Discovery and Innovation
Volume 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) March 2007 ISSN 1015-079X pp 181 — 276
The African Forest Research Network (AFORNET) A Special Edition on Ghana Workshop
Sponsored by African Forest Research Network (AFORNET) with Institutional support from: African Academy of Sciences (AAS) Academy of Sciences for the Developing World (TWAS)
Published by Academy Science Publishers(ASP) Discovery and Innovation
Volume 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) March 2007
Discovery and Innovation is a journal of the African Academy of Sciences (AAS) and the Academy of Sciences for the Developing World (formerly Third World Academy of Sciences (TWAS)) meant to focus attention on science and technology in Africa and the Developing World, emphasizing the progress in scientific research and issues that impinge on these two areas as well as circumscribe science-driven development.
THOMAS R. ODHIAMBO Editorial Advisory Board Founder ABBAS ALIKHAN (Kuwait), chemical engineering D.A. AKYEAMPONG (Ghana), mathematics KETO E. MSHIGENI M. BALABAN (Holland), communication science Editor-in-Chief A. BBUKU (Zambia), engineering A. EL DIN KHALIL BADR (Sudan), geology SAMUEL O. AKATCH A. HASSANALI (Kenya), chemistry Associate Editor L. JIAXI (China), pure science MALU WA KALENGA (Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)), physics M.O. KHIDIR (Sudan), environmental science J. KONDO (Japan), engineering R. KUMAR (Papua New Guinea), biology W. MASSEY (USA), physics A. MAZRUI (USA), political science J. MENYONGA (Burkina Faso), agriculture C.C. MJOJO (Malawi), chemistry G. OBASI (Switzerland), meteorology A. PALA OKEYO (Kenya), anthropology J.M. POLAK (UK), molecular biology
Published quarterly by Academy Science Publishers, P.O. Box 24916 - 00502 Nairobi, Kenya. Copyright © 2007 by Academy Science Publishers – African Academy of Sciences. The opinions in this publication are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the Publisher, Editor or Editorial Advisory Board of Discovery and Innovation. Subscription Information: Rates for Africa: $300 (institutional), $160 (individual); Outside Africa: $500 (institutional) $300 (individual). Within Kenya: KShs. 6,000 (institutional) KShs. 3,000 (individual). Rates inclusive of air mail charges. Advertising: Full page mono – KShs. 20,000/US$500; half page – KShs. 12,000/US$300; quarter page – Kshs. 5,000/US$125. Write to Academy Science Publishers, P.O. Box 24916 - 00502 Nairobi, Kenya; Telephone: +254 (20) 884401–5; fax: +254 (20) 884406; e-mail: [email protected] We wish to acknowledge the very generous financial sponsorship and contribution of African Forest Research Network (AFORNET) and Institutional support from the Academy of Sciences for the Developing World and the African Academy of Sciences towards the publication of Discovery and Innovation. The sponsors and supporting Institutions will not take responsibility for any views or statements made in this publication. Discovery and Innovation
Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) March 2007
GUEST EDITORIAL
181 Towards Forest Industrial Reform in Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon: Akande, J. A., S. L. Larinde, E. Ntabe, C. Adu-Anning and B. O. Agbeja
AFORNET RESEARCH PAPERS
190 Fifteen Years of Capacity Building in Forest Research in Africa: Yonas Yemshaw
199 Charcoal Production as Sustainable Source of Livelihood In Afram Plains And Kintampo North Districts In Ghana: Blay, D., L. Damnyag, K. Twum-Ampofo and F. Dwomoh
205 Conservation Status, Natural Regeneration Pattern and Shoot Borer Susceptibility by Khaya Ivorensis and K. Anthotheca Genotypes in Nigeria: P.I. Oni and A.B.I. Igboanugo
212 Rehabilitation of Degraded Forest Lands: The Performance of Indigenous Trees Species: Dominic Blay, Mark Appiah, Lawrence Damnyag, Francis K. Dwomoh and Ari Pappinen
222 Site Differences in Morphological and Physical Properties of Bambusa Vulgaris Grown In Ghana: Emmanuel Ebanyenle and Andrew Akwasi Oteng-Amoako
226 Assessment of Forestry Manpower on South Eastern Nigeria: Ogar, D. A. and Labode Popoola
230 The Role of Borassus aethiopum (Mart) on Livelihood Sustainability, the Northeastern Nigeria Experience: Tee, N. T. and Labode Popoola
238 Breakfast Meal from Breadfruit and Soybean Composite: Oduro, I., W. Ellis, A. Sulemana and P. Oti-Boateng
243 Expanding Breadfruit utilization its Potential for Pasta Production: Oduro, I., W. O. Ellis and S. T. Narh
248 Micropropagation of Triplochiton scleroxylon Using Axillary Buds: Ofori, D. A. 253 Pricing Conduct of Spatially Differentiated Borassus aethiopum (Mart) Products Markets in Northeastern Nigeria: Labode Popoola and N.T. Tee
260 Joint Forest Management in Niger Republic: Community Awareness and SWOT Analysis: Tahirou Abdoulaye, B. O. Agbeja, Charles Adu-Anning, P. O. Adesoye and T. Abasse
267 Quality of Oil From Treculia africana – An Underutilized Forest Plant: Ellis, W. O., I. Oduro, F. Appiah, Y. Antwi
271 Treculia africana Consumer Acceptability Test in South Eastern Nigeria: Enibe, D. O.
BOOK REVIEW
274 Assistance to Forestry: Expenses and Potential for Improvement: Samuel O. Akatch
ANNOUNCEMENT
276 World Renewable Energy Congress X And Exhibition 19- 25 July 2008, Scottish Exhibition & Conference Centre Glasgow - Scotland, UK
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Postage will be charged accordingly for each title listed above SERIALS Discovery and Innovation: Quarterly multi-disciplinary, peer-reviewed bilingual journal of the African Academy of Sciences for an international audience. The journal focuses on progress in scientific research, technological development and policy and emphasizes topical issues in Africa in its editorials. Cumulative Index for Discovery and Innovation: Annual publication for reference on content, subjects and authors published in Discovery and Innovation. Whydah: Biannual Information and Policy magazine of the African Academy of Sciences. SUBSCRIPTIONS RATES Discovery and Innovation Journal Institutional Individual Kenya Kshs. 5,000.00 Kshs. 3,000.00 Africa US$ 300.00 US$ 160.00 Outside Africa US$ 500.00 US$ 300.00 Two-year subscription 7% discount Agents get 5% discount on all orders Send enquiries, orders and make cheques payable to: ACADEMY SCIENCE PUBLISHERS P.O. Box 24916 - 00502 Nairobi, Kenya Fax: 254 (20) 884406 Tel.: 254 (20) 884401/2/3/4/5 E-mail: [email protected] Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) G UEST E D I T O R I A L
Towards Forest Industrial Reform in Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon
1*Akande, J. A., S. L. 2Larinde, E. 3Ntabe, C. 4Adu-Anning and B. O. 5Agbeja
1Bowen University, P.M.B. 284, Iwo, Osun State, Nigeria 2University of Port Harcourt, P.M.B. 5323, Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria 3University of Dschang, POB 222, Dschang, Cameroon 4Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana 5University of Ibadan, Nigeria *Corresponding Author
Preamble introduction, transfer, adoption and operation of environment-friendly forest industrial processing. This Editorial documents, a cross-country assessment This editorial, therefore, highlights key areas of of forest industry technology of selected West Africa improvement in forest utilization capabilities across States. In Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon, a trend the region; suggests new policy guidelines on forest assessment was made on forest industry technology industrial growth in the sampled countries while adsorption and use, environmental impact and emerging opportunities of support for forest industry market for forest products in order to appreciate the development in Sub-Sahara Africa are identified. status quo and make recommendations for growth and development. Base-line data on major forest Introduction industries including sawmills, plywood and particleboard mills, pulp and paper mills, match When judged by its significance to the general splint and furniture works were collected. On site citizenry, the forest industry is important to national surveys were carried out at all the investigated firms/ economies of Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon (Akande mills (121 in Ghana, 258 in Nigeria and 138 in Cameroon). In these countries, forest industry growth et al., 2006). Forest industry outputs in Ghana are and development are generally influenced by primarily sawnwood, plywood and veneer; physical, economic, socio-political and institutional particleboard and furniture with greater attention factors. The industry is also affected by technology given to international export and limited Sub-Saharan and information flow, management capability, trade. In Nigeria, the forest industry produces timber, structure and performance. The profitability of plywood, paper products, particleboard, sawnwood, wood-based investments is hampered by problems matches and furniture primarily for domestic related to technology, transportation costs, consumption. Forest industry output in the investment outlay, structural organization/ Cameroon includes processed timber and veneer that management, wood material source, energy needs are particularly export driven. and supply. In the main, wood processing firms in Historically, the Ghanaian forest industry had Ghana and Cameroon utilize more contemporary experienced mixed fortunes arising from a drastic infrastructure when compared to the Nigerian recession in the 1970s to the late 1980s. The trend is situation beset with a preponderance of small sized traceable mainly to unfavorable government policies sawmills operating with outmoded equipment and and continuous use of obsolete machinery, which led spare parts. Government policies propel the industry to a significant decline in the number of processing and are influenced by foreign interests. Foreign Direct mills. The late 1980s to 1990s witnessed sizeable Investment (FDI) plays a significant role in technology injection of capital from bilateral and multilateral acquisition and adoption, albeit, the operating donor sources, liberalization of the market and more capacity runs below installed capacity for most of the favorable government policies. surveyed firms. Results from the survey helped to The forest industries in Nigeria have, by and address fundamental strategies that can improve the large, over the years contributed immensely to (S) 181 Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Towards Forest Industrial Reform in Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon industrial employment, manpower development and transfer of advanced technologies and human welfare. The industry forms the production opportunities for external markets. base for construction and utility wood, but in the last The goal is to usher in new sectoral policies touching two decades, there has been a great concern as to on the assessment needs of industries, wood whether the operational status of these industries is availability and valuation of timber that would consistent with contemporary drive towards ultimately ensure sustainability and economic sustainable forest management and environmental viability of the forest industries. control. Various government policies have hitherto Study Approach influenced forest industry development in the Cameroon. The stakeholders conjectured that political influence and legal barriers constitute major On-site surveys were carried out in all the impediment to the expansion of the industry. The investigated firms or mills (121 in Ghana, 258 in general situation across Sub-Sahara West Africa is Nigeria and 138 in Cameroon). Based on experience, such that annual cut of timber by forest industries telephone interview has not worked well in Africa, exceeds replenishment status. This became thus, personal high-level contacts were made by the burdensome to the extent that western researchers to the select firms. Approved interview environmentalists criticize tropical timber producers guides were prepared and forwarded to participants for their forest management practices. Consequently, in advance to give room for adequate responses. the environmentalists call for boycotts of tropical Follow-up field surveys helped to gather information timber products that are not certified as derived from about the state of specific production facilities. The well-managed forests. industries were visually audited and their By 1998, an Expert Group meeting was held in performances scaled to arrive at conceptual and Kyoto, Japan to discuss “Clean Development quantifiable weightings. Technical, socio-economic Mechanism and United National Industrial and institutional capacity of the industry were Development” (UNIDO, 2000). The body suggested appraised, using structured questionnaire, and the that African industries should build institutional working parameters e.g. capacity utilization, labour and infrastructural capacity to take full advantage and raw material supply, equipment, market, of opportunities available in world trade. This issue management style and re-investment practices were became topical to the extent that the International ranked in order of importance to sustainable Tropical Timber Organization committed about $6.6 management practices. million in grants for initiatives promoting The study further evaluated the appropriateness sustainable forest management, greater of existing technologies and assessed transparency in tropical timber trade and the capacity-building needs for more efficient industrial development of sustainable forest based industries processing vis-à-vis the environmental and market (ITTO, 2002). situations. Activities of the forest industry, from forest As concerned stakeholders, focused interaction to the market, were scanned and conclusions were made with forest practitioners in Ghana, Nigeria presented to enhance endogenous forest utilization and Cameroon on the key aspects of improving capabilities and also help in future policy formulation efficiency in industrial processing and transfer of that might affect the industry. environmentally friendly technologies. The project In addition, the researchers monitored the local addressed associated issues through the use of forest industrial practices and made deductions on structured questionaires, interview schedules and what can be learnt, whether they are market driven ultimate analysis of datasets from the three countries. or state initiated. What mix/balance existed between Specifically, the study: technology, policy and institutional factors. What • Collected and analyzed base-line data on forest multiplier effects are obtainable from environmental industry in Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon. friendly advocacy, if any, and how would this facilitate or constrain existing endogenous processes. • Determined institutional and infra-structural Arriving from the aforementioned, the facilitating capacity building needs for forest industry in the factors for Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon forest same countries. industrial sufficiency and efficiency were conjectured. • Reviewed and proposed new policy elements to enhance positive impacts of forest industrial Current state of the forest industries development, and • Proposed information sharing platform for key Salient features of the forest industry in Ghana, actors in forest industries with emphasis on Nigeria and Cameroon are presented on Table 1.
(S) 182 Towards Forest Industrial Reform in Ghana, Nigeria and Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3)
Cameroon
e
un single un
gy auditing rare. auditing gy
Cameroon
shift per day. per shift
24% run double shift per day while 5% r 5% while day per shift double run 24%
the surveyed firms. 71% operate single shift per day; per shift single operate 71% firms. surveyed the
clinics. Industrial accidents documented in 76% of 76% in documented accidents Industrial clinics.
pollution records. 63% of firms have their own their have firms of 63% records. pollution
Environmental Management Unit. 97% have no have 97% Unit. Management Environmental
Solid waste is prominent. 58% of the mills have mills the of 58% prominent. is waste Solid
1985-1999 (MINEF 2000) (MINEF 1985-1999
against illegal felling attenuated by 85% between 85% by attenuated felling illegal against
weak control apparatus. Thus, complain filed complain Thus, apparatus. control weak
is limited, making people to loose confidence in the in confidence loose to people making limited, is
Exist. Good policy framework but implementation but framework policy Good Exist.
9% local consumption. local 9%
11% Sub-Saharan 11%
80% export oriented export 80%
addition to cogeneration; Ener cogeneration; to addition
Firms largely dependent on hydroelectricity in hydroelectricity on dependent largely Firms
efficiency 30 - 55% - 30 efficiency
recurrent with ageing machines; Conversion machines; ageing with recurrent
machine maintenance schedules; maintenance mor maintenance schedules; maintenance machine
84% import (robust FDI); 16% local assembly; Have assembly; local 16% FDI); (robust import 84%
individual of which 5% are Cameroonians. are 5% which of individual
82% partnership with government 18% private 18% government with partnership 82%
4. Transportation 5. Market. 5. Transportation 4.
1. Raw material 2. Legal & Political barrier 3. Labor 3. barrier Political & Legal 2. material Raw 1.
. No .
e fuel e
ecords.
ficiency
gy supply; gy
. Generally no Generally .
oblem in eastern in oblem
etionary felling etionary
AGO increased AGO
ater availability. ater
gy supply 4. Labor 4. supply gy
gy auditing rare. auditing gy
. >90% of mills had no had mills of >90% .
Nigeria
dust and smoke. and dust
first aid facility. Half masking employed against employed masking Half facility. aid first
Majority operate single shift per day per shift single operate Majority
workflow, logs and vehicular movements in mills. in movements vehicular and logs workflow,
Internal arrangements are made to regulate to made are arrangements Internal
documented pollution, Health and accident r accident and Health pollution, documented
EIA. Environmental manager unusual; No unusual; manager Environmental EIA.
incinerated or burnt openly burnt or incinerated
Waste disposal largely mechanical. Dumped wastes Dumped mechanical. largely disposal Waste
Logging.
Contractors care less about Reduced Impact Reduced about less care Contractors
practices without reference to management plans. management to reference without practices
Accentuated by executive discr executive by Accentuated
Nigeria.
Prevalent with serious flitching pr flitching serious with Prevalent
>5% of illegal exports. illegal of >5%
5% sub-Sahara 5%
<90% local consumption local <90%
astronomically over years; Ener years; over astronomically
dependent; Price of PMS & & PMS of Price dependent;
Extensive use of electric generators, which ar which generators, electric of use Extensive
utilization significantly limited by ener by limited significantly utilization
Depend unreliable on national grid; Capacity grid; national on unreliable Depend
30-35%
calendarized maintenance. Conversion ef Conversion maintenance. calendarized
Component part replacement fabricated locally fabricated replacement part Component
<90% import (obsolete equipments) (obsolete import <90%
10% Joint ventures Joint 10%
90% Individual ownership Individual 90%
5. Transportation 6. Political 7. W 7. Political 6. Transportation 5.
1. Raw materials 2. Market 3. Ener 3. Market 2. materials Raw 1.
gy
ely have ely
gy audit. gy
Ghana
50% had environmental manager. environmental had 50%
70% carry out EIA out carry 70%
25% run triple shift per day per shift triple run 25%
35% run single shift per day per shift single run 35%
45% run double shift per day per shift double run 45%
company doctors. company
70% have company clinics as first aid and rar and aid first as clinics company have 70%
25% recorded pollution status of their firms. their of status pollution recorded 25%
and legislative means. legislative and
Exist, but flitching is largely contained through policy through contained largely is flitching but Exist,
40% local consumption. local 40%
60% Foreign export including sub-Sahara trade. sub-Sahara including export Foreign 60%
70% of firms carry out ener out carry firms of 70%
plus cogeneration plus
Hydro-electricity from national grid national from Hydro-electricity
Conversion efficiency 40% efficiency Conversion
5% locally fabricated locally 5%
40% mixed technology; locally assembled locally technology; mixed 40%
55% sole import (FDI arrangement) (FDI import sole 55%
16% Joint ventures Joint 16%
31% Foreigners 31%
53% Ghanaians 53%
supply 6. Market 7. Political factors. Political 7. Market 6. supply 1. Transport 2. Water 3. Raw material 4. Labor 5. Ener 5. Labor 4. material Raw 3. Water 2. Transport 1.
Salient features of the forest industry in Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon by year 2005
Feature
Products Market Products
management
Energy source Energy
Technology
Shareholding
considered
Location of firms (factors firms of Location
Assessment (EIA) Assessment Table 1: Table Impact Environmental Illegal Logging
(S) 183 Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Towards Forest Industrial Reform in Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon
Forest Industry in Ghana Middle East, North and South Africa and the West The Ghanaian forest industry is a large consumer of Africa sub-regions. Thus, all the mills export their logs. Log demand is greater than sustainable supply. products and this is done by shipping (90%) and by Saw mill efficiency is approximately 32%. Individuals road transport (10%) mainly to West African own 50% of sawmills, 47% are jointly owned in countries. Seventy percent (70%) of the volumes of partnership with foreigners while 3% by families and wood products produced from the mills are exported government. Three (3%) percent were established and less than 30% are sold on the local market. over 60 years ago, 47% a little over 10 years while Sub-Saharan trading partners include Senegal, 50% have been in existence for between 20 and 40 Nigeria, Mali, Niger, Sierra Leone, Angola, Benin and years. Large mills are 29% of total; Medium size mills Togo. In this network, the products were conveyed 52% and small size mills 19%. Sixty Percent (60%) of mostly in haulage trucks. Thirty percent (30%) of the the industries had unstable source of raw material. sampled industries did not carry out Environmental Many subscribed to government forest concessions; Impact Assessment (EIA) while 70% fulfilled this 55% rely on their own forest concessions. Logs and responsibility. About 50% of the industries had an lumber get to markets through formal and informal Environmental Manager who is responsible for suppliers. Informal suppliers are generally chainsaw environmental issues of the firm. Virtually all the and illegal loggers. Illegal felling causes significant companies interviewed operate first aid to their environmental degradation. As a step in the right accident workers. Many do not have company direction, Ghana has now embarked on plantations doctors but nurses who take care of worker's health. of timber species, such as Marmonite, Teak and Rose Common diseases on employees are malaria, body Wood to diversify the resource base. About 90% of pains - head, waist and chest, rashes, cold, chest pain the mills had species preference and only 10% made with coughing, upper respiratory track infection use of any kind of species. Export of the traditional (URTI) and diarrhea. Seventy percent (70%) of the primary species attracts levy of between 10% and 30% industries interviewed carried out regular energy of FOB price depending on the species threatening auditing. These trends show that the firms are status. Industrial financing is 40% from the Banks, conscious of their energy needs and thus take steps 25% by shareholdings, 20% by Foreign Direct to ensure that energy availability does not affect Investment, 10% through personal holding. Only 30% production. of the respondent mills did not face cash-flow Practical efforts toward increased efficiency and constraint. The industries are job avenues for competitiveness include the ban on log export which thousands of individuals especially those in the was effected in Ghana in 1979 and is still in force; the communities close to where these mills are located. ban on chainsaw lumber i.e. in-situ conversion of About 50% of the work machinery were obtained wood to flitches, allocation of timber registration from Italy, 30% from Germany and 20% from the number to registered chainsaws and prohibition of other countries. In most cases, the manufacturers the use of chainsaw to convert timber into lumber were brought to install the machines and teach the for sale. The ban on illegal harvest of timber has local technical managers their operation. About 76% improved` operational efficiency since chain-sawn of respondents indicated their willingness to reinvest lumber, whose conversion efficiency is below 20% has in fixed assets in the next 5 to 10 years. Average mill almost been eliminated. Ghana has introduced a new production efficiency has risen steadily over the timber utilization contract system to improve years. Most of the firms had their conversion efficiency, transparency and accountability of forest efficiency (CE) below 45%. Only ten percent (10%) production and management activities. One could, of the surveyed companies had CEs above 60%. therefore, infer that regulations and policies are in Almost all the timber companies affirmed that place for the production, management and utilization finance is a prime barrier to their growth. All the mills of forest, which spells out obligations of logging surveyed except one had a transport unit that contractors. conveys raw materials and finished products to and In context, the Ghanaian forest industry is from the mills. The only exception depended on characterized by under-capacity as well as hiring of trucks from private transport pools. Also, under-capitalization traceable to inadequacy of the mills’ transport pools had well trained mechanics modern equipment that can match contemporary that provide routine maintenance services for the demand for efficiency and over reliance on manual vehicles. labour. The large integrated companies are Majority of the companies did not have records technologically advanced in their operations through on local sales of their products. The countries to the installation of modern machines and equipments which the mills traded are located in the European (through FDI arrangements) to meet the current trend Union, North America, Asia and South-East Asia, in the market.
(S) 184 Towards Forest Industrial Reform in Ghana, Nigeria and Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Cameroon
Forest Industry in Nigeria protection. Virtually none of the mills studied had The Nigerian forest industry has lagged behind in an approved EIA done for the firm. Usually, there is adopting state-of-the-art technologies in forest no Environmental Manager but internal products processing when contrasted to situations in arrangements are made to regulate workflow, Ghana and Cameroon. Ninety percent (90%) are movement of logs and vehicles. There are usually no smallholder sawmills undertaking log conversion for pollution records, neither do the firms carry out construction, furniture and utility purposes. The large energy audits. Written health and accident records integrated industries are few and they concentrate are generally missing. Majority of the wood-working much on satisfying local demands as government mills operate single shift per day ranging from 8am regulations and capacity utilization do not create to 5pm. Half-masking is employed against dusts and enough incentive for export market. Eighty percent smoke while other hazard source like noise, fire, (80%) of the mills have no forest estate of their own. electricity, heavy weight, falls, moving objects, Major log supply to the mills comes from the forest radioactive exposure, chemicals, heat and heavy reserves while the rest come from free areas. Mill metals are treated with less concern. Process is largely owners consider contract logging to be more cost- mechanical as pneumatic transport technologies are effective than self-logging, thus there is strong found only in large mills manufacturing integrated dependence on the contractors who care little about products. sustainable or reduced impact of logging. Firm Dumped wastes are incinerated or burnt openly. location is apriori contingent on raw material Notable hazards faced by logging contractors include availability, market, energy supply, source of labour, vehicle breakdown, marshy and un-motorable terrain transportation, political factors and water availability that limits hauling. Most of the sawmill equipment in that order. Preponderant distribution of the mills (horizontal & vertical saws) are old and aged with is skewed towards the southern forested States, with frequent breakdowns (Age of machines: 15-30 years). delivery and market centers found in the northern This resulted in poor recovery and inefficiency. territories. Forest production has fallen, thus creating Ninety five percent (95%) of the mills employed inbalance in forest products supply and demand. manual means of moving logs to feed machine while Nigeria which, hitherto, was a significant tropical only the few integrated large mills uses cranes. wood supplier now struggles to be self-reliant in Technology and skill assessment of the mills showed th meeting domestic demands. Gmelina arborea (Gmelina) typical old-fashioned mid 20 century secondary is now among the most widely marketed and utilized wood processing machinery imported from Europe. species in the southwest and southeast Nigeria. The mills generally do not follow any calendarized Triplochiton scleroxylon (Obeche) is equally of high maintenance schedule while they take advantage of market importance particularly, for household the robust and resilient nature of the machinery. 3 furniture in most of the northern states. Towards the Average production capacity is about 10m per shift southeast, in Akwa-Ibom and Cross River States, Afzelia (per day) and the machinery employed is fairly spp (Apa), Mahogany (Sapele; Khaya etc) Mansonia spp archaic but certainly rugged. Machine spare parts are innovatively fabricated locally and this has kept the (Mansonia), Teak, Triplochiton and Terminalia spp mills running while minimizing down times. (Idigbo) are recognized in the timber markets. There is The sawmillers do not generally employ skilled now appreciable demand for Ceiba pentandra and professionals (considered as externalities) for fear of Bombax buonopozense even in established large accurate recording / reporting and knowledge of sawmills. Many of the logs processed are 1.524m (5ft) process quality and evaluation, which, if revealed, girth and below. Usually, one property hammer is may limit corrupt tendencies of the log contractors. attached to a licensee with a uniform field staff. The The loggers gain illegal access to forest resource by state governments manage existing forests and there colluding with the forest guards and their impact can are instances when government executives exercise adversely affect sustainable forest management. It is, discretionary power to harvest logs without regard to therefore, pertinent to improve forest policy system management plans, consequently, there were to avoid collusion of illegal saw millers / loggers and prevalence of illegal logging and flitching in the high circumvent illegal exploitation. forest states. Regrettably, log conversion efficiency Capacity utilization in the industry is limited through flitching at stump was calculated to be significantly, by energy supply. Majority of the saw between 36–54% (Agom, 1994). Excessive beauracracy millers rely on the public grid for electricity supply, along the timber transport and marketing chain did which is not reliable, hence frequent interruption of not help matters as it further encourages illegal logging. processing. Some of the mills have generators to Many of the wood industries were established power their engines, but they also complain of without adequate attention paid to environmental astronomical hike in the cost of petrol (PMS) and
(S) 185 Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Towards Forest Industrial Reform in Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon diesel also called Automobile Gasoline Oil (AGO). plywood. Ninety seven percent (97%) of the wood This makes production cost high and profit margin industries produce sawnwood while 84% produce low. roundwood followed by 11% of firms engaged in In major wood markets are found wholesalers plywood production. Raw material shortage and who purchase in bulk from the processors for instability greatly account for the inability of onward sale to retailers (generally middlemen) or industries to operate at full capacity. Ninety one to target customers who patronize them. Market percent (91%) of manpower is unskilled and transactions in terms of volume sold and price over undertook on-the–job training. The remaining 9% is defined periods were either non-documented or not skilled and are mostly expatriates. Industries with made available by the generality of respondents. transport facilities often use it to move logs and Towards the end of the twentieth century, the industrial products. Smaller firms which, hitherto, Nigerian match industries were inundated with have folded up due to lack of or denial of sufficient various imported brands which led to about 35% raw material, held on to their transport vehicles to price reduction for the Nigerian–made matches. This carry and sell timber to the relatively larger and eventually led to a united front, ‘Consolidated Match surviving firms. Industries’, among stakeholders to resist outside Industrial machinery is foreign and attracted pressure and stay in market. through FDI arrangements. Eighty four percent (84%) The treated poles, on the other hand, are sold to of wood industries import their machines (no local the electric power providers including Power invention) while the remaining 16% depend on Holdings Nigeria Limited, Rural Electricity Boards, imported, but locally fabricated, machines. Locally Community Projects, etc, who place orders for the made machinery is often fabricated from spare parts items and collect after treatment. Suffice to say, the that come from the mother industries abroad. furniture industry in Nigeria is currently emerging Maintenance problems are more recurrent with ageing into the global market as the salient barriers of poor machines. All the industries visited have machinery quality products, raw material and transportation maintenance schedules. Those operating the three- difficulties are being gradually overcome. shift system close down for one month during the year Majority of the large wood industries in Nigeria to carry out repairs on the machines. Wood industry including the pulp and paper mills, the plywood/ products in Cameroon are export oriented. Most of particleboard mills are currently undergoing one the products are directed towards markets in Europe form of restructuring or the other. It is conjectured and the United States. Eighty percent (80%) of that government ownership is a major problem as products are exported beyond Sub-Saharan Africa, 11% to Sub-Saharan Africa and 9% are directed to the people, in Nigeria generally, treat government local market. France, as a major importer of properties with impudence. Non-impressive Cameroonian wood, plays the role of middleman and performances are traceable to corruption and exporter of semi-processed wood to Europe, especially indifference on the part of those entrusted with their the Scandinavian countries. Wood market price is management. determined by the purchasing industry with most of the wood paid for at give-away prices by the same Forest Industry in Cameroon buyer after disguised rejection for poor quality or Cameroon is a country with high forest potential. non-adherence to specification. Wastes like saw dust Forty percent (40%) of the 465000km2 land area is and smaller dimensions of processed wood are sold under forest cover. Eighty two percent (82%) of the for local consumption or to households for fuel wood. firms are owned in partnership while 18% are private Industrial accidents are documented in 76% of owned. Raw material availability is a major surveyed firms. Most of these accidents occurred in determinant in wood industry location. The forest machining operations. Health concerns are not well industries are located near raw material base and documented. Common noticeable diseases include are generally owned and run by foreigners. The general body pains, malaria, gastro-intestinal quality of wood products demanded in the export problems, and headache and waist pain. Pollution market constitute significant bottleneck for aspiring records are non-existent in 97% of industries. indigenous businesspersons. By the year 2004, nine Co-generation is employed for energy production. foreign companies held 3.15million hectares of the Fifty eight percent (58%) of firms surveyed have concession area in 45 Forest Management Units Environmental Management Unit. The Ministry of (FMU) of the total 72 FMUs. This culminated in poor Environment and Forests (MINEF, 2000) actually and illegal logging practices for which there is no prompted this awareness. Wood raw materials are official record. The main forest industrial products generally obtained from private timber contractors in Cameroon are sawnwood, roundwood and who in most cases do not respect girth limits and also
(S) 186 Towards Forest Industrial Reform in Ghana, Nigeria and Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Cameroon indulge in illegal felling. Information on production • It is important to strengthen FDI arrangements statistics is very inconsistent, obstructed and to help the forest industry add value and remain negatively affects R&D efforts. Overall, there appears relevant in legalized trade. to still be fairly good forest industrial policy and • In Nigeria, many of the wood industries were legislative framework in the Cameroon but its established without adequate attention paid to implementation is weak and limited. environmental protection. The forest industry in In the Cameroon, there has been a marked Nigeria could be more efficient when growth in the forest industry sector after government complemented with technology improvements decision banning the export of unprocessed timber. that facilitate regular electric power supply, The forest industry sector in Cameroon depends regular availability of logs, also machines in top almost entirely on local species from the natural forest functioning conditions that can improve with the exception of PK-STP in Mbalmayo that runs conversion efficiency when matched with the a plantation forest. Triplochiton scleroxylon is the most availability of required labor that are determined common, most preferred and readily available to succeed by putting in productive shifts and species. The species alone accounted for over 31% of man-hours. total demand between 1995 and 1997 and 37.2% during the 2000/2001 season, followed by Sapelli • Greater local involvement and participation in with 21.7% and 18.9%, respectively. Some of the the Cameroon forest industry is desirable. industries have logging units while others depend • As at now, the quality of wood products entirely on timber exploiters. Some of the processed demanded in the export market constitute a wood comes from neighbouring Gabon, Congo and significant bottleneck for aspiring indigenous Central African Republic. business-persons and this demands attention. • There are virtually no pollution records in most Identified Gaps and Challenges of the industries and this needs improvement.
• The main factor affecting forest industrial businesses is the availability of investment Summary and Policy Outcomes capital, which is determined by government financial provision and industrial policy that are This study shows that trends are essential in assesing more or less unpredictable. Almost all the timber progress of forest industry management so as to companies reported of finance as the prime illuminate on the current status and make policies barrier to their growth. Other factors hindering for positive change. Forest industrial products from the industry’s operational efficiency include raw Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon are important in material base, technology adsorption and world-trade. The associated industries have supplied socio-political environment. and saved these countries significant foreign • Unfortunately, the future of the Sub-Saharan exchange and local employment. Industrial forest industry has been on the global agenda production of timber and other forest products had for about a decade now. The security of the forest sustained the countries employment needs and base, from which industrial products are revenue earnings. It is, therefore, expedient that derived, is threatened by illegal felling and stakeholders inject the desired momentum that will merchandising. usher in commitment and political will in these countries to move the forest industry to the fore-front ␣ • Illegal logging and flitching and illegal log of sustainable green enterprises. export are problematic to the project countries, • The current trend assessment showed that forest although fairly curtailed in Ghana. Each country industrial managers can only thrive in the seems to go solo, which is inefficient compared competitive market if premium is placed on to if a sub-regional control apparatus and intensifying efforts to improve forest and forest governance is put in place. One would conclude products productivity and product quality; therefore that appreciable progress has been developing sound strategies and management made in Ghana towards a more efficient forest actions to achieve growth; becoming less industrial production but the extent of such dependent or trade protectionism, which is progress remains unsatisfactory. subtly controlled by earnings expedients; • Progressive reform is needed to redirect the acquiring knowledge and technology flowing Nigerian Forest Industry towards greater FDI from foreign direct investors (FDI) so as to be arrangement, plantation development and able to supply what the consumer demands and export management. investing on foresters and environmental
(S) 187 Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Towards Forest Industrial Reform in Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon management experts with finance and business • Each country’s commitment and political will management training and experience. shall strengthen and provide adequate resource • Large capital infusion into the timber growing assistance to respond to the aforementioned business is recommended to alleviate future wood goals. They shall also clarify core issues of supply deficits. transparency, procedural fairness, modalities for capacity building, flexibility and • The Ghanaian forest industry, for its leadership cooperation. advantage, should be more aggressive in showing the way and capturing the West African • Managers of the industry must strive to be sub-regional market. It should also involve and abreast of innovation to satisfy the current encourage stakeholders in neighboring countries trend in the business as well as train their to foster sub-regional development of this workers through workshops and other industry. exchange programmes (i.e. proper planning). • Current records showed that there are illegal channels of taking prohibited logs from Nigeria • The laws and policies governing illegal forest especially to some Asiatic countries thus causing operations must be enforced. As a protectionist significant economic drain. It is, therefore, strategy, forest industries should embark on expedient to strengthen FDI arrangements to help plantations of timber species, which could well the industry add value and remain relevant in turn out to be the raw material capital. legalized trade. • Forest concessions should be allocated to the • Foreign equity participation in the Cameroon sawmills liberally without partiality or political forest industry is expedient. Even so, Cameroon favouritism. has considerable forest potential that would • To tackle illegality in forest industrial attract FDI, and as such, the stakeholders are operations, opinion leaders should use loyalties expected to have stronger negotiation power that paid to the communities for developmental favors greater local consumption and projects in the fringe communities. entrepreneuship. • Forest industries in the region must learn to • Strategies need be developed at national and gradually adapt their technology to process the sub-regional levels through mutual cooperation lesser–used species due to scarcity of the and integrated effort that protects the endangered preferred ones. Local content of equipment tropical forests while encouraging improved FDI fabrication or componentization should be technological adsorption, efficient harvesting strengthened. regimes, alternative energy source and general • Forest policy apparatus and implementation environmental friendliness. must be set in motion to prevent collusion of • Sectoral intiatives at the national level should be illegal saw millers / loggers and circumvent given wider interpretation to arrive at illegal exploitation. complimentary and domestic support measures • There is need for improved electricity supply for managing the west African forest industries to the mills to limit unprofitable downtime with respect to legislative framework, taxation, periods. Greater efforts are needed in the realm policy development and implementation. of wood waste utilization, product • There is need to recognize the imperative of standardization, energy efficiency and workers' sub-regional framework to share experience and safety. enhance the contribution of forest industrial • There should be continuous upgrade of network and competition policy to international production lines to minimize the industry trade and development, touching on the need for impact on the environment while at the same enhanced technical assistance and capacity time encouraging acceptable standards of building for efficiency. practice in operation to ensure healthy and safe • The implication of closer forest industrial conditions of the employees and adjoining cooperation in these countries should be communities. measured in line with the overall developmental • There should be limited police roadblocks objectives, trade and institutional development of that siphons illegal funds from log enhancing mutual supportiveness on labeling contractors as this act only exacerbates the requirements, general environment, technology unit cost of wood in the market while at the and market access. The ECOWAS base could be same time reducing profit margin of the used to set these in motion. operators.
(S) 188 Towards Forest Industrial Reform in Ghana, Nigeria and Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Cameroon Acknowledgement status and trends in forest industries of Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon. Final Report to the African The authors appreciate the financial contribution Forestry Research Network (AFORNET, Kenya), and permission of the African Forest Research 150p. Network (AFORNET) Nairobi, Kenya to publish this Buongiorno, J., P. Harou, A. C. Omoluabi and L. G. work. Ogundare. 1993. Timber demand and supply in Nigeria: Models and Forecasts to 2010. Nigerian Journal References of Forestry, 23 (2): 20-32. MINEF. 2000. Revue Institutionnelle du secteur Forestier Agom, D. I. 1994. Report of study on methodology and du Cameroun. Document de Travail à l’intention du productivity of stump site chain saw timber operators. CT/4 Dec, 00. 237p. Forestry Department, Cross Rivers State, Nigeria. ITTO Tropical Forest Update (2002). ITTO funds secondary Working Paper, 2: p.24. forest management, certification, 12 (4): 20-21. Akande, J. A., C. Adu-Anning , E. Ntabe, B. O. Agbeja UNIDO (2000). African industry and climate change and S. L. Larinde. 2006. Quality assessment of proceedings, 198p.
