INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) 1.CLIMATE RESILIENT GREEN ECONOMY: PROSPECTS

Dr.R.RAGAPRIYA, I.A.S.,Managing Director, Gulbarga Electric Supply Company, Government of Karnataka.

Prof.D.RUDRAPPAN, President, AMECA, Former Joint Director of Collegiate Education, Govt. of Tamil Nadu, Professor, Department of Development Economics, Ethiopian Civil Service University, Ethiopia.

“The size and extent of the climate change ecosystem services were found to be degraded threats are new. It is arguably the biggest or used unsustainably. The gap between challenge humanity faces today. This the rich and poor has also been increasing- means that we must act urgently and seize between 1990 and 2005, income disparity opportunities quickly. One such opportunity (measured by the gap between the highest is renewable energy,” – President of the 72nd and lowest income earners) rose in more than UN General Assembly. two-thirds of countries. ABSTRACT The persistence of poverty and degradation of new political climate has grown in many the environment can be traced to a series of Acountries around the world, thanks to market and institutional failures that make the the strong base in science and widening prevailing economic theory far less effective public awareness of climate change and than it otherwise would be in advancing its risks. Clean energy revolution has been sustainable development ambitions. These taking place all over the developed countries, market and institutional failures are well underscored by the steady expansion of known to economists, but little progress has the renewable energy sector. The adoption been made to address them. For example, of Renewable Energy Technologies (RETs) there are not sufficient mechanisms to constituted a win-win situation, as renewable ensure that polluters pay the full cost of is not only green and job-generating, but their pollution. Likewise, there are “missing also sustainable with a higher environmental markets” – meaning that markets do not benefit. Renewable fuels such as wind, systematically account for the inherent value solar, biomass, tides, and geothermal are of services provided by nature, like water inexhaustible, indigenous and are often free filtration or coastal protection. A “market as a resource. They just need to be captured economy” alone cannot provide public goods, efficiently and transformed into electricity, like efficient electricity grids, sanitation or hydrogen or clean transportation fuels. The public transportation. And economic policy is renewable energy sources have hardly any often shaped by those who wield power, with carbon footprint and are environment-friendly strong vested interests and rarely captures and do not require environmentally-damaging the voice and perspectives of those most at mining and transport. The paper highlights risk. Environmental devastations and climate various sources of clean energy in the context challenges take place as a result of present-day of sustainable economic, environmental, and non-suitable economic policies based on non- social development besides focusing on the renewable energy which makes it clear the importance of renewable energy in the modern need to change the present economic model. world. Energy, though consisting of positive and INTRODUCTION negative features, is a vital basis of livelihood. The prevailing economic growth model is Despite the fact that non-renewable energy is focused on increasing GDP above all other cheaper and easier to produce, the reserves goals. While this economic system has of fossil fuels would be exhausted soon. improved income and reduced poverty for Therefore, importance need to be given hundreds of millions, it comes with significant to green energy sources which are non- jobless growth and potentially irreversible polluting, dependable and labor intensive social, environmental and economic costs which will propel the economy to a stronger (Rudrappan, 2004). Poverty persists for as and a higher level. The latest one among many as 2.5 billion people even today; the clean energy sources is fuel cells. They offer natural wealth of the planet is rapidly being a highly efficient and fuel flexible technology drawn down. World Bank has estimated that that produces power with zero emission. approximately 60 percent of the world’s Moreover, hydrogen fuel cells emit water only

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with no CO2 emissions and air pollutants that most talked-about aspect of sustainability create haze and cause health complications along with economic efficiency. Economic as in the case of fossil fuels. Hence, the paper efficiency implies an economic state in which explores how to achieve climate compatible every resource is optimally allocated to serve development path through green energy each individual or entity in the best way while sources with the objectives listed below. minimizing waste and inefficiency. When an OBJECTIVES economy is economically efficient, any changes The objectives of the paper have been listed made to assist one entity would harm another. below MAJOR CAUSES OF GLOBAL CLIMATE To find out sources of clean energy, importance, CHANGE and impact on the economy; and Global climate changes seen above have To suggest remedial measures for raising the occurred as a result of an increase in greenhouse contribution of green energy and for efficient gases, aerosols and land use changes in the use of renewable energy sources.. context of urbanization wave witnessed in Methodology the world. Global warming is caused mainly Descriptive study is adopted and secondary by three factors such as radiation from the sources of information were collated and used sun, earth’s natural temperature cycle as a for the present study. result of changes in earth magnetic field and GREEN