routledge). Research Associate at the University of Cumbria and Lancaster University and is an Giddens, A. (1998) The Third Way: Associate at Brathay Hall Trust. She is also a the removal of social democracy consultant for ASCL (Association of School (Cambridge, Polity Press). and College Leaders) providing training and development for teachers and managers in Glaser, B. & Strauss, A. (2007, 2nd print) schools throughout the UK and overseas. The Discovery of Grounded Theory, (USA, Aldine Transaction). Acknowledgement Acknowledgement is given to Professor HM Government (2007) The New Hilary Cooper, (PhD supervisor) for her Performance Framework for Local continued inspiration and support. Authorities and Local Authority Partnerships. Single Set of National Indicators (London, References Department for Communities and Local DfES (Department for Education and Government). Science) (2003) Every Child Matters Summary (Nottingham, DfES Publications). DfES (2004).Every Child Matters, Change for Children in Schools (Nottingham, DfES Publications).
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19. Initial teacher education - a sabre tooth tiger curriculum? The evolving role of the teacher in Children’s Centres: implications for changes in initial teacher education
Anne Renwick and Lin Savage, University of Cumbria
Summary The aim is to inspire educators to instigate change in initial teacher education for students working with children from birth to eight. Initial teacher education needs to reflect the developing role of Early Years teachers and prepare them for the complexities of leading pedagogy in multi-agency teams within Children’s Centres. This paper will include a critical review of recent developments concerning the role of the teacher in Children’s Centres, based on knowledge and experience of working with children’s centre practitioners across the north west of England. We will encourage reflection on the key issues related to leading pedagogy in the context of Children’s Centres. We will consider the implications for teacher educators in preparing their own students to: lead pedagogy with children aged birth to eight; work with families; influence, manage and support a range of practitioners involved in curriculum delivery and extended services; and work effectively in a multi-agency team. Finally, we will touch upon how to prepare students for the emotional issues they may face, such as isolation and retention of their professional identity.
Keywords Children’s Centre Teachers / Multi-agency teams / Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) / Early Years Professional Status (EYPS) / Sure Start / outcomes for children
Context programmes were all intended to provide Children’s Centres have evolved from the high quality care and education for young recognised benefits of developing children, along with extended, family focused community based provision that brings services. Sure Start provision came under together care, education and a range of other close scrutiny, with outcome focused services for families with young children, research in the period from 2005 onwards, such as health and social services, all from the national evaluation of Sure Start. provided in the ‘one stop shop’. The findings There was some political criticism that there of Sir Christopher Ball’s ‘Start Right’ report was little evidence of value for the (1994:7) emphasised the need for ‘political considerable funding that had been allocated will’ to commit to the provision of high to the programmes. quality Early Years provision that integrated care and education, incorporated within a The children’s centre agenda rose from the community focus. A range of initiatives evaluations of the various programmes preceded the introduction of the children’s previously mentioned, combining the centre agenda in 2003, such as early community based, interagency ethos with a excellence centres, neighbourhood nurseries more structured and specific remit expressed and Sure Start7 local programmes. These in the ‘core offer’. Cleary linked to the five
7 http://www.surestart.gov.uk/(accessed 31.10.08)
170 Initial teacher education - a sabre tooth tiger curriculum? The evolving role of the teacher in Children’s Centres: implications for changes in initial teacher education
outcomes of the Every Child Matters agenda, for children and young people as part of the 9 the core offer demanded that Children’s Comprehensive Spending Review. The DfES Centres in the most disadvantaged wards also commissioned several research projects must provide the following services: related to Early Years provision. Significant investment in services for children and their • Good quality early learning combined families followed, through the National with full day care provision for Childcare Strategy and Sure Start children ten hours a day, five days a programmes ‘aimed at improving the health week ,48 weeks a year; and well being of children from birth to four • Good quality teacher input to lead the and their families in the most deprived areas’ development of learning within the (DCSF, 2008a:5). The Effective Provision of centre; Preschool Education research project (EPPE) • Child and family health services (Sylva et al., 2003) confirmed the benefits of including ante-natal services; early attendance at high quality pre-school • Parental outreach; provision, particularly for children from • Family support services; disadvantaged backgrounds, in centres • Base for childminder network; where they mix with children from a range of • Support for children and parents with social backgrounds. Integrated centres were special needs; found to be among the most effective type of • Effective links with jobcentre plus to setting. These findings led to the publication support parents/carers who wish to in December 2004 of ‘Choice for parents, the consider training or employment. 8 best start for children: a ten year strategy’ (DfES) (DfES, 2004a).
There is a clear expectation that Children’s Underpinned by ‘Every Child Matters: Centres will target services to motivate and Change for Children’ (DfES, 2004b) and the engage the ‘hard to reach’ families in the Children Act (HMSO, 2004) the ten year communities they serve. strategy outlined the governments goals and vision for children and their families to be Children’s Centres have grown from a variety developed over the next ten years and of beginnings; nursery schools, primary identified three key principles: schools, community based Early Years provision, Sure Start programmes, primary • Ensuring every child has the best care trust provision, are some examples of start in life; settings that have evolved into Children’s • The need to respond to changing Centres. This range of histories, coupled with patterns of employment and ensure the emphasis on responding to local needs that parents, particularly mothers, can has resulted in many different models of work and progress their careers; and children’s centre provision, with centres • The legitimate expectations of families developing distinctive characters reflecting that they should be in control of the local needs. choices they make in balancing work and family life. Background: research and policy (DfES, 2004a:5) In1997, the newly elected Labour government undertook a review of services
8 http://www.everychildmatters.gov.uk/earlyyears/surestart/centres (accessed 31.11.08) 9 http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/d/car (accessed 31.11.08)
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The vision included ‘a Sure Start Children’s The Role of the Teacher in Children’s Centre in every community by 2010, co- Centres ordinating a range of services for pre-school The Researching Effective Pedagogy in the children’ (ibid:33) seen as key to improving Early Years report (REPEY) (Blatchford, the outcomes of all children under five and 2002), analysed the pedagogical strategies closing the gap between the most used in the most effective settings, the disadvantaged and their peers. Children’s following finding corroborates the EPPE Centres were seen as the way forward to research: ensure that services for children and their families were co-ordinated to meet their We found in both interviews and needs and appropriately integrated by all the observations that trained teachers used agencies involved, whether health, social the most sophisticated pedagogy, care or education. Removing child poverty including shared sustained thinking. by enabling parents to work is key to driving When less qualified staff were working this agenda. with qualified teachers we found The Children Act (HMSO, 2004) had focused significantly more sustained shared on the needs of children and young people thinking interactions than when they and the Childcare Act (HMSO, 2006) which worked alone or with other less qualified followed in 2006 sought to ensure that staff. (Blatchford, 2002:14) childcare provision was integrated, removing the distinction between care and education, Research, has also focused on analysing the and of good quality. It focused on constituents of high quality Early Years sustainable, good quality care and education provision and its benefits for children. The provided by a well qualified workforce, taking Study of Pedagogical Effectiveness in Early into account the needs of parents to balance Learning (SPEEL) (Moyles, 2002) project work and family life. resulted in a proposed framework for effective practice; knowledge of child The national evaluation of Sure Start reports development, commitment to Continuing (NESS) (DfES, 2005) and (DfES, 2008) would Professional Development (CPD), and an seem to signify that the move towards ability to reflect and think deeply about the Children’s Centres, and the introduction of complex nature of pedagogy were among the core offer, has improved the impact that factors highlighted as requirements for the provision is making on the lives of families effective practitioner, and the presence of with children under three. The research qualified teachers was indicated as having revealed significant variations in an impact on children’s progress and the effectiveness of different centres with quality of settings. Specific findings from services provided by health agencies EPPE reported that: seeming to have a particularly favourable impact. It is likely that Children’s Centres are Settings that have staff with higher here to stay for the foreseeable future and qualifications have higher quality scores providers of Higher Education are beginning and their children make more progress. to consider the range of education and training they can offer to support centre Quality indicators include warm development. interactive relationships with children, having a trained teacher as manager and a good proportion of trained teachers on the staff.’ (Blatchford, 2002)
172 Initial teacher education - a sabre tooth tiger curriculum? The evolving role of the teacher in Children’s Centres: implications for changes in initial teacher education
The Children’s Centre practice guidance vacancies for children’s centre teachers (DfES, 2006) draws on these findings to confirms that teachers are being expected to explain and justify the requirement for the not only model good practice, but also to employment of a qualified teacher in every provide professional development to staff children’s centre. But what is the role of the and other providers of care and learning teacher employed in this way? According to within the local area. The traditional role of the Children’s Centre practice guidance, the qualified teacher is being extended and teachers working in a Children’s Centre will now includes: the necessity for knowledge be expected to have knowledge of child and experience of working with children from development, working with young children birth; leading, managing, supporting and and leadership. They will have to apply skills developing practitioners from integrated in teaching and learning methods, teams; closer working relationships with developing colleagues and working with parents and carers; and the ability to lead other professionals. It goes on to clarify that and influence the practice of a wide variety of ‘teachers will work closely with other Early professionals including childminders. Years staff in observing, supporting and Maintaining their professional identity may extending children’s learning’: become an issue for those who find themselves in this role. The support that they They will have substantial input into the might expect from colleagues will necessarily planning of the integrated day, be different in a children’s centre. They may although their support may be offered in have different terms and conditions, hours of a number of different ways. work and holiday arrangements from those For example: teachers who work in schools and perhaps • by leading a team of key workers in have support staff on a range of contracts working with children as well as and with a range of qualifications. They will offering support in planning and need to access professional development assessing, including the training and opportunities and support specifically geared support of childminders; to their role. The changing and developing • by taking a coordinating lead for an needs of the Children’s Centre teacher has area of learning or aspect of Birth to significant implications for their initial Three Matters or the Foundation preparation and continuing professional Stage across age groups; development. • by leading curriculum projects across the centre reflecting the needs of The current position children as they grow and develop.’ A combination of factors has led to a DfES (2006:27) complex and confusing position within current Early Years provision. Many Current practice varies between local Children’s Centres follow the pattern of a authorities but also from centre to centre, single site on which all the services are depending on local arrangements, as well as delivered, while others are based on a the size and make up of the individual satellite model with services delivered from a centre’s workforce. The DCSF Standards variety of sites around a central core. Site10 goes into further detail about the Whatever the pattern, it is a requirement, as specific requirements teachers will need in outlined in the current Children’s Centre order to lead practice in these multi-agency, practice guidance that: integrated centres. Researching advertised
10 http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/ (accessed 1.11.08)
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all Children’s Centres offering Early By 2010 all Children’s Centres offering Years provision must have a minimum Early Years provision are expected to 0.5 of a qualified teacher involved in employ an Early Years Professional (EYP) planning and delivering the service to plan and lead the delivery of the before designation. Centres should aim integrated day care and early learning to increase this to be a full time post provision. (DfES, 2006:27) within 18 months. (DFES, 2006:27) The relationship between the teacher and Qualified teachers are being employed in this EYP has not, as yet, been clarified but the role throughout the country; some are guidance goes on to acknowledge that some employed directly by the children’s centre EYPs will also be qualified teachers. There and are part of the staffing structure of the are also fast track routes for qualified centre itself; others are employed by local teachers to gain EYPS. If the QTS and EYP authorities (LAs) and may be part of the LA are not one and the same person it is very advisory support for settings delivering the unclear as to how the professional Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) (DCFS, relationship will develop and exactly who will 2008b). Since September 2008, the EYFS is be the lead responsible for the planning and the statutory framework for all those Ofsted delivery of the provision. registered settings delivering integrated care Given the confirmation of the benefits and education to children from birth to five. of the presence of qualified teachers Its introduction confirms the integration of from the EPPE and REPEY research, care and learning and will be a requirement some have queried the need to for the full range of settings including introduce another graduate Children’s Centres. There are also a wide professional - the EYP. Sceptics variety of qualifications within the children’s would cite funding as the major workforce. Staff recruited to Children’s motivation since EYPs have no Centres will come from a wide variety of guaranteed salary structure, however, backgrounds, including education, health an alternative argument points to the and social care. They will also have a range significance of experience with under of qualifications in care and education at a threes as determining a distinct variety of levels, many at level two and three, profession. As yet there is no but others with level six qualifications in a research that establishes the effect of range of specialist areas. the EYP who is not a qualified teacher on quality of practice. The introduction of the Early Years Professional Status (EYPS), that is to say At present teachers employed within practitioners with level six qualifications who Children’s Centres may have been employed have evidenced a group of 39 standards, in the setting’s previous context as a nursery, specific to working with children aged birth their role having changed when the setting to five and their families, adds further evolved into an integrated centre. They may confusion to the picture. The government not have applied for a Children’s centre has targets for the numbers of Early Years teacher post. Increasingly ‘Children’s Centre Professionals (EYP) to be employed in the teacher’ is named in the job description for children’s workforce and the Children’s newly appointed staff and the implications of Centre practice guidance outlines the target this for teachers and in particular newly for Children’s Centres: qualified teachers, their initial teacher educators, as well as those responsible for
174 Initial teacher education - a sabre tooth tiger curriculum? The evolving role of the teacher in Children’s Centres: implications for changes in initial teacher education
their continuing professional development is co-existing systems related to the two considerable. Teachers are working with an graduate career pathways in Early Years - increasing range of professionals. In some Early Years Professional status and Qualified cases they may be responsible for leading Teacher Status (QTS). The closer these two colleagues from a range of professional agencies can work together, the more backgrounds and in others, a health visitor, chance there will be of a cohesive approach social worker or midwife may lead them. to high quality training for Early Years graduates, this is an area in which the TDA The future and recommendations for holds a proven track record, with its close possible ways forward scrutiny of initial teacher education through The development of the statutory Early Years initial teacher education Ofsted procedures. Foundation Stage strengthens the commitment to a graduate profession for Recommendations: children from birth to five. • Advocate for closer working between The changing face of Early Years provision the TDA and CWDC and the consequent developments in the • Advocate for parity of rigour in training Early Years workforce need to be addressed and quality assurance practice across by the providers of higher education, graduate Early Years career training including initial Early Years teacher • Seek further clarification of EYP and education. QTS roles While many tutors with an Early Years • Encourage research to clarify the specialism have been actively involved in impact on practice of non QTS EYPs shaping new developments and reflecting • Advocate for parity of salaries for the new initiatives in course design, primary workforce across sectors. colleagues have not always had the same opportunities. A new language is developing Working with children in the birth to three among Early Years settings, and age group is a new aspect of work for many practitioners and tutors with a primary qualified teachers in Children’s Centres. The background contributing to Early Years necessity to develop this aspect of initial courses will need to be supported in teacher education programmes, and support developing their understanding of the the academic study of care and development widening profile of the Early Years teacher’s of babies and toddlers is becoming central to work and all tutors will need to keep up to new course design in the Early Years. There date with new developments. is an established culture of academic knowledge based on very young children Recommendations: from psychology and health based courses • Inform colleagues within ITE of the and education staff have much to learn from changing nature of Early Years and other disciplines in this area. offer support • Early Years tutors need to keep up to Recommendations: date with new initiatives • Raise the academic status of working with children under three and reflect The introduction of the Children’s Workforce this in course design for Early Years Development Council (CWDC) working initial teacher education alongside the Training and Development • Further develop the academic Agency for Schools (TDA) has split research base focused on working responsibilities of quality assurance issues with children under three related to the Early Years and provided two