(S) 189 Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) A FORNET RESEARCH PAPERS
Fifteen Years of Capacity Building in Forest Research in Africa
Yonas Yemshaw
Introduction AFORNET operates under the following structure: • The Members’ Forum The African Academy of Sciences (AAS) has since • The Network Board and its committees (Technical its inception in 1985, appreciated the paucity of a Committee and Financial Committee) scientific community that would make an impact on • The Secretariat (Network Coordinator, Program science-driven development in Africa. One of the Officer); and mechanisms put in place at the formative years of the AAS, was the "Capacity Building in Forestry • The Nodes (a Regional Steering Committee, a Research in Africa" (CBFR) in 1991, with financial Nodal Coordinator and National Contact Persons) support from the Swedish Agency for Research The function of the Members’ Forum is to provide Cooperation with Developing Countries (SAREC). opportunity for all members to advise the network The CBFR main agenda was to build up a “critical on matters of scientific, technical, policy, business and mass” of young forest scientists, whose contribution operational matters. The Members’ Forum meets in could make a significant impact on sustainable forest association with other international forestry meetings management in Africa. in Africa. At any meetings the Chairman of the The AAS and the International Foundation for Network Board informs members of decisions taken Science (IFS), in partnership with the International by the Network Board, overall network performance Union of Forestry Research Organization (IUFRO- and any other relevant matters. SPDC), the Food and Agriculture Organization The Network Board is the executive body of the (FAO), the Centre for International Forestry network and is responsible for defining its aim and Research (CIFOR), the International Centre for objectives. It is also responsible for planning and Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF), and other evaluating the network activities; revising the Logical relevant organizations organized the first Framework and putting into place a mechanism for international symposium on “Supporting Capacity external evaluation. It conducts its work through Building in Forestry Research in Africa” in July 1994 sub-committees (i.e., Technical Committee, Financial at ICRAF, Nairobi, Kenya. At this symposium it Committee) and has the power to set up new was agreed that a pan-African Network of leading sub-committees as needed. forest researchers, educationalists, and The Secretariat comprises the Network administrators be established. In that event, the Coordinator, Scientific Programme Officer and staff. AAS was given the mandate to undertake It is currently hosted at the African Academy of exploratory mission to establish the Network in Sciences. The Secretariat carries out the day-to-day collaboration with these organizations. activities of the Network. It is against this background that several The main function of the nodes are to share consultative meetings were held between 1997 and information with members on priority research subject 1998 with all partners and end-users in various areas from end users in their regions; stimulate countries, to deliberate on the nature, activities and collaborative research among scientists in the region, management of the Network. The African Forest guide scientists in the preparation of research Research Network (AFORNET) was officially proposals, provide an organizational link between established on June 1999 and the three AFORNET research groups, regional end users and the eco-regional nodes were inaugurated. Since then, AFORNET Secretariat. They also act as a the Network has developed a framework to realize clearing-house for the competitive call for research its set goals and objectives in forest research in applications, under the aegis of AFORNET and Africa and has added a new node for the Sahel. performing an initial screening of applications
(S) 190 Fifteen Years of Capacity Building in Forest Research in Africa Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) received. They undertake information collection context of the gender composition of the work force about scientists and scientific activities, identify in forest research and education institutions in research support mechanism/opportunities and Sub-Saharan Africa. make recommenditions to AFORNET Board and to research scientists. Nodal coordinators function Table 1:. Applications vs awards by year: -Young Scientists completely on voluntary basis. One of the main mechanisms through which Year Appli- Grants Percent AFORNET fulfils its mission is by awarding a cations awarded awarded competitive research grant scheme. As such it has Male Female Total two grant programs, namely, the Young Scientist Grantees Grantees Grantees Program and the Thematic Research Program. 1991 16 7 2 9 56 1992 27 11 1 12 44 1993 10 5 0 5 50 The Young Scientist Program 1994 20 6 2 8 40 1995 20 11 6 17 85 The Young Scientist Program (YSP) was conceived 1996 28 13 2 15 56 to enable promising African forest scientists at the 1997 59 16 5 21 36 early stage of their career carry out important and 1998 60 21 4 25 42 high quality research with assured, adequate funding 1999 48 9 5 14 29 and full international recognition. The main aim of 2000 25 5 3 8 32 the YSP is to promote and strengthen individual 2001 0 0 0 0 0 scientists’ capacity. 2002 31 11 2 13 42 The grant is open to promising scientists 2003 28 11 0 11 39 affiliated to training and research institutions in 2004 73 35 3 38 52 Africa who have shown the potential to undertake 2005 112 18 2 20"a" 18 creative and innovative research in forestry in Africa. TOTAL 557 179 37 216 Potential applicants include: -active researchers in forestry science and related areas; graduate and "a": Of the 20 approved grants in 2005, 8 could not be post-graduate students registered in a university funded due to limited budget. intending to undertake field research in Africa; and graduates intending to undertake research for a higher professional qualification. Of the 171 completed projects since 1991, a total of Applicants to the YSP should not be over 40 years 131 articles for journals and conference proceedings at the time of application. Grants are awarded for up were generated, either submitted, in-press, or to three years and occasionally renewed only once. published (Table 2). However, 89 more journal articles Project budget may include scientific equipment, are currently in a draft stage raising the number of travel and per diem for field studies, payment to data scientific articles to 220. This means that, on the collection personnel, communication, purchase of key average, each grantee has published or is about to books and other publications, and costs for sharing of publish more than one scientific article. information, but should not include university fees, The situation since 2000 is even more stipends, salaries, honoraria and purchase/ promising. A total of 74 projects were approved since maintenance of four wheel-drive vehicles nor travels 2000 of which 37 are completed. From these outside Africa. The total grant per applicant in the YSP completed projects, 60 journal articles and conference is a maximum of U$8,000. proceedings have been generated, almost two articles To date a total of 216 research projects have been per grant. approved under the Young Scientist Program The Young Scientist Program has, indeed, (Table 1). Of the total, 208 grants have been awarded contributed substantially to the human resource while the remaining 8 could not be awarded due to capacity of the 19 countries with 76 MSc/MPhil and limited fund. There is a general trend of increasing 77 PhDs (Table 3). Kenya, Tanzania, and Nigeria have granting activity since 1991. There was a decrease in by far the largest share of post graduates benefited. activity between 1999 and 2001 as the CBFR program For Nigeria, it is mostly PhDs. But for Tanzania is gradually evolved into the AFORNET. A sharp increase followed, starting 2002. The year 2005 saw mostly MSc/MPhil students. Those researchers who an all time peak of activities for AFORNET in its applied for grant intending to undertake research for entire history. Only 17% of the grantees are females. a higher professional qualification and career growth This is not low, however, when assessed in the are mostly in Nigeria.
(S) 191 Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Fifteen Years of Capacity Building in Forest Research in Africa
Table 2: Scientific output by year of grant approval: Young Scientists
Year Grants Scientific Scientific outputs finalized approved outputs Theses / Conference Journal articles Total being Dissertations proceedings Submitted Accepted/ Published prepared In-Press
1991 90301015 1992 12 0200002 1993 50100012 1994 80102047 1995 17 03020510 1996 15 0300014 1997 21 02482622 1998 25 02290720 1999 14 01320410 2000 88400116 2001 00000000 2002 13 93313111 2003 11 20 4486628 2004 38 49 2 12 3 11 2 30 2005 20c 3013105 TOTAL 216 89 31 29 39 24 39 162
program since both institutions are supporting African Table 3: Countries by Postgraduate Research scientists working on forestry and agro-forestry issues. (Young Scientists) Combining IFS’ and AFORNET’s resources to support young African researchers would be MSc / Mphil PhD Other Total beneficial to both partners. IFS would increase its 1. Benin 5 5 African presence in Sub-Sahara Africa and AFORNET 2. Burkina Faso 4 5 9 would gain from the experience of evaluating and 3. Ghana 3 3 4 10 administering grants with a partner having 30 years’ 4. Liberia 1 1 experience in the field. The scientific quality of 5. Mali 2 2 grantee’s work would also likely be raised by the 6. Nigeria 7 19 16 42 broader internationalization of the project evaluations 7. Senegal 1 4 4 9 and support to African grantees (mentorship, 8. Togo 1 1 workshops). The collaboration would result in a more 9. Cameroon 1 3 2 6 efficient use of resources permitting AFORNET to 10. Ethiopia 2 3 9 14 develop further the TRP which is its flagship activity 11. Kenya 28 15 7 50 while IFS’ resources (administration, international 12. Sudan 1 1 network of advisers) would further benefit the 13. Uganda 4 3 1 8 enhancement of scientific capacity building in 14. Malawi 1 1 Sub-Saharan Africa. Moreover, the collaboration will 15. Mozambique 3 3 benefit IFS in terms of closer and more intensive links 16. South Africa 2 1 3 with African institutions and networks, for example 17. Tanzania 27 9 8 44 the four sub-regional nodes of AFORNET. 18. Zambia 1 1 19. Zimbabwe 3 3 6 Thematic Research Program TOTAL 76 77 63 216
The Thematic Research Program was designed for its At present, a plan is underway for the African Forest vital functions of supplementing and enhancing the Research Network (AFORNET) and the International Foundation for Science (IFS) to jointly implement this national forestry research system, retain gifted scholars,
(S) 192 Fifteen Years of Capacity Building in Forest Research in Africa Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) and inculcate high standard professional ethos. It was Table 4: Applications vs awards by year: -Thematic conceived to squarely address the issue of isolation of Research scientists and the resulting duplication of efforts and wastage of resources and opportunities. It is conceived Year Applications Grants awarded Percent as a result of realizing that research problems do not awarded recognize political boundaries and that economy of Male Female Total Projects scale could be captured if resources and expertise are Grantees Grantees Grantees shared by scientists in different countries. Therefore, 2000 12 9 3 12 2 17 the thematic research projects are meant to jump start 2001 12 5 0 5 1 8 thematic research teams with members from at least 2002 6 10 2 12 2 33 two countries with the intention of these teams 2003 15 45 2 47 7 47 continuing on with collaboration even after the 2004 20 64 7 71 11 55 completion of the AFORNET funded project. 2005 34 67 8 75 15 44 The process of implementing these collaborative TOTAL 99 200 22 222 38 projects is based on the identification of a problem of common concern by one or more individuals. The partners work together, and with the potential end Publication within the Thematic Research Projects (TRP) users or stakeholders, to clarify the theme and purpose is exceptionally encouraging. Table 5 below shows that, of the research and prepare clear plans for carrying it 61 scientific articles were generated from 38 TRP projects out, including details of organization, financing and so far. What is worth noting, however is that only 2 responsibilities. Then, the partners work together on projects are currently completed. The remaining 36 the research according to the agreed plan, sharing projects are still on-going. As these research projects responsibility for leadership and preparing reports progress, one expects more publication coming and publication together. The partners may then especially judging by the report that there are 84 more decide to continue and deepen their investigations, scientific articles on a draft stage. About half of these or work on new problems identified during the project projects (15 approved in 2005) are practically just starting implementation. For this new work, they once again to be implemented with even data not collected as yet. formulate project proposals and identify sources of Between 2000 and 2003, there is an average of 4 to 5 funding, which may not always be AFORNET. scientific articles coming out from each grant. Research teams have the option of applying for seed money by submitting promising concept notes Table 5: Scientific output by year of grant approval: to the AFORNET. The seed money is meant to bring Thematic Research together scientists to meet face-to-face while developing the full version of their proposal. This in Year Total Scientific Scientific outputs finalized itself has strengthened the team dynamics at an early no of outputs Conference Journal articles Total Grants being proce Submitted Accepted/ Published stage minimizing the possibility of communication approved prepared edings In Press breakdown at a later stage. The AFORNET through a broad consultation 2000 2 8 3 4 2 1 10 identified five research themes for this program taking 2001 1 0 1 1 0 0 2 into account its broader scope. The research activities 2002 2 4 0 6 0 5 11 under these five themes are expected to cover the 2003 7 26 3 13 1 12 29 African tropical ecosystem from high to low land 2004 11 46 2 4 2 1 9 ecosystems and from humid to dry land ecosystems. 2005 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 TOTAL388492851961 The five thematic areas of AFORNET are as follows: Theme 1: Woodland, Natural Forest Management & Biodiversity Conservation; As Table 6 overleaf shows, 22 countries in Africa Theme 2: Community Based Forestry; collaborated in 38 projects over the past five years. Theme 3: Reforestation and Rehabilitation of dry Notably; Kenya, Nigeria, Ghana and Tanzania land and degraded land; participated the most in this program. They have also Theme 4: Socio-economics and Policy issues; and collaborated with 7 to 9 other countries in 11 to 12 projects. The second group to participate well in the Theme 5: Non-timber Forest Products and program is composed of Benin, Ethiopia, Uganda, Lesser-Known Timbers. and Senegal collaborating with about 4 other This program has been running since 2000. To countries in 5 to 8 projects. date 22 countries have participated in 38 projects Most collaboration was within eco regions. The (Tables 4 and 10). Applications and awards steadily exception is collaboration among countries of East increased since 2000 sharply peaking in 2004 and 2005. African Community largely due to stronger economic
(S) 193 Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Fifteen Years of Capacity Building in Forest Research in Africa and political ties. Tanzania has been collaborating with Kenya with Nigeria in a project. The data in Table 6 Kenya and Uganda. Tanzania’s collaboration with seems to suggest that as the number of projects a country Ethiopia and Sudan seems to have come through Kenya. is involved in increases, the number of other countries Malawi’s collaboration with Kenya and Ethiopia, it collaborates with also increases by a linear function. however, is a direct consequence of contacts made in It is, therefore, important to continue with this program Forest Protection Conferences held in Ghana. Personal to enhanced more collaboration among more countries. contacts seem to have contributed for collaboration of
Table 6: Cross-country collaboration on the -Thematic Research Program
Countries
Total
Total projects Total
Zimbabwe
Zambia
Tanzania
Namibia
Malawi
Botswana
Uganda
Sudan
Rwanda
Kenya
Ethiopia
Cameroon
Togo
Senegal
Nigeria
Niger
Mauritania
Mali
Ghana
Gambia
Cote d'Ivoire Cote Benin
Western Benin * 5 5 1 2 1 1 1 8 7 Africa Cote d'Ivoire * 1 1 1 2 Gambia * 1 1 1 Ghana 5 1 * 1 1 8 3 1 12 7 Mali 1 * 1 1 2 3 Mauritania * 3 3 1 Niger 1 * 1 1 2 Nigeria 5 1 8 1 1 * 1 4 1 12 8 Senegal 1 1 3 * 5 3 Togo 1 3 1 * 3 3 Cameroon 2 1 4 * 4 3 Eastern Ethiopia * 3 1 1 1 3 6 5 Africa Kenya 1 1 3 * 1 1 4 1 6 11 8 Rwanda 1 * 1 1 2 Sudan 1 1 * 1 1 3 Uganda 1 1 4 * 3 6 4 Southern Botswana * 1 1 1 Africa Malawi 1 1 * 1 1 2 4 Namibia * 1 1 1 Tanzania 1 3 6 1 1 3 1 1 * 1 11 9 Zambia 1 1 * 1 2 Zimbabwe 1 * 1 1 TOTAL 38 22
NB. Numbers indicate the number of thematic research program projects in which two corresponding countries collaborated. Numbers in shaded cells indicate collaboration within eco-region while in clear cells indicate cross-nodal collaboration.
Grant Distribution by Research Areas such as mangroves were also undertaken under this area. The distribution of these researches among the Since 1991, a total of 254 research projects (216 YSP, eco-region is more or less uniform. However, it is 38 TRP) were funded by AFORNET in 26 countries noteworthy that half of the researches in forest ecology dealing with various forest research topics (Tables 7 were approved during the period 2003 to 2005. and 8). Out of the total, 32 projects dealt with forest A total of 24 researches in the area of silviculture ecology, making it the most frequently funded were approved since 1991 making it the third most research area. Thirteen (13) were in the area of funded research area. The research topics funded environmental forestry. Specific research topics in under this area include propagation, selection, forest ecology and environmental forestry include domestication, establishment, and nursery techniques species diversity, distribution, forest structure, including seed, germination and seedling handling composition, regeneration, impact studies and issues. Most of these research projects were in the West research on human disturbances. Ecosystem studies and Central Eco-region, with sizable more being in
(S) 194 Fifteen Years of Capacity Building in Forest Research in Africa Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) the Eastern and Northeastern Eco-region. There were this area including some traditional agroforestry only three projects approved for the Southern Eco- systems. However, they have all been under the region under this research area. Young Scientist Fellowship Program. The Eastern and About 13 research projects in the physiology/ Northeastern Eco-regions has less research projects chemistry of some important species, such as Baobab, in Agroforestry compared to the other two. Eucalyptus, Tetrapleura and few Multipurpose Tree Of the 17 research projects approved in the area Species, have been approved over the years. By and of soils half were in the Western and Central large, these studies dealt with water-use efficiency and Eco-regions. The trend across the years is not uniform chemical composition. While the projects are either, half of the total projects in soils being approved distributed fairly uniformly across the years, they during the period 1997 – 1999. There is a sharp decline have heavily concentrated on the Western and Central since 2000 in this research area. Eco-region. Another frequently funded research by The eight research projects in genetics focused AFORNET is in the area of None Wood Forest on breeding and molecular analysis. None of those Products (NWFPs) which amounts to 20 projects out projects came under the Southern Eco-region being of the total. If we disaggregate it by program, equally divided among the other two Eco-regions. however, it is the number one research area in the Half of those projects were approved during the Thematic Research Program where seven out of 20 period 1994 – 1996, with sharp decline thereafter. fall under this program. The research topics funded Research in the area of Forest Management was under this area are diverse ranging from food plants, also significant. About 14 projects fall in this research animal feeds, medicinals, bamboo, and forest honey area. Topics in this research area include growth, yield to essential oils, frankincense, orchids and sericulture. studies, modeling, forest development strategies, The distribution of research in NWFP is more or less land-use change, and indigenous forest management uniform with the Southern Eco-region being slightly systems including the role of Indigenous knowledge lower than the other two Eco-regions. The trend does in forest management. The Southern Eco-region has not show much variations either across the years if the least share of the projects compared to the other we adjust for the overall increase in grant approvals two Eco-regions. A peak in the approval of during 2003 to 2005. management research proposals seems to have been There were a total of 24 research projects reached during the period 1997 – 1999 with a marked approved in the area of socio-economics. The topics decline afterwards. under this area included poverty and livelihood, In all, 17 projects have been approved in the area people’s roles, values, attitude, participation and of Forest Utilization. Diverse topics were covered, conflict; incentives and dis-incentives, and issues among others, tree harvesting, energy (biomass, relating to social and economic roles of trees in society. carbonization, stoves), saw milling, wood properties, There was only one project done in the area of Gender. veneer, boards, pulp and paper and analysis of wood Almost half of the socio-economics research projects industries. The trend since 1991 is fairly uniform. The are approved; however in the Southern Eco-region distribution among the Eco-regions is heavily specifically in Sokoine University of Agriculture concentrated, however, in the Western and Central (SUA) of Tanzania. Very noticeably, extremely few Eco-regions with over half of the projects coming from projects were approved between 1991 and 2003 in these areas. socio-economics. Almost all were approved during Diverse projects in the area of forest protection the period 2003–2005. have been funded since 1991. About 10 research projects The 10 projects approved in the area of were approved with topics ranging from aphid, root- community forestry included topics such as local and rot fungi, termites, and shoot borer to fire and baboon traditional institutions, sustainability and assessment as pests. The distribution among the Eco-regions is of various co-management systems. The majority of fairly uniform. About half of the projects were these projects came from the Southern Eco-region and approved during the period 2003–2005. It is also were approved in the recent periods of 2003–2005. interesting that half of the projects are under the There are also eight projects each approved in Thematic Research Program, probably owing to the the area of economics and 13 in policy. Research topics nature of the problem that it is more trans-boundary. in economics include studies in market, trade, and Agroforestry has also been an important research economic evaluation while topics in policy include area for AFORNET over the years. Since 1991, a total land and tree tenure, policy analysis and policy of 23 research projects were approved in the area of impact studies, participation in policy making and Agroforestry with uniform trend until 2005. Various environmental law. Mostly these projects are done inter-cropping systems, multi-purpose tree species by the Western and Central and Eastern and and agroforestry technologies have been studied in Northeastern Eco-regions. (S) 195 Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (1) Fifteen Years of Capacity Building in Forest Research in Africa Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3)
esearch program projects approved. projects program esearch
mics
enthesis indicate the number of thematic r
ogram while approved projects those in par
Forestry
Research Areas byAreas Periods Program Research
orest Enviro- Silvicu- Botany; Physiology Forest Forest ForestAgro- Plant Soils in NWFP Forest Commu- Forest Total Forest
F Ecol- nmen- lture Ethnobo- Chemistry Gene- Manag Utilization Protec- forestry Forestry Socio- nity Econ- Policy ogy tal tany tics ement tion econo- Forestry omics
Table 7. Table
1991-1993 3 4 2 1 1 2 4 1 5 1 1 1 26 1994-1996 2 1 6 2 3 4 2 3 2 4 3 4 2 2 40 1997-1999 7 7 7 1 6 1 2 1 8 8 2 1 3 3 3 60 2000-2002 3 1 3 (1) 1 3 1 (1) 3 1 (1) (1) 3 (1) 2 21 (5) 2003-2005 12 (5) 4 3 (1) (2) 2 (1) (1) 5 (2) 4 (3) 1 (4) 3 2 (1) 7(6) 15 (2) 4 (2) 3(1) 4(2) 69 (33) TOTAL 27 (5) 13 (0)23 (2) 5 (2) 12 (1) 7 (1) 12 (2) 14 (3) 5 (5) 23 (0) 15 (2) 13 (7) 22 (2) 8 (2) 6 (2) (2) 11 216 (38)
NB. Numbers indicate the number of young scientist pr
(S) 196
Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3)
3
(3)
2 (2) 2
1 (2) 1
(1)
(1)
(1)
11 2
13
esearch program projects in which a country participated country a which in projects program esearch
(1)(1) 1
(1)(1) 0
mics
NWFP Forest Commu- ForestTotal Forest
1 (1)(1) 1
(1)
esearch program projects in that research area. research that in projects program esearch
enthesis indicate the number of thematic r thematic of number the indicate enthesis
ogram projects while those in par in those while projects ogram
e brackets indicate the total number of thematic r thematic of number total the indicate brackets e
Forestry âZâZ
Research Areas by Country by Areas Research
ogy enta tany tics ement tion Forestry econo- Forestry omics
Ecol- ronml-lture Ethnobo Chemistry Gene- Manag Utilization Protec- forestry in Socio- nity Econ- Policy
Forest Envi- Silvicu- Botany; Physiology Forest Forest Forest Plant AgroSoils
in that research area. Numbers in squar in Numbers area. research that in
NB. Numbers indicate the number of young scientist pr scientist young of number the indicate Numbers NB. (S) 197
TOTAL[5] 27 [0] 13 [2] 23 [2] 5 [1] 12 [1] 7 [2] 12 [3] 14 [5] 5 [0] 23 [2] 15 [7] 13 [2] 22 [2] 8 [2] 6 [2] 11 [38] 216
26. Zimbabwe 1 âZâZ 1 2 1(1) 1 (1) 6
25. Zambia âZâZ
24. Uganda(1) 1 3 âZâZ (1) 2 (1) (1) (1) 1(1) 1 (6) 8
23. Togo 1 âZâZ (1) (1) (1)(3) 1
22. Tanzania(2) 3 3 âZâZ 2 5 2 5(2) 2 (5) 3 (1) 10 6(1) 1 2(11) 44
21. Sudan 1 âZâZ
20.Africa South 2 âZâZ
19. Senegal(2) 1 (1) 2 (1) 2 1 (1) 2 1(5) 9
18. Rwanda (1) âZâZ
17. Nigeria(1) 1 2(1) 3 (1) 4 1(1) 1 (3) 4 (1) 7 3 5(1) 7 (1) 1 (1) (1) 3 (12) 42
14. Mozambique 1 âZâZ 1 1
13. Mauritania (2) âZâZ (1)
12. Mali (1) âZ (1) 1 1
11. Malawi 1 âZâZ (1) (1)
10. Liberia âZâZ
9. Kenya(1) 6 3 6 âZâZ 4 3 4 4 3(2) 1 5(1) 3 (3) 1 (2) 3 1(1) 1 (1) 2 (11) 0
8. Ghana(1) 2 (1) 2 (1) âZ(1) 1 (2)(3) 1 1 1 (1) (1) 1(1) 1 (12) 10
7. Gambia (1) âZ
6. Ethiopia 3 3 âZâZ (1) 2 1 (1) 1 (1)(3) 3 1(6) 4
5.d’Ivoire Cote âZâZ
4. Cameroon 2 âZâZ 1(1) 1 (2) 1 (1) 1(4) 6
3. Botswana âZâZ
2.Faso Burkina 2 1 âZâZ 1 2 3 9
1. Benin(1) 3 âZâZ (1) 1 (1) (2) (1) (1)(1) 1 (8) 5 Table 8. 8. Table Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Fifteen Years of Capacity Building in Forest Research in Africa
The forgoing indicates that research areas are not Similar surveys by FAO and IUCN show the uniform geographically. The three exceptions to this situation is even worse in Central Africa, which has rule are the research areas of ecology, protection, and the richest forests. The Democratic Republic of Congo NWFP. The Southern Eco-region appears to be strong has only one hundred professional foresters to in the agroforestry, community forestry, and manage forests covering an area three times the size socio-economic studies, while the core research areas of France. Congo-Brazzaville’s Faculty of Forestry such as silviculture, management, genetics and was ransacked in 1997/98 and only re-opened three physiology are strong in the other two Eco-regions. years ago. The Central African Republic’s faculty was Forest utilization is strong only in the Western and also pillaged. Central Africa Eco-regions. The CIFOR newsletter summarizes that the There is also a welcome trend of increasing African continent is not training the foresters it funding for forest social sciences. This research area needs. Unless it begins to do so, the downward has been weak during the earlier years. There is weak spiral of declining funding and results will funding for agroforestry and soils in recent years, accelerate. The international community should however. This may increase the disciplinary rift not leave African governments to wrestle with between forestry and agriculture, which should be this problem alone. Donors need to provide noted. Geographic variations in research areas must greater support to African institutions and bring be checked for that reason. If the variation is due to more students to study in their own countries. difference in availability of expertise as opposed to African authorities need to seriously invest in the inherent ecological differences of the regions, this their national scientific institutions. However, might call for action on the part of AFORNET to since the national forestry science communities improve cross nodal collaboration. are small, there are many benefits from regional collaboration. The launching of the CBFR, some 15 years ago, Conclusion and its organic transformation into a continent–wide There is every reason to intensify efforts to support network in 1999 came with the realization that the scientific research and capacity building related to need to build capacity in forest research in Africa is African forestry resources. In a recent newsletter from immense and AFORNET has a crucial role to play in CIFOR, two surveys of the status of higher education addressing this need. AFORNET’s performance and and research in the forestry sector in Africa are its notable achievement are mainly due to the careful summarized.1 The conclusions are disturbing. They design of the Network that has been reached through show that the forestry institutions are severely consensus building with all partners and under-funded. Many Research Institutes and stakeholders. AFORNET at the moment is the only University Departments are poorly equipped and have pan-African forest research network that has been forced to close down for certain periods. Students succeeded to mobilize this scale of constituency of highly motivated forest researchers and forest experts that manage to graduate lack research experience and to work together in trans-disciplinary undertakings thus cannot stand up to meet the needs of to address the critical issues of Africa’s sustainable governments, communities, or the private sector. forest management. The survey by ICRAF covered 20 institutions in The African Forest Research Network, as a Burkina Faso, Kenya, Mali, Nigeria, South Africa, pioneer pan-African forest research institution, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zimbabwe, and should strive and ensure that it transforms itself as included many of the region’s best universities. Of an authoritative research council and broaden its these, only two have significant funding from donors. scope to attract several donors to support its Over the decade 1993-2002, the number of forestry innovative programme on demand-driven research Bachelor degrees handed out by the twenty institutions leading to sustainable forest management in Africa. surveyed rose. However, the number of graduate (masters) degrees declined significantly. Meanwhile, 1 " it has become much harder for students to get visas CIFOR’s Forestry Policy Expert Listserver (30 March, 2005) The African Forester, an Endangered Species" and scholarships to go to graduate schools abroad.
(S) 198 Charcoal Production as SustainableDiscov. Innov., Source 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNETof Livelihood Special Edition No. 3) in Afram Plains and Kintampo North Districts in Ghana
Blay1, D., L. Damnyag1, K. Twum-Ampofo2 and F. Dwomoh1
1Forestry Research Institute of Ghana, Kumasi, Ghana 2Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
Abstract Charcoal production as a sustainable source of livelihood to the producers in the local communities was assessed. Questionnaire was administered to seventy-one (71) charcoal producers sampled from six communities in Afram Plains and Kintampo North districts of the Eastern and Brong Ahafo Regions of Ghana, respectively. The results indicate that over 80% of the respondents depend solely on charcoal production for their livelihood. The preferred tree species for charcoal production included Anogeissus leiocarpus (Kane), Terminalia macroptera/glauscesence (Ongo), and Albizia coriaria (Krekekye) which were found to be moderately available. Alternative and potential species included Detarium microcarpum (kusie toffee), Afzelia africana (papao), Burkea africana (halltie), Neem, Dawdawa, Mango and Odum. The results are discussed in relation to stocking of tree species and the need for enhancing the resource base of the enterprise as well as building capacity of producers on best practices of producing charcoal.
Key words: charcoal production, Anogeissus leiocarpus, Terminalia macroptera, sustainable livelihood, tree species stocking
Résumé La production de charbon comme source de subsistance durable pour ses producteurs au sein des communautés rurales a été évaluée. Un questionnaire a été distribué à soixante-onze (71) producteurs de charbon choisis aléatoirement dans les plaines d’Afram et les districts au nord de Kitampo, dans les régions orientales de Brong Ahafo, au Ghana. Les résultats ont prouvé que plus de 80% de répondants dépendent uniquement de la production de charbon pour leur survie. Les espèces préférées pour la production de charbon étaient Anogeissus leicocarpus (Kane), Terminaria macroptera/glauscesence (Ongo), Albisia cariaria (Krekekye) qui étaient relativement disponibles. Detarium mirocarpum (kussie toffee), Afzelia africana (papao), Burkea africana (halltie), le neem, daudawa, dans les plaines d’Afram et les districts nord de Kitampo et Odum étaient de espèces potentielles de substitution. Les résultats discutent des problèmes de disponibilité des espèces ligneuses et les besoins de renforcer les ressources de base de l’entreprise et d’édifier des capacités des producteurs sur les meilleures pratiques de production du charbon.
Mots-clés␣ : Production de charbon, Anogeissus leicocarpus, Terminaria macroptera, subsistance soutenue, disponibilité des espèces ligneuses
Introduction use of charcoal. Charcoal use is more predominant in urban households, where 69% of charcoal is consumed. Wood fuel represents the largest source of energy The annual per capita consumption is around 180 kg consumed in Ghana. The total wood fuel consumption and the total annual consumption is about 700,000 in 2000 was estimated as 18-20 million tonnes of solid tonnes, 30% of which is consumed in the capital, Accra. wood equivalent, with annual charcoal consumption Ninety-one (91%) of total round-wood production is of about 1.1 million tonnes (FAO, 2001c). About 1.29 used as fuel wood and for charcoal with the remaining million Ghanaian households representing 31% of the (9%) being used as industrial round-wood, mainly total number of households in Ghana use charcoal for timber (Agyarko, 1999). cooking (Stosch et al., 2002). FAO (2001a) reports that Although Charcoal production is carried out in Ghana has the highest per capita wood energy demand different parts of the country, it is concentrated in the in all of West Africa and it is among the top two in the transition zones, between the forest and the Savannah
(S) 199 Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Charcoal Production as Sustainable Source of Livelihood In Afram Plains And Kintampo North Districts In Ghana woodlands. About 67% of the wood fuel is supplied of the district are forest and account for such forest from non-forest land mostly in the transitional products as timber, plantain, cassava and cocoyam; savannah zone (Stosch et al., 2002). It has been while the northern edges are savanna and produce estimated that, about 60% of the charcoal supplies to yam, maize, rice, and groundnuts. The annual rainfall Accra are sourced from Brong Ahafo, 25% from the in the district is 1100 to 1200mm. Afram Plains, 10% from the Volta region and about The Afram Plains District consists generally of low 5% from the Central region (Nketiah et al., 1988). lying lands and has land size of 5,040 square kilometers. Although there have been a lot of studies on charcoal ° ° production in Nigeria, Ghana, Togo and Benin, these It is lies on latitude 0 and longitude 07 . The terrain studies focused on the economics of charcoal comprises savanna vegetation, characterized by short production and consumption as well as the production deciduous fire resistant tress, often widely spaced and processes and techniques (Foley, 1986; Nketiah et al., a ground flora composed of grass of various heights. 1988; Girard, 2002; Stassen, 2002). Thus, there is little Riverine forests occur along the major rivers and streams or no information on the impact of charcoal production of the savanna zone and the larger stretches are and consumption on the environment and as a cultivated by villagers who settle near them. The annual sustainable source of livelihood for the local rainfall in the district is 1300 to 1400mm communities within the sub-region. With the increasing demographic pressures in Ghana, demand Sampling procedure and administration of questionnaire for energy from the traditional sources is likely to accentuate. In the absence of alternative and cheaper Two reconnaissance visits were made to these districts source of energy, this implies increased charcoal to select the communities that are major charcoal production and consumption, with the attendant production centres through key informants. Stratified resource-base depletion and consequent negative random sampling procedure was employed to obtain impact on the environment and livelihoods. a representative sample and sample units for the This study was undertaken to determine the interview. Two strata were used: community engaged importance of charcoal production as a sustainable in low and high charcoal production activities. Using source of livelihood; identify species commonly used this criterion, three communities for each stratum for charcoal production as well as potential substitute were selected. In selecting the sample units, species; and determine the level of availability of each communities engaged in charcoal production at a species from the perspective of the producers. lower scale were allocated 8% of the sample size, while those engaged in this activity at a higher scale Methods were allocated 25%, constituting the total sample size of seventy one (71). Study area Questionnaire was administered to the charcoal Large-scale charcoal producing sites in the country are located in Kintampo in the Brong Ahafo region producers obtained in the study areas in April and July and Dome in Afram Plains in the Eastern Region. 2006, using focus group discussions and face-to-face Charcoal production is mainly the occupation of interviews. The information collected included Sissalas who come from the Northern part of the demographic characteristics of the respondents; tree country. They are widespread and found in almost species used for charcoal production, level of availability all the charcoal producing communities, but are of each of these species, methods used in charcoal highly concentrated in the transition zone. The production, average monthly income of respondents, method used is the earth mound method which is proportion of incomes from charcoal production and not very efficient and has a carbonization ratio of level of dependence of producers on this activity. about eight tonnes of wood to one tonne of charcoal. Generally, charcoal producers operate individually Data analysis but may help one another at different stages of production in concentrated areas. Thus, the study was The data collected were codified and analyzed using conducted in six communities namely, Tahiru Kura, frequency tables, charts, cross tabulations and Atta Kura and Kaaka in Kintampo North and Dome, Chi-square contingency tables in Statistical Package Tutum, and Yakubu in Afram Plains districts. for Social Scientists (SPSS) software. Kintampo North District has land size of 7,662 square kilometers. It lies between latitude -01° and - Results and Discussion 02° and longitude 08° and 09°. It is located in the northern part of the region and shares common Dependence on charcoal production boundaries with Atebubu in the east, Nkoranza in Over 80% of the respondents depend mainly on the south, Wenchi in the west and an inter-regional charcoal production for their livelihood as 80 to 100 boundary with West Gonja in the Northern Region. percent of their income is obtained from this activity The district spans the two major vegetational zones (Table 1). This corroborates the findings of Nketiah et in Ghana: forest and savannah. The southern fringes al. (1988) study that charcoal production is a full-time
(S) 200 Charcoal Production as Sustainable Source of Livelihood In Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Afram Plains And Kintampo North Districts In Ghana
business in the Savanna zone. The results also show the rest of the communities, those who earned over that the majority who depend mainly on this activity 80% of their income from charcoal activities are still for their livelihood are the young ones in the active the majority. In this community, charcoal producers population age group of 30-39. They are found to be who earn less than 80% of their income from charcoal the majority in the charcoal production in this study. production are engaged mainly in farming, Among the respondents in all the communities, particularly yam whilst supplementing their income those who depend solely on charcoal production for with earnings from minor charcoal activities. A similar their livelihood are the majority (Figure 1). Even in situation is observed in Atta Kura in the Kintampo Tahiru Kura in Kintampo North district, where North and Dome in the Afram Plains districts. charcoal production is on a lower-scale compared to
Table 1: Percentage income from charcoal production and age of respondents
Percentage of Age of respondents respondents average (in numbers) monthly income from charcoal production 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-70 Total
0.5-19.5 1 1 1 2 20.5-39.5 1 2 40.5-59.5 1 1 1 3 60.5-79.5 2 2 4 80.5-100 6 18 12 6 4 46
Total respondents 9 23 14 6 5 57
Source: Survey Data (2006)
18 0.5-19.5 2 0.5-39.5 40.5-5 9.5 60 .5-79.5 80.5-100
16
14
12
10
8
6 Charcoal % Income % Charcoal
4
2
0 Dome Tumtum Yakubu Atta kura Tahiru Ku ra Kaaka Commun ity
Figure 1: Number of respondents in communities and percentage income from charcoal production
Species range and preference for charcoal production as it is ranked first with the lowest mean of 1.4. Albizia Respondents ranked the tree species used for charcoal coriaria (Krekekye) and Terminalia macroptera/ production in order of preference on a scale of 1 to 5, glauscesence (Ongo) followed on the preference scale using the local or acceptable common names of the with mean rankings of 1.6 and 2.4, respectively. trees indicated in Table 2. For all the communities, Erythrophleum guineensis (Protrodum) is least preferred Anogeissus leiocarpus (Kane) was the first choice species for the charcoal production with a mean ranking of
(S) 201 Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Charcoal Production as Sustainable Source of Livelihood In Afram Plains And Kintampo North Districts In Ghana 3.7. Though each community has its set of tree species like kane that produces heavy and sparkless used most for charcoal production, Anogeissus charcoal. leiocarpus (Kane) is still the leading species, except in Tahirukura where it is ranked third. Potential substitutes for major species These results are consistent with the findings Alternative tree species for charcoal production in the of Stosch et al. (2002) on fuel consumption in three study area are presented in Table 3. Unlike the types of household charcoal stoves in Ghana where preferred species, some are moderately available and Kane and Ongo were found to be the species others are scarce in the sense that they are not easily commonly used for charcoal. The main reason for available for charcoal production. For instance, the preferred tree species for charcoal production Detarium microcarpum (Kusie toffee) quite apart from is the quality of charcoal obtained from these tree its multiple uses in Table 3, it is found only in areas species. Retailers and charcoal users prefer species that are hilly or drier with gravel.
Table 2: Preferred tree species for charcoal production
Species used most Kintampo North District Communities Afram Plains Communities (Local names) AttaKura TahiruKura Kaaka Dome combined
N Mean N Mean N Mean N Mean mean N aNkrankudua 0 na 0 na 0 na 20 3.2 3.2 20 bSekadua/Kane 20 1.5 10 2.7 11 1 20 1 1.4 61 cKrekekye 9 2.3 10 1 0 na 0 na 1.6 19 dAdankopaboa 18 2.6 10 2.5 11 2.8 8 4 2.9 47 eOngo 16 2.8 9 3.8 11 2.2 17 1.5 2.4 53 fkedeler 4 3.0 0 na 0 na 0 na 3.0 4 gBowie 5 3.4 0 na 0 na 0 na 3.0 6 hPotrodum 6 3.7 0 na 0 na 0 na 3.8 6 iKrebentey 6 4.0 0 na 10 4 17 2.5 3.2 33
Source: Survey Data (2006) N = number of respondents; na = not available Scientific names of species: bAnogeissus leiocarpus; eTerminalia avicennoides; dPterocarpus erinaceus; aVitellaria paradoxa; i Lophira lanceolata; hErythrophleum guineensis; gPseudocedrela kotschyi
Table 3: Alternative trees species for charcoal production and their alternative uses
Respondents knowledge on alternative uses of the species Alternative species Fodder Food Stake Lumber Fire drum medicine wood
SenyaM ----- +- Afzelia africanaS +-++++- MahogannyS ---+- -+ Burkea africanaS +++++ -+ PrekeseM ----+-- Detarium microcarpumS -+-++ --
Source: Survey Data (2006) * multiple response M = moderately available, H = readily available, S= scarce (+) =Yes; (-) = No
(S) 202 Charcoal Production as Sustainable Source of Livelihood In Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Afram Plains And Kintampo North Districts In Ghana
Potential tree species identified for charcoal stocked, low stocking and not available. As indicated production included; Neem, Odum, Sheanut tree, in Table 4, majority of the respondents have observed Annona senegalensis (Bakanga), Vitex doniana (Aara), that their preferred tree species for charcoal Mango tree, Daudawa, and Teak. Though these could production are moderately available. However, a few be used for charcoal production they are not used are very scarce e.g. Erythrophleum guineensis either because of their timber value e.g. odum or they (Potrodum) and Pseudocedrela kotschyi (Bowela), though are edible fruit trees e.g. sheanut, Daudawa, Vitex in the past they were readily available. It is possible doniana and Mango trees. that, over time, the other preferred species may also become unavailable if steps are not taken to replenish Knowledge on availability of preferred tree species them. It is not surprising that in Atta-kura, Kaaka, Table 4 presents respondents assessment of stocking and Dome communities where charcoal production levels of the charcoal tree species based on proximity is carried out on a larger-scale the tree species are to processing centres. On the basis of this criterion, moderately stocked compared to Tahiru-kura where species are rated as highly stocked, moderately it is done on a smaller-scale.