ECONOMY INITIATIVES OF the accumulation of carbon dioxide (C02) in UNEP the atmosphere. Climate change refers to an Energy is deposited in a range of energy increase in average temperature on account sources, which can be described as non- of a rise in the emission of greenhouse gases; renewable or renewable. Renewable sources of while emission of carbon dioxide is weighed in energy are those that can be refilled in a short tonnes and gigatonnes (Gt=109 tonnes ), green period of time, as opposed to non-renewable house gas concentration in the atmosphere is sources of energy. Renewable fuels such as monitored in parts per million (ppm) molecules wind, solar, biomass, tides, and geothermal of dry air. In the baseline scenario i.e., business are inexhaustible, indigenous and are often as usual scenario, the CO2 concentration would free as a resource. The use of renewable rise from 27 Gt in 2005 to 62 Gt in the year sources of energy is less polluting, compared 2050, corresponding to an increase from 379 to that of non-renewable sources. Specifically, ppm to 550 ppm of CO2 in the same period as increased dependence on renewable sources against the natural range of 180 ppm to 330 of energy is a key element of efforts to avert ppm. (Aswathanarayana,2010). Similarly the climate change. Renewable sources of energy atmospheric concentration of methane gas today make a small contribution to total energy has increased from 775 parts per billion (ppb) use, compared to that of non-renewable molecules of dry air in the 1990s to 1732 ppb in sources. A range of barriers including the high 2005 as against the normal range of methane cost of production hampers the widespread between 320 ppb and 790 ppb. (IPCC, 2007) deployment of renewable energy technologies. This phenomenon of global warming takes Green Economy attempts to remedy these place in the atmosphere between earth surface problems through a variety of institutional and the ozone layer which is about 50 km up in reforms and regulatory measures, tax, and the atmosphere ((Nakicenovic, 2001). Further, expenditure-based economic policies and it is pointed out that temperature tends to tools. The concept of green economy has been decline with distance from the surface of the strongly recommended by the United Nations earth. Conference on Sustainable Development held To avert the catastrophes of global warming, in Rio in 2012. green economy is needed because it is ELEMENTS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT low carbon, resource efficient, and socially ARE ENVIRONMENT, SOCIETY, AND ECONOMY inclusive, focusing on sustainable development A key feature of the sustainable development is and poverty reduction. The green economy that it comprises three elements: Environment, is defined as an economy that aims at Society, and Economy. Or, the three Ps: Planet, reducing environmental risks and ecological People, and Profit. All the three, in no particular scarcities, and that aims for equity and order, are balanced so that one doesn’t sustainable development without degrading destroy another. The greater sustainability the environment. To implement this concept, movement, however, is guided by these three the United Nations Environment Programme E’s, commonly referred to as the “three pillars” (UNEP)’s Green Economy Initiative (GEI) of sustainability: environment, equity, and has been designed to assist governments in economics. The environmental pillar is the “greening” their economies by reshaping and

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 2 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) refocusing policies, investments and spending strategies. And there are many examples of towards a range of sectors, such as clean successful, large-scale programs that increase technologies, and renewable energies. Ban Ki- growth or productivity and do so in a sustainable moon, Secretary General of UN has rightly said ‘’ manner such as in the case of Republic of Korea the clear and present danger of climate change and China. In many ways, Green Economy means we cannot burn our way to prosperity. objectives simply support those already We already rely heavily on fossil fuels. We need articulated for the broader goal of sustainable to find a new, sustainable path to the future we development. But this new framing responds want. We need a clean industrial revolution’’. to following two recent developments. Thus, as seen above, while the prevailing First, there is a deeper appreciation today by economic growth model focuses on increasing many governments, corporate bodies, and the GDP above all other goals, a Green Economy civil society that we are reaching planetary promotes a triple bottom line: sustaining and limits, not just in terms of greenhouse gas advancing economic, environmental and social emissions but also in our use of water, land, well-being. The energy sector is accountable forests and other natural resources. The for about 25 percent of worldwide greenhouse environmental and social costs of our current gas emissions. Improving energy effectiveness unviable economic model are becoming more and raising the share of renewable power in and more apparent. Already, the Club of Rome the global energy mix is significant to reducing has cautioned the world governments about carbon dioxide emissions and achieving the the dangers of crossing the limits to growth central goal of the Paris Climate Change way back in 1972 through its publication Limits Agreement, 2017 which has stipulated to limit to Growth. Efforts of economists have not the global average temperature rise to well been focused so far on fixing the failures of below two degrees and as close as possible to economics in addressing these problems so far. 1.5 degrees Celsius above the pre-industrial Second, and perhaps even more important, the