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The issue of placement experience with training with students and tutors from other babies for initial teaching students is professional heritages, the more able they currently fraught with complexities, not will be to deepen their knowledge of the recognised as an area for assessed broader issues in multi-agency working. placement by the TDA, and therefore relegated to ‘additional’ rather than central Recommendation: placement requirements. The current climate • Shared modules taught to a range of also raises challenges in finding sufficient students from different courses, placements with suitably qualified work across agencies, by a tutor team from based mentors, funding issues and the a range of professional backgrounds development of appropriate baby and toddler placement guidelines which reflect The trend for a growing Early Years graduate level engagement. workforce with level two and three qualifications has led to the graduate Early Recommendations: Years Professional and Early Years teacher • Advocate for assessed placement being defined as ‘Early Years leaders’. This opportunities for Early Years student has resulted in Early Years graduates taking teachers with children under three, on leadership roles early in their career. In reflecting the age range covered by order to prepare students for this role, there the statutory EYFS is a need to embed leadership and the • During the transition period to a explicit teaching of interpersonal skills in graduate profession, HEIs may need initial training courses. Students need to to provide suitably qualified mentors develop the ability and confidence to where there are no suitable work develop a personal philosophy and vision, based mentors learn about decision making and teamwork, • Develop research based guidelines as well as having a secure understanding of for effective practice with children the curriculum and effective practice they are under three charged with leading. Opportunities to rehearse and receive feedback on aspects of The multi-agency ethos of the Children’s leadership need to be established within Centre requires the Children’s Centre graduate courses. teacher to work in a very different team than the primary school setting. Often there will be Recommendation: only one teacher in a centre, or working • Embed opportunities to rehearse and across a number of centres, and the planning receive feedback on leadership skills, and weekly meeting and work schedule will including interpersonal skills within bring the Children’s Centre teacher into close Early Years graduate courses. working relationships with colleagues from very different professional backgrounds and One of the biggest resources available to with different perspectives on provision. HEIs is the experience of those previous While the ECM agenda has resulted in the students who are currently at the forefront of inclusion of multi-agency working in new working in new ways in the changing Early course designs, this is often delivered solely Years world. Harnessing the experience of by education staff and fails to result in the these ex-students and developing deeper learning inspired by working with communities of practice, which enable CPD colleagues from alternative viewpoints. training, at Masters level, and support The earlier students training to work in the practitioners in a way that prevents isolation Early Years workforce can benefit from co- in the field, is one way of sharing information
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and developing potential which could impact References practice at varying levels within the Early Ball, C. (1994) Start Right: The Importance of Years workforce. Early Learning (RSA - Royal Society for the Encouragement of the Arts). Recommendation: • Develop learning communities with Blatchford, I et al., (2002) Researching graduate practitioners working in the Effective Pedagogy in the Early Years, Early Years to promote a culture of (London, DFES) shared learning and continuing DCSF (2008a) The Sure Start Journey: A professional development Summary of Evidence (London, DCSF). DCSF (2008b) The Early Years Foundation Biographies Stage (London, DCSF). Anne Renwick is a Senior Early Years Advisory Teacher for Cumbria Children’s DfES (2004a) Choice for parents, the best Services, currently seconded as a teacher start for children: a ten year strategy for fellow in Early Years education to the childcare (London: HMSO). University of Cumbria. Anne has worked in DfES (2004b) Every Child Matters: Change an Early Years advisory capacity for six for Children (London, HMSO). years, supporting practitioners in a range of settings including Children’s Centres. She DfES (2005) National Evaluation of Sure Start has been involved in Children’s Centre (NESS) (London, DfES). development in Cumbria and particularly the role of the qualified teacher in Children’s DfES (2006) Sure Start Children’s Centres Centres. Anne has recently become an Practice Guidance (London, DfES). assessor and mentor for Early Years Professional Status and is currently DfES (2008) National Evaluation of Sure Start preparing a research proposal for her MA on (London, DfES). teachers in Children’s Centres. HMSO (2004) The Children Act Lin Savage is a senior lecturer in Early Years http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts2004/pdf/ education at the University of Cumbria and ukpga_20040031_en.pdf (accessed 1.11.08.) previously worked for the advisory teacher team. In the last three years Lin has been HMSO (2006) The Childcare Act involved in teaching, mentoring and http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts2006/pdf/ assessing on the National Professional ukpga_20060021_en.pdf Qualification for Integrated Centre Leaders, (accessed 1.11.08.) visiting a range of Children’s Centres in the northwest to support leaders from a variety Moyles J. et al., (2002) Study of Pedagogical of professional backgrounds. Lin has Effectiveness in Early Learning, (London, recently become an assessor for the Early DfES). Years Professional Status. Lin’s Masters research was focused on the employment Sylva, K. et al., (2003) The Effective Provision experiences of newly qualified Early Years of Pre-School Education (EPPE Project) teachers. (London, DfES).
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20. Investigating language for learning – A collaborative approach in four primary schools
Sue Hughes, Jane Andrews, Christine Screech: University of the West of England (UWE)
Summary Given the acknowledged significance of language use (in both monolingual and multilingual learners) in the learning process (for example Vygotsky, 1962, 19781986; Wells, 1999; Mercer, 2000) we believe that supporting trainee teachers’ developing understanding of children’s uses of language in their learning is essential. Taking an action research approach we had the following aims for our collaborative research:
to investigate our own practice as teacher educators in relation to developing trainees’ understanding of the inter-relationships between language and learning;to develop trainees’ understanding of children’s learning through language;to build opportunities for knowledge exchange within the UWE partnership with schools in the Bristol area.
In this paper we provide a selective review of the literature on language and learning with specific attention to primary school contexts. In addition we consider current expectations of teacher trainees in England regarding understanding of children’s language and learning as expressed through the TDA (Training and Development Agency for schools) Standards (TDA, 2007). We explain our action research-based approach to exploring how teacher trainees might learn about children’s language and learning during two school-based visits. The experiences of the cohort of trainees, children in the schools participating in the project and university tutors are analysed and discussed in relation to what has been learnt and how such school-based learning can be built on in the UWE PGCE programme in future. Attention is given at the end to ways in which the action research project stimulated university-based and school-based colleagues to collaborate as a community of language enquirers.
Keywords Language / learning / communication / action research / talk
Why talk is important in learning and observations in primary classrooms teaching suggest that children commonly interact When embarking on a PGCE programme few unproductively. It seems that group- and trainees recognise that one of the most pair-based activity is rarely organised in difficult challenges they will face is engaging ways that will best achieve productive children in meaningful learning experiences. interaction (Howe and Mercer 2007:19) It would seem on the surface to be one of the most natural of skills to acquire. However, in This ‘unproductive interaction’ is hardly spite of the high status given to talk surprising. As Alexander’s examination of throughout statutory curricula classroom discourse demonstrated: documentation, inspection and research evidence clearly demonstrate that talk in the Teachers rather than learners control classroom needs further attention: what is said, who says it and to whom. Teachers rather than learners do most of the talking. (Alexander, 2005: 2)
178 Investigating language for learning – A collaborative approach in four primary schools
With the introduction of the national On this side of the Straits of Dover we strategies for literacy and numeracy in the have England’s traditional and late nineties much emphasis and unchanging definition of the educational professional development focused on the ‘basics’ as reading, writing and teacher talk: whole class teaching became a calculation, but emphatically not common feature of primary classrooms; speaking. (Alexander, 2005:5) teachers were encouraged to establish clear learning objectives at the beginning of Since the introduction of the Primary lessons and plan lessons that enabled National Strategy, increasing attention has children to meet these stated objectives. This been given to the role of talk in teaching and new emphasis on teacher talk, together with learning: the new Literacy Framework (DfES, the absence of objectives for speaking and 2006) includes four strands for speaking and listening in the 1998 Framework, had the listening; professional development materials unfortunate consequence of diminishing the have placed increasing emphasis on the role perceived importance of children’s of talk in learning and teaching. Such interactions: materials give explicit acknowledgement to Alexander’s proposition that: In too many lessons, teachers’ talk dominates and there are too few one of the principal tasks of the teacher opportunities for pupils to talk and is to create interactive opportunities and collaborate to enhance their learning. encounters which directly and This is a key feature of the lessons that appropriately engineer such mediation. are satisfactory rather than goodand is (Alexander, 2005:2) an impediment to raising standards further. (Ofsted, 2003:3) This proposition is supported by and reflected in the new Professional Standards It seems remarkable, in an age when so for teachers (TDA, 2007). In order to develop: much credence is given to the socio- constructivist and socio-cultural conceptions a range of teaching, learning and of learning, that the development of behaviour management strategies and children’s interaction has been given limited know how to use and adapt them, attention in policy and curriculum guidance. including how to personalise learning Over the last forty years we have learnt much and provide opportunities for all learners about the relationship between talk and to achieve their potential. (Q10) learning: The work of Vygotsky (1962, 197886), Wells (1986), Mercer (1995) have Teachers need to: underpinned the education of primary teachers throughout the United Kingdom; Understand how children and young their writings illuminate the interactive people develop and that the progress processes through which children learn. and well-being of learners are affected by a range of developmental, social, In his call for a new ‘dialogic’ pedagogy, religious, ethnic, cultural and linguistic Alexander articulated the importance of talk influences. (Q18) for learning whilst recognising the challenge this brings for our cultural construct of what And, by getting to know the learners in their is educationally valuable: class and developing a range of dialogic teaching strategies, they are better equipped to:
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make effective personalised provision for addition to the one hundred primary and those they teach, including those for Early Years trainees themselves, to come whom English is an additional language together as a community of language or who have special educational needs enquirers to explore the inter-relationshps or disabilities, and how to take practical between children’s language and learning account of diversity and promote and its impact for them as reflective equality and inclusion in their teaching. practitioners. Stoll’s (2007) discussion of (Q19) professional learning communities provides five key characteristics that effectively What we sought to do in our action research underpinned our work on the project with was to disrupt the traditional start of the partnerships schools and trainees: PGCE programme; to involve the trainees in enquiries into classroom interaction that • Shared values and vision that focus would give them insights into the complex on improving teaching and learning; nature of classroom discourse. By providing • Collective responsibility for the such experiences we hoped that the trainees learning of all pupils; would begin to recognise the ways in which • Reflective professional inquiry to they as practitioners could develop their own deepen practice; dialogic pedagogy and practice. • Collaboration and teamwork; • Group and collective learning, as well The Research Framework as individual learning. Reflective practice, characterised as a hallmark of quality teachers and as the Through engagement with the work of, for bedrock of their professional growth (Bennett example, Alexander (2005), Mercer (1995, et al., 1999) has over many years been a 2000), Cazden (2001), and our own research, perennial focus for UWE’s PGCE trainees. we felt that exploration of children’s Using Schön’s (1983) definition of the language was key in terms of developing reflective practitioner as one who strives for trainees’ knowledge and understanding of professional self-development through teaching and learning, not only in English but critical consideration of his/her own practice, across the curriculum. To give trainees we adopted an action based research access to children’s talk repertoire approach in our language investigations to (Alexander, 2005) early in the programme provide an appropriate framework to and prior to professional practice one, ‘enhance and systematise’ that reflection partnerships schools were asked to consider (Denscombe, 1998:67) how they might accommodate one tutor group of PGCE trainees (approx 25) for two At its simplest level action based research consecutive Wednesday mornings in the involves a spiral or cycle of planning, action, autumn term. Week one would provide monitoring and reflection. This basic opportunities for trainees to observe one structure has, of course, been proved child on a one to one basis both in the successful (for example, Elliott, 1991; classroom and playground as well as their Kemmis and McTaggart, 1982; Ebbutt, 1985) interactions with adults and peers. On the and is particularly well-suited to classroom second visit, trainees would be asked to plan inquiry. However, this project was designed an activity designed to promote speaking to provide a more divergent model in that the and listening which would be undertaken in a investigations took place on three distinct small group with other trainees. University but interconnected levels, providing an English tutors would accompany trainees on opportunity for university English tutors and both school visits in the role of facilitator. teaching staff from partner schools, in The knowledge and understanding gained
180 Investigating language for learning – A collaborative approach in four primary schools
from the empirical language investigation investigations in school and their response alongside theoretical sources would form again demonstrates their engagement and part of the trainees’ assessment in English, enthusiasm. and classroom teachers would be invited to attend presentations alongside university Before we move on to the forms of English tutors taking on the role of ‘critical evaluation we used to reflect on the project it friend’ (Bassey, 1999: Pring and Thomas, may be useful for us to give a flavour of the 2004). The table below outlines the timing of school-based small group work undertaken the project and the nature of the activities by our trainees. The second school visit in within the cycle. one of the schools saw one whole class of children working in the school hall in small Despite the inevitable logistical problems of clusters with their groups of trainees. The filling relatively small classroom spaces with trainees had developed their teaching and large numbers of adults, the overwhelming learning activities in diverse and creative response to the project from all participants ways having begun to get to their group of was positive and, as demonstrated, by children in the previous week. A treasure responses to the SWOT (strengths, chest, some dressing up clothes, a large weaknesses, opportunities, threats) analysis map of the world were amongst the many (see next section) trainees felt that their stimulating resources set out for children and awareness of linguistic diversity within trainees to engage with. The university tutor school contexts (including in the playground) and class teacher stood back to admire the was heightened. Our current trainees have purposeful nature of the engagements taking recently completed their language place around the room. These are the rich The following table outlines the timing of the project and the nature of the activities within the cycle Date Activity July 07 Initial meeting with partnership schools to ascertain capacity and interest – 4 Bristol schools selected September 07 PGCE cohort begins programme. Input through English and professional studies modules to support language investigation October 07 School visit 1 Focus: 1:1 observation of one child’s language. School visit 2 Focus: Small group work. One student taking role of observe November 07 Group presentation (25% of module assessment) based on empirical work in school and use of theoretical sources. November/December 07 Professional Practice 1 Spring 2008 Ongoing discussion/collaborative activity with school partners Students complete SWOT analysis Summer 2008 Analysis of trainees’ SWOT analyses to evaluate success criteria to feed into planning for next cycle. Evaluation from participating schools ….. identification of schools for autumn 2008.