Table 4: Knowledge on stocking level of tree species for charcoal production
Tree species & rating % of respondents indicating level of availability of species (Scientific names and local names in brackets) Kintampo North District Afram Plains Total Tahiru kura Atta kuraa Kaaka Dome Lophira lanceolata (Krebentey) √ High* 56.3 na 33.3 na 100 √ Moderate* 6.3 na 33.3 na na √ Low* 37.5 na 33.3 100 na √ Nil* Na na na na Pterocarpus erinaceus (Adankopaboa) √ High 35.4 100 38.9 na na √ Moderate 45.8 na 61.1 100 na √ Low 18.8 na na na 100 √ Nil Na na na na na Vitellaria paradoxa( Nkrankudua) √ High na na na na na √ Moderate 60 na na na 60 √ Low 40 na na na 40 √ Nil na na na na na Anogeissus leiocarpus (Kane) √ High 31.1 100 45.5 na na √ Moderate 54.1 na 50.0 100 60 √ Low 14.8 na 5 na 40 √ Nil Na na na na na Albizia coriaria (Krekekye) √ High 15.8 na 33.3 na na √ Moderate 78.9 100 55.6 na na √ Low 55.3 na 11.1 na na √ Nil na na na na na Erythrophleum guineensis ( Potrodum) √ High na na na na na √ Moderate na na na na na √ Low 83.3 na 83.3 na na √ Nil 16.7 na 16.7 na na Terminalia macroptera (Ongo) √ High 39.4 100 25.0 na na √ Moderate 54.5 na 58.3 100 na √ Low na na na na na √ Nil 6.1 na 16.7 na na Pseudocedrela kotschyi (Bowela) √ High 20 na na na na √ Moderate 80 na 25.0 na na √ Low na na 75.0 na na √ Nil na na na na na
Source: Survey Data (2006). High* = readily available; Moderate* = moderately available; Low*= Scarce; Nil* = unavailable
(S) 203 Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Charcoal Production as Sustainable Source of Livelihood In Afram Plains And Kintampo North Districts In Ghana
The major cause for the reduction in stock of tree tree species and would not necessarily be used for species for charcoal production is shifting cultivation charcoal production. (Table 5). Firewood gathering also ranked high. Following from this, the main implication is that However, logging was rated low as a factor the resource-base for the charcoal production in responsible for depletion of the resource base on the future is not secured in the country and may not be scale point of 1 to 5. Surface burning (earth mound) able to support the increasing demand and the method used for the charcoal production by all the livelihood of the charcoal producers and their chain respondents due to lack of knowledge on alternative of distributors and traders in the country. On the methods, is one significant underlying factor also basis of this, it is necessary appropriate that policies responsible for the reduction in the stock of tree and strategies are formulated and implemented to species for charcoal. Earth mound method have been ensure that charcoal production is sustainable. This found to be inefficient in charcoal production can be achieved through specific actions such as compared to other methods (Agarwal, 1980; Roos, planting of desirable species for charcoal production 1979; Earl, 1974), implying a more frequent harvesting in plantations or in agro-forestry systems; of the wood for the production, leading to a faster introducing efficient processing and management depletion of the resource base. techniques to producers; ensuring the regeneration of desired species through protection of natural Table 5: Factors responsible for reduction in tree species regenerations in farms and fallow lands; and for charcoal production identifying other potentially important, but lesser used, species for charcoal production through Factors for reduction Mini- Maxi- Mean Std. research. in trees N mum mum Deviation
Shifting cultivation 69 1 3 1.07 0.31 References Firewood gathering 3 1 3 2.00 1.00 Charcoal production 60 1 4 2.27 0.58 Agarwal, B. 1980. The Wood fuel Problem and the Diffusion of Bush fires 51 2 3 2.55 0.50 Rural␣ Innovations. Report by University of Sussex Logging activities 18 2 4 3.83 0.51 Science Policy Research Unit to U.K. ␣ Tropical Products Institute, 186p. Source: Survey Data (2006). N = number of respondents Agyarko T. 1999. Forestry outlook study for Africa, Ghana. The results in Table 5 reinforce the view that, wood Ministry of Lands and Forestry, Accra, p.49. for charcoal production are sourced mainly from farm Earl, D.E. 1974. Charcoal - An Andre Mayer Fellowship Report. fallows (83%). These areas are mainly old or Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization, p.98. Illus. abandoned yam farms, where trees were burned when FAO 2001a. Forest Resources Assessment 2000. FAO, Rome. the farms were being prepared for cultivation. Charcoal FAO 2001b. Wood fuel data analysis. Ghana, Final Report producers negotiate for the dried up wood to produce by Riegelhaupt, E. GCP/RAF/354/EC. “Wood energy the charcoal, since it is easier to process dried up planning and policy development”. Accra. p.21. material into charcoal than the freshly cut wood. Foley, 1986. Charcoal Making in developing Countries. Conclusion and Policy Implication Earthcan-International Institute for Environment and Development technical Report No. 5. p.214. The study has analyzed the production of charcoal Girard, P. 2002. Charcoal Production and Use in Africa: as a sustainable source of livelihood to the producers What Future? Unasylva, 153 (211): 30-34 in two districts of Ghana. Surface burning method is Nketia, K.S. Hagan, E.B. and Addo, S.T. 1988. The Charcoal the main technique applied in the study areas and cycle in Ghana. Final report submitted to UNDP/ species commonly used are Anogeissus leiocarpus National Energy Boarb, Ghana. 184p. (Kane), Terminalia macroptera/glauscesence (Ongo) and Roos, W. and Roos, U.␣ 1979. Survey of Simple Kiln Albizia coriaria (Krekekye). The stocking levels of these Systems␣ and Recommendations for the Selection of desirable species have reduced. Alternative species Kilns.␣ GermanAppropriate Technology Exchange for the charcoal production identified included Report, 1979, p.49. Illus. Detarium microcarpum (kusie toffee), Afzelia Africana, and Burkea Africana (halltie), among others. These Stassen, H.E. 2002. Development in Charcoal Production species, which have multiple uses, are scarce Technology. Unasylva, 53(211): 34-35. implying they can not be relied upon as substitutes Stosch, L. and Quaye, W. 2002. A study of fuel consumption to the first choice species in future. Other potential in three types of household charcoal stoves in Ghana. species for charcoal production such as the Neem, A final report submitted to EnterpriseWorks/VITA, Daudawa, Mango tree, Odum, are major economic Accra. p.28.
(S) 204 Conservation Status, Natural RegenerationDiscov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNETPattern Special and Edition No. 3) Shoot Borer Susceptibility by Khaya Ivorensis and K. Anthotheca Genotypes in Nigeria
Oni, P. I. and A. B. I. Igboanugo
Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria, P.M.B. 5054 Jericho, Ibadan, Nigeria
Abstract Two members of the African Mahoganies (Khaya ivorensis and Khaya anthotheca) were investigated in their main eco-zones for their conservation status in Nigeria. Stocking density, natural regeneration pattern and ecological variables impact on them were investigated. Assessment of morphological attributes as well as susceptibility to shoot borer (Hyspyla robusta) was also investigated under nursery conditions for the various genotypes from both Nigeria and Ghana. Findings revealed a generally low population status for the mother trees (>10cm dbh) with (0.66 ha-1) in the transition zone, ( 0.63 ha-1) in the dry deciduous forest and (0.71 ha-1) in moist deciduous for K. ivorensis. For K. anthotheca, (0.43 ha-1) in the transition zone, (0.4 ha-1) ha in the dry deciduous forest and (0.5 ha-1 ) in the moist deciduous forest zone. Across the three eco-zones, more K. ivornesis were encountered (14) compared with K. anthotheca (8). Eco-zones, comparison indicated more individuals in the moist deciduous forest (8) for both species compared with either the transition dry forest zones. Interactions between eco-zones and stoking densities was not significant. Range-wide the two species were predominantly endemic to between Latitude 5°N- 8°N which coincides with the lowland rainforest forest sub-region of Nigeria. Natural regeneration was low ranging between (2.5ha-1) to (3.5ha-1) for K. ivorensis and between (0.66ha-1) to (2.0ha-1 ) in K. anthotheca. Ecological variables assessment for both mother trees and natural regeneration were not positively correlated but rather intensity of disturbance and disforestation were more significant. Nursery genotypes evaluation for Ghana genotypes revealed a mean total plant height of (0.6m ±0.24) for K. anthotheca and (0.65m ±0.17) for K. ivorensis, while (0.71 ± 0.1) was recorded for Nigeria K. ivorensis one year after potting (1YAP) but no shoot borer attack in all the genotypes for the two countries. By second year, various levels of shoot borer attack were observed; Ghana genotypes, K ivorensis (89%) and K. anthotheca (78%) but the heaviest was observed on K ivorensis from Nigeria (122.5%). Present findings indicates serious threat to the remaining germplasm hence the need for more conscious drastic sustainable management plan.
Key words: K. ivorensis, K. anthotheca, stocking, natural regeneration, genotypes, shoot borer susceptibility
Résumé Deux espèces du groupe d’acajous africains (Khaya ivorensis et Khaya anthotheca ) ont été étudiées dans leurs zones écologiques principales pour savoir leur état de conservation au Nigéria. La densité des arbres sur pieds, le mode de régénération naturelle et les variables écologiques ayant un impact sur ces espèces ont été étudiés. Les caractères morphologiques et la sensibilité des espèces au foreur des bourgeons (Hyspyla robusta) ont été également étudié au niveau des pépinière pour les divers génotypes du Nigéria et du Ghana. Les résultats ont révélé un niveau généralement bas de peuplements d’arbres mères (dhp >10 cm) avec 0,66 individus par hectare dans la zone de transition, 0,63 individus par hectare dans les forêts décidues de zone aride et 0,71 pieds à ha dans des zones de forêts décidues humides pour K. ivorensis. La densité par hectare des arbres mères de K. anthotheca était de 0,43 dans la zone de transition, 0,4 pieds dans la forêt de zone aride et de 0,5 pieds dans la forêt décidue de zone humide. À travers les trois écozones on a relevé plus de K. ivorensis (14) en comparaison de K. anthotheca (8). La comparaison des écozones a révélé plus d’individus dans la forêt caduque humide (8) pour les deux espèces en comparaison de l’une ou l’autre forêt des zones de transition. Les interactions entre des écozones et les densités sur pieds n’étaient pas significatives. La plupart des deux espèces étaient principalement endémiques entre la latitude 5°N- 8°N qui coïncide à la sous-région du Nigéria avec la forêt tropicale humide de basse altitude. La régénération naturelle était basse et variait entre 2,5 et 3,5 pieds par ha pour K. ivorensis et entre 0,66 et 2,0 pieds par ha pour de K. anthotheca. L’évaluation des variables écologiques pour des arbres mères et la régénération naturelle n’ont pas été positivement corrélées mais l’intensité de perturbation et la déforestation étaient plus significatives. L’évaluation des génotypes en pépinière une année après la mise en pot; a révélé une hauteur moyenne du plant de 0,6 m ±0,24 pour K. anthotheca issu des génotypes du Ghana et 0,65m ±0,17 pour K. ivorensis, tandis que cette taille était de 0,71 m ± 0,1 pour K. ivorensis du Nigéria, mais aucune attaque par les foreurs des bougeons n’a été enregistrée chez tous les génotypes pour les deux pays. A la deuxième année, différents niveaux d’attaque par le foreur des bourgeons ont été notés. Ces attaques étaient respectivement de 89% et 78% chez les génotypes de K. ivorensis et K. anthotheca du Ghana, mais les plus lourds (122,5%) sur K. ivorensis du Nigéria. Les présents résultats ont révélé une menace sérieuse au germoplasme restant d’où la nécessité se fait sentir de mettre en place un plan durable, plus perspicace et énergique de gestion.
Mots clés : K. ivorensis, K. anthotheca, basse régénération naturelle, génotypes, susceptibilité de foreur des bourgeons
(S) 205 Conservation Status, Natural Regeneration Pattern and Shoot Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Borer Susceptibility by Khaya ivorensis and K. anthotheca Genotypes in Nigeria Introduction using a multidisciplinary approach for the remaining germplasm through sustainable ex-situ conservation African Mahoganies are quite diverse and very rich for their improved genotypes, as well as developing in various timber tree species of high economic appropriate integrated strategy for the reduction of importance and constitute one of the best groups of their shoot borer attack in Nigeria, various tropical timber tree species (Hall and Swaine, 1981; investigations were carried out in the species range Hawthorne, 1995). The members of these group in Nigeria to evaluate the species current population include Khaya, Entandrophrgma Guarea and Lovoa status, natural regeneration as well as various species. Economically, they constitute the most ecological variables affecting the two species under valuable tropical timber world-wide often exploited in-situ conservation and genotypes susceptibility to for various high quality furniture and other the shoot borer attack. wood-based industrial products. These species are found naturally throughout the moist Materials and Method semi-deciduous and dry forest zone of West Africa especially in Cameroon, Ghana, Nigeria and Cote Eco-geographic survey d’Ivoire (Hall and Swaine, 1981; Hawthorne, 1995). An initial review of literature on reported range of In the past, timber from these species contributed the two species was carried out and was followed by significantly to the timber exports of this sub-region. the collation of herbarium specimens from Forestry On the average, these group of timbers accounted for Research Institute Herbarium (FHI) which assisted 15-30% timber exports of these countries, especially in the production of an initial distribution map for in Nigeria. the range of the species in Nigeria. Three forest However, despite their high market values and eco-zones were identified and were represented by exports potential, exploitation by the timber (i) Forest savanna transition zone, (ii) dry deciduous industries have depended largely on natural forest and (iii) moist deciduous forest. Following population from the forest without any conscious these classifications, genotypes for the two species effort at plantation establishment for these species. were identified and mapped based on their The immediate problem had been their over co-ordinates and the different vegetation types. exploitation and had resulted in serious genetic Within each zone, each of the population was mapped depletion of these species. The average resource live and each mature tree (matured mother individuals of the mahogany was put at 18 years in Ghana (Alder, whose dbh > 10 cm) was considered as a genotype to 1989) while in Nigeria and Cote d’Ivoire the situation develop a distribution map as shown in the result is not particularly better. Field observations for the section (Figure 1). Each genotype was assessed for existing plantations showed high species mortality crookedness and straightness as a function of the rates or at best crocked bole forms in the species effect of shoot borer on the bole before branching. resulting from high susceptibility to shoot borer Each genotype was also tagged for future fruit (Hyspyla robusta) Moore, attack which often affects collections and phenological monitoring program their timber market values (Atuahenre, 1972; and the reconciliation of the fruit with the seedlings Ofosu-Aseidu et al., 1992). In spite of the decline in later. For the genotypes encountered they were these species in West Africa sub-region, it had been assessed for various morphological parameters indicted that the demand for the Africa Mahogany including; diameter at breast height (dbh) tree height may continue to increase indefinitely due to short at branching, bole forms (moderate straight to supply from South East Asia and Brazil. These crookedness) canopy cover and light gaps. All mother multiple problem have, therefore, put the West trees of same species observed in each location were African Mahoganies under serious exploitation threat considered as a provenance in each of the eco-zones. and hence their sustainability in areas where volumes Only mother trees with desirable traits were can still be found eventually selected for monitoring for flowering and Khaya ivorensis and K. anthotheca, which are subsequent fruits collection. Information collected endemic to the rainforest zone of the West Africa were recorded in a specialized data sheet prepared sub-region, are two of the most highly priced of the for the study as stated above. Data obtained were later African Mahoganies and often referred to as Lagos subjected to appropriate statistical analysis. To mahogany. Unfortunately, these two species appear determine factors influencing natural regeneration of more susceptible to the shoot borer (Hypsipyla robusta) the Khaya species, each mother tree identified and attack unlike their savanna counter part Khaya selected, had a starting point located at the base from sengalensis, which is not only faster growing but base of the tree, a 10m-60m transect was laid in the moderately resistant to the shoot borer attack. To four cardinal directions depending on the canopy and provide a data base for effective in-situ management was followed by sub-plots of 15 meters for assessment
(S) 206 Conservation Status, Natural Regeneration Pattern and Shoot Borer Susceptibility by Khaya ivorensis and K. anthotheca Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Genotypes in Nigeria of all forms of natural regeneration. Each transect was from the south east. Khaya ivorensis showed more assessed systematically for each genotype and for the extended distribution to the savanna transition zone provenance. The total number of natural compared with K. anthotheca while K. anthotheca on regeneration, pattern of natural regeneration and the other hand was more frequently distributed in other ecological variables that may possibly influence the moist deciduous rainforest zone. The rarity of K. natural regeneration including relative humidity, ivorensis in the moist deciduous forest could probably light gaps, inter-tree distances were assessed. be due to higher light intensity required compared Findings from the field survey were as presented in with K. anthotheca. Both species were well distributed the results section. within the dry deciduous forest, which coincides with the zone of high rainfall as well as good sunshine Nursery genotypes evaluation studies Figure 1. After the laboratory studies for viability investigations, the nursery work started. Seedlings Mature trees stocking density (Relative abundance and were raised under the propagator for one and half distribution) months before potting out into poly-pots at Within the range of mahogany species in Nigeria, the approximately 45 days after sowing. Seedlings from two Khaya species under study were predominantly both species were monitored for shoot borer attacks, endemic to between Latitude 5ºN- 8ºN which coincides the degree of tolerance and susceptibility as borer with the lowland rainforest forest sub-region of presented in the results section of the paper. Nigeria. Relative abundance showed that, K. ivorensis is more abundant followed by K. anthteheca (Figure 1). Results and Discussion The two species (Khaya ivorensis and K. anthotheca) were more frequently observed in the forest reserve, strict Eco-geographic distribution for K. ivorensis and K. natural reserves (SNR) and national parks. The anthotheca observed stocking density for these two species was The natural distribution pattern and stocking density less than 1 tree per hectare which further confirmed for both Khaya ivorensis and K. anthotheca across the the extent of threat to the remaining germplasm within three eco-zones is as shown in Figure 1. It could be the species range. From Table 1, it could be observed observed that both species demonstrated very low that the majority of the relics of the species were found density across the three main eco-zones. Khaya in forest reserves where logging appeared to be ivorensis was, however, more frequently distributed moderately regulated; while within the natural forest, in the south west of its range, while K. anthotheca was relative abundance was low due to illegal felling and more endemic to the south east of the range. However, uncontrolled exploitation. The zone of the species Khaya anthotheca had a fairly restricted distribution distribution also coincides with areas of highest timber in the south west but extended to the south central trade in Nigeria.
1 2 K. ivorenis K. anthotheca 3 1 Forest savanna transition zone 2 Dry deciduous rain forest 3 Moist deciduous forest
Figure 1: Map of Nigeria showing K. ivorensis and K. anthotheca
Source: Voucher Specimens and Field Survey, 2005 (S) 207 Conservation Status, Natural Regeneration Pattern and Shoot Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Borer Susceptibility by Khaya ivorensis and K. anthotheca Genotypes in Nigeria Table 1: Relative abundance and stocking density of K. ivorensis and K. anthotheca in Nigeria
Species type Ecozones and number of genotypes encountered
Ecozones Transition rainforest Moist deciduous forest Dry deciduous forest
Khaya ivorensis 4 (6) or (0.66ha-1) 5 (7) or (0.71ha-1) 5 (8) or (0.63 ha-1) Khaya anthotheca 3(7) or (0.43ha-1) 3(6) or (0.5ha-1) 2(5) or (0.4 ha-1)
*Values in parenthesis indicate average hectares surveyed for both species
Natural regeneration pattern and ecological variables assessment
Table 2: Natural regeneration for K. ivorensis and K. anthotheca in Nigeria
Species type Ecozones and no of genotypes encountered
Ecozones Transition rainforest Dry deciduous Moist deciduous forest
Khaya ivorensis 5 (2) (2.5 ha-1) 6 (2) (3.0 ha-1) 7 (2) (3.5 ha-1) Khaya anthotheca 3 (2) (0.66 ha-1) 4(2) (2.0 ha-1) 4 (2) (2.0 ha-1)
*Values in first parenthesis indicate average hectares surveyed and the second indicates species ha-1
Table 3: Effect of ecological variables on Khaya K. ivorensis and K. anthotheca characters and light gaps in Nigeria
Species type Location/ Bole Crown Crown Light No of Genotypes height (m) diameter depth gaps (%) Wildlings No (m) (m) (m)
Khaya Aponmu (AP3) 15.2 15.0 6.0 80 4.00 ivorensis Aponmu (AP5) 30.00 8.0 6.0 30 3.00
Ubiaja (UB1) 15 6.0 5.0 80 5.0 Okomu (OK11) 27.0 20.0 12 30 6.0
Khaya Okomu (OK1) 22.0 9.0 7.0 50.0 5.0 anthotheca (OK2) 20.0 20.0 6.0 90.0 6.0
Natural regeneration assessment showed that, resulting, especially, from over-exploitation of the both species demonstrate poor rate for natural forests which did not give regeneration any regeneration (Table 2). One of the most physically significance chance of survival. Kessler (1992) and Oni observable factors responsible for the observed pattern (1999) indicated that natural regeneration do not have could be attributed to the extremely tall tree heights a place under high human vegetation disturbance. for most mother trees encountered, coupled with the fruit-seeds dispersal mechanism. Many of the seeds Ecological variables assessments for the mother trees and usually fall on the under-storey trees and many of them natural regeneration would have lost viability or infested by pest and As indicated in Table 3, it could be observed that diseases before getting to the forest floors. Coupled majority of the relics of the species were found in with this problem, was the rate of forest disturbance, forest reserves where logging appeared to be especially, over-exploitation for several timber tree moderately regulated compared with the natural species. Due to lack of access roads, many of the logs forest. Light gaps from the present study was not were sawn directly in-situ. Transecting across the main positively related to the observed number of range for both species within the three eco-zones wildlings observed. Crown diameter ranged between indicated high level of vegetation disturbances 6m-15m in K. ivorensis and between 9m-20m in
(S) 208 Conservation Status, Natural Regeneration Pattern and Shoot Borer Susceptibility by Khaya ivorensis and K. anthotheca Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Genotypes in Nigeria K. anthotheca. However, crown depth as well as crown diameter. Generally, natural regeneration was more diameter tend to support wildlings survival as more influenced by the intensity of disturbance rather than were encountered with improved depth and the amount of light gaps.
Genotypes evaluation and shoot borer susceptibility study by the seedlings
Table 4: Nursery evaluation of K. anthotheca and K. ivorensis seedlings (1 YAP)*
Genotype Seedling total Seedling No of No of shoot stem height diameter (cm) branches borer attack
K. anthotheca Ghana (Genotype) 0.71 0.79 1 - 0.61 0.85 - - 0.72 0.78 - - 0.57 0.92 - - 0.61 0.38 - - 0.65 0.61 - - 0.26 0.37 - - 0.37 0.20 - - 0.47 0.42 - - 0.41 0.70 - - Mean (sd) 0.54 ±0.15 0.6 ±0.24 1 - K. ivorensis (Ghana genotype 0.47 0.71 - - 0.61 0.45 0.57 0.66 0.52 0.33 - - 0.55 0.66 - - 0.58 0.83 - - 0.55 0.76 - - 0.61 0.62 - - 0.55 0.89 -
0.57 0.68
Mean (sd) 0.56 ±0.05 0.65 ± 0.17 - - K. ivorensis Nigeria (Genotype) - - 0.53 0.77 - - 0.58 0.61 - - 0.47 0.71 - - 0.68 0.66 - - 0.58 0.52 - - 0.46 0.88 - - 0.46 0.72 - - 0.79 0.72 - - 0.58 0.61 - - 0.53 0.77 - - Mean (sd) 0.56 ±0.11 0.71 ±0.1 - -
* 1 Year After Potting (1YAP)
(S) 209 Conservation Status, Natural Regeneration Pattern and Shoot Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Borer Susceptibility by Khaya ivorensis and K. anthotheca Genotypes in Nigeria Table 5: Nursery evaluation of K. anthotheca and K. ivorensis *(2 YAP)
Genotype Total seedlings Seedling No of shoot borer Height at point No of height (m) diameter (cm) attack and % of attack (m) re-growth
K. anthotheca Ghana (Genotype) 0.93 0.76 1 0.51 1 0.94 0.53 1 0.49 1 0.94 0.53 1 0.53 1 0.89 0.40 1 0.48 1 0.96 0.54 1 0.47 1 0.78 0.34 1 0.50 1 1.07 0.45 1 0.56 1 0.46 0.69 - - - 0.89 0.2 1 0.58 1
Mean (sd) 0.87 (± 0.17) 0.49 (±0.17) 8/9 (89%) 0.51 (±0.03) 1.0 K. ivorensis (Ghana (Genotype) 0.74 0.10 1 0.53 1 0.94 0.37 1 0.63 1 0.87 0.16 1 0.66 1 0.93 0.50 1 0.66 1 0.75 0.20 1 0.58 1 0.74 0.19 1 0.61 1 0.43 0.23 - - - 0.54 0.36 - - - 0.89 0.27 1 0.07 1 Mean (sd) 0.75 (±0.17) 0.26 (±0.12) 7/9 (78%) 0.41 ±(0.29) 1.0 K. ivorensis (Nigeria genotype) 0.97 0.27 2 0.49 2 0.79 0.37 1 0.60 1 1.08 0.41 1 0.69 1 0.85 0.29 1 0.58 1 0.81 0.33 1 0.59 1 0.82 0.44 2 0.61 2 0.37 0.80 1 0.24 1 0.58 0.53 1 0.49 1 0.92 0.70 1 0.67 1 Mean (sd) 0.79 (±0.21) 0.46 (±0.18 11/9 (122.2%) 0.55 (±0.13) 1.22 (±0.44)
* 2 Years After Potting (1YAP)
Provenance nursery evaluation studies for the Conclusion two Khaya species showed that they were moderately tolerant to shoot borer attack within the Present level of research activities indicated high level first year of potting (1YAP), as there was no attack of genetic depletion for the two Khaya species in Nigeria observed for among the provenances for both across the three main eco-zones of the species range. species. However, by the second year, genotypes Within the country, there is a serious problem of illegal comparison showed that out of the 9 seedlings felling and uncontrolled logging which had assessed randomly for each, Khaya species K. pre-disposes most of the valuable timber trees species ivorensis and K. anthotheca received from Ghana more to reckless cropping/harvesting. Even in protected attacks were observed from K. ivorensis (89%) natural reserves, the level of surveillance could not compared with K. anthotheca (78%) respectively. curtail the illegal activities of the timber contractors. This However, K. ivorensis genotype from Nigeria was had, hitherto, affected the availability of mother trees most infected with 11 die back points (122.25%) from for genotypes/fruits collections. Apart from this the same 9 seedlings evaluated. This tends to imply short-coming, some level of precarious fruiting that there was some degree of tolerance from K. behaviors were observed on the field. At the institutional ivorensis received from Ghana compared with its level, efforts are being made to involve states forestry Nigeria genotype counterpart. in the campaign to protect the remaining germplasm. (S) 210 Conservation Status, Natural Regeneration Pattern and Shoot Borer Susceptibility by Khaya ivorensis and K. anthotheca Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Genotypes in Nigeria Similarly, the level of natural regeneration observed was References rather low compared with mother trees population and this could further be attributed to alarming rate of Aldser, D. 1989. Natural forest growth and yield. Ghana deforestation generally going on in the country, as well inventory Project Seminar Pro Accra, Ghana 107 pp. as very high poaching and illegal felling operation. The Atuahene, S. K. N. 1997. The Forest resources in Ghana and fact that the species display irregular fruiting behavior future direction of research on Hypsiphla robusta in Nigeria may, possibly, be attributed to the observed (Lepidopteraa: Pyralidae) control in mahogany stoking density per hectare. Field observations also did plantations. Hysiphyla robusta shoot borer of the not justify any deliberate enrichment planting or meliaceae (eds R Floyd & Hauxwell) Camberra. conservation of natural regeneration by the various Hall, J. B. and M. D. Swain. 1981. Distribution and Ecology stakeholders. Mature fruits dehisce upon ripening and of vascular plants in tropical rainforest, Forest because the seeds are very light, they were probably vegetation in Ghana. Dr W, Junk, Publisher. blown far away from the mother tree stands and many of them would possibly have lost viability in that Hawthorne, W. D. 1995 Ecological profiles of Ghanian process. This problem is critical in the present study and Forest trees –ODA Tropical Forestry paper No 29. it appears no major solution is in sight. Within the Kessler, J. J. 1992. The influence of Karite (Vitellaria paradoxa) context of the present findings, management plan for and nere (Parkia biglobosa) trees on Sorghum the remaining germplasm for the species will require a production in Burkina Faso. Agroforestry System. 17: more holistic approach that may include 97-118. multi-disciplinary approach that will involves all the Ofosu-Asiedu, a Nani-Nutakor, J. M., E. G. Foley, Nkyi and relevant stakeholders as well as the various cadres of K. K. Tufour. 1991. A man made forests of indigenous forest managers while research institutions provide the species in Ghana – A pre project report sponsored by leadership framework as it is been put forward by the IITO prepared on behalf of Man Lin lands and Natural AFORNET. Resources govt. Ghana. Oni, P. I. 1999. Dynamics of natural regeneration of Parkia Acknowlegements biglobosa in Nigeria: the need for deliberate conservation approach. Proceedings of 26th Annual The Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria is grateful Conference of the Forestry Association of Nigeria. held in to the AFORNET through the African Academy of Maiduguri 20-25th April, 1999, Page 22-33. Edited: Abu, Sciences for providing the initial fund for this research J. E, Oni, P. I and L. Popoola. study.
(S) 211 RehabilitationDiscov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET of DegradedSpecial Edition No. 3) Forest Lands: The Performance of Indigenous Trees Species
Dominic Blay1, Mark Appiah2*, Lawrence Damnyag1, Francis K. Dwomoh1 and Ari Pappinen3
1Forestry Research Institute of Ghana (FORIG), P. O. Box UST 63, Kumasi, Ghana 2Viikki Tropical Resources Institute, P. O. Box 27 (Latokartanonkaari 9), FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland 3Faculty of Forestry, University of Joensuu, Finland *Corresponding author:
Abstract Forest degradation is assuming alarming proportions in Ghana, and deforestation is seen as a major cause. Therefore, rehabilitation is seen as the most viable way of mitigating the effects of land degradation. Hence, various initiatives in this area have been going on for some time now in Ghana. However, most efforts on rehabilitation in the country are concentrated on the establishment of monoculture Tectona grandis (Teak) plantations. In recent years, however, there is a growing concern regarding the disadvantages of using Teak and other exotic species for rehabilitation. Such concerns are premised on the assertion that these plantations have low diversity of both plants and animal species. Teak, in particular, is alleged to deplete the soil moisture and nutrients and promote erosion by inhibiting the growth of ground vegetation. The litter is also said to promote wildfires because they are not easily decomposed. Hence, there have been calls to promote the use of indigenous forest tree species in rehabilitation of degraded forests. However, there is, therefore, little information on the use of indigenous tree species for rehabilitation, especially on survival and early stages of growth. This study, therefore sought to look at the potential of using indigenous forest tree species for rehabilitation of degraded forests. This paper, therefore, presents the performance of nine selected indigenous tree species which were used to rehabilitate some degraded forests in Ghana’s high forest zone. The species were Alstonia boonei, Entandrophragma angolense, Khaya ivorensis, Nauclea diderrichii, Pericopsis elata, Ceiba pentandra, Terminalia ivorensis, T. superba and Afzelia africana. Cedrela odorata was the only exotic species used alongside the species already mentioned above. The study was done in Pamu Berekum, Afrensu Brohuma and Southern Scarp forest reserves located in the Dry semi-deciduous (DS), Dry semi-deciduous Fire Zone (DSFZ) sub-type and the Moist Semi-Deciduous Southeast (MSSE) sub-type forest ecological zones, respectively. The results are based on three and half-year-old trees that were established by ten local communities in Ghana using the Taungya system under a community forestry project financially supported by the International Tropical Timber Organisation (ITTO). Survival rates for all species were above 90%. MAI in DBH ranged from 0.95 to 4.25cm/year for Entandrophragma angolense and Ceiba pentandra, respectively. The growth rates of the indigenous trees, which had reached only three and half years of age, corresponded well to or exceed those found in such exotic species as Cedrela odorata and Tectona grandis, generally used for rehabilitation in Ghana. The species, especially Alstonia boonei, Entandrophragma angolense, Khaya ivorensis, Nauclea diderrichii, Ceiba pentandra, Terminalia ivorensis and T. superba, presented appreciable growth and tree cover and are thus recommended for consideration in rehabilitation of degraded forests.
Key words: Indigenous tree species, degraded forests, restoration of degraded forests, plantation
Résumé La dégradation forestière est entrain d’atteindre proportions alarmantes au Ghana, et le déboisement est perçu en étant une cause importante. Cependant, la réhabilitation est vue comme le moyen le plus durable d’atténuer les effets de la dégradation du sol. Par conséquent, diverses initiatives dans ce domaine ont vu le jour au cours de ces derniers temps au Ghana. La plupart des efforts consentis pour réhabiliter la terre dans ce pays ont focalisé la mise en place des plantations Tectona grandis (teck) en monoculture. Pourtant au cours de ces dernières années , on enregistre une préoccupation croissante concernant les inconvénients d’utiliser le teck ou toute autre espèce exotique pour la réhabilitation. De tels soucis se basent sur l’allégation que ces plantations ont une basse diversité des espèces végétales et animales. On avance que le teck en particulier épuise la teneur en humidité et les aliments nutritifs du sol et favorise l’érosion empêchant ainsi la croissance de la végétation sur sol. On rapporte également que sa litière favorise des feux de brousse puisqu’elle se décompose difficilement. Ainsi des appels ont été lancés pour favoriser l’utilisation des espèces forestières ligneuses pour la réhabilitation des forêts dégradées. Toutefois, il existe peu d’informations sur l’utilisation des espèces ligneuses indigènes pour la réhabilitation, particulièrement sur la survie, les premiers jours de croissance des plantes. Cette étude a donc cherché à statuer sur le potentiel d’utiliser des espèces ligneuses indigènes dans la réhabilitation des forêts dégradées. Cet article présente donc la performance de quelques neuf espèces indigènes ligneuses qui ont été utilisées pour la réhabilitation des forêts dégradées dans la zone de la forêt alpine du Ghana. Les espèces étaient Alstonia boonei, Entandrophragma angolense, Khaya ivorensis, Nauclea diderrichii, Pericopsis elata, Ceiba pentandra, Terminalia ivorensis, T. superba and Afzelia africana. Cedrela odorata était la seule espèce exotique utilisée à côté des espèces mentionnées ci-dessus. L’étude a été menée à Pamu Berekum, Afrensu Brohuma et dans des escarpements des réserves forestières méridionales situées dans des sous-types de forêts caduques et des forêts semi caduques de zone aride et des forêts semi-décidues de zones écologiques sub-alpines humides, respectivement. Les résultats sont basés sur des
(S) 212 Rehabilitation of Degraded Forest Lands: The Performance of Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Indigenous Trees Species arbres âgés de trois ans et demie qui ont été plantéss par les dix communautés locales au Ghana, en utilisant le système de Taungya dans un projet de sylviculture communautaire financièrement appuyé par l’organisation internationale pour le bois tropicale (ITTO). Pour toutes les espèces, on a enregistré des taux de survie de plus de 90 %. L’index moyen de croissance mesurée à la DHP variait de 0,95 à 4.25cm/an pour Entandrophragma angolense et Ceiba pentandra, respectivement. Les taux de croissance des arbres indigènes à l’âge de trois ans et demi seulement étaient les memes ou ou surpassaient ceux enregistrés chez les espèces exotiques comme Cedrela odorata et Tectonia grandis, généralement utilisées pour la réhabilitation des forêts, au Ghana. Les espèces Alstonia boonei particulièrement, Entandrophragma angolense, Khaya ivorensis, Nauclea diderrichii, Ceiba pentandra, Terminalia ivorensis et T. superba avaient une croissance et un couvrent remarquables et elles sont ainsi recommandées pour considération dans la réhabilitation des forêts dégradées.
Mots clés : espèce d’arbre indigène, forêts dégradées, restauration des forêts dégradées, plantation
Introduction attraction to animal diapers as well as increasing soil fertility and soil micro-biological activity (Vanclay, One of the biggest problems threatening the lives of 1994; Parotta, 1999). millions of inhabitants in Sub-Saharan Africa, However, for the use of indigenous species in especially those residing in the rural areas, is land rehabilitation, there is the need for appropriate site degradation, which is defined in general terms as a matching so that there will be optimum growth and temporary or permanent decline in productive performance for the species planted in the degraded capacity of the land (Stocking and Murnaghan 2001). areas. However, in Ghana, information on the growth Although a worldwide problem, land degradation and performance of indigenous species in degraded is said to be most acute in SSA where it is areas in different ecological zones is unavailable. This characterized by decreasing production of forest study, therefore, sought to determine the growth and products and food, and worsening levels of poverty performance of different indigenous species in three and malnutrition. The key driving factors of ecological zones where degradation is severe and degradation include clearing trees for agricultural hence make recommendation on the selection of expansion, logging, bushfires, firewood gathering indigenous species for rehabilitation in the different and charcoal production, mining, human ecological zones. settlements, infrastructural and industrial This paper, therefore, presents the survival and development. In Ghana, deforestation is seen as a the diameter growth of nine indigenous tree species major cause of land degradation. Therefore, that were planted using the Taungya system which rehabilitation is seen as the most viable way of had been the normal silvicultural practice used for mitigating the effects of land degradation. Hence, rehabilitating degrade trees in Ghana. various initiatives in this area have been going on for some time now in Ghana. Material and Methods Most efforts on rehabilitation in the country are concentrated on the establishment of monoculture Study area Tectona grandis (Teak) plantations. There is, therefore, The study was conducted at three different locations little information on the use of indigenous tree species in Ghana namely, Pamu-Berekum Forest Reserve for rehabilitation. In recent years, however, there is a representing the Dry semi-deciduous forest ecological growing concern among people regarding the zone (DS) in the Dormaa forest district; Afrensu- disadvantages of using Teak and other exotic species Brohuma Forest Reserve in the Dry semi-deciduous in forest rehabilitation. Such concerns are premised Fire Zone (DSFZ) sub-type in the Offinso forest district on the assertion that these plantations have low and the Southern Scarp Forest Reserve of the Moist diversity of both plants and animal species. Teak, in Semi-Deciduous Southeast (MSSE) forest sub-type in particular, is alleged to deplete the soil moisture and the Begoro forest district. The above forest zones lies nutrients and promote erosion by inhibiting the between latitudes 4° and 8° in the southern part of growth of ground vegetation. Thus, there is concern Ghana (Figure 1). about the non–use of indigenous species which most local people know about and have other uses apart Climate from industrial use. The mean annual rainfall in these forest areas ranges There is also increasing evidence that mixed between 1,250 and 1,500 mm. The mean daily species plantation, mostly of indigenous species, are temperature ranges between about 25 °C in the wet more effective for rehabilitation than the use of single season (March-October) and about 27 °C during the species due to their potential for biomass and dry season (November -February).