levels. global recession has led to a reconsideration A low-carbon economy (LCE), low-fossil-fuel of key tenets of the current economic model– economy (LFFE), or a decarbonized economy such as the primacy of growth and the belief is an economy based on low carbon power in light-touch regulation. Many leaders in the sources and therefore has a minimal output public and private sector have questioned the of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions into existing economic policies and seek: the biosphere, but specifically refers to the •Policies and regulations that can identify greenhouse gas carbon dioxide. Implementing and manage financial and other risks more green economy practices can help reduce effectively waste, conserve natural resources, improve •New markets and industries that can create both air and water quality, and protect good and long-term jobs ecosystems biodiversity and usher in •Public support for innovation to position a sustainability. Sustainability broadly means country to compete in tomorrow’s international balancing economic, social and environmental markets systems so that one ‘system’ does not adversely These developments point to the need for a impact the other two. Long term changes in new source of growth that is environmentally the average weather patterns / temperature sustainable–for example, employment in has been often used interchangeably with high-growth sectors such as clean energy. ‘Global Warming “or “Green House Gas Effect” Past sustainability efforts have not focused phrases and have been linked to manmade sufficiently on fixing the failures of economic acceleration of the quantity of CO2 produced policies such as pricing the problem of globally. Going green helps the environment by pollution. But now, the policy makers have a reducing the amount of pollution that enters chance to tackle these challenging problems, the soil, water, and air. By using alternative given the policy openings created by the energy sources and avoiding the burning of response to the global financial crisis. A good fossil fuels, recycling and reducing waste and example is Republic of Korea’s adoption of a driving more efficiently, fewer pollutants are national green growth strategy. released into the environment in order to However, in the wake of global financial protect planet, Earth (Rudrappan, 2010). problems, people have their own doubt about TRANSITION TO A GREEN ECONOMY the affordability of green economy solutions The transition to a Green Economy has a which are perceived to be expensive. The USA long way to go, but several countries are as well as most other developing countries are demonstrating leadership by adopting national much concerned that transitioning to a Green “green growth” or “low carbon” economic Economy will hinder economic growth and the

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ability to reduce poverty. Moreover, there will because they are green. They will do so when be short-term, non-trivial losses associated they believe it is in their interest in the long run with the changes in industry and market (Rudrappan, 2011). structure (e.g., a decline of the coal industry •Promote new indicators that complement GDP: and related job losses.) Supporting those actors Planning agencies and finance ministries should who will bear the brunt of the transition to the adopt a more diverse and representative set of green energy will be critical for building a Green economic indicators that focus less exclusively Economy. on growth and track the composition, pace, and Some countries feel that they are lagging progress of development. behind in green technology know-how and •Open up government decision-making its implementation and therefore will be at a processes to the public and civil society so as competitive disadvantage in the race for future to ensure policies are accountable to the public markets. Others feel that the Green Economy is and not to vested and well-connected interests. the pretence for rich countries to erect “green” Timing is everything and important when it trade barriers on the exports of developing comes to big policy reforms. Green Economy countries.. These are all legitimate concerns advocates will need to be ready when that that deserve attention and solution by the window of opportunity presents itself. developed countries. Ultimately, the widespread transition to a Green Finally, economic analysts should inform Economy will depend on whether or not the policy decision makers on what policies and long-term public interest is reflected in today’s investments should be promoted. When the economic policies. full costs and benefits over time are taken into RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES account, many Green Economy solutions will “Green energy’’ is a term used to describe be seen as more attractive. Nevertheless, there the energy that is generated from the sources will still be difficult choices and trade-offs. Is it that are known to be non-polluting. For these reasonable to promote and invest in expensive, reasons, “green’’ energy should be considered grid connected solar power, when hundreds of as the energy of the future. Most are related millions in India still have no access to electricity to the sun in some way. Sunlight produces in remote villages? And even where Green solar energy directly. It indirectly produces Economy solutions make economic sense, they hydropower (through the movement of may be politically challenging. The transition rainwater), biomass (through photosynthesis) to a Green Economy will not be that easy. The and tidal power (through tides caused by moon principal challenge is how to move towards and sun). It is estimated that the share of total an economic system that will benefit more renewable sources in the world primary energy people