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This thesis is distributed under a CC ____________ license. ____________________________________________________ THE DISCOURSE OF CULTURAL LEADERSHIP Jonathan Francis Richard Price A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the Robert Gordon University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy This research was carried out in connection with the On The Edge research programme at Gray’s School of Art, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, UK Funded by the Innovation, Design and Sustainability Research Institute (IDEAS) February 2016 ii Abstract The discourse of cultural leadership Cultural leadership has been a key concept in cultural policy and training since 2002. Most closely associated with the UK’s Clore Leadership Programme, it has been developed through various courses and initiatives domestically and internationally, initially as a response to crises of financial management and governance within major cultural institutions. This emergence of cultural leadership coincided with growing political interest in the social benefits of the arts and the economic potential of the creative industries. However, the concept is rarely clearly defined or critically analysed, while the political and economic environment in which the cultural sector operates has been transformed since the term was coined. This research investigates the evolution of cultural leadership as a discursive formation in these contexts. It traces the short history of the term itself and situates it within longer trajectories of cultural policy. Through critical discourse analysis the research questions the relationship between ‘cultural leadership’ and ‘cultural leaders’, asking who creates the circumstances in which art is produced and culture shaped. Leadership itself is reconsidered theoretically as an aspect of political action. Detailed interviews with influential cultural sector professionals are analysed as an empirical complement to literature around cultural history, policy and artistic leadership. The analysis reconfigures cultural leadership as a dynamic process arising from relationships between creative practice and social, political and organisational development. Outlining the respective roles of government, the public and the sector, it proposes a framework for understanding leadership through the interplay of action and influence within and beyond the cultural workforce. Indicating that cultural leadership has a vital critical role to play in democratic society, the research argues for more effective engagement between sectoral leaders, including artists, and questions of policy and cultural value. Its findings are significant for the future study and development of cultural leadership nationally and internationally. Keywords: culture, leadership, cultural leadership, discourse, cultural policy, artists, art and society, democracy. iii To Ellie iv Acknowledgements Preparing a Ph.D. is far from the solitary journey that some might imagine it to be and, as anyone who’s tried it will tell you, it’s your family, friends and fellow travellers who make the whole thing possible. Sincere thanks are due: To my principal supervisor, Professor Anne Douglas, who has given so generously of her time, energy and intellect to this research. Without Anne’s previous work this opportunity would not have existed, so, on many levels, thank you. Also to my other supervisors Professor Paul Harris (years 1 and 2) and Dr Robert Halsall (year 3), whose different forms of expertise and shared enthusiasm for the research have been enormously helpful. To all my participating interviewees who gave freely of their valuable time and considerable insight. Also to Stephan Wynants of EACEA, who helped set up the interviews with Barbara and Arnaud, and special thanks to François Matarasso and Chris Fremantle, who made additional time for me at various points on the way. Chris’s role in the Artist as Leader research alongside Anne was foundational to this work. To the superb community of research students at Gray’s of which I have been fortunate to be a part. Drs Chu Chu Yuan, Helen Smith, Melehat Nil Gülari and Peter Buwert showed me the ropes while Caroline Gausden, Hilal Bugali and everyone from the DART and Reading Group sessions helped keep me going. Special thanks to Hilal for her expert work on the illustrations for