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Vegetation Soils The three study sites fall within the High Forest Zones Due to the high rainfall in the HFZ, the soils are highly (HFZ) in Ghana, considered as tropical forests (Wagner leached and acidic in reaction (pH 4.0 - 5.5). They are and Cobbinah, 1993). Like tropical forest in other low in cation exchange capacity, available regions, the project area forest show a high species phosphorus, nitrogen and organic matter. The degree diversity, generally low content of soil nutrients, of acidity and hydration with a consequent yellow multiple canopy layers, and slow growth rates for appearance of the soil increases with rainfall. In the mature forests. The comparatively drier southern wettest zones, the soils are very infertile, strongly acid marginal forest like the Pamu-Berekum Forest Reserve and often have high aluminium content. Inundation in the Dormaa forest district and Afrensu-Brohoma Forest is common on lower catena sites, especially of the Reserve in the Offinso forest district are species-poor, lower profiles. while the Moist Semi-deciduous forest zone where the Begoro forest district lie is among the most important ones for commercial timber species (Prah, 1994).
Figure 1: Map of Ghana showing the study sites
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The relatively short dry seasons, coupled with species for the rehabilitation was made by the local the high humidity of the WE, ME and MS forest zones communities themselves. In all the ten species, reduces the risk of fire in forest plantations. In the comprising nine indigenous species, and one exotic FST zone, where the soils are derived from basement species, were planted by the communities. complex rocks, they tend to be deeper, with high Seedlings of nine (9) important indigenous and one concentration of organic matter and nutrients and (1) exotic tree species were raised in community heavier textured. These are the best areas for tree nurseries in the year 2001 and transplanted after 6 growth. The principal physiographic feature of HFZ months to farmers' fields, including the three study sites. is the gentle undulations - a dissected peneplain - The selected seedlings for transplanting were of uniform remnants of which are frequently capped by ferrous growth and healthy in appearance without any evidence crust of drift material which give rise to poor soils. of damage or injury. As rainfall is the major determining Over these gently rolling hills occur a characteristic factor for seedling survival, transplanting was done sequence of earth comprising sedentary soils on the between May-June with the active collaboration of local summits and middle slopes with colluvial Soils on farmers. The tree seedlings were planted at 6 m x 6 m the lower slopes and alluvial soils in the valley and 8 m x 3 m spacing, depending on farmers’ bottoms. The areas are underlain by Precambrian preference. These spacing are wider than the 3 m x 3 m schists, phyllites, green stones, grey wacks, and other generally used in forest plantations in Ghana; a metamorphic rocks of Birimian and Tarkwian deliberate purpose was to investigate the effect of formations folded along axes running north-east to spacing on tree growth and species recruitment. A wider south-west and by associated granites. In the flat to spacing was to reduce the shading effect of the tree moderately step terrain, these rocks are frequently canopy cover during early stages of plantation covered by a thick mantle of highly weathered development and to allow farmers to stay a little longer material (Burnham, 1989). The soils are of ochrosol on their farms to tend the trees. After planting, the sites type and belong to the family group of the Latosols. were protected from fire for the entire duration of the They are old weathered soils in which rock minerals study. The plantations were maintained through regular have largely been altered to kaolin and sesquioxides manual weeding (to reduce weed competition) which of iron and aluminium. The humus content and cation continued till the end of the second year, when farmers exchange capacity are rather low (Hall and Swaine, discontinued complete weeding but resorted to line and 1981). The soil status, taken at the time of study, is spot weeding in order to allow natural regeneration and presented in Table 1. a successional development of the forest ecosystem under the cover of the planted trees. Site conditions before project The soils and vegetation in the study areas have been Field measurements and statistical analysis subjected to frequent, often severe, disturbances in Field measurements were carried out in October 2005; recent decades, including over-exploitation of timber thus, when the plantations were three and half years and frequent wildfires. For over five years, prior to old. the plantation establishment, the sites had been ravaged by annual wildfires during the dry seasons. Soils studies At the time of establishing the plantations in 2001, The study sites were divided into eight blocks. Soil these degraded forests were characterized by the samples were collected with a soil auger from three absence of adequate tree cover, and had been randomly chosen spots in each block. One bulk dominated by grasses (principally Panicum and sample from each block at three depths (0-5cm, 5- Imperata) and the obnoxious weed Chromolaena 10cm and 10-20 cm) was collected for chemical odorata. analysis. The soil samples were analysed for pH, organic matter, organic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, Plantation establishment exchangeable cations (Ca, Mg, K, Na) and CEC at the The choice of techniques for rehabilitating degraded Soils Research Institute of Ghana, Kumasi. Results forest areas depends on the priorities and management from the soil analyses are presented in Table 2. objectives of stakeholders. Therefore, the priorities and the management objective of this ITTO project of Survival and Growth ‘rehabilitation of degraded forests through The survival percentage was calculated, based on the collaboration of local communities’ was to address the number of planted trees found in the sample plot and problem of degradation through reforestation and the the number of trees originally planted. To measure the land hunger of the local communities for food crop diameter, the mean of two digital caliper measurements production. Hence, the Taungya system was adopted. perpendicular to each other was recorded. Diameter at Since the project was a collaborative one, the choice of breast height (dbh) was measured on a total of 444
(S) 215 Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Rehabilitation of Degraded Forest Lands: The Performance of Indigenous Trees Species individual trees comprising ten species. The individual Southern Scarp Forest Reserve exhibited the species were selected at random. highest level of nutrients in respect of soil pH, Ca, Mg, Data were subjected to analysis of variance using P, K and CEC. On the contrary, lower levels of these the General Linear Model (GLM) procedure of the nutrients were found in samples from Afrensu-Brohuma statistical software SPSS (12) for Windows. Tukey’s test Forest Reserve, except P. Pamu–Berekum Forest Reserve and Mann-Whitney’s U-test were used to determine recorded intermediate figures for soil pH, Ca, Mg, K the possible differences between treatments or species. and CEC. However, the level of P suffered a dip from the general trend, recording the lowest level among Results the three project areas. For organic C, total N and organic matter Afrensu-Brohuma registered the peak Soil properties of the study farm sites in Ghana values followed by Pamu–Berekum Forest Reserve. The Significant variations were observed in the soil lowest levels of these three nutrients were found in properties among the study sites (Table 1). In relation Southern Scarp Forest Reserve. For C/N ratio, however, to water, considerable amount of water was Pamu – Berekum Forest Reserve recorded 6:1, the available at Southern Scarp FR compared to the other highest. Afrensu Brohuma and Southern Scarp FRs sites (Table 2). recorded 5:1 and 4:1, respectively (Table 2).
Table 1: Analysis of variance on soil traits
Source Dependent Type III Sum of Df Mean Square F-value Sig. Variable Squares Level
Study sites pH H2O 62.474 2 31.237 113.584 0.000 Org. C % 53.470 2 26.735 113.522 0.000 Org. M. % 158.987 2 79.494 111.328 0.000 Total N % 0.244 2 0.122 55.587 0.000 Ca 439.968 2 219.984 18.191 0.000 K 6.464 2 3.232 54.741 0.000 Mg 2470.592 2 1235.296 80.269 0.000 PPMP 29.208 2 14.604 15.816 0.000 C.E.C me/100g 4178.774 2 2089.387 69.058 0.000
Table 2: Properties of soil samples from the three study sites
Study area PH 1:1 Org. Total N C/N Org. M. Ca Mg P-avl K C.E.C H20 C (%) (%) ratio (%) (meq) (meq) (ppm) (ppm) (meq)
Southern SFR 7.8 0.79 0.07 4:1 1.37 17.28 3.97 3.38 0.93 22.39 Pamu-BFR 6.3 2.95 0.16 6:1 5.09 11.76 3.71 2.15 0.81 16.50 Afrensu-FR 5.1 3.36 0.23 5:1 5.81 9.15 3.31 2.43 0.69 13.78
Pamu-BFR= Pamu-Berekum forest reserve in a DS forest Reserve (Dormaa) was slightly lower, but still type in Dormaa district; South-SFR; Southern Scarp Forest acceptable (92%). Reserve in a MSSE forest type in Begoro area; Afrens-FR; Afrensu-Brohoma in a DSFZ forest type in Offinso area; Comparison of diameter growth avl = available, Org. C= organic carbon, Org. M = organic The ANOVA results on diameter at breast height matter, CEC = cation exchange capacity, meq = meq/100g of soil (dbh) shows that, the mean dbh of the trees, after 3.5 years of growth in farmers’ fields, varied significantly Early-stage survival rate of different indigenous tree species (P <0.001) among the species. The effect of site or Seedling survival differed among the species (P<0.05). forest area on dbh was also statistically significant Seedling survival of Terminalia superba, T. ivorensis, (P<0.001) (Table 3). The mean dbh of the species Khaya ivorensis, Periscopsis elata, Entandrophragma ranged from 4.3 cm to 12.0 cm, 3.3 cm to 15.6 cm and angolense, and T. superba was over 95% at the Southern 4.0 cm to 14.8 cm at the Southern Scarp, Pamu-Berekum, Scarp Forest Reserve (Begoro), while the survival of and Afrensu-Brohuma forest areas, respectively (Figure seedlings of these species at Pamu Berekum Forest 3). Diameter at breast height (Dbh) growth responses
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of the different species in the different forest areas performed as well as Cedrela odorata, their exotic are shown in Figure 3. Overall, indigenous trees counterpart. Pericopsis elata and Afzelia africana species, such as Ceiba pentandra and Alstonia boonei showed the slowest growth in general.
Table 3: ANOVA response on tree species dbh growth in three different forest areas in Ghana
Source of degree of Mean square F-value Significance variation freedom level
Study area 2 38.096 6.638 0.001 Species 9 480.066 83.652 0.000 Study area*species 6 41.475 7.227 0.000 Error 426 5.739 Total 444
18.00 Southern Sc arp F R
16.00 Pamu-Berek um F R 15.61 14 .88 Afrens u-Brohoma F R 14.00
12 .03 12.1 3 12.00 10.68 9.7 9 9.68 10.00 9.80 9.67 8.18 8.00 7.3 7 6.6 6 6.5 8 6.00
4.36 4.55
4.00 3.53 3.3 2 4.0 0 Mean diameter at breast height (cm) 2.00
0.00 KI PER TS EA TI AFZ CEDRELA NAU ABO CP
Tree Species
KI = Khaya ivorensis, PER = Pericopsis elata, TS = Terminalia superba, EA = Entandrophragma, angolense, TI = Terminalia ivorensis, AFZ = Afzelia africana, CEDRELA = Cedrela odorata, NAU = Nauclea diderrichii, ABO = Alstonia boonei, CP = Ceiba pentandra
Figure 3: Stem diameter of selected local tree species measured at three and half years after establishment in a taungya system
Growth rate of the species expressed as Mean of Khaya ivorensis directly corresponds with the trend Annual Increment (MAI) in dbh 3.5 years after planting in the levels of acidity, organic Carbon, total Nitrogen is also presented in Figure 4. Of all the trees planted, and organic matter in the three project sites. The Khaya ivorensis, Pericopsis elata, and Terminalia superba species performed well in areas with increasing levels were the only species which occurred in all the three of these nutrients and higher acidity. Coincidentally, project areas. Khaya ivorensis attained its highest MAI these were areas where lower levels of Ca, Mg, K and of 2.80 cm/year in Afrensu Brohuma FR followed by CEC were found. values of 2.11 and 1.88 cm/year in Pamu-Berekum and Pericopsis elata demonstrated fastest growth in Southern Scarp FRs, respectively. This growth pattern Southern Scarp FR with an MAI of 1.24cm/year.
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The lowest growth rate of 1.01cm/year in was Southern Scarp and Afrensu Brohuma Forest Reserves, recorded in Pamu – Berekum FR, and a medium figure with higher MAI of 3.44cm/year in the former and a of 1.14cm/year for Afrensu Brohuma FR. The highest least figure of 3.05cm/year in the latter. The growth growth rate of Pericopsis elata registered in Southern patterns observed in Entandrophragma angolense and Scarp FR directly corresponds to the highest levels of Terminalia ivorensis follow the trend in the levels of Ca, Mg, P, K and CEC and the most alkaline pH of 7.8 soil pH, Ca, Mg, P, K, and CEC. Higher growth rates that were recorded in the site among all the three areas. were recorded wherever the level of these nutrients However the relationship between levels of these were higher. nutrients and tree growth is not too clear in Afrensu The species Afzelia africana, Cedrela odorata, and Brohuma FR because of the three sites the lowest level Nauclea diderrichii were planted only in Pamu – of these nutrients were found there, with the exception Berekum FR, hence it is somewhat difficult making of P. Terminalia superba showed some indifference to meaningful comparisons. However, interesting variation in soil nutrients observed in the three study growth rates were presented by these species. Indeed areas. It performed well in all the three sites. Cedrela odorata, the only exotic species planted, Entandrophragma angolense occurred in only recorded MAI 4.46cm/year, which is the highest Southern Scarp and Pamu – Berekum Forest Reserves. growth rate among all the species. The MAI for Afzelia The MAI of 1.90cm/year in Southern Scarp was better africana and Nauclea diderrichii of 1.30 and 2.34 cm/ than 0.95cm/year in Pamu – Berekum FR. Terminalia year respectively compares well with species such as ivorensis was planted only in two project areas, Khaya ivorensis planted in other project areas.
5.00 Southern Scarp FR 4.4 6 4.50 Pamu-Berekum FR 4.25 4.00 Afrensu-Brohoma FR 3.44 3.47 3.50 3.05
3.00 2.80 2.7 7 2.80 2.76 2.50 2.3 4 2.11 1.90 2.00 1.88
1.50 1.30 M A I of Dbh (cm/year) 1.2 4 1.01 1.1 4 0.95 1.00
0.50
0.00 Species KI PER TS EA TI AFZ CEDRELA NAU ABO CP Sp ecies
KI = Khaya ivorensis, PER = Pericopsis elata, TS = Terminalia superba, EA = Entandrophragma, angolense, TI = Terminalia ivorensis, AFZ = Afzelia africana, CEDRELA = Cedrela odorata, NAU = Nauclea diderrichii, ABO = Alstonia boonei, CP = Ceiba pentandra
Figure 4: Mean Annual Increment (MAI) in dbh of trees planted in the three project areas
Ceiba pentandra and Alstonia boonei planted only In particular the growth rate of Ceiba pentandra, which in Afrensu Brohuma FR presented MAIs of 4.25 and is second only to Cedrela odorata is phenomenal. The 3.47cm/year respectively, and thus proven to be the growth rates obtained is shown in Table 4. fastest growing indigenous species in the plantations.
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Table 4: MAI of Dbh of trees in the study areas
Species Mean Annual Increment (MAI) of DBH (cm/yr) in the study areas
Southern Pamu- Afrensu- Scarp FR Berekum FR Brohuma FR MSSE DS DSFZ
Khaya ivorensis 1.88 2.11 2.80 Pericopsis elata 1.24 1.01 1.14 Terminalia superba 2.80 2.77 2.76 Entandrophragma angolense 1.90 0.95 Terminalia ivorensis 3.44 3.05 Afzelia africana 1.30 Cedrela odorata 4.46 Nauclea diderrichii 2.34 Alstonia boonei 3.47 Ceiba pentandra 4.25
Table 5: Sample growth data- Selected FORIG research plots and other areas
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Discussion and Conclusions rehabilitation in any of the three forest zones. Terminalia ivorensis, generally considered as The performance and suitability of species as plantation ubiquitous (Swaine et al., 1997), demonstrated trees substantial growth in both the MSSE and DSFZ and Mortality rate was very low for all the species. The would, therefore, be recommended for planting in low mortality rate of the seedlings of the planted these areas. On the basis of the remarkable species indicates their ability to adapt to the adverse performance of Entandrophragma angolense in Southern site and farmers' management conditions. These Scarp the species is recommended for the MSSE forest results could be expected as the tree species were zone. mainly pioneer species, which normally have such The species Afzelia africana, Nauclea diderrichii, abilities. Alstonia boonei and Ceiba pentandra, though were The substantial differences found in the growth without replication in other sites produced very rates of the indigenous tree species studied across interesting results. In particular, Alstonia boonei and different environments hints to significant genotype– Ceiba pentandra, planted in the DSFZ presented environment interaction in these species. Since the phenomenal growth rates. They can, therefore, be sites belong to different ecological zones, they differed used in the zone. It would, however, be very in rainfall, temperature and soil conditions, it was interesting comparing performance of these species difficult to identify the direct cause of the interaction. across sites. Very encouraging growth rates registered The results obtained seem to offer some for Nauclea diderrichii and Afzelia Africana hints to their understanding on how the different species used in suitability for the Dry semi-deciduous forest rehabilitation may perform in the three contrasting ecological zone (DS). Cedrela odorata was the only environments. exotic species used in the study that performed best Growth rates reached at only three and half years in the only planted site in the DS zone. of age well correspond to or exceed those found in All the species, performed tremendously well, such exotic species as Teak, Cedrela odorata and the attaining appreciable growth rates and tree cover, and pines ( Table 5), which are generally used in could, therefore, be used in the rehabilitation of rehabilitation of degraded forests in Ghana. These degraded forests, especially in the forest zones where results demonstrate the potential of indigenous recommendations have been made on their Ghanaian species for rehabilitation and not only suitability. Notwithstanding these findings, it is exotic species that dominate rehabilitation landscapes recommended that species used in this study but in Ghana due to their fast-growing ability. Other without replication in other sites would be replicated prospects for planting indigenous species are their in subsequent studies. It would also be necessary to multi-purpose uses and production of timber for conduct further inquiry into the relationship between domestic and international wood needs. growth of the species and levels of soil nutrients in The results also offer some preliminary degraded forest lands. information on the association between certain species and nutrients. Further work would have to Acknowledgements be done to determine such relationships. Khaya ivorensis, though performed appreciably in all sites, This Project was initiated and implemented by the showed some affinity for higher levels of organic C, Forestry Research Institute of Ghana (FORIG) with total N, organic matter and acidity and, thus, the Institute of Renewable Natural Resources (IRNR), performed best in areas with higher levels of these the University of Science and Technology and nutrients. Coincidentally, such areas are drier and, Forestry Commission (FC) as collaborating partners. thus, shows ability of the species to withstand and The International Tropical Timber Organisation grow better in dry areas in the forest zone. Khaya (ITTO) provided the bulk of the funding while the ivorensis would, therefore, be best suited for Government of Ghana provided some funding and rehabilitation in the Dry semi-deciduous Fire Zone other logistical and technical assistance. We thank the (DSFZ). Pericopsis elata (N-fixer), though recorded the local farmers for their support. slowest growth among all the species, the results is appreciable. Its highest MAI of 1.24 cm/yr found in References Southern Scarp (MSSE) compares well with 1.23 cm/yr recorded by Hawthorne (1995). Pericopsis elata could Foli, E. G. and A. Ofosu-Asiedu. 1997. Fast Growing thus be used for rehabilitation in the Moist Semi- Indigenous Species Identified for Planting in the Deciduous Southeast (MSSE) forest zone. The Various Ecological Zones of Ghana. Paper presented performance of Terminalia superba was remarkable in at a Workshop on Forest Plantation Development in all sites. It is, therefore, strongly recommended for Ghana, WITC, Akyawkrom.
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Gelder, A. van and F. K. Wiersum. 1983. Wood production Prah, E. 1994. Sustainable management of the tropical high forest in tropical agricultural systems. In: Wiersum, F.K. of Ghana. International Development Research Centre, (Ed.). Strategies and designs for afforestation, London. p.73. reforestation and tree planting. Pudoc, Wageningen. Swaine, M. D., V. K. Agyeman, B., Kyereh, T. K., Orgle, J., 432p. Thompson and E. M. Veenendaal. 1997. Ecology of forest trees in Ghana. ODA Forestry series No. 7. Hall, J. B. and M. D. Swaine. 1981. Distribution and ecology of vascular plants in a tropical rain forest: forest vegetation Stocking, M. and N. Murnaghan. 2001. Handbook for the Field Assessment of Land Degradation. Earthscan Publications in Ghana. W. Junk Publishers, The Hague. 383p. Ltd, London, Stering VA. 169p. Hawthorne, W. D. 1995. Ecological profiles of Ghanaian Wagner, M. R. and J. R. Cobbinah. 1993. Deforestation and forest trees. ODA and FD, Kumasi GFRP. Tropical sustainability in Ghana: the role of tropical forests. Forestry Papers 29. 152p. Ghana Journal of Forestry, 91: 36-39.
(S) 221 SiteDiscov. Innov., Differences 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET in Special Morphological Edition No. 3) and Physical Properties of Bambusa Vulgaris Grown In Ghana
Emmanuel Ebanyenle and Andrew Akwasi Oteng-Amoako
Biology and Forest Health Division, Forestry Research Institute of Ghana, UPO 63, KNUST, Kumasi-Ghana
Abstract Matured culms of Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. Ex. wendl grown in two different forest zones namely: wet ever-green and moist semi-deciduous in Ghana were assessed. Culm length, internode length, internode diameter, culm wall thickness, moisture content, basic density and shrinkage, were compared with site. All the culm properties (except culm wall thickness) varied significantly with site. Bamusa vulgaris from the moist semi-deciduous area, with the relatively lower annual rainfall, showed shorter culm length, and internode length, smaller internode diameter, lower moisture content and shrinkage but possessed higher density. Bambusa vulgaris from Wet Ever-green, the area with the highest rainfall in Ghana had longer culm length, longer internode length, higher moisture content, higher shrinkage values but lower density. Implying B. vulgaris culms from the moist semi-deciduous forest zone exhibit better strength properties than the same species growing in the Wet ever-green forest zone. The culm wall thickness of B. vulgaris was not significantly affected by topographical factors, implying that site specificity has no role when selecting bamboo for a product based on culm wall thickness.
Key words: Bamboo, culm wall thickness, internode diameter, internode length basic density, moisture content, shrinkage
Résumé Les chaumes matures de Bambusa vulgaris Schrad ex Wendl un bambou qui pousse au Ghana dans deux différentes zones forestières dont : la zone tropicale humide et la zone semi humide ont été évalués. La longueur du chaume, la longueur et le diamètre de l’entre-nœud, l’épaisseur de la paroi du chaume, la teneur en humidité, la densité du chaumes sur le rhizome et le rétrécissement, ont été comparés à chaque site. Toutes les propriétés du chaume (excepté l’épaisseur de la paroi du chaume) ont varié de manière significative avec le site. Bambusa vulgaris de la zone tropicale semi- humide avec des précipitations annuelles relativement basses avait des longueurs plus réduite du chaume et de l’entre-nœud, un plus petit diamètre de l’entre-nœud, une faible teneur en humidité et un rétrécissement mais il était caractérisé par une densité de la paroi du chaume la plus élevée. Bambusa vulgaris de la zone tropicale humide, une zone avec les précipitations les plus élevées au Ghana a eu des valeurs plus élevées de la longueur du chaume, de l’entre-nœud, une haute teneur en humidité, un rétrécissement plus élevé mais une plus faible densité du chaume. Les chaumes de B. vulgaris de la zone forestière semi-humide présentent les meilleures propriétés de résistance en comparaison de la même espèce poussant dans la zone forestière humide de l’ouest. L’épaisseur de la paroi du chaume de B. vulgaris n’a pas sensiblement été affectée par les facteurs topographiques, suggérant que la spécificité du site n’a aucun rôle à jouer lors la sélection des bambous sur base de l’épaisseur de la paroi du chaume.
Mots clés : Bambou, épaisseur de la paroi du chaume, diamètre de l’entre-nœud, densité, longueur de l‘entre-nœud, teneur en humidité, rétrécissement
Introduction reported that Gigantochloa pseudo-arundinacea bamboo growing on hill slopes have density, Adequate knowledge of morphological and physical bending and tensile strength values higher than properties of bamboo culms is essential for its wise those growing in valley region. Bamboo culms also use. These properties of bamboo culms differ within vary in size according to climate (Prasad, 1948). and between species. These differences have According to Abd. Latif and Liese (2002), Bambusa implications on their properties and utilization vulgaris growing in relatively moist area of (Banik, 1993b; 1997; Liese, 1998). The differences could Malaysia exhibited culms with larger diameter and be attributed to species, geographic sources longer culm length than same species growing in a (provenances) and their genotypic constitution drier area. (Banik, 1997). Bambusa vulgaris is the most abundant and Recent investigations have shown that the widely distributed bamboo species in Ghana. basal portion of bamboo culms have the lowest Therefore, accurate knowledge on morphological and density and highest moisture content when physical properties of Bambusa vulgaris in relation to compared with the middle and the upper portions different sites will aid in their efficient utilization in (Anwar et al., 2005). Soeprayitno et al. (1990) Ghana.
(S) 222 Site Differences in Morphological and Physical Properties of Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Bambusa vulgaris Grown in Ghana
Materials and Methods Determination of morphological and physical properties A total of 12 matured culms of B. vulgaris separated by Source of materials a minimum distance of about 2 Km were harvested Matured culms (4-8 years old) of B. vulgaris were from each site. The total culm length was determined collected from wild clumps growing in Wet from ground level to the tip. Each culm was subdivided ever-green (WE) and Mosit semi-deciduous (MSD) into basal, middle and top portions each representing forest zones of Ghana (Figure 1). Brief description of one-third of the usable part of the culm. The mid the study sites are presented in Table 1. internode of the basal, middle and top portions were collected for the determination internode diameter, internode length, culm wall thickness and the physical properties (moisture content, density and shrinkage). The field sampling and determination of morphological and physical properties followed the requirements and procedures of International Standards for testing bamboo ISO 22157-1 and ISO 22157-2 (ISO, 2004) Analysis of results were done using GenStat statistical package. A T-test analysis was employed to compare the morphological and physical properties of B. vulgaris from the different sites.
Results and Disscussions
There were significant statistical differences among the two sites with respect to culm length, internode length, internode diameter, basic density, moisture content and shrinkage (p<0.05); while differences among site for culm wall thickness was not statistical significant (p=0.148; Tables 2 and 3). The bamboo culms of B. vulgaris from the wet ever-green site had higher significant mean values for culm length, internode length, internode diameter, moisture content, shrinkage but lower for basic density (Tables 2 and 3). Implying that bamboo culms from the moist semi-deciduous (relatively drier site) possess relatively better strength properties than same species growing in Wet ever-green (relatively moist site; Tables 1 and 3). Similar findings have been reported by Figure 1: Map of Ghana showing the study sites Gnanaharan (1994) and Soeprayitno et al. (1990). According to Abd. Latif and Liese (2002), Bambusa vulgaris growing in relatively moist area of Malaysia exhibited culms with larger diameter and longer culm Table 1: Soil and climatic (rainfall) characteristics of study sites length than same species growing in a drier area. Similarly, Dendrocalamus strictus growing in a moist Location Soil type Annual Rainfall area had culms with longer internodes and larger (mm) diameter than the same species grown in dry place in India (Gnanaharan, 1994). Generally, the characteristics Wet Evergreen Impoverished, strongly 1,750 to over 2000 of bamboo culms are influenced by soil conditions (WE) desaturated ferallitic soil type (Forest Oxysol) Ueda (1960) and climatic conditions (Prasad, 1948). However, recent investigations by Abd. Latif and Liese Moist Semi- Impoverished moderately 1250-1500. (2002), indicated that culm wall thickness of B. vulgaris deciduous desaturated bamboo grown in Malaysia was not influenced by site (MSD) ferrallitic soil type and climatic conditions in Malaysia. The current (Forest Ochrosol) findings (Table 2) have confirmed their investigations. Source: Hall and Swaine, 1981 Implying that site specificity has no role when selecting bamboo culms of B. vulgaris from Ghana for a product based on culm wall thickness. (S) 223 Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Site Differences in Morphological and Physical Properties of Bambusa vulgaris Grown in Ghana
Table 2: Comparison of culm morphological properties of B. vulgaris from Wet evergreen and Moist Semideciduous sites
Site
Property Wet Moist T-Test Evergreen Semideciduous (WE) (MSD)
Culm length (m) 21.9±0.93 17.3±0.74 p <0.001 (n=12) (n=12) Internodal length (cm) 37.3±1.01 34.6±0.73 p=0.029 (n=36) (n=36) Internode diameter (cm) 7.6±2.29 6.3±1.74 p <0.001 (n=144) (n=144) Culm wall thickness (mm) 9.2±0.25 8.7±0.29 P= 0.148 (n=144) (n=144)
Table 3: Comparison of culm physical properties of B. vulgaris from Wet evergreen and Moist Semideciduous sites
Site
Property Wet Moist T-Test Evergreen Semideciduous (WE) (MSD)
Basic Density (Kg/m3) 577±12.2 684±10.7 p<0.001 (n=72) (n=72) Moisture content % 113±3.9 83±2.4 p <0.001 (n=72) (n=72) Shrinkage % Thickness 12.0±0.56 6.8±0.41 p <0.001 (n=144) (n=144) Diameter 8.7±0.24 6.4±0.19 p <0.001 (n=144) (n=144) Length 0.2±0.01 0.1±0.01 p <0.001 (n=144) (n=144)
Acknowledgements Gigantochloa scortechnii bamboo splits and strips. Journal of Tropical Science, 17(1): 1-12. This work was funded by FORIG and the African Banik, R. L. 1993b. Morphological characters for culm age Forest Research Network Programme of the African determination of different bamboo species Academy of Sciences (AAS). We are grateful to Mr. F. Bangladesh. Bang. Jour. Forest Science, 22 (1&2): 18-22. A. Awuku and Mrs. Ruth Esi Amuzu for assisting in Banik, R. L., 1997. Domestication and improvement of the data collection. bamboos. INBAR’s working paper No. 10. INBAR, IDRC, New Delhi, India p.53. References Gnanaharan, R. 1994. Physical and strength properties of Dendrocalamus strictus grown in Kerala. In: Bamboo in Abd. Latifm M. and W. Liese. 2002. Culm characteristics Asia and the Pacific. Proceedings of the 4th International of two bamboos in relation to age, height and site. Bamboo Workshop, Chiangnai, Thailand, 27-30 November In: Bamboo for Sustainable Development, (Eds) A. 1991, IDRC, Otawa, Cananda; Forestry Research Kumar, I. V. Ramannuja Rao and Ch Sastry, VSP, 223- Support Programme for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkog, 233pp. Thailand. 188-192pp. Anwar, U. M. K., A. Zatoon, H. Hamdan and M. Mohd Hall J. B. and M. D. Swaine. 1981. Geobotany: Distribution Tamizi. 2005. Physical and mechanical properties of and ecology of vascular plants in tropical rainforest. Forest (S) 224 Site Differences in Morphological and Physical Properties of Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Bambusa Vulgaris Grown In Ghana
vegetation in Ghana. Dr. W. Junk Publishers, London. Soeprayitno, T., T. L. Tobing and E. Widjaja. 1990.Why 321pp. the Sudanese of West Java prefer slope-inhabiting Liese, W. 1998. The anatomy of bamboo culms, INBAR Gigantochloa pseudo-arundinacea to those Technical Report No. 18, INBAR, New Delhi 204p. growing in the valley. In: Ramanuja Rao, I. V.; Gnaharana, R.; Sastry, C.B., (Ed.), Bamboos: Current ISO, 22157-1, 2004. Bamboo- determination of physical and Research. Proceedings of the International Bamboo mechanical properties –part 1: requirements, ISO. Workshop, Cochin, India; International Development ISO, 22157-2, 2004. Bamboo- determination of physical and Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada, 215-217pp. mechanical properties –part 2: Laboratory manual, ISO. Ueda, K. 1960. Studies on the physiology of bamboo. Prasad, J. 1948. Silviculture of ten species of bamboo suitable Bulletin of Kyoto University of Forestry, 30: 167. for paper manufacture. Indian for, 74: 122-130.
(S) 225 Discov.Assessment Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNETof Forestry Special Edition ManpowerNo. 3) on South Eastern Nigeria
1Ogar, D. A.* and 2Labode Popoola
1Department of Forestry & Wildlife, University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria; daveogar @ yahoo.com 2Department of Forest Resources Management, University of Ibadan, Nigeria; [email protected]
*All correspondence should be to the first Author
Abstract This study, which was carried out in 1999, examined the challenges of forestry manpower and impact on sustainable forestry development in five states in Southeastern Nigeria. Through simple random sampling technique, 56 percent of the states in the southeast geopolitical zone was selected for the study. The states include Akwa Ibom, Cross River, Enugu, Imo and Rivers States. Forestry officers, the key informants, supplied information for the study. Results indicate that the policy of downsizing the civil service has led to inadequate forestry manpower in the study area, thereby leaving Akwa Ibom, Cross River, Enugu, Imo and Rivers States with 209; 410; 94; 162 and 53 forestry staff and a ratio of one professional forester to 31.86; 209.54; 119.95; 49.92 and 27.53 km2 of forest, respectively. Based on the staff-forest area ratio, additional 314, 325, 605 professional foresters, technical and vocational/protection staffs, respectively, are required in the study area for efficient forest management. Consequent upon this gross under-staffing in the state forestry departments, there have been high incidence of illegal forest logging leading to deforestation in the study area. These findings underscore the need to adequately staff the forestry service in Southeastern Nigeria to promote sustainable management of forest resources in the zone.
Key words: Forestry manpower, Southeastern Nigeria, downsizing, deforestation, and sustainable forest management.
Résumé Cette étude, effectuée en 1999, a examiné les défis de la main-d’œuvre et son impact sur le développement durable de la sylviculture dans cinq états au sud-est du Nigéria. Utilisant une simple technique d’échantillonnage aléatoire, 56 % des états de la zone géopolitique du sud-est ont été sélectionnés pour l’étude. Ces états incluent Akwa Ibom, Cross River, Enugu, Imo et Rivers States. Les forestiers, les principaux informateurs ont fourni l’information lors de l’étude. Les résultats ont montré que la politique de réduction du personnel de la fonction publique a conduit à l’insuffisance de la main-d’œuvre en sylviculture dans la zone d’étude, laissant de ce fait Akwa Ibom, Rivers States, Enugu, Imo et Cross Rivers avec 209 ; 410 ; 94 162 et 53 agents sylvicoles et un rapport d’un forestier professionnel pour 31,86 ; 209,54 ; 119,95 ; 49,92 et 27,53 km2 de forêt, respectivement. Sur base du rapport entre zone et personnel forestier, on est venu à la conclusion qu’un supplément de 314, 325, 605 agents forestiers professionnels et techniques (vocationnel /protection) sont respectivement nécessaires, dans la zone d’étude afin de parvenir à une gestion forestière efficace. Partant de ce constat, le déficit généralisé en personnel dans des services forestiers a eu des conséquences graves qui ont conduit à la coupe illégale des grumes et déboisement dans la zone d’étude. Ces résultats montrent la nécessité d’avoir une proportion raisonnable des agents forestiers au sud-est du Nigéria afin de stimuler la gestion durable des ressources forestières dans la zone.
Mots clés : Main-d’œuvre, sylviculture, sud-est du Nigéria, réduction de l’effectif du personnel, déforestation, gestion forestière durable
Introduction performed protective and inspection functions (Enabor, 1977). The Director, Deputy and Assistant In forestry, like any other enterprise, there are three Directors of Forestry and Principal Forest Officers are complementary activities that include policy-making, charged with high-level policy making. For the planning and execution. Forestry personnel of various purpose of efficient implementation of forestry categories execute different forestry policies. The programme, Southeastern Nigeria has a centralized technical personnel (Forest Assistants and Forest direction of instruction. Johnston et al. (1967) opined Superintendents) act as support staff to the that centralization of directions and decentralization professional personnel in forest management, of programme execution enhances efficient forestry research and administrative functions. The vocational development. personnel include all other field staff, such as forest Manpower in forestry embraces three staff guards, foresters and rangers, and game warden that nomenclature: professionals, technical and
(S) 226 Assessment of Forestry Manpower on South Eastern Nigeria Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) vocational. Generally, a 4-level approach is applied possessed by the forestry institution. Enabor (1981) in classifying forestry manpower into professional, opined that, in view of the relatively small area of those with University degrees in forestry, Nigeria’s forest estate, it is imperative for the sub-professional, those with Higher National country to institute efficient and intensive forest Diploma, technical, those with National Diploma and resources management if future domestic forest vocational, those with certificates in forestry and products requirement are to be met. related areas. According to Udo (1987) and FAO This paper examines the availability and quality (1992), there is a 3- level classification of professional of forestry manpower in Southeastern Nigeria and forestry manpower that comprises those that have problems associated with shortage of forestry graduated from a University system at least at the personnel in the zone and recommends ways of first-degree level. The technical manpower including promoting efficient forest management in the study those who have followed a training course of at least area. two years or four years after completing their post-secondary schooling that led to a particular Methodology award normally called OND/HND. The vocational forestry personnel are made up of full-time workers Southeastern Nigeria lies on latitudes 4° 15'N and at a level lower than the technical staff that has 13° 55'N and longitude 2° 45'E and 14° 40'E (Figure forestry training of short duration, usually six to 1). Information on forestry manpower was collected twelve months. Since forest labour is an intensive by randomly selecting some states in Southeastern activity, human resource development is crucial for Nigeria. The States selected include Akwa Ibom, sustainable forest management. Cross River, Enugu, Imo and Rivers. In each State, Human capital, literally translated as manpower, 50% of the forestry charges were selected for is the stock of embodied knowledge, talent and sampling (Table 1). Also, a random sampling capabilities available from the population under a techniques was used to select 272 forestry staff country’s control (Enabor, 1981). Availability of skilled working in 33 out of the 65 forestry charges in manpower is important for efficient forest resources southeastern Nigeria. Out of the 272 forestry staff development. Generally, there is under-staffing of all served with copies of the study questionnaires by levels of forestry and wildlife management in the the researcher, only 258 filled and returned their country. Shortage in forestry personnel in copies, thus 92.6% response rate was obtained. The Southeastern Nigeria dates back to the colonial era sample size represents 50% sampling intensity for of 1911 when all the forestry circles in the country the total number of forestry charges in Southeastern had six European forestry officers while Eastern Nigeria. Primary data were collected from forestry Nigeria had only one (Egboh, 1977). The officers using structured questionnaires. In addition, under-staffing of forestry department culminated in secondary data were collected from forestry charges the over-exploitation of forests, particularly in and forestry department headquarters in each Southeastern zone of the country. This is because the sampled state. Information collected included total number of forestry staff required to protect and area of land, area under forest reserve, number of preserve the forest were inadequate to control illegal forestry staff, educational qualifications of the staff, logging and harvesting of NTFPs in the area. The how forestry staff performed the function of forest success in executing forestry programme depends on protection. the quantity and quality of human resources available to organize the country’s forestry institutions (FAO, Results and Discussion 1999). The inadequate forestry manpower and the low level of skill and knowledge of forest resources Table 1: Distribution of informants (Charge Officers) by management possessed by forestry staff, as well as forestry charges facilities for training foresters in the study area State No. of forestry No. of charges No. of negates the effectiveness of forest management in charges studied questionnaires Nigeria (Okali, 1997). administered Apart from human resources, sustainable forest development depends on the institutional, political Akwa Ibom 20 10 56 and non-political factors, as well as legal framework, Cross River 24 12 120 which affect the administration of forestry Enugu 8 4 24 programmes (Okali, 1997). Effective forest Imo 7 4 46 management depends on the capabilities, Rivers 6 3 26 manpower endowments and level of skills and Total 65 33 272 knowledge of forest resources management
(S) 227 Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Assessment of Forestry Manpower on South Eastern Nigeria
Source: Ogar, 1999 the areas of forestry due to lack of enough qualified staff does not promote sustainable forest development or The result indicated that, there were 46 professional efficient use of personnel. foresters 267 technical staff and 595 vocational/ The ratio of professional forestry personnel to protection staff, overseeing forestland of 71,112.73 Km2 technical forestry staff and vocational protection staff in the study area. For instance, Cross River State that in the zone were 1:3 and 1:13, respectively as shown in owned about 6101.29 Km2 of forest reserve had only 21 Table 2. Whereas the ratio of technical staff to professional foresters, 57 technical and 322 vocational/ vocational/protection staff in the study area was 1:4. protection staff to manage the state forestland. The ratio This indicates that the ratio of professional forestry staff of forestry manpower to forest area (Table 2) indicated to technical and vocational/protection staff was also that on an average, a professional forester was inadequate. The dearth of forestry staff in the study administering 154.62 Km2 of forest estate, while a area could be as a result of the wave of retrenchment technical staff oversees an area of 45.89 km2 in the study of staff arising from government policy of downsizing area. It can be observed that forestry manpower needed the State’s workforce. In Cross River State for instance, for efficient forest management was in short supply in no new professional forester had been employed since the study area. Based on the staff-forest area ratio, extra 1986. This could be attributed to lack of funds. 314 professional foresters, 325 technical and 605 Furthermore, all categories of forestry manpower were vocational/protection personnel were required in the lacking in the study area but it appears professional study area to effectively manage forest in the zone. It foresters were grossly inadequate. appears that Akwa Ibom, Imo, Enugu, and Rivers States As a result of the inadequate forestry staff, a staff with small forest areas had more forestry personnel than performs the functions of planning, administering, Cross Rivers State with large forest. Implying that forests supervising, monitoring and evaluating forestry were more intensively managed in areas with smaller programmes. But where adequate forestry staff, are forests than in areas with extensive forests. It seems the available, forestry staff have specific functions to interest of government in areas with large forests was perform. The situation whereby a junior forestry staff is basically exploitation of forest products. In Cross River given the responsibilities of performing the duties of State, unskilled forestry staffs were given several principal forestry personnel does not augur well for functions that were beyond them to handle because of sustainable forest management. The training of a inadequate skilled staff. Azeke (2002) opined that it has professional forester varies significantly from that of a not been possible to maintain a rigid dividing line technical staff. So a technical staff with OND/HND between the management cadre and technical/ cannot perform effectively the functions of a intermediate personnel in the management of forest in professional forester. The misallocation of duty to Nigeria. According to Adeyoju (1975), the condition in unqualified, unskilled and inexperienced forestry staff which an unqualified forestry staff is an “expert” in all to perform could lead to inefficient forest administration.