over the long run. Transitioning to a supply in the year 2005 was 12.7%, the share of Green Economy will require a fundamental shift coal 25.3%, oil 35.0% and natural gas 20.6% and in thinking about growth and development, hydro 2.6%. production of goods and services, and consumer Algae can also be used productively to produce habits. This transition will not happen solely not only several kinds of fuel end products because of better information on impacts, risks but also by-products which have wide-ranging or good economic analysis; ultimately, it is applications in chemical and pharmaceutical based upon the decision of policy makers at the industries. They can be mass produced using top. Moreover, the problem is vested interests. land and water which are unsuitable for raising Those who benefits from the status quo are plant and food crops. They are energy-efficient either over represented or have greater access and consume carbon dioxide; thereby reducing to institutions that manage natural resources the level of global warming considerably. and protect the environment. U.S. climate “Bloom Box’’, recently unveiled by K.R. Sridhar, legislation, for example, was defeated in no an Indian American has the potential to small part by resistance from fossil-fuel based revolutionize electricity production. It is a fuel energy advocates. cell device consisting of a stack of ceramic disks The following steps would help to formulate coated with secret green and black “inks’’. decisions in favour of green energy solutions. It can convert any renewable and fossil fuel •Increase public awareness and the case for such as natural gas, biogas, coal, and gas into change. Greater visibility on the need for this electricity round the clock. Since no combustion transition can motivate voters and consumers is involved, there would be no noise, smell or - not just because of the costs but also the emissions. (Fells, 1990) economic benefits generated by a Green Renewable technology favors decentralization Economy, such as new job generation and and more importantly attempts to seek local new markets. People will not adopt policies solutions to local problems, independent of the

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 4 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) national network. This process enhances the capture and storage (BECCS) is the process of flexibility of the system thereby spreading the planting fast-growing trees which naturally economic benefits to the scattered population, capture co2. After some time, these plants have who are often small in number. Several studies been converted into fuel via burning for power have pointed out that seventy-five percent plants and the resulting carbon emissions of the world’s energy supply is used by only are captured and sequestered. However, the 25 percent of the people living in wealthy demand for biomass has led to land grabs and and industrialized economies. (OECD, 1995) rising food commodity prices. However, it is usually the under-developed The third proposal related to geo-engineering or developing countries that face the is known as Solar Radiation Management maximum risk from climate-related threats. (SRM) which aims to control the sun light Therefore, the investment in green energy from reaching Earth. SRM may be achieved supply and progress should be encouraged by pumping sulphates into the stratosphere by governments of all countries and other which would cause clouds to reflect more authorities for green energy replacement of sunlight back into space. It merely delays the fossil fuels which are far more environmentally impact and not reduces co2 concentrations; benign for a sustainable future. One of hence scientists do not favor SRM as it changes the initiatives that gained political support climatic conditions such as drought and flood from various countries at the Copenhagen in some areas damaging the livelihoods of Summit (2009) was the Reduced Emissions millions of people. from Deforestation and Forest Degradation Besides the above climate control (REDD) programme. REDD involves supporting technologies, there are simple and politically developing countries financially to conserve challenging methods such as a moratorium rather than clear tropical forests. Twenty-five on new coal mines and new coal-power years ago, methanol was vigorously promoted. plants. The investments in coal-fired plants Then came the phase of electric vehicles, the could be diverted to decentralized renewable hybrid-electrics, the fuel cells, and the ethanol energy production. A mere 10 percent of the and finally to plug-in hybrids today. global population in developed countries is In December 2015, representatives of 196 responsible for almost 50 percent global co2 governments have met in Paris on the need emissions. to limit to global warming to 1.50 c above the The fifth powerful measure would be to pre-industrial levels, a good goal that holds protect and restore natural ecosystems such the promise of delivering transformational as wetlands which would result in the storage change, if the aim is translated into action. Due of 220-330 gigatons of co2 all over the world. to political challenges from some countries Other remedial measures for reducing co2 on the need to control co2, some have include strengthening public transportation, suggested to focusing on the need to develop encouraging the use of railways for freight large-scale technological interventions to traffic, building bike paths and subsidizing control the global thermostat. Advocates delivery of bicycles. of geo-engineering technologies put forth All the above solutions put together could that conventional adaptation and mitigation change the world for better but none of the measures are not reducing emissions fast above solutions is a silver bullet. As