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images that stay in the memory. The both those of learners and teachers. The following section provides a more detailed terms used by trainees illustrated the account of the trainees’ and children’s significance of their emotions when recalling experiences. their experiences within this action research project. The trainees referred to feelings such Trainees’ and children’s experiences as ‘Scary’, ‘awkward’, ‘tense, ‘shock’ and ‘unsure’ when reflecting on their two visits to Trainees’ Experiences schools as a whole group to explore As outlined above, a SWOT analysis exercise children’s language and learning. The was carried out with the trainees in the emotional reactions also related to their university towards the end of their PGCE greater awareness of the part these visits year. The exercise itself provided the trainees would play in their wider programme; that is, with the opportunity to reflect on the they were asked to write and present their experience of exploring children’s language experiences as part of assessment for a and learning in school and also provided module on ‘language and literacy. As such, tutors with valuable feedback as part of the one expression of ‘anxiety about action research cycle. The timing of the assessment’ was noted on one group’s SWOT exercise allowed trainees to review SWOT analysis. the experience in light of their subsequent learning in university and their teaching Evidence of reflection about the self practices. Such data would, it was hoped, prompted by the experience of being in reflect impacts on trainees’ learning school was present in the SWOT analyses. throughout the year rather than during the Pollard (e.g. 19972002) has done much to school visits alone. Data from the SWOT promote the notion of reflection as a key analysis took the form of written notes component of the teacher training and generated by small groups of trainees who development process and Turner-Bisset had visited the same schools, although (2001) writes about the importance of individuals would have worked with different ‘knowledge of self’ on the route towards children in those schools. As such the being an expert teacher. The trainees in their particularities of individuals’ experiences are SWOT analyses demonstrated their self- to some extent lost in this data and we need awareness through observations such as to recognise that the notes reflect an feeling that they began to ‘think like a amalgamation of experiences. teacher’. Other self-reflective comments also explored prior assumptions which school The data were analysed from using a visits provided the trainees opportunities to grounded approach so that themes which challenge, as seen in the following comment: emerged from groups of issues were ‘removed a lot of the biased feelings many of generated. Those themes were as follows: us had regarding a multi-cultural inner city school’. • the feelings associated with learning Many of the SWOT analyses recorded • awareness of self positive reactions to being in school early in • experience of educational contexts the PGCE programme indicating a strong • exposure to classroom talk desire to apply university-based learning to • timeliness schools and children at an early stage. Kolb (1984) has an experiential learning cycle The work of Claxton (e.g. 1999) has raised which includes a reflection in action stage awareness in the area of education of the which could be applied to what trainees were importance of feelings in relation to learning, describing here in their school-based
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experience in this project. In fact certain nature of the exercise. It is perhaps valuable comments reflected a degree of to draw on an extract which one of the exasperation that this learning format was trainees included in a written assignment not used more, for example one comment based on the work reported here as a more was ‘it reminded me of reasons for going into detailed and individualised piece of school in the first place’ and another stated feedback: ‘not enough activities done in school’ and yet another ‘I am on a teaching course!’ More ‘although I have always held an interest specific ways in which experience of being in in the role of language within society in school was evaluated positively related to general and the role of oracy in particular trainees’ own learning which indicates their this episode was particularly illuminating application of prior learning as seen in the and in many ways resonated with a comment ‘good way to consolidate deeply held value concerning the information learnt on learning theories’. The importance of being able to effectively school context was referred to as converse and collaborate with others.’ ‘meaningful’ which implies a less positive view of learning to become a teacher in a A more instrumental comment came from a context which is not a school. trainee who evaluated the experience very positively and viewed as distinctive enough The focus of this project was to support to highlight it on their CV when applying for trainees’ investigation into language for first teaching posts. learning, and specific comments on their exposure to classroom talk occurred in the Children’s responses SWOT analyses. The comments indicated Although children’s voices are valued by the trainees had appreciated experiencing researchers in this project as they are by classroom noting, for example, ‘great many other researchers into children’s lives exposure to EAL’ and ‘interesting to learn and educational experiences (e.g. Alderson, about peer to peer and teacher-pupil 1995; Christenson and James, 2000), data interaction’. Trainees also showed evidence from children were not systematically of reviewing prior assumptions for example gathered during the project. Nevertheless, ‘those who participate in class aren’t teachers worked with children following the necessarily the highest achievers in that area trainees’ and tutors’ visits and pictures and of the curriculum’ and ‘talking off task is not letters were sent back to trainees expressing necessarily a negative’. A feature of the thanks for the work that took place in the project which was deliberately included was small group teaching. to make time for trainees to spent time with children in class and in the playground, Texts included below (figures 1, 2, 3) express bearing in mind that language use is likely to thanks for ‘teaching me’ and for ‘being be strongly influenced by the physical, social gentle’ indicated in children’s writing and and cultural context in which it takes place teacher’ notations. (see e.g. Tizard and Hughes’ 1984 work on young girls interacting at home and in a Where do we go from here? nursery setting). One group of trainees noted In order to maintain the momentum from this it was ‘good to see children at play and at collaboration with partnership schools we work’ sought funding from the Training and Trainees’ reflections as expressed in their Development Agency to form a regional SWOT analyses were, as mentioned earlier, language network, which would enable the collaborative and necessarily brief given the teachers who hosted our trainees’ language
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Figure 1 investigations to engage in their own inquiry into the ways in which talk, language and learning were linked.
The funding from the TDA enabled us to engage in a programme of activity designed to give the teachers and tutors from our university the time and space to work together to develop deeper and new understandings of classroom discourse. In the early sessions trust and mutual interest was established through activities designed by us to engage the teachers in a shared enquiry.
Figure 2 Through these initial exchanges of knowledge, teachers gained confidence to direct their own enquiry. The project teams: one specialist working with two teachers one from each authority were established, teachers visited each other, observed recorded discourses and identified key themes to be explored. As the project developed the teachers took increasing ownership of the enquiry and with the support the specialist began to interrogate the data emerging from their enquiry.
Conclusion Figure 3 The evaluative feedback gathered as part of the project reported here and the resulting development of a TDA funded regional language network provided us with a strong endorsement of our concern for language and learning in primary education. In the true spirit of action research we have continued in exploring our area of interest with a revised approach to engaging trainee teachers and partnership schools in collaborative investigation into children’s meaning making.
Biography Sue Hughes, Christine Screech and Jane Andrews are programme leaders in the Department for Primary Early Childhood and Education Studies at the University of the West of England. We collaborate as
184 Investigating language for learning – A collaborative approach in four primary schools
university lecturers in our teaching and on DfES (2006) Primary Framework for Literacy language-related projects with partnership and Mathematics [Online] available at: schools. Our particular interest is in the uses http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/ of talk for learning by teachers and children primaryframeworks/ (accessed 21.05.08.). in primary classrooms. Ebbutt, D. (1985) Educational Action Acknowledgements research: some general concerns and We would like to thank the headteachers, specific quibbles, in: Burgess, R. (ed.) Issues teachers and children who worked with us to in Educational Research: qualitative methods make this initiative such a rewarding (Lewes, Falmer). experience for our trainee teachers. Elliott, J. (1991) Action Research for References Educational Change (Buckingham, Open Alderson, P. (1995) Listening to children: University Press). Children, ethics and social research (London, Barnardo’s). Howe, C. and Mercer, N. (2007) Children’s Social Development, peer interaction and Alexander, R. (2005) Culture, Dialogue and classroom learning [Online] available at: Learning: on an emerging pedagogy [Online]. http://www.primaryreview.org.uk/Downloads Available at: /Int_Reps/4.Children_development- http://www.robinalexander.org.uk/docs/IAC learning/Primary_Review_2- EP_paper_050612.pdf (accessed 14.5.08.). 1b_report_Social_development_learning_071 214.pdf (accessed 17.10.08.). Bassey, M. (1999) Case Study Research in Educational Settings (Buckingham, Open Kemmis, S. and McTaggart, R. (1982) The University Press). Action Research Planner (Victoria, Deakin University Press). Bennett, N., Wood, E. and Rogers, S. (1997) Teaching through Play: Teachers, Theories Kolb, D. (1984) Experiential learning – and Classroom Practice (Buckingham, Open experience as the source of learning and University Press). development (development (Eagelwood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice Hall). Cazden, C.B. (2001) 2nd ed. Classroom Discourse: The language of teaching and Mercer, N. (1995) The Guided Construction learning (London, Greenwood Press). of Knowledge: Talk among teachers and Learners (Clevedon, Multilingual Matters). Claxton, G. (1999) Wise Up – The Challenge of Lifelong Learning (London, Bloomsbury Mercer, N. (2000) Words and Minds: How we Publishing Limited). use language to think together (London, Routledge). Christenson, P. and James, A. (eds.) (2000) Research with children: Perspectives and Ofsted (2003) The National Literacy and practices (London, Falmer Press). Numeracy Strategies and the Primary Denscombe, M. (1998) The Good Research Curriculum (London, HMSO). Guide for small-scale social research Pollard, A. (1997) Reflective teaching in the projects (2nd ed) (Maidenhead, Open primary school - a handbook for the University Press). classroom (London, Cassell).
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Pring, R. and Thomas, G. (2004) Evidence Tizard, B and Hughes, M. (1984) Young based practice in Education (Buckingham, children learning (Oxford, Blackwell). Open University Press). Tizard, B and Hughes, M. (2002) 2nd ed. Young children learning Oxford: Blackwell Schön, D. A (1983) The Reflective Turner-Bisset, R. (2001) Expert Teaching – Practitioner – How Professionals think in Knowledge and Pedagogy to Lead the Action (New York, Basic Book). Profession (London, David Fulton Publishers). Stoll, L. (20067) Developing Professional Learning Communities – Messages for Vygotsky, L.S. (1962) Thought and Language Learning Networks [Online] available at: (Cambridge, MA, MI Press). http://networkedlearning.ncsl.org.uk (accessed 14.5.08.). Vygotsky, L.S. (1978) Mind and Society (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press). TDA (Training and Development Agency) (2007) Professional Standards for Teachers Wells, G. (1987) The meaning makers [Online] available at: (Portsmouth, NH, Heinemann). http://www.tda.gov.uk/partners/ittstandards/ guidance_08/qts.aspx (accessed 20.09.08.).
186 Travels with PowerPoint; reflections on using slideware in teaching
21. Travels with PowerPoint; reflections on using slideware in teaching
John Lodge: Roehampton University
Summary This paper explores the use of presentation technology in lectures. It does so through the lens of one tutor’s teaching experience. In a direct way it asks, ‘What is the place of presentation technology in teaching?’ The author reflects on this question in a way that draws on current research and his everyday teaching experience.
Keywords Presentation / presentation technology / PowerPoint / pedagogy
When projector fails Interestingly, something quite unexpected I heard recently a report of a speaker who, at occurred. Without the PowerPoint a nationally organised education event, kept presentation for support, I was obliged to a large audience waiting because he could rely on some old-fashioned teaching skills. I not show his PowerPoint slides. He began found myself using language more only when the projection system was finally expressively to cover for the missing visuals, fixed. However it transpired that all he had to making more eye contact with my audience show during his talk were several slides with and even going so far as to inject some mild bullet points. One wonders why everyone humour from time to time. I really enjoyed was kept waiting. Could it be that the myself and felt like I had given a worthwhile speaker was unable to perform without talk. This episode was one of several ‘critical PowerPoint at his side? More worryingly, events’ in the last year or two that caused me could this incident be symptom that some of to reflect on my use of PowerPoint in lectures us are moving into a kind of technological and which is the subject of this article. dependency?
I mention the incident above because From acetates to digital slides something similar happened to me and it In the1980s when the overhead projector and started me thinking about my own use of the slide-carousel were the lynchpins of PowerPoint. Last year as I was preparing to presentation technology, like many teachers I give a conference presentation, I discovered prepared material on transparent acetates and that I had forgotten to bring along the projected them on a screen for my pupils. This slideshow file. With an expectant audience low-tech approach was flexible and generally before me, there was little else for it but to reliable. For a more polished presentation, make my apologies and begin – without the commercially produced 35mm slides were slideshow. In the circumstances the session purchased and displayed using a slide passed off smoothly enough and I was able projector. Whilst teachers used coloured pens to present from my notes and by showing and acetates to create their overheads, some samples of work using an internet commercial organisations had theirs made up browser. professionally but at some cost, since graphics
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and photographs were expensive to produce impoverished communication form and he at the time. However, the situation was about illustrated his reasoning with some striking to change with the widening uptake of the examples (e.g. Norvig, 1999; Tufte, 2003b). personal computer and the appearance of the Tufte was far from a lone voice in this first presentation program. criticism. Sweller (2007) used cognitive load theory to show that PowerPoint usage in Based on a slideshow metaphor (Gaskins, lectures ran counter to good learning 2008) the very first presentation program, principles. He argued that expecting Presenter, was launched by a company students to read text displayed on a screen, called Forefront in1985. It was an instant whilst simultaneously listening to a teacher, commercial success and shortly afterwards put undue cognitive demands on students. acquired by Microsoft who renamed it ‘The use of the PowerPoint presentation has PowerPoint and subsequently included it in been a disaster’, he declared, ‘it should be the Microsoft Office suite (1990). PowerPoint ditched.’ These, and similar criticisms from sales have gone from strength to strength others, have challenged the prevailing and several years ago it was estimated that fervour for PowerPoint and generated a there were 400 million copies in circulation vigorous debate about the value of and between 20 to 30 million PowerPoint presentation software. presentations were given every day (Craig and Amernic, 2006). Educational research findings In their comprehensive review of PowerPoint It is not difficult to see why PowerPoint research studies, Levasseur and Sawyer should be so popular with users. Engaging (2006) reported that most students held hypermedia slides can be designed easily favourable attitudes about using PowerPoint and carried around or communicated in lectures. Students found lectures more electronically for subsequent projection or interesting and entertaining; they believed reading on the web. Business was quick to also that PowerPoint helped with the adopt digital presentation technology but organisation of the lecture and assisted with others have followed suit, including note-taking. However, despite students’ universities which have equipped many of positive attitudes, the authors could find little their teaching rooms with digital projection convincing evidence from any of the studies facilities. they reviewed that using PowerPoint improved learning outcomes. Emerging criticism Despite its ever-increasing popularity, Some clues as to why this might be so are concerns have been raised about provided by Adams (2006). She reminds us PowerPoint’s suitability for purpose. Its most that PowerPoint is a tool and as such it is an devastating critic is Edward Tufte who in a ‘evocative object’ and invites its users to controversial essay (Tufte, 2003a) claimed employ it in specific ways. ‘PowerPoint,’ she that, compared to more traditional means of argues, ‘exerts invisible lines of force on the presenting information, PowerPoint choices teachers make’ leading them to slideshows were of poor quality. He argued produce poor slideshows consisting of that PowerPoint corrupts statistical bulleted lists. reasoning and that it often weakens verbal and spatial thinking. Further, he lambasted it The culprits here, asserts Adams, are the for its ‘Stalinist’ control of slide design which, Microsoft software designers who made the often as not, results in a hierarchical bulleted assumption that a bulleted list would be what list. The bulleted list, he argued, is an most users required and so the default
188 Travels with PowerPoint; reflections on using slideware in teaching
program options are set to produce this. The The start of a reflective process designers incorporated various support I teach in the information and features into PowerPoint to make it possible communications technology (ICT) subject for a novice to create a slideshow with a area in the school of education at my minimum of technical knowledge. They university. There are two full-time tutors and developed for instance the infamous auto- several visiting lecturers who contribute to content wizard which allows a beginner to ICT classes in initial teacher education (ITE). generate a complete presentation by We teach classes to around 1100 entering content into a sequence of boxes on undergraduate and postgraduate students the screen. The software takes this content each year. PowerPoint is an important tool in and creates a fully-fledged set of slides – in our lectures. Every lesson has its own pre- bulleted lists, naturally. In addition to the prepared presentation together with linked auto-content wizard, the PowerPoint user digital resources, e.g. images, videos, web encounters frequent and intrusive on-screen pages. Tutors invariably use the prepared prompts such as ‘Click to add text’ which PowerPoint presentations when they lecture. serve also to automate the slide design. Finally, slideshow templates are provided Early changes which require only that the user types in at Because of the context in which PowerPoint the prompts and PowerPoint takes care of is used in the ICT subject area, I began to the design. experiment with PowerPoint in non-ITE modules where I was the sole module tutor. So what is wrong with the bulleted list? This allowed me to make changes without Plenty, according to Adams. Every subject seeking the consensus of my colleagues. I domain, she reminds us, has developed its felt that some of the modifications I had in own particular knowledge forms needed to mind could have taken a long time to communicate an understanding of its negotiate with colleagues since it is unlikely content. The bulleted list risks sidelining that all would have agreed with them or many of these and substituting them with an found them helpful. inappropriate alternative. PowerPoint’s hegemony she argues ‘is rendering obsolete Early changes focused on the design of the valuable, perhaps critical knowledge forms’. slides and I set myself the task of reading Teachers need to act vigorously against some of the literature on this subject (Alley, PowerPoint’s ‘soft determinism’ and design 2203; Atkinson, 2005; Koslyn, 2007; slides that go beyond the bulleted list. Reynolds, 2008). Spurning bullet points, I wrote in short but complete sentences or in And yet many of us are reluctant to do so. key phrases which I hoped would We have got into a way of working with the encapsulate the lecture topic. I developed technology that suits us and we find also a ‘billboard’ style to slide design (e.g. ourselves resisting calls for change; even Lodge, 2008a) aiming for a strong visual when those calls appear well grounded. In impact by the use of striking visuals which I my case it took nearly two years for the hoped would complement rather than implications of what the research was duplicate what I was saying in the lecture (as reporting to begin to influence my practice – in figure 1). I displayed each slide for a short and even then, the initial changes I made period to allow students to view it, then I were slight indeed. Concerned about this would blank the screen so that their attention mismatch between theory and practice I turned to me as I continued to teach. The aim began to keep a reflective journal about my here was to promote engagement with the use of PowerPoint and I recount here some class. of the issues that have emerged in my writing and subsequent practice.