Table 2: Forestry staff disposition and unit area (km2) covered in the study area
State Forest area (Km2) Professional staff Technical staff Vocational/ Total staff protection staff
Akwa Ibom 318.57 10(31.36) 28(11.38) 17(1.87) 209 Enugu 479 4(119.95) 12(39.92) 58(18.26) 74 Cross River 6101.29 21(290.54) 57(107.04) 332(18.36) 410 Imo 44.92 5(9.98) 45(0.9) 112(0.40) 162 Rivers 163.95 6(27.33) 13(12.61) 34(4.82) 53 Total 7112.73 46 155 595 908
Source: Ogar, 1999.
Note: The figure in bracket represents the total area forest (km2) covered by the number of professional, technical and vocational/protection staff while that outside the brackets represents number of personnel.
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Table 2 indicates that in Akwa Ibom, 10 grossly inadequate. It appears that forest was well professional foresters administered 31.36km2 of forest managed in Akwa Ibom, Imo, Enugu and Rivers estate while in Enugu State, 4 professional foresters States than in Cross River State since the ratio of forest: administered 119.95km2 of forest estate. Also, 57 staff were high in these states than in Cross River technical staff administered 107.04km2 of forest estate State. Generally, it was observed that forestry in Cross River State while in Rivers State, 13 technical manpower was grossly inadequate to manage forest staff administered 12.61km2 of forest’s estate. sustainably in the zone. The forestry informants observed that of the total In conclusion, the need to employ more forestry forestry staff lacking in the study area, professional staff to manage forest resources in Southeastern foresters, representing about 48.4% was needed to Nigeria cannot be overemphasized; efforts should be administer forestry in the study area. While technical, geared toward employing more forestry staff in the vocational and administrative staff representing region. As more forestry staff is employed, the 21.2%, 15.2% and 12.1%, respectively, were also existing staff should be retrained in order to manage required to protect forest in Southeastern Nigeria. the scarce resource in a more sustainable manner.
Table 3: Responses in respect of inadequacy of forestry staff References
Type of forestry Frequency Percent Adeyoju, S. K. 1975. Forestry and the Nigerian Economy. manpower University of Ibadan Press. 145-146 pp. Professional forester 16 48.4 Azeke, I. E. 2002. Forestry Contributions to Edo State Technical 7 21.2 Economy. In: L. Popoola (Ed.) Forests, People and Vocational/protection 5 15.2 Environment. Proceeding of a National Workshop Administration 5 12.1 Organized by FANCONSULT and Edo State Chapter of Nigeria, held in Benin City, Edo State, 5-6 Sept. 2002. pp. Total 33 100 27-28.
Source: Ogar, 1999 Egboh, E. O. 1977. The Establishment of Forestry Departments in Nigeria, 1897-1940. Nigerian Journal of Forestry, 7: 51-62. Conclusion Enabor, E. E. 1977. Manpower Problems of Forest Resources Development in Nigeria. Journal of Forestry, 17(1&2): Forestry in SEN has the potential of contributing 26-33. substantially to the economy of the zone in particular FAO. 1992a. Yearbook of forest products. Forestry Series 25. and Nigeria in general. But a dearth in forestry Rome, United Nations, FAO, p.332. manpower in the zone has led to forest loss as a result FAO. 1999. State of the World’s Forest. Food and Agriculture of inadequate supervision and monitoring of the Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. p. 58. forests. Unsustainable forest exploitation results in loss in forest revenue accruing to government. When Johnston. D. R. A. J. Grayson and R. T. Bradley. 1967. Forest the necessary forestry manpower is provided in the Planning. Faber and faber Ltd 24 Russell square, zone, the approach to forest harvest, which is London. 450-451 pp. unsustainable, will change for the better. Okali, D. U. U. 1997. Environment and Resources Decree The respective state governments manage the Towards Sustainable Development in Nigeria. A Proceeding forest in Southeastern Nigeria. Various state forestry of the Forestry Association of Nigeria, held at Uyo, Akwa departments in the study area had peculiar forestry Ibom State. Sept. 22-26, 1997. pp. 1-12. manpower problem. For instance, Cross River State Udo. E. S. 1987. Forestry Labour Management in Nigerian. had the largest rainforest left in the region but the Journal of Forestry, 17(1 &2): 3-5. necessary forestry staff to manage the forest was
(S) 229 TheDiscov. Innov., Role 2007; Vol. of 19 (AFORNETBorassus Special Edition aethiopum No. 3) (Mart) on Livelihood Sustainability, the Northeastern Nigeria Experience
1Tee, N. T. and 2Labode Popoola
1Department of Social and Environmental Forestry, University of Agriculture, Makurdi, Nigeria; [email protected] 2Department of Forest Resources Management, University of Ibadan, Nigeria; [email protected]
Abstract The continued squeeze in the supply of natural resources for human sustenance and the bourgeoning rise in human population, by the day, is a great concern for human development. To address these issues, the present study covered three consumption areas of Borassus aethiopum (Mart) in Northeastern Nigeria: Adamawa, Bauchi, and Yobe States. A socio-economic importance evaluation of the palm was conducted in these areas, using personal interviews, market agents and structured questionnaires. Products in livelihood sustainability in Northeastern Nigeria is of the order: 29.8%, 19.0%, 18.3%, 16.8% and 16.1%, respectively, for employment/sources income, medicinal uses, source of food, raw material production, and environmental protection, respectively. At least, 372 jute bags (50kg) of Hypocotyls, 78 dozens (936 pieces) of mats and 40 jute bags (50kg) of fruits are marketed weekly. The NI, RORI, and GR values show that Borassus aethiopum products’ marketing is profitable, however, edible hypocotyls are more profitable and efficient than mats and fruits. The regression model results show revenue as the most significant factor in explaining variations in profit from Borassus aethiopum products.
Key words: Role, Borassus aethiopum, Livelihoods sustainability, Northeastern Nigeria, Socio-economic Importance, Economic returns
Résumé L’étouffement continuel de la provision en ressources naturelles pour le soutien du bien-être humain et l’éclosion démographique galopante et soutenue constituent une grande préoccupation pour le développement humain. Afin d’examiner ces questions, la présente étude a couvert trois zones de consommation de Borassus aethiopum (Mart) au nord- est du Nigéria dont: Adamawa, Bauchi, Yobe States. Une évaluation socio-économique du palmier a été effectuée dans ces zones, à travers des interviews personnels, des agents du marché et des questionnaires structurés. La part de produits dérivés du palmier dans l’essor du bien-être humain au nord-est du Nigéria est de l’ordre de 29,8%, 19,0%, 18,3%, 16,8% et 16,1%, pour des sources de revenus/emploi, les usages médicinaux, les sources alimentaires, la production de matériel brut et la protection de l’environnement, respectivement. Au moins, 372 sacs de jute (de 50kg) d’hypocotyles, 78 douzaines (936 pièces) de nattes et 40 sacs de jute (de 50kg) de fruits sont vendus au marché par semaine. Les valeurs IN, BIR et RB prouvent que la vente des produits dérivés de Borassus aethiopum est rentable, mais que celle des hypocotyles comestibles est plus rentable et efficace en comparaison de celle des nattes et des fruits. Les résultats du modèle de régression montrent le revenu est le facteur le plus significatif qui explique les variations des profits issus des produits de Borassus aethiopum.
Mots clés: Rôle, Borassus aethiopum, bien-étre soutenu, nord-est du Nigéria, importance socio-économique, impacts économiques
Introduction (Am) Kalkalcha (O) (FAO, 1988). Back home in Nigeria, to mention just but a few, the Yoruba, Igbo, Hausa Borassus aethiopum (Mart) is a dioecious palm tree of and Tiv people call it Agbon-eye, Ubiri, Giginya and African origin, which belongs to the family Palmae Kughul, respectively. or Arecaceae. Its synonyms are Borassus flabellifer L. Although it was described first in India in 1753 var aethiopum warb: Borassus flabelliformis (Murr); and only much later in Africa, botanists believe it Lontarus domestica (Gaertn). The species grows in originates in Africa (UNDP and FAO, 1988; ICRAF tropical Africa and in the East. It is variously known Agroforestree Data Base). Its dispersal is motivated in English as: African Fan palm, Ron palm, or the by elephants, which are so fond of the fruit. In fact, Borassus palm. In Zambia it is called Kakoma (B/Ny), the migrating elephants as well as the slave traders Chibangalala (B) Mulala (L2/To) while the Kenyans introduce the current existing grooves of Borassus call it Mvumo, Mahama, Mtappa (swa) Mugumo (Fur) aethiopum in most of the West African States (FAO, and the Uganda’s: edukanait (KMj), edukudukut (Ts) 1988). In terms of Ecological requirements, it grows Karagwa, Weki. In Ethiopia, it is known as Zembaba very well in the transitional and Savanna areas of the (S) 230 The Role of Borassus aethiopum (Mart) on Livelihood Sustainability, Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) the Northeastern Nigeria Experience semi-arid and sub-humid tropics in West Africa, from information are insufficient to trigger any meaningful Senegal to Nigeria, and in the belt southwards from decision that will popularize and encourage the Sudan to Mozambique and Transvaal. Thus, it is development of the species so as to impact more common in: Benin, Burkina Faso, Congo, positively on the welfare of the people. Indications and Cote d' Ivoire, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, recent surveys have shown that poverty is on the Guinea Bissau, Kenya, Liberia, Mali, Sierra-Leone, increase in Nigeria, with well over 67million people South Africa, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zambia and (about 66% of the population) living below the poverty Zimbabwe (ICRAF Agroforestree Data Base; Kasper, line in 1996, compared to 18.4 million people (about 1995; Ayarkwa, 1999). 27%) in 1980 (Okunmadewa, 2002). Thus, there is a Borassus aethiopum is a multipurpose palm, persisting paradox of a rich country inhabited by poor providing multifunctional uses in the areas of: shelter, people. World Bank (1996) in her poverty assessment food supply, improvement of the economic status report tagged Nigeria as “poverty state in the midst of (income and employment) of the rural people and plenty”. This, by implication, means we have sufficient the protection of the environment from degradation resources, yet we are poor largely because of poor and biodiversity depletion. Every part of the tree can exploration of resources, their under-utilization and serve any of the socio-cultural, economic and mismanagement. These are challenges requiring environmental needs of humankind. The tree is an balanced, viable and more vigorous search for attractive palm and has been planted for amenity workable measures to wade off these menaces. In view purposes. It is suitable for amenity purposes along of these, a socio-economic evaluation of the Borassus highways and is recommended for strategic places aethiopum, with a view to popularizing it for human such as Government buildings, libraries, schools, consumption is noble. This will stimulate the parks and museums. (Fairchild Tropical Garden development, promotion and expansion of the benefits Reports, 2002). Paul, the Doctor of palms in Fairchild from this species and also enhance its recognition Tropical Garden February, 2002 described Borassus locally and abroad. This study thus examines: aethiopum as unique and stately. Sambou et al. (1992) • The socio-economic importance of Borassus described it as been economically and ecologically aethiopum in Northeastern Nigeria. important. Kasper (1995), on the other hand, reported • The supply dynamics of the species products in that, the 51-hectare Bifila Forest Park in Gambia is the course of the year. Borassus aethiopum, and its presence is essential and • The weekly quantities of the species products’ beneficial because of its ability to serve Government marketed and the best sales period. regulatory policy on forest preservation in the Gambia. The roots, shoots and fruits are also utilized Materials and Methods for medicinal purposes. The Roots’ powder mixed with shea butter is used to treat sore throat and The Study Area bronchitis; palm wine is considered an aphrodisiac This study was carried out in the Northeastern and stimulant (FAO, 1988). These benefits are Geopolitical zone of Nigeria, located between latitude supposed indicators of a vibrant economy and a 7ºN – 13º20’N and longitude 8º40’E – 14º30’E .The land potentially improved quality of life for the people mass area is 272,395Km2 and a population of living where the species is available. However, for 11,900,913 persons comprising 6,013,926 and 5,886,987 these benefits to be properly met by the people, there males and females, respectively. Population density must be a means of moving the produce/products is about 44 persons /km2 (Udo, 1975; NPC, 1998). from the producers to the consumers, at prices and Furthermore, the zone comprises six states namely, conditions which are remunerative and affordable to Adamawa, Bauchi, Borno, Gombe, Taraba and Yobe. both the producers and consumers, respectively. Adamawa, Bauchi, and Yobe were selected for the Usually, an efficient and well-organized research can study based on the relatively abundant presence of coordinate these activities (Adegeye, 1995; Lintu, the species in these states vis-a-vis others and their 1995; Popoola and Rahji, 2001). fair representation of the region. However, available information has shown that, very little research has been carried out on Borassus Data Collection aethiopum (Mart) in the country. Popoola and Data for the study were generated by the use of Oluwalana (2001) were able to identify the structured questionnaires and interviews geographical spread of the species in the country. Also, conducted on the buyers, sellers, and consumers a socio-economic survey of Non Timber Forest and producers of Borassus aethiopum products in Products (NTFPs) carried out in Adamawa by Richard each area. The primary data was then (2005) mentioned in brief some economic and financial supplemented with relevant information from benefits of Borassus aethiopum in that state. These literature and other publications.
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Data Analysis mean percentage value of the sum of the percentages The collected data for this study were collated and of each economic benefit across the states (polled presented in tables. Descriptive statistic such as mean, mean) shows that: Borassus aethiopum products are frequency, and percentages were then utilized, where more important to the respondents for source of appropriate, in throwing light on the outcomes of this income and employment (29.72%) followed by research activity. medicinal uses (18.97%) and thirdly, by source of food (18.29%). The raw material uses (16.77%) and Results and Discussion environmental protection (16.09%) occupies the fourth and fifth positions, respectively. It is worth Economic Importance of Borassus aethiopum noting at this juncture that better incomes, good Borassus aethiopum is made up of many parts, which health and food are very vital and instrumental to have multiple benefits that qualify it as a livelihood sustainability. Any human being that does multipurpose palm. Some of the products/produce not have adequate food, good health and an agreeable obtained from this palm include; fruits, edible level of financial comfort is figuratively dead and hypocotyls, hand fans, mats, baskets, sponges, cannot be involved in any meaningful development brooms, hats or caps, chairs, juice (sap) or wine and activity. These facts, in the light of the above benefits timber products (UNDP and FAO, 1968; Morton, of Borassus aethiopum, therefore, justify and rationalize 1988; Khieu, 1998). The availability and utilization it as a viable resource that can improve livelihoods. of these products/produce vary in magnitude and The ways in which these benefits are derived are intensity from location to location. Table 1 provides discussed below: the summary of the major economic benefits of Borassus aethiopum. The result reveals that the Employment/Sources of Income relative order of involvement of the respondents in The Marketing of Borassus aethiopum products such the utilization of Borassus aethiopum for the various as edible hypocotyls, Fruits, Planks, Mats, Local socio-economic benefits varies across the states. In baskets, Hats, Sponges and Hand fans, among others, Adamawa, the variation is of the following provide employment opportunities for the people as descending order: Source of income and buyers, sellers, commissioned buyers, speculative employment (29.4%), medicinal uses (23.5%) source buyers and assemblers. On the course of marketing, of food (19.1%), environmental protection (16.2%) a margin is derived as income at every level. and raw materials (11.8%). Furthermore, other marketing activities like: loading For Bauchi, the order of variation shows that and offloading, transportation, storaging, handling source of income and employment is 24.2%, and is and packaging, all provide various levels of incomes the highest. This is followed by raw material uses to different categories of people. Apart from the (23.3%). Environmental protection occupies the third benefits, the revenue accruing from the sale of order with 21.9%. Similarly, in Yobe state, source of products is utilized in the household for addressing income and employment leads by 35.6% and is other financial demands of the family. Both young followed by source of food (22.0%) and thirdly and old people become self-employed in simple craft medicinal uses (17.0%). activities like weaving of basket, hand fans and mats. In all cases, the importance of the products as a With all these activities, the people are made more source of income and employment is prominent. The stable. Risk is also reduced.
Table 1: Socio-Economic Benefits of Borassus aethiopum Products
Socio-economic benefits Adamawa Bauchi Yobe Freq. % Freq. % Freq. %
Income/Employment 20 29.41 18 24.16 21 35.59 Protection of Environment 11 16.18 16 21.92 6 10.17 Raw material production 8 11.76 17 23.29 9 15.25 Medicinal uses 16 23.53 12 16.43 10 16.95 Source of food supply 13 19.12 10 13.70 13 22.04
Total 68 100.00 73 100.00 59 100.00
(S) 232 Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) The Role of Borassus aethiopum (Mart) on Livelihood Sustainability, the Northeastern Nigeria Experience Protection of the Environment corresponding cost per unit is also provided. The Borassus aethiopum provides shelter for the people. In results show that, every week, 372 jute bags (50kg) of many locations, the stands of Borassus aethiopum are Hypocotyls, 78 dozens (936 pieces) of mats and 40 available around homes schools and farms. These jute bags (50kg) of fruits are purchased by the buyers. primarily provide shelter. The roots are believed to The column for mean values of row percentages provide stability to the soil wherever the tree is found. shows that the highest value of purchases is from the Furthermore, other animals like birds, snakes, and farmers. This accounted for 75.8%, followed by insects, find shelter in Borassus aethiopum. The palm farm-gate middlemen (8.8%), wholesalers (7.1%) and is known for its amenity values. As strip planting neighboring state (3.3%) respectively. This means that around farmlands, the palm serves as windbreakers farmers are chief suppliers. Furthermore, inter-state and thus reduces wind speed and its degradable trade in Borassus aethiopum products is not common. tendencies on the soil and the crops. Productivity of Again, it means that, the roles of farm-gate, the crops is increased. middlemen and wholesalers are minimal in Borassus aethiopum product market in Northeastern Nigeria. Raw Materials In fact, wholesalers/farm-gate middlemen purchased The leaves of Borassus aethiopum are the major raw no single quantity of fruits. Similarly, in Table 3, based materials for making mats, hand fans, baskets, and on aggregate values, higher volumes of purchases hats. The roots provide raw materials for were made in Adamawa, Bauchi and Yobe, in that pharmaceutical purposes. Furthermore, the fibrous order. The corresponding mean row percentages parts of the fruits are used in producing sponges. The (Table 4) are 40.5%, 37.2% and 22.3%, respectively. inflorescence is burnt to produce ash (potash), which Individual commodity assessment shows that in turn is used for soap making. Adamawa traders have the highest volume of purchase in Mats (39.7%) and Bauchi in Hypocotyls Medicine Uses (49.7%). Yobe traders did not lead in any commodity. The roots are the main components in producing However, they have higher purchases in mats (35.9%) medicines for malaria and other ailments like sore than Bauchi, which has only 24.4%. throats, bronchitis, and breathing disorders. The sap Analyzing the data in Table 3, based on the level (palm wine) is considered a stimulant and is used in of involvement of traders in these respective making-up aphrodisiacs. products, the frequency sizes show that, greater number of buyers (53) in Northeastern Nigeria were Food Supply involved in edible hypocotyls business. Mats follow Various food substances are obtained from Borassus this with 23 buyers. Fruits attracted only 7 buyers. aethiopum. The edible hypocotyls (cabbage) is widely This could be attributed to the bulky nature of fruits consumed and marketed. Farm animals consume the and besides, the fruits were being used mostly by the florescence. The ashes produced from the farmers themselves in producing edible hypocotyls, inflorescence are used as ingredients in traditional which yield them more financial values/returns. relishes for soups. Apart from the above, the soft inner portion of the trunk is edible and sweet. Although, Supply and Sales Dynamics of Borassus aethiopum palm wine (toddy) is produced from Borassus This section considers two main issues namely, the aethiopum (Khieu, 1998), the product is un-popular movement or changes in the pattern of supply of in Northeastern Nigeria. In fact, an insignificant Borassus aethiopum and times sale of such supplies are number of people tap it. The probable and most at their peaks and otherwise. outstanding reason could be the religious belief of the people, most of which are Muslims, and Islam Supply Dynamics of Borassus aethiopum Products does not permit the consumption of alcoholic wine. The dynamics of supply in this study measures the Other reasons are the risks involved in tapping the movement or changes in the pattern of supply of wine from this palm. The palm is known to harboring commodities. To study the dynamic or pattern of dangerous snakes and the bole formation is so tall supply of various products of Borassus aethiopum, the and without branches such that climbing it is year was divided into 4 quarters; January to March, extremely difficult. April to June, July to September and October to December, representing 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th quarters, Weekly Quantities of Borassus aethiopum Products respectively. The peak supply period was determined Marketed by asking the respondents which time of the year; Tables 2 and 3 provide information on weekly particular Borassus aethiopum products were supplied quantities of Borassus aethiopum products purchased most. The result of the responses is shown in Table 4, by buyers from various sources of supply and the and are discussed product by product. quantities produced by the states, respectively. The (S) 233 Discov. 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Table 2: Weekly Quantities of Borassus aethiopum Products Purchased by Buyers from Various Sources of Supply and Respective Unit Costs
Products
Supply Hypocotyls Mats Fruits Mean Raw % Source (50kgjute bags) (Dozens) (50kg jute bags) Qty Cost Qty Cost Qty Cost (50kgjute bags) (N) (Dozens) (N)(N)
Farmers 302(81.18) 2950 40(51.28) 1212 38(95) 1575 75.82 Farm-gate Middlemen 41(11.02) 2930 12(15.39) 1080 00(0.00) 00 8.80 Wholesalers 3(0.81) 2900 16(20.51) 1320 00(0.00) 00 7.11 Neighboring State 26(6.99) 2967 10(12.82) 1200 2(5.00) 1300 3.27
Total 372 78 40 100.00
Note: Values in bracket are Column percentages
Table 3: Weekly Quantities Purchased of Borassus aethiopum Products by States
Products
Hypocotyls Fruits Mats (50kgjute bags) (50kgjute bags) Qty % Qty % Qty % Mean row % State (50kgjute bags) (50khg bag)
Adamawa n=17(109) 2930 n=2(21) 52.50 n=7(31) 39.74 40.51 *N2950 *N1900 *N1212 Bauchi n=21(185) 49.73 n=3(15) 37.50 n=6(19) 24.36 37.20 *N2992 *N1325 *N1515 Yobe n=15(78) 20.97 n=2(4) 10.00 n=10(28) 35.90 22.29 *N2817 *N1200 *N1320 Total (372) 100.00 (40) 100.00 (78) 100.00 100.00 •n 53 7 23
Note: Values in Bracket represents weekly quantities purchased. ‘n’ stands for number of buyers involved, •= summation, * Represents cost price, i.e purchase price.
Table 4: Peak Supply Periods of Borassus aethiopum Products
Periods
Product name Jan-March April-June July-Sept Oct-Dec N
Hypocotyls 34 1 1 16 52 (65.39)* (1.92) (1.92) (30.77)** (100.00) Mats 2 16 5 1 24 (8.33) (66.07)* (20.83)** (4.17) (100.00) Hand fans 1 5 0 0 6 (16.67)** (83.33)* (0.00) (0.00) (100.00) Hats 0 2 1 0 3 (0.00) (66.67)* (33.33)** (0.00) (100.00) Fruits 4 24 20 3 51 (7.84) (47.06)* (39.22)** (5.88) (100.00)
Note: Values in brackets are percentages by rows, N = number of Respondents * Best peak period, ** second best peak period.
(S) 234 The Role of Borassus aethiopum (Mart) on Livelihood Sustainability, Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) the Northeastern Nigeria Experience
Hypocotyls: Hypocotyls are supplied all year Hand Fans/Hats: Primarily, the local people for round with the peak period from January to March cooling or fanning themselves, use hand fans. Its (65.39%). This is followed by another high supply supply is highest from April to June (83.33%) period from October to December (30.77%). The corresponding with the hot season. Similarly, hats are period from April to September is characterized by also supplied mostly during these periods. October low supply. The low supply period corresponds with to March periods recorded no supply of hats. the planting season of fruits/seeds that produces hypocotyls, while the peak supply periods Fruits: Fruits are utilized mostly for planting to corresponds with the harvesting season. These two produce edible hypocotyls though supplied throughout situations could, therefore, be explained based on the the year, supply is highest in April to June 47.06% and production cycle of the edible hypocotyls. During July to September (39.22%). This period corresponds harvest period, the product, since it is even perishable, with the maturity period of fruits and also the planting is supplied in full swing to reduce losses. Off-harvest season of the fruit for hypocotyls production. season, the farmers who planted using irrigation The supply dynamics of Borassus aethiopum products remains the only supply sources thus causing is, therefore, guided generally by two major factors, the shortages. Harvesting hypocotyls generally starts demand function and the maturity period of its produce. between October and closes in March. Majority of the Availability and demand are, therefore, factors that planted hypocotyls get fully matured in January and determine supply pattern of Borassus aethiopum products every producer is out to harvest and sell. If the storage in Northeastern Nigeria. Weather has significant role in life of hypocotyls is improved, a more equitable the supply/demand status of mats/hats. distribution of its supply will be ensured all year round. Best Sales Period of Borassus aethiopum Products in a Year The determination of the best sales period will help Mats: The peak supply period for mats is from suppliers to plan adequately their supply function. April to June (66.67%) followed by July to September The year, just as in the case of supplies, is divided (20.83%). January to March and October to December into 4 quarters. Responses were elicited from periods have a drop in supply level as the opinion respondents on the times that they sell their products pool indicates. Enquiries as to why supplies are most. The results were as shown in Table 5. The result highest from April to September revealed that during showed that April to June was the best sales periods this period, there is higher demand for the product. for mats, fruits, hats and hand fans, respectively. Mostly during this period when rainfall sets in, the While that of hypocotyls was January to March. Fulani’s always require the mats for construction For mats, sales were highest in April to June (roofing) of their abodes. Other people make use of (75.45%) followed by July to September (17.54%) this mats during these periods to rest under shed on is due to high demand for the commodity mostly by sunny days. Generally, the hot sun characterizes the the Fulani who used them heavily in roofing. rainy season in Northeastern Nigeria. People always The fruits are best sold from April to June, and relax under tree sheds to take breeze when the sun is the period tallies with the planting period when many high. Not much of it is demanded during Harmattan. people are looking for it to plant for the production of hypocotyls.
Table 5: Best Sales Period of Borassus aethiopum Products in a Year
Periods
Product name Jan-March April-June July-Sept Oct-Dec N
Mats 1 43 10 3 57 (1.75) (75.45)* (17.54)** (5.26) (100.00) Fruits 4 48 4 0 56 (7.14)** (85.72)* (7.14)** (0.0) (100.00) Hypocotyls 71 4 0 53 128 (55.47)* (3.13) (0.0) (41.41)** (100.00) Hats 0 9 0 0 9 (00) (100)* (0.0) (0.0) (100.00) Hand fans 1 17 0 0 18 (5.56)** (94.4)* (0.0) (0.0) (100.00)
Note: * Best Peak Period, ** Second best Peak Period
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Hypocotyls have the best sales period as from Arene, C. J. 1998. Introduction to the Economic Analysis of January to March. The period corresponds with the Projects In: Tropical Agriculture. Fulladu Publishing periods when most agricultural crops in the region Company. Nsukka; Nigeria. are no longer available in sufficient quantities. This Ayarkwa, J. 1997. Potential for Utilization of Borassus therefore, serves as an alternative source of food for aethiopum (Fan palm) in construction in Ghana: In: many families. Apart from this, it is the harvesting Wood News. 6(4): 15-18. period for the hypocotyls. Fairchild Tropical Garden (2002): Online at http:// Both Hand fans/hats are sold most from April plants.usda.gov.cai_bin/plant. to June, corresponding with the hot sunny days. The periods July to September, and October to December FAO. 1988. Traditional Food Plants- Policy and Food record no sales. Nutrition paper 4 Vol. 42. The best sales periods of Borassus aethiopum ICRAF. Agroforestree Data base. products generally coincide with the best supply Kasper, A. 1995. Tourism helps forest preservation in periods. This means the suppliers understand their Gambia: an endangered forest is preserved. In AFAF2, customers very well and they plan supplies to - Allgemeine – Forst Zeitchrift, 50(1) 38-39. synchronize with demand. Khieu Borin. 1998. Sugar palm (Borassus flabellifer) Potential feed resource for livestock. In: Small farming systems Conclusion Download on the Internet. p.15. The most commonly utilized products of Borassus Lintu, L. 1995. Marketing Non-wood Forest Products in aethiopum in Northeastern Nigeria are hypocotyls Developing Countries. UNASYLVA NO. 83-Trade and (cabbage), fruits and mats. Hand fans, baskets, marketing of Forest Products. Vol. 46 1995/4. sponges, ash /potash, broom, roots, hats and sap are McCarthy, J. E 1968. Basic Marketing: A Management also utilized at varying intensities. These products are Approach, 3rd Edition, New York. utilized mainly for income and employment, medicinal Morton, J. F. 1988. Notes on distribution, propagation, and purposes and source of food supply; other livelihood products of Borassus palms. (Arecaceae). Economic benefits are environmental protection, raw materials Botany, 42(3): 434-438. for production, and medicinal uses. The supply of these NPC. 1998. Final Report of 1991 population Census of Fed. products and their utilization in the course of the year Rep of Nigeria. is controlled by two principal factors namely the demand function and maturity period of Borassus Okunmadewa F. 2002: Poverty and Agricultural Sector in aethiopum. Equally, the best sales period corresponds Nigeria, In: Okunmadewa F. 2000 (Ed. Poverty with the best supply period as detected by weather, Reduction and the Nigeria Agricultural Sector. Elshaddai demand and availability. The benefits accruing to the Global Ventures Ltd. No 15, Ago Ilorin Street, Mokola, people of Northeastern Nigeria from Borassus Ibadan. aethiopum (Mart) are enormous, and as such, the Ola, A. 1999. Quantitative Methods For Planning Students. popularization of these benefits and the species itself Kins Book Publishers. through the media campaigns, workshops, symposia Olukosi, J. O. and P. O. Erhabor. 1988. Introduction to Farm and the like are highly advocated for. This move will Management Economics Principles and Applications. place the species on the path of development since it AGITAB Publishers Ltd Zaria, Nigeria. will be made more popular. Owen, F. and R. Jones. 1994. Statistics. Fourth Edition Pitman Publishing Longman Group U.K Ltd. Acknowledgement 404-411pp. Popoola, L. and S. A. Oluwalana. 2001. Marketing of The authors acknowledge significantly AFORNET’S Non-timber Forest Products in Nigeria. In: Biodiversity benevolence in funding this research. Rainforest Ecosystems in Nigeria, p. 137-157. FEPA - UNAAB Linkage Center for Forest Conservation and References Biodiversity, University of Agriculture, Abeokuta Adegeye, A. O. 1995. Women in Forestry in Nigeria – A ISBN 978-35943-2-x Preliminary Investigation – Unpublished Memo – Popoola, L. and M. A. Y. Rahji. 2001. Spatial Market Department of Forest Resources Management, Integration Test of Terminnalia Ivorensis Sawnwood University of Ibadan. Markets in Nigeria. In: Journal of Tropical Forest Adeyokunnu, T. O. 1973. Marketing Margin for Rice in Egba Products, 7(1): 1-9. Division, Western State of Nigeria. Bulletin of Rural Richard, D. S. 2005. The Socio-economic importance of Economic and Sociology. 8: No 2. forest fruits in Kulinyi District, Hong Local
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Government Area, Adamawa State. An unpublished London Heinemann Nairobi/Ibadan/Lusaka. Project in the Department of Forestry and Wildlife UNDP and FAO. 1988. Important Trees of the Northern Management, Federal University of Technology, Yola. Sudan. Forestry Research and Education Center Sambou, Lowesson, J. E. and A. S. Barfod. 1992. Borassus Khartown. 111-112 pp. aethiopum, a Threatened Multiple purpose palm in World Bank. 1996. Nigeria Poverty in the Midst of Plenty- The Senegal: In: Principes (USA), 36(3): 148-155. Challenges of Growth with Inclusion, World Bank Report Udo K. Reuben. 1975. Geographical Regions of Nigeria. No 1 4733 UNI May.
(S) 237 BreakfastDiscov. Innov., 2007; Vol. Meal 19 (AFORNET from Special EditionBreadfruit No. 3) and Soybean Composite
Oduro1, I., W. Ellis1, A. Sulemana1 and P. Oti-Boateng2
1Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, PMB KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana 2Technology Consultancy Centre, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, PMB KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana
Abstract Breadfruit, Artocarpus altilis, is a nutritious and high energy fruit which is low in protein. It is underutilized for food products due to its limited product diversity but has the potential to be formulated into certain desired products such as pastries, breakfast cereals and beverages that are highly consumed. Soybean, on the other hand, is one of the cheapest and most valuable sources of protein and can, therefore, be used to fortify low protein foods. This study investigated the quality and acceptability of breakfast meals produced from various breadfruit-soybean composite flours. Blends were formulated with a soybean substitution of 10%, 30%, 50%, 70%, and 90%. The proximate composition of the blends and the acceptability of the formulated products were determined. The results showed the blends to have crude protein content between 6.85-36.59%, crude fat content of 4.44-18.12%, carbohydrate content of 33.15-77.84%, ash content of 2.32-5.06%, and energy value of 378.72-442.04 Kcal/100g. The sensory analysis showed that the formulated products were acceptable with preference more tilted towards blends with higher soybean content.
Résumé Artocarpus altilis ou châtaignier est un fruit nutritif avec une haute teneur en énergie mais avec un bas niveau de protéines. Le fruit est peu utilisé pour la fabrication d’une grande diversité de produits alimentaires, bien qu’il y ait lieu de l’ incorporer dans quelques produits comme les pâtisseries, les céréales consommés au petit déjeuner et les boissons fortement consommées. Le soja d’autre part constitue l’une des sources meilleur marché de protéines et les plus importantes. Il peut donc être utilisé pour enrichir des aliments pauvres en protéines. Cette étude a évalué la qualité et l’acceptabilité des repas consommés au petit déjeuner et préparés à partir de divers mélanges de farines du châtaignier et de soja. Ces mélanges ont été faits en substituant le soja de 10%, 30%, 50%, 70%, et de 90%. La composition approximative des mélanges et l’acceptabilité des produits formulés ont été déterminées. Les résultats ont montré que ces mélanges avaient 6,85 - 36,59% de protéines brutes, 4,44-18,12% de graisse brutes, 33,15-77,84% d’hydrates de carbone, 2,32-5,06 de cendres et la valeur énergétique de 378.72-442.04 Kcal/100g. L’analyse organoleptique a prouvé que les produits formulés étaient acceptables avec une grande préférence pour les mélanges avec des teneurs plus élevées en soja.
Introduction legumes. Of all the protein sources, soybean serves as the most valuable and economic source (Osho and Most breakfast cereals produced in Ghana are made Dashiell, 1987). Waldroup and Smith (1989) reported from maize which is deficient in lysine, an essential that a great deal of research has been done in an amino acid required for growth. Also, the seasonal attempt to partially replace traditional protein sources nature of maize makes it expensive during some times with soybean meal. However, the proportion of of the year. Breadfruit, Artocarpus altilis, provides an soybean protein directly consumed in human alternative to maize and it has been used to feed nutrition is still relatively small. Osho and Dashiell malnourished children in Nigeria where an (1987) reported that soybean could play an important improvement was observed in their conditions part in alleviating malnutrition in Africa. without any adverse effects (Runsewe-Abiodun et al., Preliminary results from a survey indicates that 2001). The Breadfruit is a high carbohydrate source the breadfruit - the seedless type and the one with with a high energy value even though it is low in seeds - is mostly used as snack with very little protein. One way of increasing the protein and processing in Ghana. It is either cooked or roasted. mineral content of breadfruit is to fortify it with high Though it is used as snack, it is less regarded and protein and mineral sources such as meat, fish and therefore, its industry is not well developed. In most
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of the regions, it serves as a source of income for Analyses children who gather it (Oduro and Ellis, 2004). Its Proximate analysis was carried out on the soybean potential could be enormous if the food utilization and breadfruit flours and the blends. The moisture base is expanded. Breadfruit can indeed be processed content, percentage crude protein, crude fat, crude into certain desired products such as pastries and fiber and ash content were determined based on the breakfast cereals that are highly consumed. This Official methods of analysis (AOAC, 1990). study, thus, investigated the acceptability of breakfast Percentage carbohydrate was determined by meals produced from various breadfruit-soybean difference (Kirk et al., 1981). The food energy level composite flours in order to encourage their was determined by calculation using the Atwater utilization alongside other crops factor.