world enough to prevent alarming warming. “carbon leaders convene for the 22nd United Nations capture and storage” (CCS) technology is Framework Convention on climate change needed to suck the excess carbon dioxide to bring the Paris Agreement into force, the out of the atmosphere and to limit global planetary thermostat should be under the warming and human sufferings as per the Fifth control of all the nations and not a handful of Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental powerful states. Panel on Climate Change. CCS is a process of GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE capturing waste co2 from huge sources like As a result of radioactive forcing, climates have fossil-fuel based power plants and depositing been subjected to global changes like all other it in an underground geological formation, planetary surfaces. The components of global leading to prevention of co2 from entering climate system such as atmosphere, biosphere, into the atmosphere. However, the problem is hydrosphere, cryosphere, and lithosphere depositing co2 in an underground formation interact with each other to determine Earth’s also enables increased oil recovery, thereby climate. Moreover, the climate is influenced leading to a more co2 formation in the near by the long-term balance between incoming future. solar or “short-wave” radiation and outgoing Another technology, bio-energy with carbon terrestrial “long-wave” radiation. The changes

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in climate have been documented by the Climate Change in Green Energy Technology, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Economics and Policy in U.Aswathanarayana, (IPCC). Main findings as summarized in Horton T.Harikrishnan, and K.M.Thayyib Sahini, eds., in: et al.,(2010) have been listed below: Green Energy Technology, Economics and Policy, →→ global warming temperatures have CRC Press, p.7. been due to human activities (IPCC, 2007); 3.Clive Cookson, (2016): Giant sun shades and →→ carbon dioxide (co2) have been found carbon capture mooted-Fortune, vol.17, no.863, to be more than one-third higher than pre- Nov. 13, 2016. industrial levels; 4.Fells, I. Dunderdale, J. (ed.) (1990). Energy and →→ other gases such as methane (CH4) has the Environment, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry, increased by 100% and nitrous oxide (N2O) has London 1990. risen by 20 % over the above period; 5.Flevin, Christopher & Engelman, Robert. (2009). →→ subsequent increases in greenhouse gas The perfect storm In Christopher flavin and Robert concentrations are projected to lead to higher Engelman (Eds.), State of the world, 2009: Into a level of temperatures and climate changes; warming world,( pp. 5-12 ). World Watch Institute, →→ in this 21st century, the global average Washington, DC: World Watch Institute. temperature is expected to raise between 1.8 6.Horton R. & Rosenzweig C.(2010). Climate Risk and 4.00 c Information ann. New York Academy of Sciences, By 2100, warming has been expected to 1196, 147-228. increase by more than 8.0C over land, northern 7.IPCC. (2007). Summary for Policymakers, In: hemisphere, and Arctic region. Precipitation Climate Change 2007: The Physical Sciences Basis has been expected to increase in high altitude Contribution of Working Group 1 to the Fourth cities and decrease in sub-tropical cities. Ocean Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel acidification will increase due to the absorption on Climate Change. United Kingdom and New York, of CO2 by oceans which would lead to large USA: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.pp. implications on the marine ecosystem. In coastal 2-3. cities, marine ecosystem provides livelihood 8.IPCC, (2007). Climate Change 2007. The Physical and sustenance to billions of people and this Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group 1 to the would be affected by ocean acidification. Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental CONCLUSION Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Thus, green energy is more labor-intensive Press, Cambridge. United Kingdom and New York, than fossil fuel, creates more jobs benefiting USA, P. 994. poor countries. It diversifies energy supply, 9.Levitus, S, Antonov,J.I, Boyer,T.P, and Stephens,C. reducing nation’s dependence on foreign oil. (2000). Warming of the World Ocean, Science, 287, Pollution reduction improves public health as 2225-2229. well as lowers health cost. Not only, it provides 10.Mann, M. and Emanuel, K. (2006). Atlantic individual energy independence, but also Hurricane Trends Linked to Climate Change. EOS, saves a lot of money for the country. After 87, 233-241. the construction of renewable energy power 11.OECD, (1995). Urban Energy Handbook, source, one can draw it free of cost since the Organization for Economic Co-Operation and input is free. Green energy has less service Development, Paris. disruption and can take the economy toa 12.Rodrik, D. (2007). One Economics, Many Recipes. stronger level through the ripple effect that Princeton: Princeton University Press. benefits other related industries. In view of 13.Rudrappan, D. (2004). Post-reform rural the above, it is reemphasized once again that employment scenario in India with special reference climate change, social equity, and sustainable to Tamil Nadu. The Indian Economic Journal, India, economic development are compatible if the 51(3, 4), 55-68. country uses green energy sources. To conclude 14.Rudrappan, D. (2010, June 3).Save planet earth, ‘’ we have a choice: between energy-efficient Business Day, Lagos, Nigeria, p.14. low carbon path and an energy-intensive high 15.Rudrappan,D. (2011). Reconciling climate carbon path, which at an unknown point of time Change and Economic Growth: The need for an ends catastrophically. This doesn’t seem like a Alternative Paradigm of Development.Covenant very hard choice’’ –Michael Spence, Professor University Press, Canaanland, Ota, Nigeria, pp.3-34. of Economics, NYU Stern School, Italy. 16.Sharukh Rafi Khan, (2011). Exploring and REFERENCES naming an economic development alternative In 1.Amsden, Alice (2003). The rise of the rest, Sharukh Rafi Khan & Jens Christiansen, Towards challenges to the west from late- industrializing New developmentalism: Market as means rather Economies, New York: Oxford University Press. than as master (pp.3-19). 2.Aswathanarayana, U. (2010). Renewables and