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Figure 1: A slide design using a large Figure 2: An ‘active’ slide included in a visual in combination with a short phrase presentation
Because bullet points were dispensed with in Questioning the need for PowerPoint this design style, an immediate consequence At first I did not seriously question the use of was that I lost my on-screen aide-mémoire. PowerPoint in my lectures. It was such a To keep myself on track I printed out the clever media management tool that it slides on paper and added additional notes seemed to be ideally suited to teaching by hand. This worked reasonably well. But educational ICT. However, encountering a whether a ‘billboard’ approach to slide timely article by Howells (2007) and having to design supports learning any better than my rush to prepare a lecture brought about a former style is still in doubt. However, I circumstance where I realised my reflections continue to explore it. had to go far deeper than the design of slides. I quote again from the journal. Active learning ‘It is rare indeed for me to give a lecture Some writers have noted that PowerPoint without using a PowerPoint presentation can favour a didactic style of teaching which to accompany it. And yet two days ago I can induce passivity in learners. In an did just that – and it felt strange, unusual. attempt to avoid this, some educators (e.g. I realise that PowerPoint has become an Centre for Teaching and Learning , 2008) integral part of my lecturing style. Why have proposed ideas and developed has this happened? How did it come materials to help students remain active in about? These are important questions lectures. Although my classes include plenty and they deserve an answer. I have got of practical learning activities I find that there into a way of teaching without fully is a danger that I can still talk for too long. I realising what was happening. I need to quote from an extract in my journal. reflect on this.
‘There is a risk that the presentation may I gave the first lecture in a Year 3 go on too long without allowing students education studies module on Tuesday – to get involved. It would be sensible to and I did not prepare a PowerPoint in include an “active” slide which would advance. What I did do was jot down my engage students and allow a few notes on paper and used them as an moments’ break before the lecturer aide-mémoire to guide the lecture’s continues. This is respecting what we development. I did use the projector and know about learner concentration spans interactive whiteboard at certain points – as well as the need for social/personal during the lecture, but I did so as I engagement.’ needed them.
190 Travels with PowerPoint; reflections on using slideware in teaching
And was it effective? Well, yes, I believe but only from time to time. This however it was. Using a presentation means one changed radically when I returned to has to give a certain amount of attention Roehampton [University] in 1999. The to managing the PowerPoint. I didn’t ICT rooms [where I taught] were need to do this and so I was more equipped with projectors and I moved relaxed. I think I was more spontaneous rapidly to transfer my lecture notes on to also. PowerPoint. My other ICT colleagues were also using the same presentation My notes served to guide me but only in software. a general way and so I fancy I was more spontaneous in how I taught – more What then happened was that the [ICT] animated, making more eye contact with teaching team moved to more the students. When I use a PowerPoint I collaboration in relation to the am more confined. In a sense I have preparation of presentations. We teach mapped out the lecture in advance and it multiple groups the same ‘content’ and can be harder to deviate from this. Not so it was perceived that if tutors used a least because the slides are projected in common PowerPoint then this would front of the class – essentially making a ensure that all students would receive public statement about what is going to the same course – even if they had a be discussed/covered. This creates an different tutor. This of course was driven expectation on both tutor and students. by equal opportunities but also criteria However, [lecture] notes are private to used by Ofsted in their inspections. the tutor. This provides more flexibility.’ As a consequence, the PowerPoint Why must every lecture have a became the “authorised version” of the presentation? lecture. It had been constructed by one The incident above led me to think more member of staff but in consultation with deeply about my lecturing style. How was it colleagues. So although “authorised”, it possible that I found myself in the position had also been produced as a result of that every lecture I taught was mediated consensus. So we arrived at a situation through a presentation? where:
‘Why has PowerPoint become so a. Every ICT lecture had an integral to my teaching style? This associated PowerPoint, week’s lecture (without a pre-prepared prepared in advance; PowerPoint) has made me realise that I b. The PowerPoint had been am using a PowerPoint for every lecture I prepared to cover the lecture teach. This – on reflection – is quite an content; extraordinary state of affairs. How has c. The PowerPoint becomes this come about? To answer this I need authorised or accepted by to track back some years. [teaching] staff; d. It is a product of consensus. My first use of slides was with the overhead projector. I used this We had got ourselves into a situation technology on and off until around 1996. where every lecture (for our ITE courses) At the time I was working in a special had a pre-prepared PowerPoint in place school and I would give occasional CPD. and in practice tutors taught using The school had an LCD projector and at PowerPoint.’ this time I used a presentation program –
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Considering consequences Are other pedagogies ruled out because PowerPoint does not easily support ‘What are the consequences of this [use them? of PowerPoint]? Tutors deliver similar content to all Is knowledge representation groups [of students]. This helps ensure impoverished? commonality across groups/tutors. Some kinds of knowledge suit screen It is a supportive mechanism, e.g. it display – but others clearly don’t. Are we supports visiting lecturers who are only tempted to ignore this because it occasionally at college. It is supportive in becomes easier, more convenient to other ways. display on the screen? e.g. no ICT shows lots of examples drawn from photocopies need be made. So we’re the internet. Hyperlinks can be pasted more clinical but we could possibly be into a slide beforehand. This makes neglecting richer knowledge forms. PowerPoint an efficient launch platform to other resources. Is student engagement reduced? ICT makes extensive use of multimedia Nothing seems to deaden, to quieten a resources – these can be marshalled in group of students like a PowerPoint PowerPoint and made available at the presentation. It puts the tutor (the click of a mouse button. pointer) in full control and the students The PowerPoint provides a “road map” can potentially become passive listeners. for the lecture. It may cause lectures to Indeed, in some lectures the students be predictable but it does assist in appear to be taking few notes since they maintaining relevant content coverage. know that the PowerPoint is up on PowerPoint presentations are centrally StudyZone.’ located on the server and accessible to all computers [and] make it easy for An alternative role for PowerPoint tutors to access them. Recently, various factors required me to PowerPoints are uploaded to StudyZone produce lectures at short notice. I did not so students can access them [online]. have a ready-made PowerPoint to call on and so I began to use PowerPoint in a I’ve described the consequences only in different way. The planning process now terms of benefits but it could be that begins with pencil and paper rather than there are some significant directly typing into the slideware application. disadvantages. ‘I jotted down [on paper] what I thought Teaching quality is impaired would be the lecture’s development. I Does this situation limit the scope of the knew what content needed to be tutor to teach as she or he wishes? covered and I reflected how I wanted to Does it limit spontaneity or enthusiasm? organise each part of the lesson as I Does it damage student-tutor developed my notes. Where I felt I interaction? needed some AV [audio-visual] support I indicated this in the notes, e.g. a A narrow range of pedagogies are PowerPoint slide. I did not write the exemplified notes out completely in advance and Does using a PowerPoint encourage the then begin to consider the content for tutor to “lecture”, i.e. present rather than the slides. When I judged that a slide was teach? required, I went off to find one from a
192 Travels with PowerPoint; reflections on using slideware in teaching
previous presentation I had prepared. So also comfortable since it’s easy to think the lecture notes were built up step-by- with pen and paper. step with the AV aids being marshalled b. Although I’m very experienced at as needed.’ using PowerPoint, and comfortable in developing presentations with it, if I I felt more comfortable working with this design my lectures using PowerPoint approach. This is a shift from my usual then the software is inevitably going to practice in which I develop my ideas in play a significant role in the lecture. PowerPoint itself. Two thoughts at this This may not be a good thing. point: PowerPoint may not be required at all – a. Developing a lecture’s or only in a minor role. So, on development/content on paper is reflection, perhaps it’s best if I avoid much more flexible and comfortable an using PowerPoint for designing the experience. It easy to cross out, to lecture.’ change the order of something. It’s Student engagement in lectures Figure 3: An outline lesson plan ‘I have noticed increased engagement with students when I teach with this style of using AV aids. Because the screen is only on intermittently – and neither I nor the students need to look at it – we are looking at each other more often. This gives me more opportunity to engage. So I make full eye-contact more often and directly. I direct questions more often to students. I query a student who may be working at her computer rather than engaging with the lesson. I get a stronger sense of a link with students and the development of a tutor/student relationship.
Teaching with the PowerPoint in pole position tends to be more presenting than engaging. Students read the screens and make notes – they often fail to make eye-contact with the tutor. As a teacher, my instincts are that the former teaching style is more effective.’
Note-taking and absences Many students expect to see a presentation with lots of bullet points in their lectures. Since they are not encountering them with me, I will need to give further thought to the consequences of this.
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‘A detailed PowerPoint presentation with References lots of bulleted text provides help for Adams, C. (2006) PowerPoint, habits of students with note-taking. The approach mind, and classroom culture, Journal of of these two lectures requires students Curriculum Studies, 38(4), 389 – 411. to be much more self-reliant. It means Alley, M. (2003) The Craft of Scientific also the students who miss a lecture do Presentations: Critical Steps to Succeed and not have a detailed PowerPoint Critical Errors to Avoid (NY, Springer-Verlag). presentation to give them some idea of what was covered.’ Atkinson, C. (2005) Beyond Bullet Points: Using Microsoft PowerPoint to Create Enjoyment Presentations That Inform, Motivate, and ‘I can’t speak for the students’ Inspire (Reading, Microsoft Press). experience [yet], but I can say categorically that I prefer to teach in this Craig, R. and Amernic, J. (2006) PowerPoint way. I feel freer and I enjoy the increased Presentation Technology and the Dynamics engagement with the students. By of Teaching, Innovation in Higher Education, avoiding an over-arching presentation, 31,147-160. there is plenty of “space” for me to engage with students, to ask and invite Gaskins, R. (2008) Home Page for Robert questions, and to use a range of ICT and Gaskins, Available online at: technical skills (instead of having http://www.robertgaskins.com (accessed everything in place [beforehand] on a 15.07.08.). PowerPoint platform. I prefer this approach, decidedly.’ Howells, K (2007) PowerPoint: friend or foe, in J.Sigafoos and V. Green (Eds) Technology Conclusion and teaching, Nova Science Publishers Inc. I find myself at the start of what appears to be an interesting journey of discovery into Kosslyn, S. (2007) Clear and to the Point: 8 the relationship between presentation Psychological Principles for Compelling technology and pedagogy. But I have only PowerPoint Presentations (NY, OUP). just begun. I intend to continue reading, experimenting and researching in this area. Levasseur, D. and Sawyer, J. (2006) Interested readers can follow progress on my Pedagogy Meets PowerPoint: A Research blog (Lodge, 2008b). Review of the Effects of Computer- Generated Slides in the Classroom, The Biography Review of Communication, 6(1- 2), 101-123. John Lodge is a senior lecturer and subject leader for ICT in the School of Education at Lodge, J. (2008a) Dodging the Bullets or Roehampton University. He has been How to Retain Creative Pedagogies Whilst working in teacher education for 12 years, Using Presentation Software in Lectures, following 20 years teaching in primary, Conference Proceedings for The secondary and special schools. His research International Centre for Innovation and interests focus on the use of presentation Education, Excellence in Education for technology in lectures. Development and Creativity: Future Minds (July 2008, Paris).
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Lodge, J. (2008b) Teaching with PowerPoint, Tufte, E. (2003b) Columbia Accident Available online at: Investigation Board: The Boeing PowerPoint http://teachwithpower.blogspot.com/ Slide, Available online at: (accessed 30.10.08.). http://www.edwardtufte.com/bboard/q-and- a-fetch-msg?msg_id=0000jL (accessed Norvig, P. (1999) The Gettysburg PowerPoint 10.12.07.). Presentation, available online at: http://norvig.com/Gettysburg (accessed Centre for Teaching and Learning (2008) 10.11.07.). Active Learning with PowerPoint, Available online at: Reynolds, G. (2008) Presentation Zen: http://www1.umn.edu/ohr/teachlearn/tutorial Simple Ideas on Presentation Design and s/powerpoint/ (accessed 30.10.08.). Delivery (Berkeley, New Riders Press). Image credits Sweller, J. (2007) PowerPoint Should be Labspics (2008) Gazing and Concentrating, Ditched, Available online at: available online at: http://www.presentationzen.com/presentatio http://www.flickr.com/photos/labspics/ nzen/2007/04/is_it_finally_t.html (accessed 2225587699/ (accessed 30.10.08.). 15.07.08.).
Tufte, E. (2003a) The Cognitive Style of PowerPoint. Pitching Out Corrupts Within (Cheshire, Graphics Press LLC).