Materials and Methods Preparation of Ready-To-Serve Breakfast Meal The composite flour was mixed with water, (about The soybean (2kg) was obtained from Savannah 500g flour to 250ml water) to form a condition Agricultural Research Institute (SARI), Nyankpala, composite flour. The conditioned flour was heat and the breadfruit (10 fruits) was obtained from the processed in an oven at 120 ºC for one hour after campus of Kwame Nkrumah University of Science which it was allowed to cool and milled to obtain the and Technology, Kumasi. ready-to-serve breakfast meal.
Preparation of breadfruit flour Sensory Evaluation Mature but unripe breadfruits were screened for Sensory evaluation for the formulated breakfast meals insect infestation and physical defects. The fruits was conducted by a thirty member untrained panel without any defects were peeled with a knife, cored, (mainly students) using a five point hedonic scale and the pulp sliced into chips which were dried in a ranging from like very much (1), to dislike very much solar dryer for three days. The dried breadfruit chips (5). The evaluated parameters were taste, color, flavor, were then milled and sieved with a 75 micron mesh mouth feel, after taste and overall acceptability. to obtain the flour. Rosamix (106), a breakfast cereal on the market was used as a control. It is made from groundnut, soybean, Preparation of soybean flour and maize. The samples were prepared for sensory The soybeans were screened for stones, rot, and other by mixing 200g of the blends with 20g of sugar, 20g physical defects. The beans without defects were then of whey milk, and 500ml of water and served to the roasted under an open flame until they turned golden panelists. brown. The roasted beans was allowed to cool, milled The data obtained was statistically analysed and sieved with a 75 micron mesh to obtain the flour (correlations, variable clustering procedures and which was stored in a refrigerator prior to analysis. analysis of variance) using SAS program.
Formulation of Blends Results and Discussion The soybean flour and breadfruit flour were mixed in different proportions to obtain five different The results of the study is shown in Table 2. The blends which were used to prepare the breakfast moisture content of foods gives an indication of the meal. The composition of the different blends is shelf stability of the food. Nelson (1992) reported that shown in Table 1. moisture is used as a quality factor for prepared cereals which should have 3-8% moisture content. The Table 1: Flour composition of blends moisture content of the blends ranged from 1.77% to 4.23%. Such low moisture content is required for Blend Breadfruit Flour Soybean Flour convenient packaging and transport of products. The (%) (%) results showed that, the ash content of the blends 0 100 increased with increasing addition of soybean flour. 100 0 Sample 105 had the highest (5.06%) ash content while 101 90 10 101 had the lowest (2.32%). The high ash content is 102 70 30 in accordance with the fact that fortified breakfast 103 50 50 meals are a good source of micronutrient and 104 30 70 macronutrient (Nicklas et al., 1993). The calcium and 105 10 90 iron content of the soybean flour was greater than 106 Control - that of the breadfruit flour (Table 2). There was an
(S) 239 Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Breakfast Meal from Breadfruit and Soybean Composite increase in the calcium and iron values of the blends can be altered by replacing a large part of the fat with as the soybean composition increased. The protein fats containing high levels of unsaturated fats content of the various blends was high; increasing (Nelson, 1992). The crude fiber content of the blends with increasing content of the soybean flour. Blend increased with increasing amount of soybean flour, 101 had the lowest (6.85%) while 105 had the highest sample 105 had the highest (5.31%) while 101 had (36.59%), (Table 2). Nelson (1992) reported that in the lowest (4.32%) (Table 2). Adequate consumption 1985, the FAO and WHO set the recommended intake of dietary fiber has been reported as being important level of the human adult at 0.75g/kg per day and for growth and the prevention of constipation this indicates that the blends would be appropriate (Nelson, 1992). The carbohydrate content of the for children whose weight ranges from 9.13kg to blends decreased with increasing composition of 48.79kg.The fat content of a food sample can affects soybean flour, 101 had the highest (77.84%) while 105 its shelf stability. This is because fat can undergo had the lowest (33.15%) (Table 2). It has been reported oxidative deterioration, which leads to rancidification that cereals composed predominantly of and spoilage. Hence a food sample with high fat carbohydrates are inexpensive sources of food energy content is more liable to spoilage than one with a (Nicklas et al., 1993). The blends, therefore, serves as lower fat content. The fat content of the blends an inexpensive source of carbohydrate and food increased with increasing content of the soybean energy. The energy values of the soybean and flour; sample 101 had the lowest (4.4 %) while 105 breadfruit flour were 463.34 and 369.86 Kcal/100g, had the highest (18.12) (Table 2). High intake of fat respectively. There was, therefore, an increase in the especially saturated fatty acid has been shown to energy value of the blends as the soybean increase the level of cholesterol in the blood but it composition increased.
Table 2: Nutritional composition of soybean, breadfruit, and composite flours
Moisture Ash Crude Crude Crude Carbohy- Energy Fe mg/ Ca Sample (%) (%) protein fat fiber drate (Kcal/ 100g mg/100g (%) (%) (%) (%) 100g)
Soybean 0.94 5.05 40.46 22.02 5.70 flour (0.02) (0.03) (0.10) (0.06) (0.02) (0.62) 463.34 42 426 Breadfruit 5.04 1.96 3.28 2.82 4.06 flour (0.05) (0.03) (0.02) (0.04) (0.05) (0.86) 369.86 12 123 4.23 2.32 6.85 4.44 4.32 101 (0.026) (0.148) (0.148) (0.163) (0.045) (1.61) 378.72 15.45 136.33 3.84 3.51 15.54 7.32 4.52 102 (0.113) (0.665) (0.170) (0.049) (0.021) (0.92) 389.12 18.16 147.44 2.58 3.80 20.99 11.24 4.98 103 (0.127) (0.021) (0.219) (0.156) (0.021) (0.06) 410.76 25.28 160.94 2.05 4.33 30.21 14.99 5.12 104 (0.092) (0.156) (0.028) (0.064) (0.028) (0.13) 428.95 31.94 243.85 1.77 5.06 36.59 18.12 5.31 105 (0.035) (0.035) (0.085) (0.134) (0.028) (0.26) 442.04 38.33 333.54 106 9.7 2.98 17.73 9 3.02 57.57 382.2
Values are means of triplicate determinations, standard deviations are in parenthesis
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The soybean flour had relatively high Fe and Ca with the exception of blend 102, preference was content; thus, as the proportion of soybean increased higher for those blends with higher levels of soybean in the blends, the level of these minerals increased. flour relative to those with higher breadfruit flour. This may be as a result of the flavour the roasted Sensory Evaluation soybean flour imparted to those blends. The mean scores for taste showed that all the formulated blends were accepted (Table 3). Statistical 5.0 analysis however indicated no significant (p>0.05) difference between the blends. Panelists’ preference 4.0 for taste was in the order 103, 102, 105, 104, and 101. Comparing the blends to the control, the blends were 3.0 more preferred to the control. The results for mouth feel showed a significant (p<0.05) difference between 2.0 the blends, though they were all accepted. The differences occurred between blends 101 and 102, 103 and 104, 105 and 106. There were also significant 1.0 (p<0.05) differences between the blends, with respect 101 102 103 104 105 106 to the aftertaste (Table 3). The ‘aftertaste’ mean scores show that the differences occurred between blend 101 Samples of breakfast meal and 103, 102 and 104, and 105 and 106. The differences observed can be attributed to the smell associated Figure 1: Mean score for the overall acceptability of with the breadfruit flour. A significant difference was breakfast meal observed between blends with respect to product colour (Table 3). The difference observed was between products 101 and 106, and 102, 103, 104 and 105. Correlation analysis of the nutritional data Hence, for product colour, blends with low amount showed a negative relation between moisture and of soybean flour were more preferred. For product crude fiber, a positive relation between the ash, flavour, a significant difference was also observed protein and the fat. These variables also had a positive between the blends. The difference occurred between relationship with carbohydrate as well as the energy. products 101 and 105, 102, 103 and 104, and 106. For This is to be expected because carbohydrate content flavour the blends with low levels of breadfruit flour is determined by difference which is dependent on were more preferred relative to those with high levels these variables. Energy levels are determined by the of breadfruit flour. fat, protein and carbohydrate contents of the samples; thus, the relationship between these variables and Table 3: Preference Mean Scores for the Formulated energy. breakfast Meal Correlation between the sensory attributes indicated a positive relation between mouth feel and taste; also, between aftertaste and flavour. Blend Taste After- Mouth Colour Flavour taste feel Conclusion 101 2.300 2.900 2.700 1.400 2.600 102 1.700 2.100 2.300 1.600 2.400 The study shows that formulation of breakfast meal 103 1.600 2.300 1.700 1.500 2.000 from soybean and breadfruit with varying 104 2.000 2.000 2.200 1.600 1.900 characteristics can be produced, thus providing an 105 1.800 1.600 1.800 1.700 1.900 alternate use for the breadfruit. Also, the addition of 106 2.400 1.500 2.400 2.400 1.700 soybean flour in different proportion to breadfruit LSD 0.238 0.000 0.012 0.000 0.008 enhances the nutritional quality of the blends. It can (5%) be concluded from the sensory analyses that, the formulated products can compete with already This can be attributed to the unpleasant existing breakfast meals on the market. characteristic smell associated with the breadfruit flour. The response for the overall acceptability Acknowledgement (Figure 1) showed no significant (p>0.05) difference The authors would like to thank the African Forest and had this order of preference 104 and 105, 102, Research Network (AFORNET) for providing 103, and 101. This implies that, for overall acceptance, financial support for this work.
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References Runsewe_abiodun, I., A. O. Olowu, D. M. Olanrewaju and F. A. Akosode. 2001. Efficacy of the Afican Breadfruit AOAC. 1990. Official Methods of Analysis, Association of in he Nutritional Rehabilitation of Children with Analytical Chemists International. 14th Edition, Protein Energy Malnutrition. Nigerian Journal of Washington DC, pp 22, 113-114. 169: 207-208. Paediatrics, 28: 128-132. Nicklas, T. A., W. Bao, L. S. Webber and G. S. Berenson. Osho, S. M and K. Dashiell. 1987. Expanding soybean 1993. Breakfast consumption affects adequacy of total production, processing, and utilization in Africa. In daily intake in children, J. Am Diet Assoc, 93: 886-891. Postharvest Technology and Commodity Marketing Nelsen, S. S. 1992. Introduction to the Chemical Analysis of Edited by R.S.B. Ferris. Proceeding of a Postharvest Foods. International Thomson Publishing: New York, Conference 2 Nov. to 1 Dec. 1995, Accra, Ghana 151-158 pp. pp. 93-96, 113-115, and 137-148. Waldroup, P. W., and K. J. Smith. 1989. Animal feed use of Oduro, I. and W. O. Ellis. 2003/2004. Propagation, Early, legumes. In: Mathews, R.H., (Ed), Legumes: Chemistry, Growth, Nutritional and Engineering Development Technology and Human Nutrition, Marcel Dekker Inc.: Project in Treculia Africana Dence (African Breadfruit) New York, 245-248 pp. Annual Report submitted to AFORNET.
(S) 242 Expanding Breadfruit UtilizationDiscov. and Innov., its 2007; PotentialVol. 19 (AFORNET Special for Edition Pasta No. 3) Production
Oduro, I., W. O. Ellis and S. T. Narh,
Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, KNUST, Kumasi Ghana
Abstract Breadfruit, Artocarpus altilis, is a crop that can be made into flour and use in the production of flour based foods. This study aimed to increase the utilization of breadfruit and add value to the crop. The composite flours were evaluated for physiochemical properties and proximate composition. Sensory analysis was conducted on the pasta samples to access the preference of the products. Results showed that there was significance difference among composite samples (P<0.05) for all the variables. There was increase in crude fat, crude fiber, ash and carbohydrate content with increase in percentage substitution of non-wheat flour. The same trend was observed in swelling power, solubility and water binding capacity for flour composites. A decrease in moisture content, protein content, LGC and bulk density was observed for flour samples from 10% to 50% substitution of non-wheat flour. Pasta made from 70% wheat and 30% breadfruit was the most preferred. Therefore Breadfruit can be used in composite as an alternative source for pasta production.
Résumé Artocarpus altilis ou châtaignier est une culture qui peut être transformée en farine utilisable dans la fabrication des aliments à base de la farine. La présente étude avait pour objectif d’augmenter l’utilisation du châtaignier et revaloriser la denrée. Les mélanges de farines ont été évalués pour leurs propriétés physicochimiques et leurs compositions ont été approximativement déterminées. L’analyse organoleptique a été effectuée sur les échantillons de pâtes pour évaluer la préférence apportée aux produits. Les résultats ont prouvé qu’il y avait des différences significatives (P<0,05) au sein des échantillons des mélanges pour toutes les variables étudiées. Il y avait une augmentation de la teneur en graisses brutes, en fibres brutes, en cendres et en hydrates de carbone au fur et à mesure d’augmenter de la substitution de la farine non- blé. La même tendance a été observée pour le pouvoir de lever, la solubilité et la capacité d’absorption d’eau pour les mélanges de farines. On a constaté une diminution de la teneur en humidité, en protéines, en LGC et la densité brute pour des échantillons de farine provenant de 10% à 50% de substitution de la farine non-blé. Les pâtes préparées à partir de 70% de farine de blé et 30% de châtaignier étaient les plus appréciées. Par conséquent, le châtaignier peut être employé dans les mélanges comme produit substitution dans la production des pâtes .
Introduction intended for further preparation at home or by food service operators. In Ghana, most Street food vendors Breadfruits, Artocarpus altilis are very useful plants add pasta to rice and beans (kwakye) and rice as a in the world. Seedless breadfruit is very rich in part of the main meal, thus it is already part of our carbohydrate, minerals and vitamins, and breadfruit eating culture. The objective of this project was to flour is very rich in lysine. It has been known and incorporate breadfruit flour into pasta production used by many especially in rural Ghana. Though this with the view of expanding its utilization. food crop has great potential it is neglected due to lack of regard for its importance as a food crop. To Materials and Methods promote the use of these crops there is the need to diversify its uses in food product development. The Sources of Raw material more diversified the product, the greater its market The breadfruit was obtained from the courtyard of potential. Substituting breadfruit flour into various the Republic Hall of Kwame Nkrumah University of formulations where wheat flour is used is one way Science and Technology, Kumasi. The hard wheat of enhancing it utilization. Pasta is one of such flour was purchased from the Kejetia central market, product made of hard wheat. It is a half-product Kumasi, Ghana.
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Production of breadfruit flour Determination of physicochemical properties of the Mature firm breadfruits were plucked from the tree, composites flours washed with clean water, peeled, cored and then Water binding capacity, Swelling power and Solubility washed again. The peeled breadfruits were chopped The water binding capacity was determined into slices and dried for three (3) days in a solar tent according to the method of Yamazaki (1953) as dryer. The dried chips were milled and then sieved modified by Medcalf and Gilles (1965). Solubility and to obtain fine flour using mesh sieve. swelling power of the flour were determined based on the modification of the method of Leach et al. Formulation of composite flours (1959). The wheat-breadfruit flour blends were prepared by substituting a percentage of the wheat flour with Gelation concentration non-wheat flour down to 50% substitution. The Gelation was determined using a modification of composition of the blends is shown in Table 1. Coffman and Garcia (1977) least gelation concentration (LGC) method. Sample suspensions of Table 1: Flour composition of blends (composite flour) 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25% (w/v) were prepared in 5ml distilled water. The test tubes containing the Blend Wheat Breadfruit suspensions were then heated for 1 hour in a boiling Flour (%) Flour (%) water bath followed by rapid cooling in cold water. The test tubes were further cooled for 2 hours at 4ºC. 711 100 0 721 90 10 The least gelation concentration was determined as 731 80 20 that concentration when the sample from the inverted 741 70 30 test tube did not slip. 751 60 40 761 50 50 Bulk density A previously tarred graduated cylinder was filled with 10g of sample. The bottom of the cylinder was Production of pasta gently tapped on the laboratory bench several times The main ingredients used were hard wheat flour, until there was no further decrease in the sample breadfruit flour, egg, water and salt. In each level. The bulk density was calculated as weight per formulation, half of the breadfruit flour was mixed unit volume of sample (g/ml). with 100ml of boiling 2%w/v salt solution to pregelatinize for one minute while stirring. The Moisture, ash, crude fiber, crude fat and protein remaining half of the breadfruit flour, the wheat flour determination and one egg were added and mixed thoroughly. The These were determined using the official methods of mixture was then kneaded with the hand to consistent analysis (AOAC, 1990). Carbohydrate content was dough which was steamed and fed into a pasta calculated by the difference. machine (Master Chef Pasta Bike, China) to obtain The data obtained was statistically analysed the required pasta shape. The pasta was then steamed, (correlations, variable clustering procedures and dried and stored in polythene bags for sensory analysis of variance) using SAS program. analysis. Results and Discussion Sensory evaluation of pasta samples Untrained panel of 20 judges was selected to compare Proximate Composition the cooked pasta samples for selected attributes such The proximate composition of the wheat flour and as colour, appearance, firmness by hand, firmness by breadfruit flour are shown in the Table 2. Moisture teeth, mouth-feel, after taste and overall acceptability content of the breadfruit flour was low (5.04%) of the pasta. The panelists were asked to evaluate the relative to the wheat flour (10.08%). The difference products, based on the above attributes and their is due to the source of the flour. There were overall acceptance of each cooked pasta sample based significant (P<0.05) differences in all the nutritional on a 5-point hedonic scale, ranging from like very composition of the flours. Breadfruit flour had a much (1) to dislike very much (5). high carbohydrate content (82.84%) but was low
(S) 244 Expanding Breadfruit utilization its Potential for Pasta Production Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) in protein content (3.23%). The wheat flour had an mean specification and, therefore, the required appreciably high protein level of 14.50% but levels ratio. The result of the sensory evaluation of ash, fat and fiber contents were relatively low. confirmed this. This observation is due to the different source of The Carbohydrate and ash contents of the materials used for flour production. The changes composite flours increased with increasing in the proximate compositions of the various blends substitution. The increased carbohydrate content was of wheat-breadfruit composite flour. Table 2 shows expected since breadfruit is high in carbohydrate and a decrease in the moisture content of the the 30% substitution level gives the level required for wheat–breadfruit composite flour as the good quality pasta. percentage substitution increased. There were significant (P<0.05) differences in all the proximate Functional Properties composition of the blends with appreciable increase Swelling power, water binding capacity and solubility in the fibre, fat and ash contents of the composite increased from 10-50% breadfruit substitutions (Table flours relative to the wheat flour. The crude fat 3). This is because breadfruit has high carbohydrate content of wheat-breadfruit composites increased (amylose) content, which is a key determining factor with the increasing percentage substitution of for these parameters. Increase in solubility and breadfruit. The increase in crude fat from 10% to swelling power may be due to weak associative force 50% substitution was due to the higher crude fat in the starch. There was a decrease in bulk density of content of the breadfruit flour. A similar trend was the composite flours relative to that of wheat, but an observed for crude fiber and ash contents of the increase when compared to breadfruit flour. There composite flours. For good quality flour, the crude was a general increase in bulk density with an fiber content should not exceed 2% (Ghana Food increase in the substitution level, a trend influenced and Drugs Board). However, the levels obtained by the changes in the amount of wheat in the are all above 2%. This may be attributed to the composite flour. The LGC of the breadfruit relatively high fiber content of the breadfruit. composites dropped to 15% at 10% substitution after Durum, which is generally used for pasta which it remained constant with further substitution. production, has an average protein content of LGC was constant after 10% substitution of breadfruit 10-14% (Kent, 1983) and the value for the wheat flour which may be due to a limit in sensitivity of the flour used (Table 2) is close to the reported value. method used. The drop in LGC of the wheat-breadfruit The maximum substitution level for breadfruit that composites for the first 10% substitution is due to the meets this protein requirement for pasta production higher starch content in the breadfruit flour. is 40%. However, the 30% substitution was near the
Table 2: Nutritional composition of the various blends of Wheat-Breadfruit flour
Sample Moisture Crude Crude Crude Ash Carbohydrate (%) fat (%) fiber (%) protein (%) (%) (%)
721 9.48 1.65 2.28 13.84 0.78 71.97 (0.04) (0.03) (0.01) (0.05) (0.03) 731 9.13 1.76 2.23 12.65 0.84 73.39 (0.07) (0.10) (0.02) (0.03) (0.30) 741 8.58 1.80 2.56 11.80 0.88 74.38 (0.03) (0.30) (0.03) (0.02) (0.10) 751 8.05 2.10 2.86 10.57 1.07 75.35 (0.05) (0.03) (0.01) (0.02) (0.07) 761 7.53 2.16 3.08 9.40 1.18 76.65 (0.01) (0.20) (0.01) (0.04) (0.03) Wheat flour 10.08 1.50 2.00 14.50 0.58 71.34 711 (0.01) (0.70) (0.03) (0.03) (0.10) Breadfruit flour 5.04 2.82 4.06 3.23 1.96 82.84 (0.05) (0.04) (0.05) (0.02) (0.03)
Standard deviations are given in parenthesis and values are means of duplicate determinations.
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Sensory evaluation overall evaluation showed that pasta from 100% Sensory evaluation results of the pasta product (Table wheat was the most preferred, relative to the other 4) indicate that, for the composite flours, sample 731 products. This may be de to the fact that most had the most preferred appearance, colour and consumers are used to pasta made from durum wheat firmness by hand. Sample 721 was the most preferred and this may have influence the response obtained. in terms of aftertaste and firmness by teeth whilst The study, however, establishes that good pasta can sample 741 was the most preferred overall. The be produced at 30% breadfruit flour substitution.
Table 3: Functional characteristics of wheat flour, breadfruit flour and the various blends of Wheat-Breadfruit flour
Sample Swelling Water binding Solubility (%) Bulk density Least gel power (%) Capacity (g/g) (g/cm3 ) Concentration (%)
721 7.14 76.44 10.18 0.68 15 (0.01) (0.05) (0.01) (0.01) 731 7.53 82.79 10.28 0.66 15 (0.02) (0.05) (0.02) (0.02) 741 7.83 104.78 10.48 0.63 15 (0.30) (0.07) (0.30) (0.10) 751 8.08 123.13 10.65 0.62 15 (0.02) (0.03) (0.02) (0.05) 761 8.64 139.41 10.83 0.60 15 (0.03) (0.02) (0.03) (0.03) Wheat flour 6.75 79.36 9.97 0.72 20 711 (0.01) (0.04) (0.20) (0.03) Breadfruit flour 12.98 4.97 9.54 0.55 - (0.20) (0.02) (0.04) (0.02)
Standard deviations are in the parenthesis and values are the means in duplicate determinations
Table 4: Mean values of steamed wheat: breadfruit pasta products
Sample 711 721 731 741 751 761
APP 1.40 2.00 1.50 2.15 3.35 4.60 COL 1.60 2.70 1.20 1.61 2.25 2.15 AR 2.70 2.05 3.35 2.95 3.95 3.20 FBT 1.15 1.40 1.75 2.05 2.60 2.80 FBH 1.05 2.25 1.35 2.25 2.85 2.05 OA 1.10 3.60 3.85 1.30 4.05 3.95 Mean 1.50 2.33 2.17 2.05 3.18 3.13
Key APP = Appearance COL = Colour AR = Aftertaste FBH = Firmness by Hand FBT = Firmness by teeth OA = Overall Acceptability
(S) 246 Expanding Breadfruit utilization its Potential for Pasta Production Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3)
There was a strong positive correlation Aurand, L. W., A. E. Woods and M. R. Wells. 1987. Food between moisture, carbohydrate and protein. A Composition and Analysis, Van Norstrand Reinhold Int. similar relationship also existed between fat, fiber Co. Ltd., New York, USA. 513-521pp. and carbohydrate. This is expected since Bains, G. J. and H. A. B. Parpia. 1971. Investigation on carbohydrate content is independent on the Composite flours and their productsin India. JCC percentage proportions of these variables. The Symposium on Composite flours, Vienna. relationship between nutritional and sensory Barrau, J. and J. Coenan. 1961. The breadfruit tree in variables indicated a strong positive correlation Micronesia. South Pacific Bulletin, Oct., 37-39. between appearance, ash, fat and fiber. Firmness by teeth correlated strongly with fat, fiber and Blechl, A. E., H. Q. Le and O. D. Anderson. 1998. Journal of carbohydrate. The texture of food is dependent on Plant Physiology 152(6): 703-707. the fiber, fat and carbohydrate contents, thus the Gamman, P. M. and K. B. Sherrington. 1996. The Science of relationship between firmness and these nutritional food, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 28, 59-72, 77, variables. 91-97, 125-134pp. Kent, N. L. 1984. Technology of Cereals, Pergamen Press, Conclusion Oxford. Leach, H. W., D. L. McCowen and T. J. Schoch. 1959. Swelling The study has shown that pasta can be produced from and solubility patterns of various Starch. Stracture of breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis) composite flour at 30% Starch Granule 1. Cereal Chem., 36: 534-544. flour substitution. Thus, the use of breadfruit in pasta formulation will promote breadfruit composite pasta Marconi, E., M. Carcea, M. Grazianoand R. Cubadda Cereal with comparable attributes to the already existing Chemistry, 1999, 76, Jan.-Feb., 25-29. ones. There is need to promote the cultivation and Medcalf, D. J. and K. A. Gilles. 1986. Wheat Starches 1. expand the utilization of Breadfruit in Ghana. Comparison of Physicochemical Properties. Cereal Chem., 42: 558-568. Acknowledgement Pomeranz, Y. 1971. Wheat Chemistry and Technology, American Association of Cereal Chemists Inc./ St. The authors would like to thank the African Forest Paul Minnesota. Research Network (AFORNET) for providing Pratt, D. B. 1994. Effect of Processing on Quality of Flour, financial support for this work. 122-125pp. Skerritt, J. H. 1998. AgBiotech News and Information, 10(8): References 247N-269N. Antognelli, C. 1980. The manufacture of pasta as a Food South Pacific Foods, South Pacific Commisssion, Leaflet Ingredient. A Review. J. Fd. Sci., 18: 126-145. (1983). AOAC. 1990. Official Methods of Analyses of Association of Tosun, M., B. Tanyolaç, Demir, S. Yüce and M. Küçükakça. Analytical Chemists, 5th Edition, Virginia, USA. 1998. Cereal Research Communications, 26(4): 447-454.
(S) 247 MicropropagationDiscov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Editionof TriplochitonNo. 3) scleroxylon Using Axillary Buds
Ofori, D. A.
Forestry Research Institute of Ghana, University P. O. Box 63, Kumasi, Ghana. Tel. +233 51 60123, Fax +233 51 60121, Email: [email protected]
Abstract Triplochiton scleroxylon is an important tropical hardwood timber species in the West African sub-region. It is among the priority indigenous species selected for tree plantation development in the sub-region. The establishment of this species in commercial forest plantations is, however, constrained by lack of planting materials, mainly due to irregular flowering and low fruit set. This study was conducted to develop appropriate methods to mass-produce genetically desirable genotypes T. scleroxylon using in-vitro tissue culture. Sterilisation of ex-plants with 30% of domestic bleach (cotaining 3% Sodium hypochlorite) was able to clean the stem pieces without causing any bleaching of the tissues. Ex-plants in hormone free media did not grow. Addition of hormones Indole-3 butyric acid (IBA) and N6Benzylaminopurine (BAP) enhanced shoot growth. Even though addition of hormones enhanced growth of the tissues, prolonged stay of ex-plants in IBA rich media promoted callusing that inhibited further development of the shoots. Best results were obtained when explants were pre-cultured in media supplemented with IBA for one day and then transferred to IBA free media supplemented with BAP. Ex-plants pre-cultured in media supplemented with 0.1 mg/l IBA and 3 mg/l BAP for 24 hours and then sub-cultured in media supplemented with 3 mg/l BAP without IBA had the best performance.
Key words: Triplochiton scleroxylon, tissue culture, explant, culture medium
Résumé Micropropagation de Triplochiton scleroxylon à l’aide des bourgeons axillairesTriplochiton scleroxylon est une des espèces tropicales importantes de bois d’œuvre dans la sous-région de l’Afrique occidentale. Elle figure parmi quelques espèces indigènes prioritaires retenues pour le reboisement dans la sous-région. La mise en place de cette espèce dans les reboisements forestiers commerciaux est cependant handicapée par le déficit en matériel végétal de plantation, dû principalement à une floraison irrégulière et une faible fructification. Cette étude a été menée pour développer des méthodes adéquates de production en masse des génotypes avec des caractères génétiques souhaitables en utilisant la technique de culture de tissus in vitro. La stérilisation des explants avec 30% d’un détergent domestique (contenant 3% d’hypochlorite de sodium) a permis un nettoyage des boutures de tige sans causer une altération aux tissus. Les explants placés dans un milieu de culture ne contenant pas d’hormones ne se sont pas développés. L’ajout de l’acide butyrique des hormones Indole-3 (IBA) et 10 6 Benzylaminopurine (BAP) a augmenté la croissance des plantules. Bien que l’ajout des hormones ait augmenté la croissance des tissus, le séjour prolongé des explants dans les milieux de culture riches en IBA a favorisé le calus qui empêchait le développement ultérieur des plantules. Les meilleurs résultats ont été obtenus lorsque des explants étaient placés pour un jour dans des milieux de culture auxquels on avait préalablement ajouté l’IBA,puis transférés sur des milieux de culture ne contenant le BAP. Les explants préalablement cultivés pendant 24 heures dans des milieux de culture auxquels on avait ajouté 0,1 mg/l de IBA et 3 mg/l de BAP, puis transférés dans des milieu de culture contenant 3 mg/l de BAP, sans IBA ont eu de meilleures performances.
Mots clés: Triplochiton scleroxylon, culture de tissus, explant, milieu de culture
Introduction position in both the total volume of wood export (23%) and the revenue generated in the timber trade of Ghana T. scleroxylon, an important tropical hardwood timber (TIDD, 2003). In the Republic of Benin, T. scleroxylon species in the West African sub-region is among the has a very important cultural value in the Nagot and priority indigenous species selected for tree plantation the Yoruba ethnic groups. development in the sub-region. The species stretches It is intensively exploited from the natural forest from Guinea through West Africa to Congo (Irvine, but its replacement has only been achieved through 1961). The timber, known as Obeche in Nigeria, Wawa a small number of plantations. Several forest in Ghana, Egui oro in Republic of Benin, Ayous in plantation developers are interested in the Cameroon and Samba in Cote d’Ivoire is an easy to establishment of T. scleroxylon in large-scale work general-purpose whitewood. It is very useful in plantations but this is impeded by inadequate the production of lumber, sliced and rotary veneer, production of seeds. Flowering is erratic occurring mouldings, dowels, profile boards, boat building etc. about four to five years intervals. Majority of the seeds Currently, it competes with Ceiba pentandra for the first produced is of poor quality and has low germination (S) 248 Micropropagation of Triplochiton scleroxylon Using Axillary Buds MicropropagationDiscov. Innov., 2007; of Triplochiton Vol. 19 (AFORNET scleroxylon Special Using AxillaryEdition No.Buds 3)
rate (Jones, 1976; Oni, 1990). With the rapid expanding replicates were prepared and the cultures were grown interest of the private sector in forest plantations under 40-watt fluorescent lights at 16 hours photo-period development, it has, therefore, become necessary to and temperature maintained between 24 and 27°C. implement measures to guarantee their sustainable Assessments for contamination were made for seven days. production. These include establishment of T. scleroxylon in large-scale plantations and regulation Effect of growth regulators on shoot growth of yield allocations to contractors that reflect rate of Shoots were collected from green house-grown regeneration. In such circumstances, supply of abundant planting stock of the species for plantation stockplants. They were sterilised using 30% of domestic development is required. bleach (a.i. 3% sodium hypochlorite) for 20 minutes, Efforts to supply planting stocks have been made followed by three rinses with sterile distilled water, then by developing techniques for vegetative propagation 5 minutes in 70% ethanol and finally three rinses with using leafy stem cuttings (Ladipo et al., 1991; Nketiah, sterile distilled water. Forty axillary bud ex-plants were prepared from the shoots after sterilisation. They were 1994; Longman and Leakey, 1995; Nketiah and Ofori, cultured in MS media supplemented with 1, 2, 3, and 4 1996; Nketiah et al., 1998). However, demands for T. mg BAP/l in combination with 0.1 mg IBA/l. The scleroxylon by large-scale commercial plantation control had no hormone added (Table 1). This was developers cannot be met by this technique, hence replicated twice and cultures were maintained in the the need for production of genetically superior clones growth room as described above. Assessments were in successive years for plantation programmes made weekly for shoot growth and callus formation. through in-vitro tissue culture. Table 1: Treatments used and their compositions Materials and Methods Treatments/ Stockplant establishment and management compositions 1 2345 Five hundred seedlings were grown in a green house at CSIR-Forestry Research Institute of Ghana that BAP mg/l 0.0 1234 maintained about 50% of irradiance. They were IBA mg/l 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 watered once daily and fed with foliar fertiliser Effect of pre-culture on shoot growth (Grofol; 20:30:10 - N:P:K) every month. As much as Two hundred ex-plants were prepared as described possible, overhead watering was avoided to above. They were pre-cultured in MS media containing discourage growth of fungi on the stockplants. 3% sucrose, 0.6% agar, 0.1 mg/l of IBA and 1 mg/l of BAP for 24 hours. Forty ex-plants were then transferred Preparation of culture media into media supplemented with 1, 2, 3 and 4 mg/l of The culture media used were prepared from BAP without IBA. The control was ex-plants in hormone commercially prepared MS media (Murashige and free media without pre-culture in IBA. The cultures were Skoog, 1962) imported from SIGMA Germany. Full grown in culture room fitted with 40-watt fluorescent strength macro- and micro-nutrients were prepared, lights and temperature maintained between 24 and supplemented with half strength MS vitamins, 3% 27 °C. Assessments were made weekly for shoot growth sucrose, 0.6% agar. The pH of the media was adjusted for six weeks. The whole study was repeated twice. to 5.8 before autoclaving for 20 minutes at 121°C. The ° media were allowed to cool to about 40 C and Data analysis appropriate quantities of growth hormones were added The number of ex-plants developing into shoots, before dispensing (approx. 10 ml) into culture tubes. callus or got contaminated was recorded and data expressed in percentages. They were transformed Sterilisation of ex-plants using arcsine transformation before they were Various concentrations (10, 20, 30, 50, 75 and 100%) of subjected to one-way analysis of variance. domestic bleach (a.i. 3.0% Sodium hypochlorite) were tested. Shoots were collected from the greenhouse-grown Results stockplants. They were sterilised in the five different solutions described above for 20 minutes, followed by 3 Sterilisation of ex-plants rinses with sterile distilled water and then 5 minutes in The various concentrations of domestic bleach 70% ethanol. The stem pieces were then rinsed three times produced different levels of contamination and with sterilised distilled water. Forty axillary bud explants bleaching of ex-plants. Bleaching of ex-plants were prepared after the surface sterilisation and placed on increased with increasing concentrations of bleach media supplemented with 1 mg/l each of Indole-3 butyric while the level of contamination decreased with acid (IBA) and N6Benzylaminopurine (BAP). Two increasing concentrations of bleach (Figure 1).
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120
100
80 % Bleaching 60 % Cont amination 40
20 % Bleaching/Contamination 0 10% 20% 30% 50% 75% 100% bleach bleach bleach bleach bleach bleach Sterilisa tion s olutions
Figure 1: Effect of different concentrations of bleach on decontamination and bleaching of ex-plants
Effect of growth regulators of shoot growth 4 and 5 which were also not significantly (P > 0.05) No growth of buds was observed in the control at different (Figure 2). There was no callus growth in the end of 12 weeks. On the other hand, elongation the control but for treatments with hormones of buds was observed in treatments 2 to 5 that (treatments 2 to 5) callus formation was prominent contained growth hormones. The proportion of buds that inhibited further development of the buds into that elongated in treatments 2 and 3 were not shoots. There were however no significant differences significantly (P > 0.05) different but these were in the formation of callus among the four media significantly (P < 0.05) lower than those of treatments supplemented with growth hormones (Figure 2).
100 90 80 70 60 Bud elongation 50 Ca llus 40 30
% Bud elongation/callus 20 10 0 12345 Treatments
Figure 2: Effect of growth regulators on shoot growth and callus development, (1 = control, 2 = 1 mg/l BAP + 0.1 mg/l IBA , 3 = 2 mg/l BAP + 0.1 mg/l IBA, 4 = 3 mg/l BAP + 0.1 mg/l IBA, 5 = 4 mg/l BAP + 0.1 mg/l IBA)
(S) 250 Micropropagation of Triplochiton scleroxylon Using Axillary Buds Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3)
100 90 80 70 Control 60 1 mg/L BAP 50 2 mg/L BAP 40 3 mg/L BAP 4 mg/L BAP
% Shoot growth 30 20 10 0 Week 1Week 2Week 3Week 4Week 5Week 6 Time (Wee ks )
Figure 3: Effect of pre-culture on shoot growth
Effect of pre-culture on shoot growth Unlike ex-plants of Milicia species that grow in The ex-plants cultures in hormone-free media did not hormone-free media (Akowah, unpublished), grow at all. On the other hand, most of the ex-plants ex-plants of T. scleroxylon did not grow in pre-cultured in media supplemented with IBA for 24 hormone-free media. Prolonged stay of ex-plants in hours before sub-culturing into media supplemented media supplemented with IBA also enhanced callus with only BAP developed into shoots. The rate of formation that also inhibited shoot growth shoot growth was highest for ex-plants grown in 3 (Figure 2). Pre-culturing of ex-plants for 24 hours in mg/l of BAP and was followed by 2 mg/l of BAP, media supplemented with both IBA and BAP and then 1 mg/l of BAP and 4 mg/l of BAP. At the end of then sub-culturing in media supplemented with only week 6, the proportion of ex-plants cultured in media BAP enhanced shoot growth without any formation supplemented with 3 mg/l of BAP was significantly of callus (Figure 3). This suggests that auxin is (P < 0.05) higher than those cultured in 1 mg/l of important to stimulate initial growth and BAP, 4 mg/l of BAP and the control. The performance development of plant tissues, but the endogenous of ex-plants in 3 mg/l of BAP was, however, not auxin content of the ex-plants may be too low to significantly different from those of 2 mg/l of BAP stimulate growth of ex-plants. Excessive application (Figure 3). of IBA is, however, inhibitory to shoot growth since it promotes callus formation. This is somehow in Discussion agreement with Lin et al. (1997) who reported that shoot multiplication was best in medium The various concentrations of bleach solutions supplemented with cytokinin (Benzladenin) without produced different results as shown in Figure 1. Low auxin (1-Naphthaleneacetic acid) after initial 4-week concentrations of bleach caused no bleaching of pre-culture of ex-plants in media supplemented with tissues but were associated with high levels of both auxin and cytokinin. contamination. High concentrations were, however, Even though incorporation of BAP into culture able to clean the tissues but were also associated with media promotes shoot growth, there is an optimum high levels of bleaching of the tissues. Thirty percent level. From Figure 3, there was no significant difference of domestic bleach was identified as the optimum between the proportion of ex-plants cultured in media concentration for surface sterilisation since no supplemented with 1 mg/l of BAP and 4 mg/l of BAP. bleaching of tissues was observed but with only 5% Suggesting that, 1 mg/l BAP may be too low while 4 contamination of ex-plants (Figure 1). This, therefore, mg/l of BAP may also be too high and might be toxic suggests that initial screening of different to the plant tissues. Medium supplemented with 3 mg/ concentrations of bleach is essential. l of BAP produced both the highest rate of shoot
(S) 251 Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Micropropagation of Triplochiton scleroxylon Using Axillary Buds growth as well as the highest proportion of ex-plants Jones, N. 1976. Some biological factors influencing seed that developed into shoots and was selected as the setting in Triplochiton scleroxylon K. Schum. In: optimum concentration for shoot growth. Tropical trees; variation, breeding and conservation (Eds. This study has shown that the lack of adequate J. Burley and B. T. Styles), Academic Press, London. planting stock of T. scleroxylon hampering the 124-134. establishment of large-scale plantations of T. Ladipo, D. O., R. R. B. Leakey and J. Grace. 1991. Clonal scleroxylon could partly be circumvented by adoption variation in a four-year-old plantation of Triplochiton of in-vitro tissue culture for year round production of scleroxylon K. Schum. And its relation to the predictive plantlets. Full strength macro- and micro-nutrients, test for branching habit. Silvae Genetica, 40(3-4): supplemented with 3% sucrose, 0.6% agar, 3 mg/l 130-135. BAP has so far been the best medium for shoot growth. Pre-culturing of the ex-plants in IBA-rich Longman, K. A. and R. R. B. Leakey. 1995. Domestication medium for one day before transferring into the shoot of obeche: the Scottish experience. Annales des Sciences growth medium is very essential. Forestieres, 53(1): 43-56. Nketiah, T. 1994. Physiological factors influencing the Acknowledgements rooting of leafy stem cuttings of Triplochiton scleroxylon. K. Schum. M.Phil Thesis, University of Edinburgh. Thanks to the African Forest Research Network 161p. (AFORNET) and the Academy of Sciences for the Nketiah, T. and D. A. Ofori. 1996. Vegetative propagation Developing World formerly, Third World Academy – A means of increasing Planting materials for of Sciences (TWAS) for financial support. I am also plantation establishment. Workshop on Forest grateful to Mrs. Ruth Amole for her assistance in the Plantation Development in Ghana. Wood Industry laboratory work. Training Center, Akyawkrom, Ghana, 27-29, February 1996. References Nketiah, T., A. C. Newton and R. R. B. Leakey. 1998. Vegetative propagation of Triplochiton cleroxylon K. Irvine, F. R. 1961. Woody plants of Ghana with special reference Schum in Ghana. Forest Ecology and Management, to their uses, Oxford Universy Press, London, 184-185pp. 105 (1-3): 99-105. Lin, Y., M. R. Wagner and J. R. Cobbinah. 1994. Axillary Oni, O. 1990. Between-tree and floral variations in pollen bud elongation and root initiation in Milicia excelsa viability and pollen tube growth in obeche (Triplochiton Welw. (Iroko) in-vitro. Horticultural Science, 29(10): 119. scleroxylon). Forest Ecology and Management, TIDD. 2003. Report on export of wood products, Timber 37 (4): 259-265. Industry Development Division (TIDD), Ghana Forestry Commission, July 2003.