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 6 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) 2. CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES: RESTROSPECT AND PROSPECT

Dr.PRADEEP PRAJAPATI, Professor, Department of Economics, Gujarat University,Ahmedabad. ABSTRACT It must be noted that these threats are human- Discussion on problems of climate and induced climate change, resulting from the environmental changes i.e. global warming building of GHGs including carbon dioxide, has inundated in recent years. Every major methane, nitrous oxide and some other newspaper publishes multiple editorials or op- industrial chemicals. ed pieces on the topic, the broadcast media The scientific process of climate change and researchers regularly discuss the issue, explains that earth’s energy balance is and thousands of Web pages and blogs provide strucked. The imbalance of energy in planet definitions and information and suggest causes is caused by several gasses like GHGs: Carbon and consequences of action and inaction. Dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), Nitrous Oxide Under the situation why are we adding to (N2O and industrial chemicals called as Hydro congestion on the subject? Fluorocarbons (HFC’s), Per Fluorocarbons Because the analysis of past has much to (PFC’s) and Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). Another contribute, especially in understanding major GHG is water vapour (H2O), which, like prospects of adapting to climate change, CO2, traps infrared radiation and thereby which has received relatively little study and warns the planet. The first kind of GHGs (CO2, comment relative to the standing it should take CH4, N2O and HFCs) is all directly emitted by in the debate [Gary D. Libecap and Rechard H. human activity. Water is only indirectly affected Steckel, 2011]. by human activity. As per planet warms, the At the outset, it is to be noted that in the water vapour in the atmosphere tends to present paper science of climate change is increase, and this increase causes an additional not evaluated as author is not the expertise greenhouse effect, meaning an additional rise to contribute on this matter but the paper in temperature. respond to economic effects of the climate and The built-up GHGs destroy our food crops and environmental changes. farm system, locations of plants and animals, INTRODUCTION the location of cities, key infrastructure, and Climate change, an environmental problem public health. In brief a fairly stable temperature was exposed by scientists and explore by of earth becomes unstable. economists in relation to its far reaching It is predicted that the temperature increase economic consequences. It was realizing after by the end of the century compared with the penetrate studies that humanities is at peril pre industrial average temperature could be as with rapidly growing world economy with much as 4-7o C and this would be very likely to excessive exploitation of natural resources and have devasting effects in many ways. Precisely nature itself. The resultant effects were realized it includes food, water, ecosystem, extreme by human being and non-human beings and weather events, and major irreversible changes it turned out to be threat to planet’s finite to earth’s physical system. resources and the consumption. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS In 1972, UN conference on Human Environment The inherent variability of regional climates in Stockholm, serious thought was given and it in the past and projections of the future was warned that the community of senseless suggest that climate change poses serious growth would result into drastic economic and potentially dramatic challenges to the and political consequences. Moreover it was any economy. In part, the magnitude of these realized in the conference that humanity would challenges depends upon the nature of the be at peril in the sense that scarcity of minerals overall weather response to the build-up of and ores would make it difficult to maintain Green House Gases (GHG). The economic the level of economic activity for sustainable impact of which depends on the time frame development. under which climate changes occur. As with The climate change is a serious environmental temperature projections, there is no consensus problem for it distort the functioning of Earth’s on a specific time period for major economic ecosystem, the biodiversity and the ability of damages to materialise. One possibility is the atmosphere to absorb green house gases that they are small and isolated for twenty to (GHGs) emitted by humanity from fossil fuels fifty years, after which they are cumulatively and other agricultural and industrial processes. larger. If this is correct, then may make sense ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 7 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018