this thesis and to Caroline, Lance and Guyatri for welcoming me into their home. To my parents, Peter and Jennifer Price, who have been there for me throughout with kind words, interest and encouragement. Above all, to my wife Elaine, whose strength, wisdom and patience I have no adequate words to describe, but to whom this thesis is dedicated with love. v vi Table of contents Abstract iii Acknowledgements v Table of contents vii List of figures xii List of appendices xii Chapter 1: Introduction to the research 1 1.1. Background to the research 1 1.2. Questions, scope and assumptions 4 1.2.1. Cultural leadership as discourse 4 1.2.2. A personal perspective 4 1.2.3. Questioning cultural leadership 5 1.3. Thesis chapter outlines 6 1.3.1. Chapter 2: Method and theory 6 1.3.2. Chapter 3: Literature review and analysis 7 1.3.3. Chapter 4: The experience of cultural leadership: interview analysis 9 1.3.4. Chapter 5: Spheres of cultural leadership 11 1.3.5. Chapter 6: Conclusions 12 1.4. A note on definitions: culture, art and creativity 14 Chapter 2: Method and theory 17 2.1. Overview 17 2.2. Theoretical framework: principles of analysis 17 2.2.1. Understanding cultural leadership as a discursive construction 17 vii 2.2.2. Discourse analysis as interpretive perspective 20 2.2.3. Arendt’s theory of action 22 2.3. Interviews and interviewees 25 2.4. Uses of literature 35 2.5. Events, discussions, networks 37 Chapter 3: Literature review and analysis 39 3.1 Role and typology of literature in the research 39 3.2 From arts administration to cultural leadership 40 3.3 The establishment of cultural leadership 42 3.4 Artists as Leaders 45 3.4.1. Culture means business 45 3.4.2. Scenarios of artistic leadership 46 3.4.3. International dimensions of cultural leadership 50 3.5 Deeper waters: the cultural policy context 52 3.5.1. The background to arts funding in Britain 52 3.5.2. Cultural industries and the creativity agenda 56 3.5.3. Values and identity in cultural policy and leadership 63 3.6 Theories and concepts of leadership 65 3.7 New stages for cultural leadership 68 viii Chapter 4: The experience of cultural leadership 73 Analysis of research interviews 4.1. Range and purpose of research interviews 73 4.2. The cultural uses of leadership 74 4.2.1. Conceptions of leadership 75 4.2.2. Definitions of cultural leadership 78 4.2.3. Self-image and leadership style 84 4.2.4. Relating to others: cultural leadership as Arendtian action 88 4.3. Inhabiting the concepts 92 4.3.1. Language, rhetoric and discourse 92 4.3.2. Creative and cultural industries 96 4.3.3. The meanings of resilience 101 4.4. Quality and value 104 4.4.1. From principle to process 104 4.4.2. Unfortunate complexity: other qualities of culture 107 4.4.3. A question of trust 112 4.5. Relating to policy 116 4.5.1. Politicians and political influence 116 4.5.2. Advocacy 119 4.5.3. Funding 122 4.5.4. The legacy of managerialism 127 4.6. International perspectives 128 4.6.1. Internationalism as competence 128 4.6.2. Changing international relations: the case of the British Council 129 4.6.3. Other methods 131 4.6.4. Pattern and perspective 132 4.7. Locating the artist 133 4.7.1. Acting in the world 134 ix 4.7.2. Beauty as politics 137 4.7.3. Aesthetics and identity: the Phoenix Dance story 139 4.8. Leading cultural organisations 140 4.8.1. Constructed vehicles: purposes & limits of cultural organisations 141 4.8.2. Structure and culture 142 4.8.3. Wilful organisations 144 4.9. The public sphere 146 4.9.1. The relational turn 147 4.9.2. Community and public benefit 149 4.10. Cultural leadership training 152 4.10.1. Change-making: The Clore Leadership Programme 153 4.10.2. Other voices 156 4.10.3. Further directions 158 Chapter 5: Spheres of cultural leadership 161 5.1. The critical practice of cultural leadership 161 5.1.1. Leadership and authority 162 5.1.2. Art and contingency 164 5.2. Culture, policy and the public 167 5.2.1. The foundation of trust 167 5.2.2. Three dynamics 174 5.3. A framework for cultural leadership 179 5.3.1. Spheres of action 180 5.3.2. Spheres of influence 183 5.4. Summary 185 x Chapter 6: Conclusions 187 6.1. Locating cultural leadership 187 6.1.1. Hybrid content, relational style 188 6.1.2. Culture and charisma 189 6.1.3. The place of the artist in cultural leadership 191 6.2. Policy, leadership and value 193 6.2.1. Policy and uncertainty 193 6.2.2. Translation and articulation 195 6.2.3.