(S) 252 Pricing Conduct of SpatiallyDiscov. Differentiated Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET BorassusSpecial Edition No. 3) aethiopum (Mart) Products Markets in Northeastern Nigeria
1Labode Popoola and N. T. 2Tee
1Department of Forest Resources Management, University of Ibadan, Nigeria; [email protected] 2Department of Social and Environmental Forestry, University of Agriculture, Makurdi, Nigeria; [email protected]
Abstract This paper examines the extent of spatial price integration in Hypocotyls and Mats, products of Borassus aethiopum (Mart), in Northeastern Nigeria. The non-competitive pricing behavior in the oligopolistic hypocotyls and mats commodity markets is verified using the bivariate auto-regressive time series model. Collusive, discriminatory, price leadership and competitive pricing conduct is tested empirically for both hypocotyls and mats. Index of market connection (IMC) is utilized as a measure of market efficiency and means of classifying market integration. The result provided evidence of a good level of market integration, and organized pricing arrangement or perfectly collusive pricing in both hypocotyls and mats markets in Northeastern Nigeria. Adamawa-Bauchi, and Yobe-Adamawa market pairs with IMC of 0.5066 and 0.0946, respectively, for hypocotyls markets, and Yobe-Adamawa with IMC of 0.5342 for mats markets showed high degree of short-run market integration and hence high degree of marketing efficiency. The Bauchi-Adamawa, and Adamawa-Yobe pairs with IMC of 2.368 and 10.512, respectively, for hypocotyls markets, and Adamawa-Bauchi, Bauchi-Adamawa, and Bauchi-Yobe pairs with IMC of 0.8152, 1.1233, and 1.8366, respectively, for mats markets showed low form of short-run market integration and hence marketing inefficiency.
Key words: Pricing conduct, marketing efficiency, Bivariate auto-regressive model, Borassus aethiopum, Hypocotyls, Mats, Northeastern Nigeria
Résumé Cet article examine l’ampleur de l’intégration spatiale des prix pour les produits à base d’hypocotyles et les nattes de Borassus aethiopum (Mart), au Nord-Est du Nigéria. La non compétitivité habituelle des prix sur la commercialisation des produits à base d’hypocotyles oligopolistiques et des nattes est vérifiée à l’aide d’un modelé auto-régressif à deux variables des séries chronologiques. Les facteurs régissant la complexité, la discrimination de l’affichage de prix compétitifs pour les produits à base d’hypocotyles et de nattes sont empiriquement examinés. L’index de connexion des marchés (ICM) est utilisé comme mesure de pondération de l’efficacité du marché et un moyen de classement de l’intégration du marché. Les résultats obtenus ont montré clairement un bon niveau d’intégration du marché et ont parfaitement mise en évidence les principes régissant l’affectation des prix à la fois sur le marché des hypocotyles et des nattes, au Nord-Est du Nigéria. Le groupe de marchés d’Adamawa-Bauchi, et Yobe-Adamawa ont montré des niveaux élevés d’intégration à court terme avec des ICM respectifs de 0,5066 et de 0,0946 pour les marchés d’hypocotyles, tandis que Yobe-Adamawa avait un niveau d’efficacité assez élevé pour le marché des nattes, avec un ICM de 0,5342. Les deux marchés de Bauchi-Adamawa, et d’Adamawa-Yobe avaient un ICM de 2,368 et de 10,512 respectivement pour les marchés d’hypocotyles tandis que le groupe des marchés Adamawa-Bauchi et Bauchi-Adamawa, et de Bauchi -Yobe qui avaient un ICM de 0,8152; 1,1233 et de 1,8366 respectivement pour les marchés de nattes ont révélé leur bas niveau d’intégration d’où leur inefficacité à court terme pour le marché de tels produits.
Mots- clés : Affectation des prix, efficacité de vente, modèle auto-régressif à deux variables, Borassus aethiopum, Hypocotyles, nattes, Nord-Est du Nigéria
Introduction However, the ability of these forest-based resources to effectively and efficiently perform the It is indisputable that, the forest-based resources of aforementioned ascribed roles, even when efficiently any country are important and relevant to human harnessed, is to find a means of moving these existence. Nigeria for instance, is endowed with rich commodities from the producers to the consumers agricultural land and forest resources that can at prices which represent a fair remuneration to the sufficiently provide the social, economic, producer and at the same time affordable by the technological and welfare development needs of the consumers (Okunmadewa, 1990). Adegege (1985), people in the country if efficiently harnessed. Lintu (1995) and Okunmadewa (1990), therefore,
(S) 253 Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Pricing Conduct of Spatially Differentiated Borassus aethiopum (Mart) Products Markets in Northeastern Nigeria assert that an efficient marketing system is capable represent adequately Northeastern Nigeria. Data of ensuring the realization of these roles. This is were then generated from these areas. because an organized and efficient marketing system Data Collection ensures equity and efficient allocation of resources. The price data series for the study were generated on Under this condition, members of the society secure a weekly basis from the prevailing market retail prices resources in the form, place and time they are in Adamawa, Bauchi, and Yobe between November required. In fact, the fairness of allocation of these 2004 and October 2005. The retail prices were resources between the various end users will depend considered appropriate because they also reflect on the efficiency with which these resources’ marketing costs, which are important in explaining marketing system operates. For this reason, the operations and behaviors in the market. The primary assessment of market integration, which is a proxy data was supplemented with information from for measuring how efficient a market system works, literature and relevant publications. becomes pertinent. The Borassus aethiopum commodity markets in Nigeria, similar to other Data Analysis developing countries, are characterized by a highly The Bivariate auto-regressive time series model, a atomistic production side of small farmers scattered modified Ravallion-based regression model, was across the rural areas and by an oligopolistic market, utilized. Timmer’s Index of Market Connection (IMC) where there are few traders (Popoola and Rahji, 2001; was employed as a proxy in the study of the efficiency Mendoza and Rosegrant, 1995). Market concentration and the extent of market integration (Popoola and is a strong indicator of noncompetitive pricing Rahji, 2001). behavior and of an inefficient market performance. Furthermore, there is an inherent problem of poor Model Specification marketing facilities, indigent transportation network Following past efforts by Ravallion (1986), Mendoza and services, seasonality of products, crude storage and Rose grant (1995) and Okoh (1999), a bivariate and processing, demand and supply constraints and auto-regressive model (henceforth BAR), which is consumer preferences and poor pricing systems dynamic in nature and a typical representation of a (Mendoza and Rose Grants, 1995; Kent and Bianco, Nigerian Market system, was utilized for this study. 1994; Lintu, 1995; Mafimisebi 2001). These inherent This model, for the retail prices of edible hypocotyls problems of the Borassus aethiopum products are and Mats, is thus specified as follows: ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ bound to hinder the free flow of market price P1t = ae + b0 Pit-1 + bi Pjt + b2 Pjt-1 + et ...... (1) ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ information and so, adversely affect pricing efficiency. Pjt = a0 + b Pjt-1 + b1 P1t + b2 Pit-1 + et ...... (2) ∆ ∆ The ability of the marketing system to effectively and Where Pit and Pjt are contemporaneous (short- efficiently perform her developmental function run) price changes in Market i and j respectively, i # j: ∆ ∆ through these same means will also be impaired. With b1 Pjt and b1 pit = measures of instantaneous these inherent inadequacies, the fundamental changes in Pit as Pjt changes on the hand and Pjt as Pit question is how has the Borassus aethiopum products changes on the other hand. ∆ ∆ market performed under this situation? Specifically Pi t-1 and Pjt-1 = lagged price changes in markets the following questions are asked, what is the extent i and j, included to capture any delayed responses in of Borassus aethiopum products market integration and the different markets as prices changes. The most performance. What is the speed of price information appropriate lag length for each series was obtained transmission? Is it instantaneous or sluggish? What by running the regression with different lag lengths is the marketing efficiency in the distribution of the and selecting the one with the lowest standard error. b , b and b =parameter estimates Borassus aethiopum products? The solution to these 0 1 2 b = coefficient of lagged own price effect problems constitutes the reason for this study. 0 b1 = coefficient of instantaneous price effect b = coefficient of lagged price effect of Materials and Methods 2 contemporaneous market
Study Area et = error term. The study covered three states, tagged production / consumption areas, out of the six in Northeastern For simplicity, the above model represented by Nigeria namely: Adamawa, Bauchi, and Yobe. These equations (1) and (2) was assumed linear and each were purposively selected, based on the extent of estimated for 3 hypocotyls and 3 mats markets pairs. availability of the species in the areas captured, to All in all, 24 BAR equations were estimated. The weekly
(S) 254 Pricing Conduct of Spatially Differentiated Borassus aethiopum Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) (Mart) Products Markets in Northeastern Nigeria changes in hypocotyls and mat prices are calculated by Accepting this null hypothesis would suggest that obtaining the first differences (DP1t = P1t – P1t-t) of their there is the existence of market segmentation or natural logarithms and then multiplying by 100 to avoid independence. The markets are not integrated hence scaling problems (Olayemi, 1998; Mendoza and inefficient. The acceptance of hypothesis 1 Rosegrant, 1995). F-statistic was used in testing the automatically means that hypotheses 2 and 3 do not pricing behavior of the Borassus aethiopum mats and need being tested since the markets are autarkic and hypocotyls markets. The bjs of the regression results were prices generated in one loci of the market are not converted to F-statistic using the formula adapted from related to prices in another. Olayemi (1998). For integrated market pairs, the acceptance of 2 F = (bj-0) ...... (5) the null form of hypothesis 2 would indicate the S2Vij absence of organized overt collusive system where
Where bj = parameter estimate instantaneous price adjustments occur with changes
S2 Vij = Variance of the observed prices between in the price of Borassus aethiopum product in other two market pairs. markets. Such markets are perfectly co-operative. The acceptance of the null form of hypothesis 3 Timmer’s Index of Market Connection (IMC) is would imply that there is no tacit collusive employed as a measure of the extent of market arrangement within the group of traders. If there is, integration as well as a proxy for marketing efficiency. it would manifest as lagged or delayed response to
The regression coefficients, b0 and b2, b0 and b2 for Pit -1 price change by market intermediaries who do not and Pjt –1; Pjt-1 and Pit-1, respectively, were used to belong in the group. This means that such a market calculate the indices as follows: is un-organized. Rejection of the null form of
IMC: = Absolute (b0i/b2j) ...... (3) hypothesis 3 suggests that price leadership occurs. β Or IMCj = Absolute (b0j/ 2: ) ...... (4) If a market pair cannot accept the null forms of hypotheses 2 & 3, it then means that Borassus aethiopum The Timmers IMC lies between zero and infinity products pricing in that market pair is collusive and and the closer it is to zero, the greater the degree of therefore, not be competitive. Price changes and, short-run integration. Unity is used to indicate high responses between such market pair are then or low short-run market integration. inefficient. IMC > 1 implies low short-run market integration IMC < 1 implies high short-run market integration Results and Discussion IMC = _ implies market segmentation or segregation (Timmer, 1984). The results presented in Tables 1 and 2 show that the bivariate auto regression model is a reasonably The Tested Hypotheses of Pricing Behavior acceptable representation of the spatial pricing system for Borassus aethiopum hypocotyls and mats in The hypotheses for this study are stated in their null Northeastern Nigeria. The adjusted R2 values, which forms as follows: measure the explanatory power of the model, are 1. Market segmentation / price discrimination reasonably high in all the 58 models estimated. This hypothesis Ho: Borassus aethiopum products means that, the extent to which price changes in one (mats & hypocotyls) are spatially dependent and Borassus aethiopum hypocotyls market and mat market efficient, i.e. Ho1: biL=0, L = time lag associated are explained by changes in another is high in all the with the independent variable. markets. The degree of price association between pairs 2:. Instantaneous price adjustment Hypothesis Ho2: of Borassus aethiopum products markets is, therefore, high bik =1, ak = biL = 0, k = 1 and is the time lag associated in Northeastern Nigeria. The Durbin Watson statistic with the lagged series of the dependent variable. indicates no autocorrelation or serial correlation. This 3. Price matching with delayed adjustment means that, the lag lengths specified for each Borassus Hypothesis Ho3: There is no delayed adjustment aethiopum product market adopting Akaike information in the dependent market to a price change in criteria (AIC) are adequate to capture all regularities in the independent market. the original prices. Thus, the error terms are rendered white noise. The outcome of these results suggests that nm ∑ ∑ current changes in Borassus aethiopum hypocotyls and i.e. Ho: b2 =0; ak + bL =0 mat prices in each of the markets studied could be k=1 L=1 explained by changes in their own historical prices as well as current (contemporaneous) and historical price Hypothesis 1 implies that price changes in one changes in the other markets. market (i) do not affect prices in the other market (j).
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The three hypotheses propounded about price in Tables 3 and 4, respectively. The presence of market behavior in Borassus aethiopum hypocotyls and mats integration sine-qua-non is to efficient marketing markets were tested using F-Statistic. The result system, which implies less co-variance between shows that, the market segmentation (independent individual output and aggregate supply, thus pricing) or null hypothesis of no market integration implying less risk and higher incomes (Dittoh, 1994). is rejected by 66.67% in both hypocotyls and mats The null hypothesis of instantaneous price market links, respectively, in Northeastern Nigeria adjustment or perfectly collusive pricing is accepted and this represents the proportion of the hypocotyls by 25% of both hypocotyls and mats markets, and mats market links that are integrated in the respectively, in Northeastern Nigeria. Conversely, short-run. The remaining 33.33% in both cases 75% of these markets rejected the hypothesis. The accepted the null hypothesis that there is no market result suggests that, the incidence of organized integration. pricing arrangement or collusive cartels are present The BAR model thus reveals that, there is a good in Northeastern Nigeria hypocotyls and mats level of market integration in all the hypocotyls and markets, respectively. mats markets investigated. These results are shown
Table 1: Validation of the bivariate auto regressive model representation of Spatial pricing conduct in the Borassus aethiopum hypocotyls markets (Nov. 2004– Oct. 2005) in Northeastern Nigeria
Endogenous variable
Exogenous variable Adamawa Bauchi Yobe
(Adjusted R2) a Adamawa - 0.9936 0.9912 Bauchi 0.9932 - 0.9900 Yobe 0.9911 0.9903 - (Durbin Watson statistic) b Adamawa - 1.7901 2.2085 Bauchi 1.9981 - 2.1634 Yobe 2.2070 2.0819 - a.Adjusted coefficient of determination (R2) measures the “goodness of fit” or explanatory power of the model b.Durbin Watson statistic equal or close to 2 indicates absence of autocorrelation or serial correlation
Table 2: Validation of the bivariate auto regressive model representation of Spatial pricing conduct in the Borassus aethiopum mats markets (Nov. 2004– Oct. 2005) in Northeastern Nigeria
Endogenous variable
Exogenous variable Adamawa Bauchi Yobe
(Adjusted R2) a - Adamawa 0.9925 0.9932 0.9972 Bauchi 0.9974 - 0.9911 Yobe 0.9918 - (Durbin Watson statistic) b Adamawa - 2.0583 2.1205 Bauchi 2.0546 - 1.9931 Yobe 1.8157 1.9958 - a. Adjusted coefficient of determination (R2) measures the “goodness of fit” or explanatory power of the model b. Durbin Watson statistic equal or close to 2 indicates absence of autocorrelation or serial correlation
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Table 3: Test of Spatial Pricing Behavior in Borassus aethiopum Hypocotyls Markets (Nov 2004- Oct 2005) in Northeastern Nigeria
Spatial market pairs Pi Pj (Dep.) (Indep.) Hypothesised Pricing Behavior Independent Instantaneous and Perfect price pricing. perfectly collusive matching with Ho: bi=o pricing Ho; bi=1 off-settig lags.
Ho; b2=0, bo=o
Adamawa_ Bauchi 4.453rr 0.179a 3.109rr Bauchi _ Adamawa 2.525rr 4.89rr 0.459a Adamawa_ Yobe 5.3777r 3.810rr 0.6497a Yobe _ Adamawa 2.562r -5.477rr 0.756a Bauchi _ Yobe 1.252a N.A N.A Yobe _ Bauchi 0.035a N.A N.A
Note: a = accept Ho rr = reject Ho at 1% level (i.e. highly significant), r = reject at 5% level. N.A = Not applicable
Table 4: Test of Spatial Pricing Behavior in Borassus aethiopum Mat Markets (Nov 2004- Oct 2005) in Northeastern Nigeria
Hypothesized Pricing Behavior Spatial Market Pair Independent Instantaneous and Perfectly price pricing perfectly collusive Matching with off Ho: bi = o pricing Ho: bi = 1 -setting lags
Ho: b2 = o, bo = o
Pi Pj (Dep) (Indep.) Adamawa _ Bauchi 5.010 rr 33.646 rr 7.432 rr Bauchi _ Adamawa 4.900 rr 3.600 r 27.903 rr Adamawa _ Yobe 2.223 a N.A N.A Yobe _ Adamawa 2.945 r 0.818 a 47.59 rr Bauchi _ Yobe 6.551 rr 19.742 rr 1.897 a Yobe _ Bauchi 1.785 a N.A N.A
Note: See Table 3 for information.
Instantaneous adjustment usually occurs where may aggravate lagged responses evident in the there is very strong traders’ associations, cartels or a independent market. kind of basing point- pricing strategy between marker In another development, the Borassus aethiopum intermediaries. It is an indication of an imperfect hypocotyls and mats markets that integrate in the marketing system. In the case of the null form of the short-run were classified into uni-directional or hypothesis of delayed price adjustment or perfect Bi-directional integration. A market displays price matching with offsetting lags 25% and 75% of bi-directional integration if market ‘j’ is integrated with the hypocotyls and mats market links, respectively, ‘c’ and vice versa, otherwise is uni-directional. rejected the hypothesis. From this result, there is Furthermore, using IMC values, the short-run evidence that lagged response to price change by a integrated markets were further classified into high dependent market is an un-common phenomenon in short-run or low short- run integration. The closer the Borassus aethiopum hypocotyls marketing in Nigeria, value of IMC is to zero, the higher the degree of but common in the mat market in the mat market short-run market integration. Conversely, the values links. Tacit collusive arrangement may elicit lagged of IMC that is further away from zero exhibit low responses or adjustments in prices. Discriminatory short-run market integration. Based on the individualization of price information transmission aforementioned approaches, 100% and 50% of the
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Borassus aethiopum hypocotyls and mats market pairs, short-run market integration and hence high degree of respectively, showed bi-directional short-run marketing efficiency. This by implication means that integration in Northeastern Nigeria. In another these market pairs were not characterized by much classification, 50% of both hypocotyls and mats market market imperfections. The roads linking the central pairs showed strong or high form of short-run market markets to the local markets are good and motorable at integration, while the remaining 50% in both all times. Information transmission is also easy and commodities also showed weak or low form of prompt. Conversely, the Bauchi-Adamawa, and short-run market integration. This means, neither the Adamawa-Yobe pairs with IMC of 2.368 and 10.5123, low short-run market integration nor the high short- respectively, for hypocotyls markets and run market integration dominates the Borassus Adamawa-Bauchi, Bauchi-Adamawa, Bauchi-Yobe aethiopum hypocotyls and mats markets in pairs with IMC of 0.8152, 1.1233 and 1.8360, respectively, Northeastern Nigeria. These results are shown in for mats markets showed low form of short-run market Tables 5 and 6, respectively, for hypocotyls and mats integration and hence, marketing inefficiency. For these markets. markets, the terrain is inaccessible and information flow A high degree of short-run market integration is truncated. Transportation is hampered due to means a high marketing efficiency; also, a low degree inaccessible roads, and handling cost of products is also of short-run market integration means a low marketing high. Regular collection and publication of the Borassus efficiency. Thus, the Adamawa-Bauchi, Yobe-Adamawa aethiopum commodity prices on radio, television, with IMC of 0.5066 and 0.0949, respectively, for pamphlets as well as opening up of good roads could hypocotyls markets, and Yobe-Adamawa link with IMC significantly improve the efficiency of the marketing of of 0.5342 for mat markets showed high degree of these Borassus aethiopum products.
Table 5: Classification of integrated Borassus aethiopum hypocotyls markets (Nov. 2004 – Oct. 2005) in Northeastern Nigeria
Spatial market pairs ao b0 b1 b2 IMC Classification Pi Pj
Adamawa <– Bauchi* -0.1278 -0.3136 0.9993 0.6190 0.5066 Two way Bauchi <– Adamawa * 0.2325 0.6595 1.0011 0.2785 2.3680 Integration Adamawa <– Yobe* 0.0226 -0.3405 1.0014 0.03240 10.5123 Two way Yobe <– Adamawa * -0.0247 -0.0326 0.9985 0.3437 0.0949 Integration Bauchi <– Yobe 0.0174 -0.2412 1.0026 0.3571 - - Yobe <– Bauchi 0.0110 0.0245 0.9978 0.2810 - -
Note: * Integrated market pairs IMC = index of market connection
Table 6: Classification of integrated Borassus aethiopum Mats markets (Nov. 2004 – Oct. 2005) in Yobe
Spatial market pairs ao b0 B1 b2 IMC Classification Pi Pj
Adamawa <– Bauchi * -0.2518 0.3648 0.9708 -0.4475 0.8152 Two way Bauchi <– Adamawa * 0.2657 0.4316 1.0289 -0.3851 1.1233 Integration Adamawa <– Yobe -0.2237 0.1850 0.9699 0.3648 - - Yobe <– Adamawa 0.1890 0.1520 1.0307 -0.2845 0.5342 One way Integration Bauchi <– Yobe 0.0849 0.4237 0.9978 -0.2307 1.8366 One way Integration Yobe <– Bauchi -0.1023 0.2245 1.0011 -0.4156 - -
Note: See Table 5
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Conclusion Arlington. Kent, J. and L. Bianco. 1994. Market-related constraints of Over sixty-six percent of the hypocotyls and mats NTFP Development in Central America; Experiences market links in Northeastern Nigeria are integrated from the CATIE/Olafo. in the short-run. In fact, a high short-run market Lintu L. 1995. Marketing Non-wood Forest Products in integration. This, by implication, means their Developing Countries. UNASYLVA NO 183- Trade and marketing system is efficient. As much as the Marketing of Forest Products. Vol. 46 1995/4. marketing system of these commodities is efficient, the analyses present some support for the presence Mafimisebi, T. E. 2001. Spatial Price Equilibrium and Fish of organized pricing arrangement or collusive cartels Market Integration in Nigeria. An Unpublished PhD among traders in these markets. That is, there is Thesis, Department of Agricultural Economics, instantaneous price adjustment in the price of University of Ibadan 201p. Borassus aethiopum hypocotyls and mats as a result of Mendoza, M. S. and M. W. Rosegrants. 1995. Pricing changes in their prices in other markets. For markets Conduct of Spatially Differentiated Markets, In: Scott, in which there are inefficiencies in their marketing G.J (Ed) Price Product and People: Analysing Agricultural system, the terrain is inaccessible and information Markets in Developing Countries. Lynne Rienner transmission is truncated. Policies aimed at Publishers.Inc, U.S.A. 343-357 pp. improving information flow system, and creation of Okoh, R. N. 1999. An Analysis of Oligopolistic Pricing and accessible roads all-year-round is recommended. Market Integration of Cassava Roots and Products in Delta and Edo States of Nigeria. An Unpublished PhD Acknowledgements Thesis, Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. The authors acknowledged significantly AFORNET’s Okunmadewa, F. Y. 1990. The Determinants of the benevolence in funding this research. The scientific Traditional Export Crops in Nigeria using experience so far gained through the scientific reports Cointegration approach. Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis in written to them cannot be overemphasized. I am most the Department of Agricultural Economics, University pleased with my erudite supervisor, Professor of Ibadan. Popoola L. The invaluable contributions of Professor Verinumbe I, Dr. Okoruwa,V.O. who analyses this Olayemi, J. K. 1998. Elements of Applied Econometrics, A research work , and Dr. Ajani O., cannot be forgotten. Publication of the Department of Agricultural God bless all of you immensely. To Him are Glory, Economics, University of Ibadan, Nigeria p.98. Honor and Adoration forever. Popoola, L. and M. A. Y. Rahji. 2001. Spatial Market Integration Test of Terminnalia Ivorensis Sawnwood References Markets in Nigeria. In Journal of Tropical Forest Products, 7(1): 1-9. Adegeye, A. J. and J. S. Dittoh. 1985. Essentials of Agricultural Timmer, C. P. 1984. Corn Marketing and the Balance Economics. Impact Publishers Nig. Ltd. Ibadan, pp 164-182. Between Domestic Production and Consumption, Chirwa, E. W. 2000. Liberalization of Food Marketing and Working Paper No. 14, BULOG Stanford Corn Project. Market Integration in Malawi, Final Report of An Verhees, J. H. M., W. E. Kuiper and J. M. E. Pennings. 1997. AERC Sponsored Research Work Presented At Testing for Coraway Market Integration and Biannual Economic Workshop, Nairobi. May 27- June Exogeneity: A Co-integration and Error Correction 1. Analysis, Department of Marketing and Marketing Dittoh, S. A. 1994. Market Integration: the case of dry season Research, Wageningen Agricultural University. vegetables in Nigeria. Pp 89-101in Breth, S.A (Ed.) Ravallion, M. 1986. Testing market integration. American Issues in African Rural Development2. Winrock Journal of Agricultural Economics, 68(4): 88-109. International Institute for Agricultural Development,
(S) 259 JointDiscov. Innov., Forest 2007; Vol. 19 Management(AFORNET Special Edition No. in3) Niger Republic: Community Awareness and SWOT Analysis
1Tahirou Abdoulaye, 2B. O. Agbeja*, 3Charles Adu-Anning, 2P. O. Adesoye and 1T. Abasse
1Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique Du Niger, B.P. 429, Niamey, Niger 2Department of Forest Resources Management, University of Ibadan, Nigeria 3Faculty of Renewable Natural Resource, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
*Corresponding Author (E-mail: [email protected])
Abstract This study was carried out to draw lessons on Joint Forest Management (JFM) with a view to disseminating recommendations on policy options for sustainable forest management in Niger Republic. A field survey was carried out to collect primary data using structured questionnaires to interview farmers, village leaders, local and regional officials. A total of 400 questionnaires were administered in 21 rural communities in the regions of Maradi and Zinder. For over ten years, the forest service has collaborated with local communities to manage the forest with specific responsibilities allotted to development partners. Awareness of JFM is well rooted in the Nigerien communities. Of the four districts, Madarounfa, Guidan Roumdji, Magaria and Matamèye, only the Guidan Roumdji district has a JFM awareness rate of less than 80%. According to interview data, there are actions that, if taken, will increase communities' awareness of their responsibilities in protecting and preserving forest reserves. Increased actions to sensitize community members were ranked first with 34% of respondents mentioning it as a way to increase participation in JFM. The next two incentives are all about granting more benefits and responsibilities to local communities. Survey indicated that people are asking for more responsibilities and incentives in order to participate more actively in forest protection. Increased involvement and incentives given to local communities enhances the level of awareness and concern for the environment in Niger. The respondents are generally satisfied with their involvement in the management of forest resources. Increased community involvement in the management of the natural resources of their areas, has led to better protection and preservation of natural resources.
Résumé Cette étude a été effectuée pour tirer des leçons sur la gestion forestière communautaire (GFC) en vue de disséminer des recommandations relatives aux options politiques de gestion forestière en République du Niger. Une enquête de terrain été effectuée pour collecter des données de base à l’aide des questionnaires structurés pour interroger les fermiers, les chefs de village, les agents forestiers locaux et régionaux. En tout, 400 questionnaires ont été administrés à 21 communautés rurales des régions de Maradi et de Zinder. Pendant plus de dix ans, le service forestier a collaboré avec les communautés locales pour gérer les forêts, donnant des responsabilités spécifiques aux associés au développement. La de gestion forestière communautaire est fort enracinée dans l’esprit des communautés du Niger. Des quatre districts de Madarounfa, Guidan Roumdji, Magaria et Matamye, seul le district de Guidan Roumdji possède un taux de moins de 80% d’éveil de conscience sur la DFC. Selon des données d’enquête, il existe des actions qui une fois mises en œuvre, pourraient augmenter cet éveil de conscience chez les communautés locales, sur leurs responsabilités de protéger et conserver les réserves forestières. 34% des répondants ont rangé en première position les actions soutenues pour sensibiliser les membres de la communauté comme une façon d’accroître la participation à la GFC. Les deux secondes préoccupations qui se dégagent, sont d’accorder à la fois plus d’avantages et de responsabilités aux communautés locales. L’enquête a révélé que les gens réclament plus de responsabilités et d’émulations afin de participer plus activement à la protection des forêts. Au Niger, la participation soutenue et les émulations accordées aux communautés locales augmentent leur niveau de conscience et de préoccupation pour la protection de l’environnement. Les répondants sont généralement satisfaits de leur participation dans la gestion des ressources forestières. La participation soutenue de la communauté dans la gestion des ressources naturelles dans leurs zones, a amélioré la protection et la conservation des ressources naturelles.
Introduction Niger’s population of 12 million live in rural communities. A study in 1988 revealed that, national Background consumption of fuel wood was estimated at more Niger is a vast country of which only 10% of the land than 2 million tons per year and that 98% of the has a forest potential for the production of pertinent households depend on fuel wood as a source of goods and services. Eighty five percent (85%) of domestic energy.
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The forest administration subdivides the forests Environment pour un development Durable, 2000). into (i) classified forest, where the exploitation is Taylor and Rands (1991) reported that in Niger, farmers strictly controlled; (ii) protected forests, where certain managed natural regeneration, which has been forms of exploitations and use permissible included as a central component of several recent particularly grazing; and (iii) regenerated forests, projects in South-Central Niger and the protection, and which require intensive protection work. Forest management of natural regeneration is an increasingly management is a special task of the forest important theme in rural forestry extension. This paper administration which is in charge of the attempts to evaluate the effectiveness of JFM in Niger implementation of the national forest policy. The using the SWOT technique. implementation of forest law is very strict and the contraveners expose themselves to heavy fines or Methodology even to imprisonment. In addition to controlled areas of forest reserves, Study Regions there are designated areas known as agro-forestry The study area was conducted in the southern part parklands. The agro-forestry parkland is a system of Maradi region in the districts of Madarounfa (13° of land use, often owned by farmers, in which the 18' N and 8° 28' E) and Guidan Roumdji (13° 40'N perennial woody plants are deliberately preserved and 6° 41'E). These districts were chosen because in association with crops and/or livestock in a they border on the Baban Rafi forest reserve with spatial arrangement (Kokari, 2004). It is a rather an area of about 56000 ha and provides 75 percent widespread system of production in the semi-arid of fuel wood for the city of Maradi (Tahirou et al., zones and also very old practice, but of scientific 2005). knowledge far from advanced. In agro-forestry In Zinder, the districts of Matamèye (13°25'N parkland areas also, the community involvement and 8º28'E) and Magaria (13°18'N and 7°08'E) were (JFM) concept is now being introduced. Local selected for the study. These areas are locations management organization (SLG) is being where joint forest management projects for progressively established in the same format as in parklands and fuel wood production are in the case of forest reserves. However, there are still existence. Matamèye and Magaria are among the non-controlled areas in Niger where the JFM concept most densely populated areas in Niger. In the Zinder is not currently implemented. In such areas, region, there are about 3 forest reserves of about government still retains most of the rights and there 1,330 ha in the district of Magaria. Mataméye has are no SLGs. Farmers can still cut woods in those one forest reserve of only 665 ha. areas but most of the proceeds from the wood cutting permit in such cases go to the central government. Data collection and Analysis In spite of the exclusive spirit of the forest A total of 400 questionnaires were administered, in legislation, nevertheless, the degradation of the forest 21 rural communities in the Maradi (Guidan formations has continued. Moreover, growing Roumdji and Madarounfa districts) and Zinder poverty among the population combined with (Magaria and Matamèye districts) regions. Also, climatic vagaries has increased the rate of forest opinion/target group discussions were also used destruction. during the reconnaissance survey phase. One Various solutions have been proposed for the hundred (100) questionnaires were administered in control of forest degradation including enrichment each of the four districts, including 90 stakeholders plantations, creation of village woodlots, and planting and 10 officials. The respondents are composed of of fast growing exotic tree species all of which have forest officers of various categories, agricultural attained only limited result. The state forest officers, livestock extension agents, migrants, administration has failed to attain sustainable forest farmers and people living within and around the management in the West Africa sub-region. The forests. Owing to the importance of agro-forestry failure, according to IIED/FD (1994), has mainly parklands in Niger, farmers living in those areas are resulted from non-inclusion of local communities in also included in the sample. Secondary data and forest management. information from literature review were also However, for more than ten years of government’s obtained. collaboration with local communities, the forest The data were collected on the community management has achieved a lot. The current law on awareness of JFM; JFM incentives and the benefits decentralization encompasses the participation of rural model; and the perception of population and communities in the management of natural resources, government officials on JFM implementation. Based transparency of involvement and capacity building of on the data collected and the existing literature, the farmer’s organizations (Conseil National de L’ SWOT analysis was conducted.
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Results implemented using the new paradigm of involving local communities in the management of natural Results of the study are structured as follows: first resources. For instance, the National Energy Project we discussed JFM in Niger Republic, its history, II, 1989-2003 (“projet energie II”) funded by implementation and incentives given to population DANIDA promoted the new approach of involving for increased participation. Then the awareness and local communities in the management of resources perception of community in JFM and SWOT analysis through rural wood markets. These rural wood are discussed. markets are defined as places where organized structures are selling wood outside urban areas, e.g. History of Joint Forest Management in Niger the Takieta JFM from 1995 to 2000 in the Zinder In Niger, three historical periods of forest region. This project’s objective was to stimulate and management can be recognized. From support the emergence of joint management independence to the mid-70s forest reserves were initiatives in order to provide greater livelihood for protected by the government with severe communities dependent on forest resources. The repression of local populations’ rights to forest program then included, in addition to forest resources. The second phase was from mid-70s to management, activities aimed at intensifying the late 80s when the local population was called agriculture and improving other farmers’ activities. on to help plant trees and re-forest. In this period, More recently, the Project for the Management of there was massive investment by the government Natural Forest, 2002-2005 aimed at contributing to of Niger and donors for tree plantation but sustainable and decentralized management of management was solely in government hand. The natural resources in order to secure incomes of rural third period commenced in the early 1990s when peoples that are dependant on forest resources. local communities got involved in forest management and benefit sharing. Factors Affecting Forestry in Niger Since its independence, Niger has made Survey results indicate that, Niger forestry officials forestry a national subject. There has always been consider population growth, expansion of a ministry in charge of forestry. A National Council subsistence agriculture and increased energy needs for Environment and Sustainable Development as the principal threats to forestry (Table 1). The main (CNESD) was created in the Prime Minister’s office. products from the forest reserve are: fuel wood; This was an attempt to show that environmental fodder; gum Arabic; construction wood; and food. issues were taken seriously. Currently, forestry The most important and commercialized of the issues are managed by the Ministry of Environment forest produce is fuel wood. The government has and Water Development. In the early 1980s, the recognized the importance of involving local government started the establishment of forest communities in the management of natural resources management plans, shifting away from resources. The Ministry of Environment with a 1990 the strict forest protection policy. This has led to decree (No 048/MAG/EL/CNCR OF MAY 16, 1990) the development, in the 1990, of the domestic has granted the rights to local communities to benefit energy strategic policy. This strategy is based on from natural resources in forest reserves of their increased responsibility to local people for the areas. Rural wood markets were then created and development of forest management plans for the these rural wood markets were run by farmers satisfaction in consonance with their domestic through their local organizations called SLG. In the energy needs and general welfare (Issouf, 2004). areas bordering forest reserves, farmers are The law No. 2004-040 of June 8th, 2004 concerning organized into small local groups called “SLG” forestry mode in Niger, stated in article 9 that “the (Structure Locale de Gestion) that are in charge of national forestry policy is based on the following protecting and managing forest reserve resources. orientations: ... the effective involvement of all The ordinance No 92-037 of August 21st, 1992 defines stakeholders in particular local governments and the SLG as “a recognized and registered communities in the planification, elaboration, implementation and evaluation of forestry organization by the ministry in charge of forests of activities...” (Republique du Niger, 2004). This is rural wood producers that has the goal of ensuring, obviously the beginning of the communities’ on behalf of its members, the supply of a rural wood involvement in the management of their natural market, the exploitation, the monitoring, the resources. maintenance and the regeneration of a forest In accordance with the new forestry policy in zone.”(Rèpublique du Niger, 1993). Niger, several development projects were
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Table 1: Percentage Distribution of Responses by Forestry Activities needed for greater Participation in Joint Forest Officials on Factors Affecting Forestry in Niger Management Table 4 shows that the establishment of local Factors Percentage of infrastructures from proceeds of JFM is of great Responses by Forestry Officials importance to securing the involvement of local communities in the long run. This is exactly what Population growth 90 our survey is showing. People are asking for more Increased energy needs (fuel wood) 60 responsibilities and incentives in order to Expansion of subsistence agriculture 50 participate more in forest protection and Source: Field Survey, 2004 preservation.