for modest emissions abatement programs • Agriculture would be particularly initially while the economy begins to adjust, vulnerable if temperature and precipitation more technology and learning are developed, become more erratic with larger swings. and more information is generated [National • Electricity demand and pressure on Academy of Sciences, 2008, Nordhaus, 2008 utilities also likely would increase. and Kousky, Rostapshove, et. al., 2009]. • Human beings/Health would be Temperature: affected; A sustained wet-bulb temperature exceeding And, ultimately, 35° is a threshold at which the resilience of • Growth rate of GDP would be affected. human systems is no longer able to adequately EFFECTS ON AGRICULTURE IN INDIA cool the skin. A study by NOAA from 2013 In India, average food consumption at present concluded that heat stress will reduce labor is 550 g per capita per day, whereas in China capacity considerably under current emissions and USA are 980 and 2850 g, respectively. The scenarios [John P. Dunne; Ronald J. Stouffer; country faces major challenges to increase its Jasmin G. John, 2013]. There is evidence to food production to the tune of 300 mt by 2020 show that high temperatures can increase in order to feed its ever-growing population mortality rates among foetuses and children. which is likely to reach 1.30 billion by the year And the health impacts and risks of higher 2020. To meet the demand for food from this temperatures also reduce learning and worker increased population, the country’s farmers productivity, which can impact a country’s need to produce 50% more grain by 2020. economy and development. The total gross irrigated area has more than Water: quadrupled from 22.6 million ha in 1950–51 The freshwater resources that humans rely on to 99.1 million ha in 2011-2012. Although, are highly sensitive to variations in weather agriculture contributes 14% in the Gross and climate. In 2007, the IPCC reported with Domestic Product (GDP) in India, 64% of the high confidence that climate change has a population depends on agriculture for their net negative impact on water resources and livelihood. Over the years, demand for water freshwater ecosystems in all regions. The IPCC has increased due to urbanization, increasing also found with very high confidence that arid population, rapid industrialization and other and semi-arid areas are particularly exposed to developmental initiatives. In addition, changes freshwater impacts. in cropping and land-use patterns, over- As the climate warms, it changes the nature of exploitation of groundwater and changes in global rainfall, evaporation, snow, stream flow irrigation and drainage have modified the and other factors that affect water supply and hydrologic cycle in many climate regions and quality. Specific impacts include: river basins of India. Availability of water • Warmer water temperatures affect is the most important factor in agricultural water quality and accelerate water pollution. production. Water quality and quantity are • Sea level rise is projected to increase serious constraints for agriculture in most parts salt-water intrusion into groundwater in some of India. Agriculture must adapt to changing regions. This reduces the amount of freshwater climatic conditions by tapping water resources available for drinking and farming. and developing improved water management • In some areas, shrinking glaciers and approaches. Simultaneously, there is also snow deposits threaten the water supply. Areas need to develop and implement technologies that depend on melted water runoff will likely and policies which will help in reducing see that runoff depleted, with less flow in the and mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. late summer and spring peaks occurring earlier. Therefore, assessment of the availability of This can affect the ability to irrigate crops. water resources is future national requirement • Increased extreme weather means and expected impact of climate change and its more water falls on hardened ground unable variability is critical for relevant national and to absorb it, leading to flash floods instead of a regional long-term development strategies for replenishment of soil moisture or groundwater sustainable development [Rohitashw Kumar levels. and Harender Raj Gautam, 2014]. • Increased evaporation will reduce the India is home to 16% of the world population, effectiveness of reservoirs. but only 4% of the world water resources. • At the same time, human demand for Agriculture is directly dependent on climate, water will grow for the purposes of cooling and since temperature, sunlight and water are hydration. the main drivers of crop growth. While some Under these facts a major question, then, is aspects of climate change such as longer how adaptable is the economy? growing season and warmer temperatures may

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 8 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) bring benefits in crop growth and yield, there And when productivity is going to be decline will also be a range of adverse impacts due to further because of climate change it is high time reduced water availability and more frequent to re-think on Land Reforms – i.e. ownership of extreme weather conditions. These impacts land so as to increase agricultural productivity may put agricultural activities at significant and accordingly to have higher growth rate. risk. Climate change has already caused EFFECTS ON ELECTRICITY DEMAND significant damage to our present crop profile AND PRESSURE ON UTILITIES IN INDIA and threatens to bring even more serious There is a positive relationship between consequences in the future (WHO, 1992). temperature and electricity demand over the Wheat yields are predicted to fall by 5-10% year as the electricity demand is positively with every increase of 1°C and overall crop related to temperatures in summer and yields could decrease up to 30% in South Asia negatively related to temperatures in winter. by the mid-21st century. India could experience Therefore, climate change is expected to reduce a 40% decline in agricultural productivity by the electricity