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22. Ways of working with a school science technician during teaching practice; perceptions of trainee science teachers Elaine Batchelor: University of Leicester
Summary Trainee teachers need to demonstrate their competence to work with other colleagues including support staff. Before September 2007, this competence was embedded in Standard 1.6 of the Professional Standards for Qualified Teacher Status (TTA, 2002); ‘understand the contribution of support staff and other professionals’. In the revised standards for classroom teachers this concept is found within ‘Work as a team member and identify opportunities for working with colleagues’ (TDA, 2007:Q32). A science trainee teacher will need to work with a science technician who, as a member of support staff, is essential to the ways of working for a science teacher since they provide the technical support for practical lessons. This paper reports on students’ perceptions of working with technicians in their two school placements. Drawing on four questionnaires completed by 11 students during the year 2006-2007 and 22 reports written by the science co-tutors who assessed the students during each teaching practice, the study identifies: the initial thoughts of students on how a technician may support them; variations in the time they spend together; and a range of phrases used by co-tutors to judge the working relationships.
Keywords Science / trainee teachers / technicians / support staff / collaborative working
Background described technicians as being part of a Various studies have attempted to describe team and, in a recent review by Hobson et al. an ‘effective’ teacher in terms of their (2006) of those training to be teachers, qualities, skills, styles and behaviours. One science students rated their relationship with common aspect of the ‘effective’ teacher non teaching staff more highly than other according to many commentators students did, suggesting the importance they (Cullingford, 1995; Harris, 1999; Flanders, place on relating to a science technician. 1970; DfEE, 2000; Cheng and Tsui, 1999) is This supports another study from the USA by that effective teachers will communicate with Lee, Bryk and Smith (1993) which stresses other staff; ‘Teachers do not only need the the importance of human relationships in art of communicating with their pupils, they promoting a range of student academic and need to communicate with each other’ social outcomes. (Cullingford, 1995:20). Although communication between teachers According to research commissioned by the and pupils and other teachers has been DfEE into teacher effectiveness, an ‘effective’ evident in some ‘effectiveness’ studies (e.g. teacher will demonstrate the characteristic of Sammons et al., 1997), it has generally ‘Relating to Others’ (DfEE, 2000:1.3.11) ignored the relationships and ways of through an ability to work in a team and working between teachers and support staff, communicate. Team working is described as especially in science departments in ‘between all school colleagues, including secondary schools (Busher and Blease, support staff’ (DfEE, 2000:65). Busher and 2000). Given recent workforce reforms which Blease (2000) found that science teachers are intended to increase the number of
196 Ways of working with a school science technician during teaching practice; perceptions of trainee teachers
support staff who are all engaging with What do students think a science pupils, ‘staff communication and team technician does? building will become even more important’ The study started with a questionnaire before (Johnson and Hallgarten, 2002, 9). their first teaching practice to find out what An effective science teacher will need to the students thought technicians do and how work with a technician who provides support they thought they would work with them. by ‘preparing, providing, maintaining, Their responses were classified into groups organising and managing the resources identified by Cleapss (2002) on what ‘most’, required for healthy, safe and secure, ‘many’ and some’ technicians do. Students exciting practicals to be carried out by staff identified tasks that matched with those that and students’ (Cleapss, 2002, 6). ‘most’ technicians do. These included: Technicians provide technical advice to • provide sufficient levels of stock of trainee teachers (RS/ASE, 2001) and will be equipment and substances; showing, consciously or not, to the science • provide the teacher with chemicals trainees how they will communicate in the that cannot be stored in lab future in a science team which will be made classrooms for demonstrations and up of teachers and technician(s) in an experiments that pupils carry out; individual school. As trainees only work with • clean the laboratory and resources; a technician for a short while during a • keep a record of other resources i.e. placement, they need to quickly relate to tracking the stock of videos; them (Sim, 2006) in order to demonstrate • set up experiments sometimes weeks their ability to meet the standards which are in advance e.g. growing plants. assessed by a co-tutor. Some students identified tasks that ‘many’ Methodology technicians engage with, especially the This study investigates the perceptions of provision of technical assistance to trainee eleven trainee science teachers (A – K) as teachers. Five of the 11 students commented they learn to work through verbal on how they thought a technician would communication with a school based science provide them with technical support. This technician in their two teaching practices, compares well with the RS/ASE (2001) study referred to as Phase A and B. which suggested from their survey of 5026 Biology Chemistry Core Physics Total technicians that 52.6% of technicians ‘often’ (b) (ch) (co) (p) provide technical assistance to students. Female 4 1 3 1 9 None of our students identified a task that Male 0 1 0 1 2 ‘some’ technicians perform. Totals 4 2 3 2 11 Most of the responses were concerned with The science trainees completed four semi apparatus- assembling it, delivering it and structured questionnaires over the year 2006 collecting and checking it. This is similar to – 2007. This sample of 11 was chosen from the RS/ASE (2001) study that found 95.2% the population of 38 science PGCE trainees were involved in delivering equipment to the because they gave consent for their room and in a smaller study of 11 responses to be analysed in conjunction with technicians, seven of the 11 had the their teaching practice reports written by the responsibility for getting the laboratories science teacher (co-tutor) responsible for ready for the lesson and five of them for them during teaching practice. The 22 preparing the equipment (Busher and reports include a reference to a student’s Blease, 2000). A noticeable difference competence to ‘understand the contribution though is the making up of chemical of support staff to learning’ (TTA, 2002:1.6). solutions which only one student identified
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as a task of a technician whereas in the about the practical, where the problem lies’ RS/ASE study 84.6% of the technicians carry and ‘show me how to use equipment I’ve not out this task and six of the 11 technicians in used before’. the Busher and Blease (2000) study refer to making up chemicals. This may be a reflection The comments were then regrouped into four of our students’ subject specialism; there were categories on how they will work with a only two chemistry specialists in the sample technician: although neither of these mentioned making • Tell/Show/Provide; up chemical solutions in their responses. • Comment about technician • Advise/Guide/Suggest/Do things Two comments do not fit into the list provided • Personal/Affective by Cleapss (2002) – ‘keep the department chugging along’ and ‘a helpful person who These included: ‘best ways to do an works behind the scenes’ – which may experiment, what works and what doesn’t’, suggest that a technician is being seen as ‘show me how to use equipment I’ve not used more than a person who is just doing a before’ and ‘let you practice first before the technical job but is more like the oil that makes lesson’. A few comments referred to ‘affective’ things move smoothly. The verbs used by ways of working with to a technician, for students in describing what they think example, ‘they understand, let you practice’ technicians do are very similar to those used which is similar to ‘one less thing to worry by Cleapss (2002) – for example, ‘provide’ and about’ and ‘be understanding that you don’t ‘prepare’. There are more references to these know everything as a trainee’. This may verbs rather than ‘organise’ or ‘decide’. There indicate that a student expects or hopes a are more uses of the verbs ‘help’, ‘support’, technician will provide them with what Cooper ‘aid’, ‘give’, ‘involve’, which suggests a and McIntyre (1996:97) call an ‘emotionally similarity with the Busher and Blease (2000) supportive environment’. study where teachers also described technician support in terms of helping and co- Most of the comments refer to either how operating. students think that a technician will ‘tell’ them things – ‘direct’, ‘show’, ‘point out’ - or to a How do students think a science technician suggestion that the ways of working and will work with them to support them? therefore communication will be more The first questionnaire asked students to ‘guidance’ focused – ‘suggest’, ‘advise’, suggest ways that they would work with a ‘offer’. Only one student commented on how technician and how they thought they would they need to be aware ‘that there are other support them. These were placed into five staff in the department who are also asking for categories: equipment’ which is a potential indicator of • School/Department Focus their individual awareness of the need to work • Equipment Focus in a team. • Health and Safety Focus • Technical Focus How did the students work with the • Support Focus technician? The students were given questionnaires to Most students identified that the support complete after their initial visits of four days to would be focused on equipment in terms of each of their two placement schools, and at giving it out with only two references to health the end of the year, to find out how they and safety. The comments referred to as worked with the technician during each ‘technical’ suggest a technician is seen as a placement. source of advice– ‘provide detailed information
198 Ways of working with a school science technician during teaching practice; perceptions of trainee teachers
During the Induction visits Nine of the 11 trainees stated that a Their responses ranged from ‘no contact’ to technician provided them with advice on ‘spending time talking about horror stories’ equipment with eight of them indicating that or ‘telling you where to hang your coat’ to a technician is the main person in the ‘advice on schemes of work’ and ‘remedial science department doing this. We found treatment in case of accidents’. One student that students’ specialism may influence their commented, ‘they helped to explain who and ways of working with a technician; two of the how the department is run’ which supports three core science students (those training to the study of Busher and Blease (2000) that teach science up to Keystage Four) strongly suggests the relationship between teachers agreed that they collaborated with a and science technician may go beyond what technician, whereas only one of four Biology is their job description. students indicated this. Five of the 11 students agreed that a technician had During the placement communicated subject knowledge but this In the final questionnaire the students were did not include any Physics or Chemistry asked to indicate what they remembered students. about working with the technicians and to identify specific support given to them as shown in table 1.
Table 1: Specific help by technician reported by trainee teachers Trainee Specific help reported at the end of the PGCE by each science trainee teacher teacher A Phase A - help with demonstrations. Phase B - advice on how to use equipment. B Phase A - organised course with teacher before hand and then followed it, Phase B- helpful and flexible C explain experiment that could be used, helped to practice them and give science behind the practical D Helping me practice / demos prior to lessons E In phase B -technician helped to set up a system for computer monitoring of sound waves F Phase A - often suggested practicals. Phase B- helped to collect photocopying, tidying up lab. G guided me through practice experiments when I was unsure, hints and tips H having the worksheets already in the room waiting for me as opposed to having to sort them out for myself, repro I I couldn’t work the TV - she dropped everything and came and fixed it. No one else was around and so she helped out J in phase B practical - transpiration - using a potometer - technician showed me how to set up apparatus and delivered equipment to the room K Phase B she gave me a rough idea of the experiments already in use for topics so I put practicals into my lessons for boring topics
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Five of the 11 students used the verb ‘help’ What comments are written by co-tutors when referring to ways of working with a ‘tutors’ technician compared to 2 at the start of the There are no set phrases or words that co- year and there were two comments that tutors are required to write as their indicated the students’ perceptions of judgements on how a student is working with some technicians who can be demonstrating competence in any Standard ‘more helpful and friendly’ or where and therefore there would be a potential error ‘communication was much easier in in suggesting a hierarchy. There were a Phase B’. range of phrases used from ‘good relationships’ to ‘worked with’ to no mention The questionnaires provided an opportunity of working with a technician. Four of the 11 to consider how working practices alter in co-tutors did not refer to a student working the two teaching practices. This is shown in with a technician in Standard 1.6 in Phase A table 2 for two trainees (J and K). and two of the 11 in Phase B.
Table 2: responses from trainee teachers, J and K
Code What do you What ways will Difference Specific help How did they Barriers to think is the role a technician between A and providedharder. help you working with of technician? support your B working with become more technician learning? technicians effective?
J helpful person Teach me the In phase B I in phase B showing me I didn’t know who works systems used in didn’t have to practical - practicals I when they were behind the the school. give as much transpiration - could try and off - they had scenes who will Show me notice. There using a suggesting part time/ days provide me with previously used were many potometer - ideas other off sometimes equipment ask ideas for more set technician teachers could for as long as it lessons when I practicals. showed me use within their need inspiration There was one how to set up power to do so technician per apparatus and subject delivered whereas in equipment to phase A there the room were 5 technicians who spread the load
K Technicians are A technician Phase B only Phase B she She always somewhat support staff. may have a had one gave me a went through frosty at They organise better idea of technicians, rough idea of the reasons beginning, and control the how to show a however she the experiments why we used laying down use of concept for a was always already in use certain rules for equipment. class, or willing to help for topics so I chemicals and handing in They decide improve an and didn’t mind put practicals what happens equipment which experiment, daft questions. into my lessons when it goes sheets etc, very equipment than you. They Technicians in for boring wrong, very similar to needs to be can direct you both phases topics useful as the starting with a ordered in. to useful were good but pupils often new class, They have an resources or phase A worked asked if things harsh at understanding help you to harder. would explode beginning and of the way understand a mellows out experiments concept and equipment yourself so you work can teach it.
200 Ways of working with a school science technician during teaching practice; perceptions of trainee teachers
Some co-tutors wrote about the relationship increased the amount of time and one stayed between a student and technician; for the same. There is a range of time spent with example, ‘good relationship’ and ‘sought to a technician for the Biologists, Core Science build an effective working relationship’. and Physics students but both Chemistry Others comment on what they had students (E and F) spent less than half an communicated about, for example ‘booked hour each day in both placement schools. equipment ‘, ‘discussed equipment and its uses’ and ‘ gained guidance from the Conclusion technician’. Two students (H and K) had The students in this study indicated before reports from both schools which did not refer their first placement that they were aware of to how they worked with a technician in any the tasks that ‘most’ technicians carry out standard. Table 3 shows the comments for according to Cleapss (2002). They expected trainee teachers F, G and H. to work with the technician in terms of the provision and preparation of equipment. Early in the PGCE course many of the students in How much time do they spend together? the sample perceived that working with a The time spent with technicians in Phase A, technician would take the form of being told as perceived by the students, varies from five or guided by them on how to use equipment minutes to 45 minutes per day and in Phase as they expected a technician to be more B from 10 minutes to three hours per day as informed than themselves. At the end of the can be seen in table 4. Four students spent PGCE year, five rather than two students in less time with a technician per day in phase the sample used the verb ‘help’ to indicate B compared to Phase A, whereas six their new way of working with a technician.
Table 3: Comments from the reports written by co-tutors for trainees F, G and H
Code Age Subject Sex Comments for standards Comments for standards 1.6 phase A 1.6 phase B
F 26 Chemistry F F has worked with F has been able to work technicians within school effectively with the dept’s as well as setting up technicians in the experiments with the preparation of lessons. assistance of other members of staff.
G 28 Biology F G has effectively liaised G worked closely with with science technicians science technicians with with regard to ordering regards to ordering equipment. equipment and sought advice and help from them when planning practical sessions with classes.
H 22 Biology F H has liaised with support H has made considerable staff in the classes. H has effort to plan, in attended a meeting with collaboration with the SENCO and understands class teacher, appropriate role of EAL coordinator lessons. H asks for guidance and works well alongside colleagues in team teaching.