Community Perception of JFM Table 4: Activities that could enhance greater participation The study was conducted in rural communities living in JFM near the national forest reserve of Baban Rafi. The Incentives Proportion of sample composed of household heads with an average respondents (%) age of 47 years. Eighty five percent in Maradi and ninety two percent in Zinder are native people (Table Sensitization of rural dwellers 34 2). The two regions have their local forest management Build local infrastructures 29 organizations. In addition, development projects Management by local people 13 funded by donors and local NGOs, such as karkara Employment of more forest officers 11 are helping farmers in the management of their forest Greater access to forest land and produce 8 resources. Increased democratization in the country Promote alternative sources of energy 3 Create and protect village plantations 2 has led to the creation of many associations and cooperatives by farmers at the village level. Source: Field Survey, 2004
Table 2: Percentage Distribution on the Origin of Farmers Forest Contribution to Local Incomes Districts Natives Migrants Most people interviewed consider forest income as an important part of their total income in Maradi Maradi 85 15 region. However, in the Zinder region, forest income Zinder 92 8 is only a minor part of their total income (Table 5). This is a direct consequence of the JFM approach that Source: Field Survey, 2004 is already widely used in Maradi and it is only now Community Awareness of Joint Forest Management that JFM is being embraced in the Zinder region. Awareness of JFM is highly remarkable in the Nigerien Table 5: Forest contribution to local incomes communities (Table 3). This is a result of decades of joint community participation by the government Districts Percentage Distribution of agencies, several NGOs and development projects. Contribution of forest to income Only the Guidan Roumdji district has a JFM awareness rate of less than 80%. However, there are certain Yes No No response actions, if taken, that can enhance JFM outputs. These at all include increased sensitization the scheme, more information on the roles of different partners and the Guidan Roumdji - Maradi 78 20 2 benefits sharing mechanism. Madarounfa - Maradi 74 23 3 Matamèye - Zinder 23 74 3 Magaria - Zinder 42 58 0 Table 3: Community Awareness of JFM Source: Field Survey, 2004 Districts Percentage Distribution on Awareness about JFM Forest Related Association Yes No No response Table 6 shows that the SLGs in Maradi have been at all established for a long time and people there feel more Guidan Roumdji 78 19 3 involved in the management of their forest reserved Madarounfa 97 3 0 as opposed to zinder. This point is reinforced by the Matamèye 100 0 0 second part of Table 7, where existence of more forest Magaria 97 0 3 related associations in Maradi districts compared to the Zinder ones. Owing to more involvement and Source: Field Survey, 2004 (S) 263 Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Joint Forest Management in Niger Republic: Community Awareness and SWOT Analysis incentives given to them, local communities are now discuss and remedy the situation. Conflicts over forest more aware of their role and responsibility in resources are believed to be decreasing in the two preserving the environment. There is an increased regions. This is probably the result of communities’ protection (forest reserves) and preservation of involvement in the management of their local natural regeneration by farmers who are now resources. The cases of conflicts mentioned are said protecting trees in their cropland (agro-forestry to be the results of outsiders coming into the region; parklands). According to Noppen et al. (2004), the mainly herders who are going through the region try experience of rural wood markets in Niger has to pasture on some trees because they are not aware inspired other countries such as Mali, Chad, Burkina or have decided to deliberately ignore the rules and Faso, Madagascar and Mozambique in embracing the regulations JFM scheme. However, the Niger experience of JFM could be better if farmers were given opportunity to Table 7: Distribution of responses by farmers on who plant trees that can give other products in addition should protect forest to wood. Abasse et al. (2005), reported that species such as Moringa olifera can contribute to food security Region Population Population and alone government in Niger. The surveyed forest officials have all recognized the importance of involvement of local Maradi 15 54 communities which made their job easier. With the Zinder 15 83 increased responsibility granted to local communities, the role of forest officers has been to monitor and Source: Field Survey, 2004 oversee activities in addition to their traditional role of extension and training of farmers. Table 8: Existence of conflicts over forest resources Table 6: Existence of forest related association Region Yes No Districts Percentage Distribution of Responses on Existence Maradi 30% 70% of forest association Zinder 44% 66%
Yes No No response Source: Field Survey, 2004
Guidan Roumdji - Maradi 99 1 0 Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats Madarounfa - Maradi 99 0 1 (SWOT) to JFM Matamèye - Zinder 34 62 4 Niger has a much longer experience with community Magaria - Zinder 8 92 0 involvement in natural resources management. This is obviously a strong point in favor of JFM in Niger. Source: Field Survey, 2004 The SWOT of JFM, according to our survey results Forest Protection and the analysis of current status of JFM in Niger, All farmers interviewed (100%) agreed that there is a were analyzed as follows: shared responsibility between locals and the Strengths government for the protection and preservation of Owing to the poor endowment of natural resources, forest resources (Table 7). This is a result of 2 to 3 the Niger government and its donor partners have decades of efforts of encouraging involvement of the recognized the importance of involving local communities in the management of natural resources. communities in the management of their natural According to the farmers interviewed, they are made resources in order to ensure sustainability of the more aware of the importance of the trees and also resources. In forest reserves, the neighboring the current laws allow them to benefit from the communities (often with the backing of an NGO or proceeds of trees they protect on their cropland. development project) plan and manage the use of The problems mentioned by farmers during the their resources with little involvement of the survey include the behavior of some fuel wood sellers government. There are currently laws that govern the based in Maradi, who are receiving wood cutting community participation in rural wood markets. The permits but instead of going to the designated areas, strengths of the JFM in Niger, as evidenced by the they come and cut trees in the forest reserves allocated rural wood market experience, are as follows: to farmers insisting that they have permits from the • Democratic election of the members of the SLG government. This has led to some conflicts (Table 8). and the inspection committee; The federation of wood cutters has asked for a • Existence of a statute and rules of procedure meeting with the government representatives to within the SLG; (S) 264 Joint Forest Management in Niger Republic: Community Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Awareness and SWOT Analysis
• Recognition of the rural market as a legal majority. In one village, especially the chief was structure by the forest administration; made an honorary head of the SLG and that help • Existence of the law and regulations governing ease some of the tension. As for the forest officers, rural wood markets. most of those who see JFM as a threat are of certain age who had gone to school when comunity Weakness participation was not the standard forestry school On the other hand, the JFM experiences in Niger have program. Obviously, training programs will enable mostly been localized and have not spread to the them to accept the SLG as helping in their work whole country. However, there are efforts underway rather than an obstacle to forest economic role. to extend the JFM concept to agro-forest parklands and non-controlled areas. Weaknesses of the SLG as Conclusion and Recommendations they function in designated areas (agro-forestry parklands) can be summarized as follows: In Niger, especially in the forest reserve areas such as • General assemblies are not meeting regularly; Baban Rafi, we have moved from state-managed to • Members do not always understand their roles; participatory management of forest areas. People • Insufficient follow-ups; interviewed are generally satisfied with their • Absence of regular auditing of accounts; involvement in the management of their forest • The undue influence of the opinion leaders on resources (forest reserves and agro-forestry SLG decisions. parklands). Increased community involvement in the Opportunities management of the natural resources of their areas The best opportunity for JFM in Niger is the has led to better protection and preservation of implementation of decentralization laws that natural resources. enable the decentralized administrative units Therefore, the following general (communes) have the right to manage their recommendations are made for better use of JFM resources including natural resources. Cases of potentials and increased protection and preservation fraud are rare because local brigadiers are chosen of the environment in Niger. (2 per village) to monitor the forest reserve. 1. There is need for continuing promotion of JFM Moreover, the farmers monitor and control their nationwide; resources individually. The survey results indicate 2. The success of JFM rests on the real that local management structures (SLG) do not empowerment of the local people and everything always function on a democratic basis as they were should be done to sustain it; supposed to work in the agro-forestry parklands where the JFM concept is relatively new. In the 3. There is a necessity for giving maximum benefits agro-forestry parklands areas where JFM is just to local participants as regard benefit sharing; starting, some chiefs or other influential groups 4. There is a necessity for other regions of Niger (mostly rich farmers) control the SLG with little or Republic to learn from Maradi experience in no involvement of the rest of the community. For terms of the role of JFM; and example, since the installation of the SLG in Dan 5. JFM should be extended to agro-forestry Mazadou, Maradi, no general assembly was held. parklands. A vast majority of bush-land in Niger The SLG does not even know the annual quota of is classified as uncontrolled. The concept of JFM exploitation of 389 hectares given to it by law. Even should be extended to those areas also. though other communities are involved all the SLG members come from the village of Dan Mazadou Acknowledgements only. Therefore, there is clearly an opportunity here for a review of the Dan Mazdou SLG. The authors wish to acknowledge The African Forest Threats Research Network (AFORNET), Kenya, for funding The main threats from JFM are noted from some the project titled ‘Assessment of Joint Forest Management villages’ traditional rulers and also some local forest Practices in Nigeria, Ghana and Niger’ and also for the officers who think that power is now taken away permission to publish articles from the project and from them and given to the SLG. Though the thank the valuable observations, contributions and traditional rulers and forest officers are in the comments made by the participants at the Assessment minority, efforts should be made to re-orientate the of JFM workshop held in Ibadan Nigeria, December minority that they cannot lord their views on the 2005.
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References of fuel wood needs, MÈmoire de stage, Makurdi University, Nigeria. Abasse Tougiani, T. Abdoulaye et M. Larwanou. 2005. National Council for environment and a sustainable Knowledge of the Moringa oleifera (lam.) in Niger, development, CNEDD. 2000. National program for Paper presented at the international symposium on natural resources and combat against desertification. agro-sylvo-pastoral in Niamey, Niger, Feb 22-27, 2005. Niamey, Niger. Abdoulaye, T. and Abasse Tougiani. 2005. Assessment of Noppen Dolf, Kerkhof Paul et Hesse Ced. 2004. The rural JFM in Niger, Nigeria and Ghana; Executive final wood markets in Niger. Evaluation of the domestic report, 34p. AFORNET GRANT No 5 December 2003. energy strategy in Niger, International Institute for International Institute for Environmental Development Environment Development and Danish International (IIED)/Forestry Department (FD). 1994. Incentives for Development Assistance, Ministry of foreign Affairs the sustainable management of tropical high forest in p.68. Ghana. IIED Forestry Land use series No. 3, London, Republic of Niger. 1993. Forestry laws and regulations, UK. Ministry of waters and environment, Division of Issouf, A. 2004. Contribution to the Madarounfa forest study environment 184p., Niamey, Niger. and suggestion toward a sustainable management of Republic of Niger. 2004. Rural development strategy the resources. University Adbou Moumouni, Faculty document, Prime Minister’s cabinet, Niamey, Niger. of d’agronomy, technical Report 51 p, Niamey, Niger. Taylor, G. F. II and B. C. Rands, B. C. 1991. Trees and Forests Kokari, Ali. 2004. Contribution of Agro-forestry parks of in the Management of Rural Areas in West African the villages of the Baban Rafi forest, in the satisfaction Sahel.
(S) 266 Quality of Oil from Treculia africanaDiscov. Innov., – 2007; An Vol. 19Underutilized (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Forest Plant
Ellis1, W. O., I. Oduro1, F. Appiah2, Y. Antwi1
1Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana 2Department of Horticulture, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana
Abstract A study was carried out to assess the quality of oil from T. africana seeds. Fresh dried seeds were dehusked and milled. Oil was extracted using the Soxhlet extraction procedure and the yield and quality characteristics of the oil evaluated. Parameters assessed included specific gravity, acid value, saponification value, peroxide value, iodine value, refractive index and free fatty acid content, among others. The solubility of the oil in selected organic solvents and the presence of lipid soluble phytochemicals were determined. The nutritional quality of the seeds was also evaluated. The results showed the seeds were high in carbohydrate and proteins with appreciable levels of ash and oil and low fibre content. Potassium and Phosphorus levels were relatively high with low calcium and iron levels. The oil yield was low (11.82%) below the level for commercial sources of oil. The oil had a high specific gravity (0.89), good refractive index (1.47) and an iodine value of less than 100 (35.66). The peroxide value was also low (2.67) but within the range for fats and oils with a relatively high FFA (7.26%). The saponification value relative to other oils was low (128.33). Identified lipid-soluble phytochemicals were carotenoids, terpenes, and saponins. Tannins were absent. Even though the yield was low, the quality of the oil from Treculia africana seeds was good and can be used as a supplement with other oils in the food sector.
Résumé Une étude a été menée pour évaluer la qualité d’huile des graines de Trecularia africana. Des graines fraîches et sèches ont été décortiquées et moulues. L’huile a été extraite suivant le procédé d’extraction de Soxhlet, puis les caractéristiques de rendement et la qualité d’huile ont évaluées. Les paramètres évalués ont porté entre autres, sur la densité spécifique, l’indice d’acidité, la valeur de saponification, la teneur en peroxyde, la teneur en iode, l’indice de réfraction et la teneur en acide gras libre. La solubilité d’huile dans quelques dissolvants organiques et la présence des lipides phytochimiques solubles ont été déterminées. La qualité alimentaire des graines a été également évaluée. Les résultats ont montré que les graines avaient une haute teneur en hydrates de carbone et en protéines avec les niveaux importants de cendre et d’huile de même qu’une basse teneur en fibres. Les teneurs en potassium et en phosphore étaient relativement élevées tandis que les niveaux de calcium et de fer étaient bas. Le rendement en huile (11,82%), était en dessous de la moyenne des produits commerciaux utilisés comme sources d’huile. L’huile était caractérisée par une densité élevée (0,89), un bon indice de réfraction (1,47) et une teneur en iode inférieure à 100 (35,66). La teneur en peroxyde était également basse (2,67) mais dans les normes pour les graisses et les huiles avec un niveau relativement élevé d’acides gras libre (7,26%). Comparativement à d’autres huiles, la valeur de saponification était basse (128,33). Les lipides phytochimiques solubles identifiés étaient des caroténoïdes, des terpènes et des saponines. Les tannins étaient absents. Quoique le rendement ait été bas, la qualité d’huile des graines de Treculia africana était bonne et elle peut être employée comme supplément à d’autres huiles dans le secteur alimentaire.
Introduction these include Pycanthus angolensis (Eckey, 1954; Irvine, 1961) and Treculia africana. Irrespective of these Many indigenous Ghanaian trees species, which have unexploited potential sources, dependence has little importance as timber trees, are becoming largely been on some selected plant sources such as increasingly recognized as valuable sources of raw the groundnut, coconut, palm nut, shea butter, etc. materials for various food and industrial uses. These Globally, about 100 million metric tons of fats and uses include extraction of vegetable oils from the oils are consumed; and of this, 80% is used for human seeds for various purposes, alkaloids from several food and the balance used as industrial oils (US Patent parts of the plants for medicinal purposes and fibre No. 6,489,494). However, the demand for low-priced for pulp. In Ghana, as well as other countries in the common edible fats and oils have been on a steady sub region, there are several forest plant species with increase in most countries, including Ghana. This is the potential to produce oil from the seeds. Some of partly due to the competition between the industrial
(S) 267 Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Quality of Oil From Treculia africana – An Underutilized Forest Plant requirement for oil and their use for edible purposes. respectively. The peroxide value was determined There is, thus, the need to find alternative sources of using the AOCS method (Cd 8-53) (1993). The iodine oils for industrial purposes, so as to overcome this value and saponification value were determined competition. This requires attention for using the AOCS methods (Cd 1-25) (1993) and under-utilized forest plant tree species such as (Cd 3-25) (1993), respectively as described by Kirk Treculia africana, also known as the African breadfruit. and Sawyer (1991). Breadfruit is a good staple food that can be easily processed and eaten and it has been utilized for Solubility of oil traditional dishes in Nigeria ( Fasasi et al., 2004) In The solubility of the oil in some selected organic Ghana, it is highly under-utilized as a food source solvents (diethyl ether, petroleum ether, chloroform, and left to go to waste. This study was, therefore, acetone and 95% ethanol (hot and cold) was tested carried out to evaluate the oil potential of Treculia using the translucent test (AOCS, 1980). To one drop africana seeds and to assess the quality of the oil from of oil in individual test tubes, three millilitres of the seeds. diethyl ether, chloroform, petroleum ether, carbon tetrachloride, acetone, and 95% ethanol was added Materials and Methods to one drop of the oil. A drop of the oil-solvent mixture was placed on a writing paper and observed. Any Source of raw material translucency noticed indicates that the oil is soluble Mature fruits of Treculia africana were obtained by in that particular solvent. collection from the Twifo Praso forest in the central region of Ghana. Phytochemical test (Qualitative) Terpenoids Sample preparation A small amount of the oil was put in a test tube, dried The seeds used for the study were extracted from ripe and dissolved in a small amount of chloroform. Few mature fruits manually through maceration. The drops of acetic anhydride were added followed by a extracted seeds were dried in the sun for fourteen gentle addition of a small amount of Conc. H2SO4. A days. The seeds were then manually dehusked and change of colour from orange to red confirmed the the percentage weight of the husks determined. The presence of terpenes (Asante, 1993). dehusked seeds were further sun-dried and then stored at room temperature prior to extraction. A Saponins quantity of the dried seeds for chemical A small quantity of the oil was boiled with 10ml of compositional analysis were stored under aqueous ethanol for 3-5 mins, filtered hot and allowed refrigerated conditions prior to use. to cool. A 3ml portion of the filtrate was then shaken vigorously. The presence of froth of about the same Extraction height as the aqueous layer indicated the presence of Six hundred grams (600g) of dried seeds were milled saponins (Harborne, 1984). to fine particle sizes (66.75% passing through a 1.18mm standard sieve) using a hammer mill. Solvent Tannins extraction was carried out using petroleum ether Two millilitres of the oil was added to 1ml of 2M HCL based on the soxhlet extraction method. The oil and 2ml of water. This was boiled for 30min with a extracted was dried and weighed and percentage change in colour to red indicating the presence of yield determined. tannins (Harborne, 1984).
Analyses Carotenoids
The proximate composition of the seeds was One millimetre (1ml) of Conc. H2SO4 was placed determined using the AOAC official methods of in a test tube and 5ml of petroleum ether analysis (AOAC, 1990). The physicochemical containing 0.5g of the oil was gently added to the properties of the oil were determined using standard acid in the test tube with the acid forming a layer methods. The refractive index of the oil was under the ethereal solution of the sample. The determined at 60 °C using an Abbe refractometer presence of a dark violet or greenish blue colour (model M46, UK) while the specific gravity was in the acid layer showed the presence of measured at 60 °C/25 °C using the specific gravity carotenoids (Asante, 1993). bottle based on the AOCS method (Cc 10a-25) (1993). The free fatty acids and acid value were determined Statistical Analysis using the AOCS method (Ca 5a-40) (1993) and the The data obtained were statistically analysed using procedure described by Kirk and Sawyer (1991), Analysis of Variance.
(S) 268 Quality of Oil From Treculia africana – An Underutilized Forest Plant Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3)
Results and Discussions Table 2: Physicochemical properties of Treculia africana seed oil The nutritional composition of the Treculia africana seeds are shown in Table 1. The results show that Parameter Value it contains a high level of carbohydrate with a Yield (%) 11.82 (1.82 ) relatively high amount of proteins and an Refractive index 1.46 (0.14 ) appreciable level of fat. Ash content, which is Free fatty acid (%) 3.27 (0.02) indicative of the mineral levels in foods, was quite Specific gravity 0.89 (0.02) appreciable in the Treculia africana seeds. This was Peroxide value 2.67 (0.27) within the range of ash content for nuts (0.8 – 3.5%) Iodine value 36.55 (0.36) reported by Aurand et al. (1987). Mineral analysis Acid value 7.29 showed that potassium and phosphorus levels Saponification value 128.33 (0.33) were very high in the sample with relatively low Colour Yellow Taste Harsh levels of calcium and iron. Fibre content was also Odour Pleasant very low. The low fibre coupled with the presence of saponins in the defatted cake makes it unsuitable for animal feed but may be used for manure. The Specific gravity of the Treculia africana seed oil percentage husk content of the seeds was found to was 0.89, indicating that the oil is lighter than water be 23.84% reflecting that more than a fifth of the and will form an upper layer in a water-oil mixture. seed is made up of the husks and this should be Generally, oils with higher specific gravities give high considered when the seeds are intended for caloric value and, thus, are suitable for frying foods. processing. Eckey (1953) reported that the husk The refractive index value of 1.47 obtained for Treculia makes the seeds bulky and must be removed before africana seed oil is close to the average value for oil. processing for oil. There is a close relationship between average molecular weight and refractive index. Refractive index increases with increasing chain length and also Table 1: Proximate composition of Treculia africana seeds with the number of double bonds present in the oil Parameter Value (Nielsen, 1994). The refractive index value obtained falls within the range reported of some fats in the nut Husks of seeds (%) 23.40 (0.40) family (1.45 – 1.49) (Eckey, 1954). Iodine value (IV) is Moisture (%) 9.72 (0.05) an important characteristic of fats and oils because it Crude Protein (%) 13.35 (0.02) determines the degree of unsaturation. Oils have been Crude Fat (%) 10.12 (0.02) classified into 3 groups based on iodine value; oil is Ash (%) 1.96 (0.05) classified as non-drying if the IV is less than 100; as Crude Fibre (%) 2.83 (0.005) semi-drying if the IV is between 100 and 130; or as Carbohydrate (%) 62.01 drying if the IV is between 130 and 200 (Cocks, 1966). Energy (kcal/100mg) 392.49 Fe (mg/100mg) 8.70 The iodine value obtained for the Treculia africana seed Ca (mg/100mg) 93.90 oil was 35.66 (Table 2), this value is below 100 K (mg/100mg) 464.60 indicating that the oil is a non-drying one. Thus, it is P (mg/100mg) 1300.00 unsuitable for the production of industrial products such as paints, vanishes and surface coatings. Peroxide value gives the molar equivalent of oxygen contained in 1kg of oil. The mean peroxide The yield of oil obtained from the seeds, 11.82% value (PV) of Treculia africana seed oil is 2.67. Although (Table 2) was comparatively lower since most this value is considerably low, it is nevertheless within commercial oil bearing seeds have oil contents of the range of peroxide values (<10) generally reported about 30-40% and above (Edusei, 2003). The lower for fresh fats and oils (Kirk and Sawyer, 1991). The yield of oil presupposes that the substitution of most value also falls within the range of Codex known local oil rich seeds for Treculia africana seeds Alimentarius Standards (PV < 10 Eq /kg fat or oil) as an alternative source of oil may not be economically for edible oils. The fact that the peroxide value of the viable. However, the oil had a yellow coloration Treculia africana seed oil is greater than zero indicated which may be due to the presence of carotenoid the onset of oxidative rancidity even before extraction pigments (confirmed by qualitative analysis) and a or the oxidative rancidity might have occurred during pleasant odour. the extraction process.
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The Free Fatty Acid (FFA) and Acid values are Acknowledgement important components in evaluating the quality of fats and oils with respect to rancidity. The acid value The authors would like to thank the African Forest is usually twice as large as the FFA and a similar Research Network (AFORNET) for providing pattern was observed in this work (Table 2). As financial support for this work. hydrolytic rancidity is usually accompanied by free fatty acids formation, FFA determination is often used References as a general indicator of the condition and edibility of the oil. The Codex Alimentarius (1984) range for AOAC. 1990. Official Methods of Analysis, 15th Edn. most common edible oils is 0-10 acid value. Thus, Association of Official Analytical Chemists, AOAC Treculia africana seed oil with an acid value of 7.29 is Pub., Virginia, USA. within the edible range although this value may be AOCS. 1994. Official Methods and Recommended Practices of relatively higher. the American Oil Chemists Society, AOCS Press, Generally, fats and oils with high proportion of Washington, DC. shorter carbon chain lengths of the fatty acids have Asante, F. A. 1993. The chemistry of three indigenous seeds, high saponification values (Kirk and Sawyerr, 1991). their extraction, nutritional and industrial potentials Low molecular weight fatty acids have more of their oils. M. Phil.Thesis, Department of glyceride molecules per gram of fat than high Biochemistry, KNUST, Kumasi. molecular weight acids and hence greater saponification value. Thus, coconut oil that contains Aurand, L. W., A. E. Wood and M. R. Wells. 1987. Food appreciable quantities of low-molecular weight fatty Composition and Analysis. Van Nostrand Reinhold, acid glycerides has high saponification value New York. (251-264) (Aurand et al., 1987). The saponification Cocks, L. V. and C. Rede, van 1966. Laboratory handbook for value obtained in this work is lower, compared to that oil and fat analysis. Academic Press Inc., New York. of coconut oil and palm oil (> 200) indicating Codex Alimentarius. 1984. Codex Committee, FAO, Rome, relatively higher molecular weight acids. Italy With the exception of tannins, the other Eckey, E. W. 1954. Vegetable fats and oil. Reinhold Publishing phytochemicals; carotenoids, terpenes and saponins Corp. New York. were present in the Treculia africana seed oil (Table Edusei, E. 2003. The study and characterisation of oil 3). The presence of the carotenoids may have from pawpaw seeds. A report submitted to the contributed to the coloration of the oil. Terpenoids Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, are commercially important servicing as the basis KNUST, Kumasi. of natural perfumes, spices and flavourings in the food industry (Harbone, 1984). Its observation in this Fasasi, O. S., A. F. Eleyinmi, A. R. Fasasi and O. R. Karim. study gives a possible reason for the use of the seeds 2004. Chemical properties of raw and processed in traditional food preparations in some parts of breadfruit (Treculia africana) seed flour. Food, West Africa. Treculia africana seed oil was very Agriculture and Environment, 2(1): 65-68. soluble in chloroform, acetone, diethyl ether and Harbone, J. B. 1984. Phytochemical methods: A guide to modern petroleum ether. It was, however, partially soluble techniques of plant analysis. 2nd Edn. Chapman and Hill, in 95% hot ethanol and insoluble in 95% cold New York. ethanol. Irvine, F. R. 1961. Woody plants of Ghana with special references to their uses. Oxford University Press. London. Conclusion Kirk, R. S. and R. Sawyer. 1991. Pearson’s Composition and Analysis of Foods, 9th edition, Addition Wesley The study has shown that good quality oil can be Longman Ltd., England, 9-29, 608-640pp. produced from Treculia africana seeds. However the percentage yield is far below the range for commercial Nielsen, S.S. 1994. Introduction to the Chemical Analysis of sources of oil. Thus, the oil may supplement other Foods. Champman and Hall, New York, 93-207pp. oils in the food sector. United States Patent Number: 6, 489, 494.
(S) 270 Treculia africana Consumer AcceptabilityDiscov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNETTest Specialin SouthEdition No. 3) Eastern Nigeria.
D. O. Enibe
Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Anambra State University of Science & Technology, Igbariam Campus, Anambra state, Nigeria; Email: enibedav@ yahoo.com
Abstract This study presents Treculia africana Consumer Acceptability/Preference relative to other major staple food crops in South Eastern Nigeria. One hundred and twenty (120) respondents spread in four rural communities in each of the states were randomly selected for interview. Descriptive statistics were used to analyse data. The study revealed that, Treculia africana is generally accepted as a staple food crop in the study area, with 60% of the respondents preferring consumption of the crop to other food crops such as cassava, rice and yam. Also, 75% of the respondents preferred Treculia africana porridge while 74% preferred its consumption at lunch periods. The study also showed that, high cost and seasonality of the crop are the major limitations to its utilization.
Key words: Consumer preference, Food crop, Treculia Porridge, Traditional Menu, Utilization
Résumé Cette étude montre l’acceptabilité / préférence par les consommateurs de Treculia africana en comparaison d’autres aliments de base au Sud-Est du Nigéria. L’enquête a porté sur cent-vingt (120) répondants aléatoirement choisis et répartis au sein de quatre communautés rurales de chacun des états. Des statistiques descriptives ont été utilisées pour analyser les données. L’étude a révélé que Treculia africana est généralement accepté comme un aliment de base dans la zone d’étude. Soixante pour cent (60%) des répondants préfèrent la consommation de cet aliment en comparaison à d’autres cultures vivrières comme le manioc, le riz et l’igname. En outre, 75% des répondants ont opté pour la bouillie de Treculia africana tandis que 74% préféraient sa consommation au déjeuner. L’étude a également prouvé que les coûts élevés et le caractère saisonnier de cette culture sont les principaux facteurs limitant son utilisation.
Mots - clés : Préférence du consommateur, culture vivrière, bouillie de Treculia, menu traditionnel, utilisation
Introduction Enibe, 2001).This is because the potential consumers who determine the rate of expansion have not been Treculia africana belongs to the taxonomic family reached (Chinemelu, 1997; Anyanwu, 1993). Also, Mureceae, genus Treculia. It is an African tree crop calls for its commercial production have not yet common in Eastern and Western Nigeria. It is produced the desired effects (Mbah, 2003). One of the commonly called breadfruit , ukwa by the Igbo, afon solutions is in building effective and efficient by the Yoruba and barafuta by the Hausa. It is a rich marketing system as an important long-term strategy source vegetable oil (10%) protein (17%) and for adapting sustainable agricultural development carbohydrate (40%) as well as several minerals and (Crawford, 1997). vitamins (Ihekoronye and Ngoddy, 1985; Enibe, 2001). Research gaps exist which limit the crop’s It is eaten boiled or roasted. Roasting gives a greater exploitation and wide spread consumption and they improvement of its potential value for human inter alia include marketing information data base consumption (Ezeokonkwo, 2003). In some areas of (Enibe, 2001; Omobuwajo, 1999). Product Anambra State, such as Abagana, Treculia africana acceptability and consumer preferences are some the menu or diet is so cherished that it is served to known areas to resume marketing functions beloved or special visitors or for entertainment of (Anyanwu, 1993). The role of protein, minerals, someone for a work well done. Treculia africana is a essential amino acid in nutrition and their level of possible raw material for production of bistcuits, occurrence in Treculia africana justifies the need for its bread, cakes, beverages, etc. (Enibe, 2001; increased exploitation and widespread consumption Omabuwayo, 1999; and Ugwu, 1992). as food (Ezeokonkwo, 2003). This study is, thus, Treculia Africana is, therefore, an important but designed to determine the level of consumer highly under-utilized crop (Omobuwago, 1999; acceptance of Treculia africana as a staple food crop,
(S) 271 Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Treculia Africana Consumer Acceptability Test in South Eastern Nigeria. determine its consumer preference relative to other Treculia africana is a highly preferred staple food crop major staple food crops, determine consumer’s most in Anambra state of Nigeria. preferred Treculia africana traditional menu, create Treculia africana consumption awareness and make Table 1: Consumer preference among the major staple food recommendations for enhanced consumption and crops in Anambra state of Nigeria agro-industrial utilization of the crop. Realization of the objectives of the study, will Food crop frequency Relative frequency lead to a widespread consumption of the crop, help Treculia africana 72 60 potential consumers to make a choice among the local Cassava 24 20 crops product mix for utility maximization. It will also Rice 18 15 lead to reduced incidence of malnutrition, increased Yam 6 05 output / income of the farmers and increased agricultural component of Gross Domestic Product Total 120 100 (GDP). Multi-disciplinary research work are being carried out by Treculia Africana Research Project (TARP) for the crop’s utilization and future Table 2 indicates that some three-quarters of the development. respondents prefer to consume Treculia africana porridge in combination with either bitter leave, Methodology maize, especially the one harvested at its horticultural maturity stage and or pumpkin. The Data for the study were collected from primary and implication is that Treculia africana porridge is the secondary sources. The primary data were collected most preferred traditional menu in Anambra state from four rural communities randomly selected from of Nigeria. Anambra state. The state is one of the five South Eastern states of Nigeria purposively selected for an embracing study on Treculia africana consumer Table 2: Treculia africana menu preference in Anambra state acceptability/ preference. In each of the communities, of Nigeria thirty (30) households were randomly selected and Treculia africana menu Frequency Relative interviewed. This gave a total of one hundred and frequency twenty (120) respondents. Sets of pre-tested questionnaire were administered to the respondents Treculia africana porridge 90 75 using trained enumerators to obtain information used Boiled Treculia africana only 30 25 in realizing the objectives of the study. The secondary Boiled Treculia africana stew 0 0 data were sourced from books, journals, bulletins, periodicals and research documents. The specific Total 120 100 objectives of this research paper were realized using descriptive statistics such as means, percentages, and frequency distributions. Table 3 indicates a very high preference for its use as lunch meal in the study area. Results and Discussion
Among the one hundred and twenty (120) Table 3: Meal periods preferred by Treculia africana consumers in Anambra State of Nigeria respondents, none of them disliked the consumption of Treculia africana. The implication of this is that the Meal period Frequency crop is generally accepted as a staple food crop. Data assessed from the respondents indicated that some Break fast 6 05 90% of them expressed their preference for boiled Lunch 89 76 rather than roasted breadfruit snacks. Information Dinner 25 21 gathered also show that Treculia africana snacks is preferred to be taken by consumers in combination Total 120 100 with either palm kernel or coconut kernel. Data presented in Table 1 indicates that, about Data assessed from the respondents show that 60% of the respondents would normally give a first seasonality and high cost of Treculia africana are the preference for consumption of Treculia africana major factors limiting an increased consumption of traditional menu among the menu of other major food the crop in the study. crops like cassava, rice, and yam. This shows that
(S) 272 Treculia Africana Consumer Acceptability Test in South Eastern Discov. Innov., 2007; Vol. 19 (AFORNET Special Edition No. 3) Nigeria.
Conclusions References
A study on Treculia africana consumer acceptability Anyanwu Aham. 1993. Dimensions of marketing. Novelty / preference was done in Anambra State of Industrial Enterprises Ltd, Enugu Nigeria. Nigeria. The result indicated that the crop is Chinemelu, C. A. 1997. The principles of business economics generally accepted as a major staple food crop in (microeconomic Decisions).Base 5 Communications the state. Treculia africana porridge is found to be Limited, Onitsha Nigeria. the most preferred lunch period traditional menu Crawford, I. M. 1997. Marketing and agribusiness Texts 2. of the state. Roasted Treculia africana in the state Rome: Food and Agricultural Organization of the is preferred to be taken mainly as snacks in United Nations. combination with either palm kernel or coconut Enibe, S. O. 2001. Design, Construction and testing of a kernel. The result of the study also shows that Breadfruit Depulping Machine. Landwards: Agr. E. seasonality and high cost are the major factors Journal, 56(2): 16-21. limiting increased consumption of Treculia africana Ezeokonkwo, C. A. 2003. The Biochemical Characteristics of in the state. It, therefore, implies that increased Treculia africana Decne (African Breadfruit seed). Paper production of Treculia africana is desirable in the presented at a seminar organized by the Treculia state to ensure its cost reduction. Also, improved Africana Research Project (TARP), on 19th March, 2003 varieties of Treculia africana is equally desirable. at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Nigeria. It is, therefore, recommended that, further Ihekoronye, A. I. and D. C. Ngoddy. 1985. Integrated Food studies be carried out to determine the market Science and Technology for the Tropics. Macmillan structure, population of the tree crop, the factors Publishers Ltd London. limiting its production and the possibilities of Mbah, B. N. 2003. Taxonony and propagation of Treculia improving the existing varieties of Treculia africana. africana. Paper presented at the seminer of the Treculia African Research Project. University of Nigeria Acknowledgments Nsukka June 18, 2003. Omobuwajo, T. O., E. A. Akanda and L. A. Sanni. 1999. This work was supported under grant number 3 Selected Physical, mechanical and aerodynamic properties of 25/05/2002 via CBFR/NET.FORM III of the of breadfruit (Treculia africana) seeds. Journal of Food African Forest Research Network (AFORNET) of Engineering, 40: 241- 244. the African Academy of Sciences (AAS), Nairobi, Ugwu, F. M. 1992. Use of Treculia africana for biscuit production. Kenya. The author is very grateful for the Paper presented at the 16th Annual Conference of the support. Nigerian Institute of food Science and Technology, Enugu, October 26-30, 1992. Book of Abstracts p.13.
(S) 273 B O O K R E V I E W
Samuel O. Akatch
School of the Built Environment, College of Architecture and Engineering, University of Nairobi, P. O. Box 30197, Nairobi, Kenya, E-mail: [email protected]
Title: Assistance to Forestry: Expenses and Potential for Improvement
Editors: Reidar Person
Publisher: Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)
Year of Publication: 2003
Number of Pages: vii+120
Intoduction best contribute to development as poverty alleviation in developing countries. There is therefore a need During the last 18 or so years, interest in and support for a new narrative for forestry and forestry support. for forestry has increased considerably. The support Old narratives like fuel-wood shortage, for forestry has increased despite the unresolved environmental and employment are no longer questions as to the objectives of forestry viz: should adequate. Rural development may prove to be the humans’ objectives or forests’ be put at the centre? only possible narrative. Given that a 1000 million Should forests be utilized as much or as little as poor people live in rural areas, forests and trees are possible? Despite the non-resolution of some of these critical resources and can and have in the past basic questions, assistance to forestry has been generated the resources needed to promote rural increasing over the last fourty (40) years and has gone development and welfare. through several total phases: (a) Industrial forestry, The editor of the report under review admits that (b) Social forestry, (c) Environmental forestry, (d) the report is not exhaustive but is intended to Sustainable management of renewable natural stimulate international discussion on where we stand resources; and more presently, (e) Emphasis on today and what ought to be done in the future. poverty reduction, governance, institutions and the The report is presented in ten brief chapters rule of law have taken centre stage. Many projects covering an Introduction as the First Chapter. The now target issues outside the forest in accordance with Second Chapter gives the perceived perspectives of the current phase of total interest. Forest Assistance. The Third Chapter deals briefly Assistance given to forestry, as Official with the objectives of forestry and forestry assistance Development Assistance (ADA) is often problematic: and sets the stage for the Fourth Chapter that Solutions are illusive; All the several phases of discusses the successes and failures of forestry forestry support have met with problems; Forestry assistance. The Fifth Chapter delves into problems has neither been of much importance for development with forestry assistance detailing problems nor poverty reduction. Deforestation has hardly associated with the donor and recipient sides. reduced and the objectives of forestry are still largely Chapter Six discusses some general points unclear. Analysis show that forestry itself will do little concerning development assistance; while Chapter to influence the rate of deforestation. The main Seven tries to answer the questions: why existing reasons for deforestation are increasingly being knowledge is never used. Chapter Eight postulates identified as lying outside the forest sector. The what the author calls some points to consider when frequently stated positive environmental effects of discussing changes in forestry assistance. Chapter forests do often seem to contain overstatements. Nine is devoted by the author to “Some concrete It is agreed that in many developed countries, proposals”. While the last and final Chapter is forestry has taken the countryside out of poverty but christened “Final Discussion”. In this final Chapter, it is not clear at the moment present how forestry can the author postulates concerns for the future, makes Assistance to Forestry: Expenses and Potential for Improvement conclusions, recommendations and proposes the need need for funding agencies to change their approach for a new narrative with a postscript on some final to forestry assistance. words and notes. Given the author’s expansive knowledge and The report constitutes an interesting piece of work experience spanning over 35 years, working with and argues for the need to strengthen domestic forestry related agencies and institutions the book capacity within developing countries so that they can provides vital first hand documentation of take full responsibility of their own forestry experienced knowledge and should therefore be an development. The author urges for support for rural essential reading to policy makers researchers and development and capacity building as opposed students of forest research. forestry assistance per se arguing that there is an urgent
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