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Table 4: Time spent with a technician per day in hours as reported by trainees at the end of the PGCE year and the phrases in their teaching practice report on how they worked with the technician Trainee Approximate time word taken from Approximate time word taken from spent with standard 1.6 spent with standard 1.6 technician in hours Phase A report technician in hours Phase B report
G 0.08 effectively 0.75 worked closely and sought advice and help
E 0.25 worked well 0.5 developed good working relationship and sought advice
K 0.25 0.55 works well
D 0.25 understands the 0.5 more confident in invaluable support her working relationship
F 0.33 worked with 0.5 work effectively with
I 0.33 3
C 0.5 0.17 successful in working relationships
B 0.75 excellent working 0.25 worked very well relationships
J 1 worked well 1 very successful in working relationships
H 1 0.75
A 2 close contact and 1 worked effectively good working with relationship
comments on how the trainee science There are variations in the time spent with teachers work with a technician. Most technicians but there appears to be a students are judged to be at least able to common focus on building relationships. ‘work with’ a technician with some being Reports written by co-tutors vary in their judged as having built ‘excellent working
202 Ways of working with a school science technician during teaching practice; perceptions of trainee teachers
relationships’. Not all reports provide Press, Maidenhead). information about the way a student and Cullingford, C. (1995) The Effective Teacher science technician work together including (Cassell, London). the report for the student who reported she had spent three hours a day with the DfEE (2000) Research into Teacher technician. Effectiveness A Model of Teacher The implications from this study will be to Effectiveness, DfEE Research Report RR216. consider developing opportunities to engage Flanders, N. A. (1970) Analyzing Teaching with the school science technicians in the Behaviour (Addison – Wesley, London). partnership schools to optimise ways of working with the trainee science teachers. Harris, A. (1999) Teaching and Learning in This will be supplemented from evidence the Effective School (Ashgate Publishing, from a recently completed case study using Aldershot). observation and interviews with one Hobson, A.J., Malderez, A., Tracey, L., technician and two trainees in the second Giannakaki, M.S., Pell, R.G., Kerr, K., teaching practice during 2007 – 2008. Chambers, G.N., Tomlinson, P.D. and Roper, T. (2006) Becoming a Teacher: Student Biography. Teachers’ Experiences of Initial Teacher Elaine Batchelor was the Secondary Science Training in England, Ipsos MORI Social PGCE Subject Leader at University of Research Institute. Leicester from September 2006 to Johnson, M. and Hallgarten, J. (2002) The September 2008. Previous to this role, she Future of the teaching profession in M. was the Science Consultant for Leicester Johnson and J. Hallgarten (Eds) From City Local Authority for four years after Victims of Change to Agents of Change: The twenty years of teaching and leading science Future of the Teaching Profession, Institute in four schools in Northamptonshire, of Public Policy Research, London, pp. 1- 16. Leicestershire and Leicester City. She will be taking up a new post at Riverside College, Lee, V., Bryk, S. and Smith, J. (1993) The Leicester in September 2008. organization of effective secondary schools in L. Darling- Hammond (Ed) Review of References. Research in Education, AERA, Washington, Busher, H. and Blease, D. (2000) Growing DC, V19, pp. 171- 226. Collegial Cultures in subject departments in RS/ASE (Royal Society and Association for secondary schools; working with Science Science Education) (2001) Survey of Science Staff, School Leadership and Management, Technicians in Schools and Colleges, Royal V20, 1, pp. 99 -112. Society, London. Cheng, C. and Tsui, T. (1999) Multimodels of Sammons, P., Thomas, S. and Mortimore, P. Teacher Effectiveness: Implications for (1997) Forging Links: Effective Schools and Research, The Journal of Educational Effective Departments (Paul Chapman Research, V92, 3, pp.141-150. Publishing, London). Cleapss (Consortium of Local Education Sim, C. (2006) Preparing for professional Authorities supporting the Provision of experiences - incorporating pre-service School Science) (2002) Technicians and their teachers as ‘communities of practice’, jobs, L228, Cleapss. Teaching and Teacher Education, V22, pp. Cooper, P. and McIntyre, D. (1996) Effective 77-83. Teaching and Learning; Teachers’ and TTA – Teacher Training Agency (2002) Students’ Perspectives (Open University Qualifying to Teach, London, TTA
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23. The process of changing identity: Pit Stops and Magic Moments of New Teacher Educators.
Elaine Batchelor and Carmen Mohamed: University of Leicester
Summary The existing research on New Teacher Educators (NTEs) in the UK context indicates that the first year is a time of rapid learning and acquisition of new forms of knowledge and understanding. Research also indicates that there are three priorities for most NTEs in their first year; survival, shifting the lens and laying the foundations for research (Boyd et al., 2007:7). It is within this framework that we set our theoretical study using qualitative data in the form of transcripts from professional reflections written for the Postgraduate Certificate in Academic Practice in Higher Education (PGCAPHE), interviews with ITE researchers and self documented critical incidents.
Keywords Identity / transition / teacher educators
Introduction Higher Education. After a chance meeting in New Teacher Educators joining a university the car park, we recognised, at a personal will come from various backgrounds level, a shared struggle to feel accepted. We although they are most likely to have been were trying to create a place for ourselves qualified teachers with considerable within a disparate group of people but we did experience in school management. They not really understand university life. We bring with them pedagogical knowledge and agreed to engage in professional activity to expertise but ‘often enter higher education understand how we were experiencing the without doctoral level qualifications or other transition. We studied the literature relating sustained experience of research and to change management and transition; this publication processes’ (Boyd et al., 2007:1). allowed us to depersonalise our feelings. Our Research by Boyd et al. (2007) on journeys discussions provided the space to explore into Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) has our interpretations of institutional workings indicated that whilst the shift from teaching by comparing experiences. We discovered in schools or a Local Authority context to shared events which could shed light on our Higher Education may appear small and understandings as Geertz suggests: professional skills transferable, there are moments of high stress and challenge. To form accounts of change in my According to this research, these relate to profession, my world, myself, calls not uncertainty about the role, new ways of for the plotted narrative, reminiscence or working with adult learners and an structural progression. It calls for uncertainty about developing an academic showing how particular events and base. unique occasions, an encounter here, a development there, can be woven Our reasons for embarking on our theoretical together with a variety of facts and a study and engaging in this reflective process battery of interpretations to produce a were both personal and professional. We sense of how things go, have been going had both transferred our professional and are likely to go. (Geertz, 1996 in expertise from working in Local Authorities to Kearney 2003).
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We recognised that there was no set way to Academic Practice in Higher Education transfer our skills and knowledge as we had (PGCAPHE), transcripts from interviews with different work styles; our growing ease with ITE researchers and self documented critical the new situation came from varying and incidents. Giddens (1991 in Kearney, 2006) often unlikely events or ‘unique occasions’. observes that the construction of identity is increasingly a ‘self reflective project’ though The highs and lows of transition would having a colleague mirror our experience of continue for some time as new challenges the process was extremely constructive to confronted us and we became more familiar developing understanding and ultimately with the barriers we were dealing with. We lead to what we termed ‘recovery’. Whilst we kept diary style notes of events and recognise the limitations of using self experiences to map and analyse our reported histories to report our selection of transition experiences. One such event memories, we hope that our shared occurred whilst reading the ESCalate experiences may be used to support the ‘Guidelines for Induction’ booklet (Boyd et commitment to and enhancement of al., 2007) on the train journey to a conference professional development for new staff for New Teacher Educators. I noted at the experiencing difficulty in transition. time that reading the guidelines ‘made me feel better as lots of the experiences appear We demonstrated our personal journey to be shared within the field’ and wondered, visually as the process of deconstructing and ‘Is this institution specific or part of the reconstructing our professional identities process of change from one organisational within the first six months of taking up our structure to another?’ (Carmen Mohammed new posts. We designed a visual map (CM), month 5). On the return journey, originally to create a poster for presentation, discussion of our experiences at the though we discovered that the visual conference and our prior learning representation enabled us to clearly see the experiences stimulated interest in engaging pattern of change follow the parallel path of in a self study to begin our own research our journeys during transition. We used careers. ‘Magic Moments’ to signify times when we felt that opportunities strengthened or Method affirmed our feeling of being accepted and Using the ESCalate Induction Model (Boyd et ‘Pit Stops’ to signify the times when things al., 2007) for newly appointed lecturers in went wrong or relationships were strained, Initial Teacher Education (ITE), we reflected when we felt held back by others or on our own scholarship and research. We ourselves. considered the professional activities of teaching and supporting learning using We engaged heavily in creative professional qualitative data from professional reflections dialogue and set time aside for specific written for the Postgraduate Certificate in reading which helped us to use the theories
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and experiences to consider what each was career transition. So far the literature we had saying. In turn, this helped us redirect read informed us that it was quite natural to thinking or help one another to make firmer struggle with identity after a major change decisions about how we adapted to and and those events, situations and accepted the role. interpretation could affect the experience. Other literature suggested that there was a Professional identity and transition timeline to the experience of transition. For the purpose of this study, we have not Plotting our own experiences along a focused on our personal identities or aspects timeline (Figure 1) in relation to the literature of our social identity, instead we have we found that we could identify our place on focused on professional identity, an identity the journey and compare our experiences to that lies within the framework of becoming a those suggested by Williams: ‘teacher educator’. Even though there have been many studies on self and identity, we Transitions often reach a crisis about 6 feel that our professional identity is not months after change. Sometimes a new defined. This is reflected by Korthagen event or ‘defining moment’ may trigger (2004:82) who suggests that ‘we can find no recovery from extended crisis. This clear definition of the concept of teachers’ cathartic release could be a key area for professional identity’; identity is dependent research. (Williams 1999) on a person’s feelings about a job and how this allows them to be part of a profession. Our shared timeline (Figure 1) was plotted to Using the literature of identity we have take in the first six months of our journey in adapted the concept of ‘defining moments’ order to present the findings on a poster at a (Williams, 1999) as the pertinent literature for conference. However, it was noticeable that our study. These are phrases or statements the crisis for both of us was easing and more that we read or heard during our journey manageable by this stage, there were more which have made us think, changed our ‘magic moments’ than ‘pit stops’ by this perspective or helped us to understand our time. Figure 1: Phases and features of the Transition Cycle, adapted from Hopson by Williams 1999
206 The process of changing identity: Pit Stops and Magic Moments of New Teacher Educators
Findings ‘I am finding it difficult to adjust to the Our findings are set within the research of different pace, lack of clarity, lack of Boyd et al. (2007:7), using the three priorities; sharing and the different thoughts on survival, shifting the lens and laying the team work’ (CM month 3). foundations for research. ‘I had thought that I would be joining a Survival team but am very isolated. No-one works Coping with stress and change have in teams there is no creative dialogue always been key issues for human and even my room is up in the gods with survival’ (Williams, 1999). no possibility of passing conversation’ (CM month 3). Stress caused by the change was displayed in how we experienced the differences Later the challenges were expressed as between organisational structure and being more about the systems and structure systems. We were left feeling confused and of the organisation: frustrated that we could not work out how the institution functioned. Feelings of ‘It is not just who you are but how it incompetence created negative tension due works in the system’ (EM month 4). to the high level of previous professional competence. Notes from our transcripts were ‘The challenges are that there isn’t a used to display the context of ‘pit stops’ and model framework, induction, timelines, ‘magic moments’ on the timeline to determine guidelines, targets, and ways of working whether we could identify similar patterns in set up to put you into the other role. our experience of transition. We hoped that There isn’t a hierarchy, there isn’t a sharing these experiences would ease the structure to guide you through’ crisis of transition for ourselves and other (EM month 4). colleagues. We noted that the challenges (pit stops) recorded in the first couple of months ‘I think the biggest learning curve for me included: working with a new team; learning was that I had to do all my own admin. I about the way people work together; and just was very frustrated by the amount of trying to infiltrate a team of people who have time everything was taking me to do, I worked together for a long time as well as felt, I suppose, incompetent, I felt that I shifting our expectations of the role. These should have been getting much more were expressed in the following quotations done than I was’ (CM month 3). from transcripts: However, there were many occasions and ‘Spending time meeting people to gather events recorded which expressed the purpose and expectations of my new adjustment as a more positive experience - role, finding it very difficult as there are the defining moments that ease the crisis - no job descriptions or expectations laid these were mapped on the timeline as down for roles’ (CM month 1). ‘magic moments’:
‘I feel inadequate, I feel scared, and I feel ‘Spending time with the previous post overwhelmed. Being observed by holder provided helpful opportunities in mentor has stressed me out, for years I learning how to interpret the forms and have been admired and now it is back to to be given information about the history being on probation, it feels horrible’ (EB of the department. The stories were (Elaine Batchelor) month 2). good to hear because they made the place seem human’ (EB month 1).
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‘First week of students in university. It experiences. We were learning and teaching has been fun, challenging and well about coping with change and at the same organised. It was just like teaching’ time relating our findings to the theoretical (EB month 1). frameworks available. This provided an engagement in dialogue about identity ‘Beginning to work out who to talk to change and transition at a crucial time for our about what, so am beginning to get reconstruction and recovery. Reflecting on things done. Feel more in control’ expectations and focusing the purpose of (CM month 3). professional transition helped to uncover what the institution has to offer. We found ‘Getting an office, space I could adopt as that being in control of your own journey is as my own, Made my own door label I can important to recovery as support and finally say I belong here’ (CM month 2). guidance. Expecting structural progression and a defined way of immersing yourself into Through professional dialogue we used the new role would create a barrier to the research literature to understand our shifting reconstruction of professional identity; we professional identity. The transcripts from discovered that it was far better to get a diaries, interviews and critical incidents sense of the institutional systems and find a showed us that sometimes it was small way to develop a personal style of personal details which made all the professional working. Our diaries recorded difference to the depth of transition crisis; for how we uncovered this way of thinking: example, taking time to organise the furniture in your room and finding the staffroom are ‘People would be encouraging and very important parts of feeling a sense of discouraging at the same time. It has belonging which enabled recovery. taken time to sit back and listen to each person and understand where they are Shifting the lens coming from so that I can put their As Local Authority Consultants we had advice into context and not take each already transferred our professional teaching conversation at face value’ skills to working with adults rather than (CM month 5). children and therefore we had no expectation of any serious concerns in this ‘Some people will say your main focus is aspect of our new role, however, two issues teaching and learning, don’t do anything have arisen. Firstly, the need to offer the else, get hold of PGCE, and equally adult students support that verges on someone shouting at you, the main personal counselling rather than teaching; purpose is to do research, learn this this is significant in how the student teachers because you won’t get promotion, you use our experiences within theoretical won’t get recognised’ (EM month 4). frameworks to analyse their own behaviours. Secondly, the necessity for us to acquire an ‘When starting a new career in a new academic profile has influenced our support institution it is important to accept for those adults who have not written for everything, learn to make yourself many years and offered theoretical models of invisible. Trying to drive change and the pedagogical demands of working with develop practice is not acceptable’ adult learners. (CM month 5).
Our focus on how we were experiencing the Transferring professional skills and transition was heightened by the fact that our knowledge to a new institution requires you students were undergoing similar to accept everything until you understand the
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dynamics of the organisation, however, as ‘Comments received on my first challenging professionals we found that assignment – really useful but also difficult; we were used to trying to drive makes me feel embarrassed. I have to change and develop practice. We had to deal with this face to face and internally – learn to make ourselves invisible, not to not helping with self esteem’ challenge or offer alternatives until we fully (EB month 3). understood the systems and structures and were accepted as having something valuable ‘Feedback on my first assignment from to offer. Because we did not understand the tutor – I am making progress. I am now social or professional context, we found part of a group making a bid to ERSC on ourselves in a professional identity crisis, and communities of practice. I feel good with because other colleagues understood the this topic’ (EB month 4). context, they found it difficult to support our confusion. In addition we found ourselves in ‘I keep finding out other expectations the position that continued employment from the University which are not required an academic profile and quickly. automatically apparent such as presenting papers at conferences and Laying the foundations for scholarship publishing in journals as well as and research activities registering for a PhD and completing a According to Boyd et al. (2007:2) research is professional teaching certificate’ often the hardest part of the journey for new (CM month 3). teacher educators as it is generally the newest element of work and also the main Where the colleague to whom we had to reason for the transfer to HE: ‘It can be very expose our insecurities was professionally hard to understand how people relate to supportive, we found the experience each other within a research context or what enabling and positive. However, if we felt their expectations of new staff members are. vulnerable about exposing our incompetence This is a struggle due to difficulties in in this area, we could spiral back into crisis. organising internal registration on courses, Being surrounded by colleagues who were being taught by colleagues in a public forum willing us to develop into the profession, and and learning how to write academically who supported our learning, was crucial to enough for peer review’. Being a member of our recovery. Having chosen to focus on the staff and, at the same time, a student in the structure offered by Boyd et al. which shared same establishment can be very challenging three priorities for the first year of transition for the new member of staff; the voices of (as discussed above) we identified a fourth particular colleagues are very influential in one, describing this as ‘feeling a sense of creating the emotionally supportive belonging’. Many people gain a sense of atmosphere to lay the foundations of positive self esteem from their identity group becoming a researcher. Gergen (1989 in which furthers a sense of community and Kearney, 2006) poses the theory that whose belonging: voice prevails in a sea of alternatives may be critical to the fate of the person. This was ‘It is important to know how to use the certainly the experience shared in our diaries photocopier and how the department fits from both positive and negative points of into the university structure and it is view: essential to write academically and teach the students well but identities can be damaged because of a feeling of not belonging’ (EB month 6).
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Padilla (1980 in Kearney, 2006:37) found that We were able to identify with Kanter’s acculturation into a new institution requires suggestion that: ‘reaching some form of equilibrium after contact, conflict and adaptation’. Mapping Change is disturbing when it is done to our highs and lows on a timeline and us, exhilarating when it is done by us. It considering how they related to research in is considered positive when we are this field enabled us to recognise when we active contributors to bringing about were finally acclimatising to the new something that we desire. (Kanter, institution. 1983:64)
Conclusion Being a highly competent professional does This study has been essential to our not provide a safety net when you are professional well being; we both shifting the focus of your identity. Having a strengthened our resolve each time we met, supportive professional network is what took time to remind ourselves of our provided us with the emotional confidence professional credibility, and remembered for transformation. Credibility with student why we made the transition. We spent time teachers is based on school and classroom discussing what we hoped to get out of the expertise not academic credibility though work we were doing and what our ultimate they need to believe that you have enough aim was in taking on this new role. We spent relevant recent knowledge of research in the time encouraging each other to engage in field to support their academic work. reading around the subject in order to become familiar with the theories which We believe that this study has a number of generated ‘defining moments’. We realised implications for the induction of staff new to that our crisis of confidence was directly university careers: related to our professional identity as 1. There should be an induction process academics and to the process of transition which includes training in transition as neither of us is new to teacher education theory or a similar framework which nor new to teaching. We came to understand would be enable newcomers to lay the that Teacher Educators do not necessarily foundations for their changing have a shared professional identity and professional identities rather than therefore it has been difficult to find a shared assuming prior professional competence language or look for someone to identify will ensure smooth transition. This will with. prevent newcomers from expecting an enabling process of change as we did: The experience of analysing our feelings within theoretical frameworks allowed us to ‘I have realised that there is no such come to terms with them professionally; the thing as induction; whenever I ask feelings could be depersonalised. This how anything gets done, what the happened for us at the same time even systems are I am met with the though the length of time in post was almost response: “When you find out, please a year different which led us to believe that tell me!”’ (CM month 2) the process was important to the success of the transition. We were in control of how we 2. The mentor system should consider were experiencing the transition and began who is best placed to support a to understand that the events and situations newcomer, recognising that unofficial we noted in our diaries were not the cause of mentors can provide coping strategies our frustrations but a symptom of for the ‘survival’ phase. Often the mentor reconstructing our professional identities. is selected for their own professional
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development rather than the person who References is best placed to help the newcomer Boyd, P., Harris. K., Murray. J. (2007) acclimatise, the person next door or a Becoming a Teacher Educator: Guidelines more recent NTE might be better placed. for the induction of newly appointed lecturers in Initial Teacher Education, ESCalate ‘I had hoped to join the team for publications, www.escalate.ac.uk/3662 coffee at break time. Have asked (accessed 27.10.08.) several people what time they stop for coffee but am given a vague there Kearney, J. (2006) The Monkey’s Mask; isn’t a particular time, my room is identity, memory, narrative and voice, even up in the gods with no possibility (Stoke-on-Trent, Trentham Books) of passing conversation’ (CM month 2). Korthagen, F. A. J. (2004) In search of the essence of a good teacher: towards a more In the very short time I (CM) have worked in holistic approach in teacher education, HE two new colleagues have left because Teaching and Teacher Education, Vol.20, they were unable to make the transition No.1, pp. 77 -97. successfully. For teacher education Kanter, M. (1983) The Change Masters institutions to attract and keep highly (Australia, Allen and Unwin). competent professionals from other institutions it will be crucial for them to Williams. D. (1999), Life Events and career develop effective transition processes. change: transition psychology in practice, Williams (1999) suggests: ‘Some of the paper presented to BPS Conference) positive outcomes from enabling transition www.eoslifework.co.uk (accessed 10.04.08.) are high group morale and synergy, organisational transformation, high innovation, “rejuvenated” staff’. This is surely what learning institutions should be.
Biographies Carmen Mohamed is a lecturer on the Primary PGCE at the University of Leicester. She is currently embarking on a PhD researching transition identity with PGCE students.
Elaine Batchelor is currently the Vice Principal of a large Secondary school in Leicester co-ordinating Science Networks for the area.
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24. An Olympic ITE Curriculum: how to become part of the legacy Background Paper and Outcomes of a Round Table Discussion
Neil Herrington: University of East London
Summary This paper gives some of the background that was used to introduce the roundtable discussion which explored how the 2012 Games may impact on, or be incorporated into the ITE curriculum. This background draws upon a research project considering the educational legacy of mega- events, especially in relation to area regeneration. Particular attention is given to the Manchester Commonwealth Games of 2002. Subsequent discussion included: • How any initiative might equip and inspire trainees to be agents for change. • The development of creativity through flexible interaction with content • The localisation of response – how to engage with the international and national at the regional level • Impact on the range and nature of partnerships
Keywords Social Capital / partnership / Olympics / Megaevents / regeneration
Introduction economic justification tends to be so …increasingly, sports events are part of compelling that other impacts have a a broader strategy aimed at raising the tendency to be diminished, with qualitative profile of a city ... Often the attraction of aspects being given less prominence. It is events is linked to a re-imaging process also the case that the ‘legacy’ only considers and in the case of many cities, is the two years after the Games. There is also invariably linked to strategies of urban the problematic nature of the term legacy - regeneration and tourism development. rarely defined and existing in Olympic (Gratton, Shibli et al., 2006:44) discourse as being a worthwhile and self- evident given. However, it is clear that legacy Jacques Rogge, President of the doesn’t flow automatically nor is it International Olympic Committee (IOC), is necessarily self-evident. There is also a clear that the Olympic Games should potential for negative legacy, for example produce a sustainable legacy that is of long securing Olympic funding by delaying capital term benefit to the community of the host funding on non-Olympic budgets. Hall city and country. However, nobody really (2004) feels that: knows if these events generate a net community benefit, although an attempt, by investment in accessible and affordable Preuss (2004), to rank beneficiaries puts the education, health and communications local community into fifth place. Rarely, if at technology, along with a diversified job all, do the organisers of major sporting creation strategy is far more likely to events/festivals review the net community have long term benefits for urban benefit of the event. For sure, the IOC economic and social well being than conduct a global impact study which utilises investment in elite mega sports events 150 indicators grouped into 3 dimensions: and infrastructure. (p68) environmental, social and economic, but the
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But to some extent this neglects the catalytic The scale of the London legacy plan is one of nature of the event, and the opportunity it the largest ever and has sustainability as a affords for ‘re-imagineering’ at all levels of cross cutting theme. London has high society. The Olympic Movement itself is ambitions to carry on the development of the constantly reinventing itself even if, given Games and their legacy, giving, for example, that the Olympic Games have a big place in careful consideration to what do you do with collective consciousness, it is sometimes venues when the Games have gone. Dubi difficult to realise that they did not emerge as sees this evolution as being vital if the a fully defined entity when they first arrived in Games are to remain a prime event which Athens in 1896. Indeed, in their first few has meaning across generations. iterations the Games were part of other festivals. For example, the Paris Games of The Manchester Case 1900 were held as part of the Exposition Having successfully bid for the games in Universelle Internationale. The exposition 1995, the 17th Commonwealth Games were organisers spread the events over five hosted by the City of Manchester, from July months and de-emphasised their Olympic 25th to August 4th. 2002. In the early 1990s, status to such an extent that many athletes there was recognition by Manchester City died without ever knowing that they had Council and its partners that a mega-event participated in the Olympics. such as hosting the Olympics could offer a mechanism for promoting the regeneration of In some respects the Olympics and other East Manchester and also generate wider sporting megaevents are extensions of the investment opportunities. The stated prime once popular World Fairs which were not just focus of Manchester City Council was to about selling goods but about ‘selling ideas: attract a major sporting event to the city ideas about the relations between nations, which would act as a vehicle to bring the spread of education, the advancement of substantial investment into East Manchester. science, the form of cities, the nature of domestic life, the place of art in society’ As such, East Manchester, one of the most (Benedict,1983:2). What we need to decide is deprived areas in England, had been chosen what ideas do we want to ‘sell’ through an as the area where ‘Sportcity’ would be built engagement with megaevents? And what in the early 1990s. East Manchester was, types of engagement will allow the broader historically, characterised by expanding and notions of legacy to flow? prosperous light and heavy engineering industry. In the early 1970s, East Manchester At the 2007 Pierre De Coubertin lecture held supported 34,000 jobs, two thirds of which at the RSA in London, Christophe Dubi, the were in engineering, textiles and coal-mining. Deputy Executive Director of the Industrial decline began to set in from the International Olympic Committee talked of late 1960s, when a number of major the evolution that he can discern in the employers closed their works, By the mid- nature of the games; an evolution that has 1980s, 20,000 jobs had disappeared; seen a shift from personal inspiration to the unemployment rose, and firm closures Games being used to influence the image of created large tracts of vacant and under- city and country and then onto a position used buildings and land. The economic where it is used to drive a deep decline of the area led to severe social as transformation of shape and function in the well as economic problems. urban fabric. In terms of the London Games Being seen as typical of many inner city Dubi talked about the integration of areas in the north of England - a declining sustainable development into the equation of economic base, high unemployment, low change as being at the heart of the event. educational attainment, high crime rates, and
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a poor quality environment – in 1992, the contribution to the social and East Manchester Regeneration Strategy was economic well-being of their produced based on three factors, one of community’ (East Manchester EAZ which was the provision of sports and leisure Action Plan). facilities of international importance at the • East Manchester Sports Action Zone Eastlands site in East Manchester. A sports- (SAZ) - funded by Sport England led regeneration strategy began to evolve through the National Lottery for five from this period onwards. This is in line with years commencing in September, Marivoet (2006) who states that ‘[a]s 2000. globalisation intensifies, sport is increasingly being used as a vehicle for the affirmation of A key task for New East Manchester Ltd has territorial or cultural identities on regional, been to co-ordinate the many funded and national and continental scales’. (p127) Since unfunded initiatives operating across all or 1999 East Manchester has been awarded a part of East Manchester. number of comprehensive regeneration initiatives: The evaluation report on the 2002 Commonwealth Games produced by Ecotec • Beacons for a Brighter Future - There (2004) states that a key motivation for are seven programme areas within the hosting the Games was the event’s ability to ‘Beacons for a Brighter Future’ stimulate sustainable regeneration. A central project: Crime, Education, Health, plank for securing these legacies came in the Worklessness, Physical environment, form of the 2002 Economic and Social Local Services, and Community Programme for the North West. This aimed capacity and cohesion. The ‘Beacons to ensure that disadvantaged communities for a Brighter Future’ Partnership throughout the North West would benefit provides strategic direction and aims from Manchester hosting the event. to ensure complementarity between the New Deal for Communities and The stated aims of the Games Legacy the Single Regeneration Budget Programme were: initiatives and other regeneration initiatives operating in the area; • to improve skills, educational • New East Manchester (NEM) Ltd - attainment and personal launched in October 1999, and development; formally incorporated as a Company • to develop skills and improve limited by guarantee in February cohesion through participation in 2000. NEM was the second pilot events and health improvement Urban Regeneration Company (URC) projects; to be established in England. • and to improve the competitiveness • East Manchester Education Action of Small and Medium Enterprises. Zone (EAZ) - Beginning in December 1999, the EAZ incorporates 17 The reports on aspects of the Manchester schools and 6,500 pupils in East legacy point out that school attendance rates Manchester. Its stated aim was to increased at both primary (by 2 percentage ‘ensure that all children, young points) and secondary (4.4 percentage people, and adults in East points) levels. Furthermore, a higher Manchester realise their educational proportion of Year 11 leavers were seen to potential, and are equipped with the progress into higher and further education confidence, qualifications, and skills, (an increase of 17.5 percentage points). It is to enable them to make a positive also reported that resident satisfaction with
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the quality of local schools increased to the Games throws the spotlight on it in terms 76.5%. Some workers felt that opportunities of social trends in labour markets, housing, were missed in terms of building a more transport and public life. The 2012 Games concrete legacy able to operate after the are seen as being one of the key funding allocated tailed off. regeneration catalysts for an urban landscape that is fragmented and The 2012 Games, Social Space and Social constrained by busy roads and train lines, Capital but with large amounts of space and water in It can be seen that, in Manchester’s case, the the Lower Lea Valley. The event facilities will Commonwealth Games was used as a be situated within this area, which it is planning tool. Drawing upon the stories from envisaged will be an open environment and other cities Muñoz (2006) claims that will engage local communities. The ‘Olympic urbanism has even transformed the landscape architect, Jason Prior, states that: urban profile of a city, having a strong impact on the post-Olympic evolution of the whole Existing conditions on both sides of the urban space through the intensive Lea Valley reflect a geography of production of public spaces that are in fact separation – the city has flown across its used by different urban populations from all space. When talking to the boroughs and over the city…’(p181-182). This impact on the community groups, it became urban planning and policy is globally obvious that we should be growing important as at the start of the 21st Century inwards from the edges, not creating the majority of the human population is new communities in the middle. The urbanised, with economic growth being project should be about repairing the rift driven by investment in infrastructure, in the city fabric and promoting the renovation and real estate. This is altering the greater integration of community with physical and social landscape of cities. what we can bring forward as an Policy has to struggle with the inherent improved environment. So what we are tension within urban development – the doing is extending existing frameworks complex issues around the size, shape, and networks into the valley, whatever distribution and density of the city, along we put in the valley centre will be with the impact on social inclusion and the something that is accessible to a much quality of life. broader group of people. (Prior, 2007)
It is vital that we understand how urban living But as Sun (1999) puts it in a different affects people and the environment. It is context, ‘[w]hether these collectively owned equally important that we use this resources can be successfully utilized for understanding to develop an education that educational purposes largely depends on the allows a proper engagement with the urban. strengths of social ties among community We might even pose the question ‘can members, and therefore, requires collective education be planned for within investment in such social relationships’ regeneration?’ (p405). Studying megaevents, such as the Olympics, offers us a lens through which to explore A suitable framework for exploring this is to such issues. This is a particularly powerful be found within the literature on social lens in terms of the 2012 Games as it is capital. There is scope for exploring the occurring in London, a global megacity with extent to which the megaevent with its the challenges and opportunities that this associated symbols has the ability to poses. London’s economic and generate social capital. demographic boom allied to the presence of
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Social capital has at its core the idea that community-based activities’ (p422). This is in social networks have value, providing a set accord with Halpern (2005) who cites of resources that can be drawn down from evidence that social capital at the micro-, the relationships that exist within the social meso- and macro- levels has significant organisation of the community. In doing this impact on educational outcomes. For it allows consideration of the links between example, at the microlevel, higher levels of the micro-level of individual experiences, the child-parent contact generally lead to higher meso-level of institutions, association and educational aspirations and attainments. At community and the macro-level of national the meso-level, some school types appear to and international policy makers. perform significantly better than others with stronger parent-school relationships and Consideration of social capital resonates parent-parent relationships appearing to through the work of Bourdieu, Coleman and explain the effect. There is some evidence Putnam. All of these authors view social that social capital within the school – that is networks as being relational and lending teacher-teacher relationships - may also be themselves to being explored through the important in explaining differences between metaphor of capital. Thus ‘[s]ocial capital is a schools: form of power, a currency, a resource: it can be utilised, traded, exchanged, drawn upon, many so-called school effects are really invested or cashed in…social capital is a community effects. High concentrations purposeful means toward other ends’ of low social capital families in an area (McGonigal, Doherty et al. (2007:80).This amplify disadvantage. The low average base metaphor of capital has been social capital of a community adds to the differentiated into 3 forms of social capital, child’s educational disadvantage namely: creating a ‘double jeopardy’ effect. (Sun, 1999:168) • Bonding social capital which denotes ties between like people in similar An issue that will be explored in the second situations- immediate family, close phase of this project is the extent to which friends and neighbours; the area is perceived to be impoverished by • Bridging social capital, which the professionals working in the area – do encompasses more distant ties of like they see education as a way out and how persons, such as loose friendships does this aspiration affect the life of the and workmates; area? McGonigal et al. (2007) point out that • Linking social capital which reaches social capital ‘will be encountered and made out to unlike people in dissimilar active by schools and by pupils in multiple situations, such as those entirely and multiply related ways’. Whilst it is clear outside of the community, thus that not all of these ‘networks’ will lead to enabling members to leverage a far validated educational outcomes, it is wider range of resources than are important to realise that social capital is also available within the community. of value in the evolution of a secure self- identity. Thus: Sun’s work (1999) clearly indicates that ‘educational disadvantages of living in [s]chools offer each child contact with communities with a high concentration of additional human capital in the persons large, and particularly, non-traditional of an intelligent and generally caring families would be reduced by a small but staff. This leads through curriculum and statistically significant extent if members of classroom interaction to the the community could actively engage in accumulation of cultural capital in the
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form of academic qualifications and also [T]he impact of differential school insight or entry into a range of intellectual reputations seems not to have been to and social activities, including sports and reduce the overall desirability of the other interests, which allow a young areas, but to encourage families to person to profit at a deeper level from choose schools other than their most the culture into which he or she is being local one and hence to loosen the ties inducted, through an increasingly between particular schools and confident ability to read its semiotic particular localities. (Crowther et al. codes and social norms. 2003:23) McGonigal et al. (2007:86). Even if this were not the case, the national But the links extend beyond the school, educational policy context which focuses forming a nexus of home, school and heavily on ‘standards’ of pupil attainment community that is configured and nuanced tends to override the desire for schools to by the range of individuals within each of engage with their communities. A study these. Sun (1999) speculates: carried out by the Joseph Rowntree Foundation (Crowther et al., 2003) saw that community based social capital some eclectic if not incoherent practice from includes a process and a structural which the authors identified 3 basic models component. … the process component of school contribution: refers to intentional interpersonal interactions among community members • the community resourcing model in and social ties built through such which schools seek to make their interactions… [t]he structural component facilities, networks and expertise refers to certain community available to otherwise resource poor characteristics which either facilitate or communities; block interpersonal interactions among • the individual transformation model in community members. (p407) which schools focus exclusively on improving the life chances of This is somewhat problematic because individual young people by raising Sun’s definition of community as being their attainment; ‘residential neighbourhoods in which • the contextual transformation model children go to the same public school’ does in which schools likewise seek to raise not reflect the London situation. Within attainment, but feel that they can only London, the engagement of schools with do so by involving families and the communities is made more difficult because community and that they must the size and fragmentation of the education develop a wider range of attributes in system, allied to a good transport their pupils. Schools were engaged in infrastructure enables a choice of schools for community oriented activities and those families who possess the cultural, could have considerable impact on social and economic capital to negotiate individual pupils. However, there was these complexities. Thus, in London 99.6% no evidence that schools were able to of secondary school pupils have 3 schools have large scale impacts on the within 5km (which compares to a figure of communities as a whole nor that they 78% in the rest of the country) and pupils are were able to bring about therefore less likely to go to their nearest transformations of the life chances of one, in fact only 25% do so (Burgess et al., large groups of young people. 2005).
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Sun (1999) feels that more opportunities catalyst for this providing a sharp focus, but ‘should be provided for community members once the Games have gone the links and to engage in community wide interactions. developments remain’. Another colleague Policy-makers and community leaders saw the potential for 2012 to act as a vehicle should be reminded that in addition to other to explore issues around the Every Child possible benefits to the community, tight Matters (ECM) agenda, to see how far this interpersonal relationships also help the can this be integrated within ITT curricular. community achieve its educational goal’ The potential of any work in this area to (p424). The development of social networks explore cross-curricular aspects was with the local community may be facilitated recognised by all participants. through engagement with the 2012 Games Whilst the opportunity to engage does not Across all of the discussion the theme was equate with engagement, the potential for that any engagement with the Games must high profile events to lever engagement, produce a lasting benefit. It was recognised allied to ‘an explicit attention to the that some of this legacy would be delivered mechanisms of trust and reciprocity within through the social capital generated whilst pedagogy could enhance young people’s working on 2012 focused projects. It is likely understanding of the need for such that the impact on partnership will be a key engagement, as might school-based indicator of success. What aspects of developments towards the active used of partnership will be strengthened? What new social capital by disadvantaged youngsters’ partnerships will be formed? What (McGonigal et al. 2007:83). mechanisms need to be in place to develop these partnerships? It was felt that groupings These levers of engagement might include that may be motivated to form because of the symbols associated with the Games. It the high profile nature of the Games might was certainly the perception of those have a lifespan beyond 2012 and extend the involved in the Manchester Commonwealth networks clustered around individual Games that they were ‘a great hook and providers. However, in order for the initial pulled people into activities that they would enthusiasm to be built upon it is necessary not normally be involved in’. that there are meaningful outputs. Some thought will need to be given to the nature of Conclusion the engagement expected from school There was clear support for grasping the based trainers. At the simplest level material opportunity afforded by 2012 amongst the may be produced that could be utilised round table discussion group at the ESCalate within General Professional Studies sessions conference. Individual colleagues were able within the school. At a slightly more to see ways in which engagement with the ambitious level there was support for the Games could be accommodated within the idea of teams of trainees planning events for current structure of their provision, for individual schools, this will be even more example work can be slotted into existing powerful if the pupil voice is built in. This assessment structure. would be legitimate work for the trainee, form part of their assessment, produce a real It was also clear that colleagues would be benefit for the school and pupils and be a keen to use this opportunity to act as a model of working that could operate post catalyst to developments that would in all 2012 for other events. Hence, the group probability occur anyway. One such was in discussed materials and how these might be the area of ways of working with ‘alternative’ produced and integrated as well as placements – working with others who work developing models of ways of working. In with young people: ‘The Olympics can be a both cases it was recognised that there
218 An Olympic ITE Curriculum: how to become part of the legacy Background Paper and Outcomes of a Round Table Discussion
needs to be a forum to share ideas. The idea Biography of some web based solution to this was Neil Herrington is a principal lecturer in the discussed and broadly welcomed. Cass School of Education at the University of Colleagues were well aware of the Teacher East London, and a member of the London Training Resource Bank (ttrb) and used this East Research Institute. He is interested in regularly. If this is a method that is adopted the interaction between education and for the aggregation of material and models regeneration. then there will be a need to develop a framework for the material that goes into the References site. Decisions will need to be taken as to Benedict, B. (ed 1983) The Anthropology of whether this will be a general clearing house World Fairs (London, Scolar Press). for all of the material that is generated in response to the Olympic agenda or will there Burgess, S., McConnell, B., Propper, C. and be particular focus. Wilson, D. (2005) The impact of school choice on sorting by ability and The nature of the engagement in terms of socioeconomic factors in English secondary curriculum development was discussed. It education, Schools and the Equal was felt that any work done in this area Opportunity Problem, L. Woessmann and P. should be about raising awareness and Peterson (eds), The MIT Press, Cambridge raising standards, a clear demonstration that Massachusetts, pp.273-292. benefit would accrue from the development. Some key areas were identified, a number of Crowther, D. Cummings, C., Dyson, A. and which recognise and ‘plug into’ school Millward, A. (2003) Schools and Area initiatives, and this included post 16 Regeneration, Joseph Rowntree Foundation. vocational curriculum development. There was a clear understanding that in many Ecotec (2004) An Evaluation of the cases the Games would be used to give an Commonwealth Games Legacy Programme. up to date context for ‘standard’ activities, but there was a desire to develop ways of Gratton, C., Shibli, S. et al. (2006) The working that addressed issues of community Economic Impact of major Sports Events, A education and cultural fragmentation. This, Review of Ten Events in the UK, Sports alongside a recognition that changes in the Mega-Events: Social. Scientific Analyses of a nature of schooling, would impact on Global Phenomenon, J. Horne and W. patterns of ITT placements and models need Manzenreiter, Blackwell: p41-58 to be developed that prepare the trainee to work in different ways as schools adopt Hall 2004 Sports Tourism and Urban different ways of working –for example Regeneration in B Ritchie and D Adair (eds) suspending KS3. It may be that thematic Sports Tourism Interrelationship, Impacts work around the content area of the Games and Issues Clevedon Channel View Pubs. might catalyse the thinking here. Overall, any initiative must improve the quality of Halpern, D. (2005) Social Capital provision, by equipping and inspiring (Cambridge, Polity) trainees to be agents for change. Giving them the confidence to use the curriculum Horne, J. and Manzenreiter, W. (2006) An rather than just follow it – spotting the Introduction to the Sociology of Sports flexibilities and being creative. Being concept Mega-events, Sports Mega-Events: Social rather than content driven. Scientific Analyses of a Global Phenomenon J. Horne and W. Manzenreiter (Oxford, Blackwell).
219 Innovations and Development in Initial Teacher Education
Marivoet, S. (2006) UEFA Euro 2004 Preuss, H. (2004) The Economics of Staging Portugal: the social construction of a sports the Olympics: a Comparison of the Games megaevent and spectacle. Sports Mega- 1972-2008, Cheltenham, Edward Elgar. Events: Social Scientific Analyses of a Global Phenomenon J. Horne and W. Manzenreiter, Sun, Y. (1999) The Contextual Effects of Blackwell: 127-143. Community Social Capital on Academic Performance, Social Science Research 28: McGonigal, J., Doherty, R. et al. (2007) Social 403-26. Capital, Social Inclusion and Changing School Contexts: A Scottish Perspective, British Journal of Educational Studies 55(1): 77-94.
Muñoz, F. (2006) Olympic Urbanism and Olympic Villages: Planning Strategies in Olympic Host Cities, London 1908-London 2012. Sports Mega-Events: Social Scientific Analyses of a Global Phenomenon. J. Horne and W. Manzenreiter, Blackwell: p175 -187.
220 Glossary of acronyms
Glossary of acronyms MFL Modern Foreign Languages AES Additional Educational Settings MTL Masters in Teaching and Learning AfL Assessment for Learning NCSL National College for School ASCL Association of School and College Leadership Leaders NCVQ National Council for Vocational ASP Active Server Pages Qualifications BA Bachelor of Arts NEM New East Manchester BECTA British Educational Communications NESS National Evaluation of Sure Start and Technology Agency NQT Newly Qualified Teacher BEd Bachelor of Education NSE Newport School of Education CAF Common Assessment Framework NTU Nottingham Trent University CCCI Centre for Cross-Curricular Ofsted Office for Standards in Education Initiatives P4C Philosophy for Children CE Continuing Education PBL Problem-Based Learning CEDP Career Entry Development Profiles PcET Post-Compulsory Education and CPD Continuing Professional Training Development PDP Personal development CWDC Children’s Workforce Development Planning/Profiling Council PE Physical Education DCFS Department for Children, Schools PG Postgraduate and Families PGCAPHE Postgraduate Certificate in DfES Department for Education and Skills Academic Practice in Higher EAL English as an Additional Language Education EAZ Education Action Zone PGCE Postgraduate Certificate in ECM Every Child Matters Education ECM/YM Every Child Matters/Youth Matters PLP Professional Learning Portfolio EIC Equality, Inclusion and Citizenship PS Philosophical Statement EPPE The Effective Provision of Preschool QAAHE Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education research project Education ESD Education for Sustainable QCA Qualifications and Curriculum Development Authority EYFS Early Years Foundation Stage QMP Question Mark Perception EYP Early Years Professionals QTS Qualified Teacher Status EYPS Early Years Professional Status REPEY The Researching Effective Pedagogy FM Flexible Modular in the Early Years project GC Global Citizenship RoPD Record of Professional Development GCSE General Certificate of Secondary RS/ASE Royal Society and Association for Education Science Education HEFCE Higher Education Funding Council SACRE Standing Advisory Council for for England Religious Education HEI Higher Education Institution SAZ Sport Action Zone ICLT Information, Communication and SED Self Evaluation Document Learning Technologies SEN Special Educational Needs ICT Information and Communication SENCO Special Educational Needs Technology Co-ordinator ILP Individual Learning Plan SPEEL The Study of Pedagogical IOC International Olympic Committee Effectiveness in Early Learning ITE Initial Teacher Education TDA Training and Development Agency ITT Initial Teacher Training for schools ITTE Information Technology in Teacher TQEF Teaching Quality Enhancement Fund Education TSL Technology-Supported Learning LA Local Authority TTA Teacher Training Agency Fund LLN Literacy, Language and Numeracy UWE University of the West of England M Masters VSO Voluntary Service Overseas MA Master of Arts WOLF Wolverhampton On-Line Framework
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© ESCalate February 2009 Permission is granted to copy and distribute this document in unaltered form only, for the purposes of teaching, research, private study, criticism and review, provided that the original author and publisher is acknowledged. Conference Proceedings Innovations and Developments in Initial Teacher Education ISBN 978-1-905788-94-1 February 2009
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