consumption in winter and increase 2080s. Rise in temperatures will affect wheat electricity consumption in the summer. Also, growing regions, placing hundreds of millions climate change will affect electricity demand of people at the brink of chronic hunger. by changing how people will respond along According to Subhojit Goswami, 2017, climate both intensive and extensive margins of change has about 4-9 per cent impact on adjustment. For instance, in the short run, agriculture each year. As agriculture contributes during summer, people may adapt by using 15 per cent to India’s GDP, climate change existing cooling equipment more intensively presumably causes about 1.5 per cent loss in on a hot day while, in the long run, they may GDP. choose to buy an air conditioner to mitigate Overall impacts on agriculture are [VUM Rao, expected reduction in comfort due to changed 2012]; climate. Thus, while the long-term climate will • Negative impact on rice, wheat and determine the stock of equipment in different horticulture regions, the daily weather or temperature • Neutral or positive on some crops like determines the utilisation of the equipment for soybean, groundnut, coconut, potato in some heating or cooling. zones • Impact on livestock and fisheries still to To capture both intensive and extensive be better understood adjustments due to climate change, Eshita • Short term impacts in 10-15 years (in Gupta (2012, 2014) estimated the impact of the range of 4- 6%) but long term impacts could daily weather as well as of long-term climate on be as high as 25% electricity demand for 28 Indian states during • Short term impacts can be addressed the period 2005-2009 and found that a 1°C through better deployment of existing g increase in temperature in summer increases technologies backed by few policy initiatives expected daily electricity demand by 1.5% (as while long term impacts require strategic a result of greater usage of cooling equipment) research on a long term and a major policy while a 1°C increase in temperature in winter changes reduces electricity demand by about 0.2% Climate change may dramatically impact (due to lower usage of heating equipment) at habitat loss, for example, arid conditions may the sample average of income and climate. cause the deforestation of rainforests, as has An increase in temperature in summer has occurred in the past [Sahney, S., Benton, M.J. & an impact on electricity consumption which Falcon-Lang, H.J., 2010]. is seven times the size of the impact of Food Insufficiency in the World and in India too, an equivalent increase in temperature on is a major challenge [Pradeep Prajapati, 2017]: electricity consumption in winter. Already there is a very serious problem of food insufficiency in the world including She also found that the interaction of income India, leading to MAL-NEUTRITION because of with the construct cooling degree Index ( insufficient production of Cereals and Pulses CDDI) and construct cooling degree days which provide Calories and Protein accordingly. CDDs in summer has a much higher impact This has happened because growth rate of on electricity demand than the interaction output of agriculture is not stable in India and of income with the heating degree day Index agricultural productivity was also very low. The (HDDI) and heating degree days (HDDs) in higher growth rate is not achieved by technical winter. As income determines how people change – seeds, water economization and soil adapt to climate change, both global warming reclamation – in agriculture. and income growth will have asymmetric

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 9 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018

effects on electricity consumption in summer suggests adjustments are likely to occur as and winter. new information, new learning, and new In short, while population and income growth technologies emerge and because it augments have accounted for most of the electricity contemporary climate change studies that consumption growth in India, global climate typically rely upon either simulations or very change is expected to further add to it as limited data sets. Adaptation takes time, and people will adapt by buying energy-intensive history is the best provider of information equipment such as air conditioners and air about how it has unfolded over time. coolers. Income growth influences climate sensitivity Any economic analyses of climate change of electricity demand focus of a relationship that translates changes She also found that the climate sensitivity in temperature (and possibly changes in of electricity demand in India is likely to be precipitation and other climate-related significantly influenced by income growth. variables) to economic losses. Economic Between 2009 and 2030, India´s GDP will losses, would of course, include losses of Gross double if it grows at 4% per year, and treble if Domestic Product (GDP) and consumption it grows at 6% per year. In a reference scenario that might result from reduced agricultural with no climate change, electricity demand in productivity or from dislocations resulting India is expected to surge by 105% with 4% GDP from higher sea levels but also the monetary- growth and by 224% with 6% GDP growth by equivalent costs of possible climate-related 2030. If average temperatures in India increase increases in morbidity, mortality, and social by 1°C during this period, then the demand for disruption. electricity is likely to increase by 119% with 4% GDP growth per year, and by 252% with 6% GDP ENERGY SECTOR growth per year, by 2030. Thus, as a result of a) Oil, coal and natural gas: climate change, electricity demand is estimated Oil and natural gas infrastructure is vulnerable to be 6.9% higher than in the reference scenario to the effects of climate change and the with 4% GDP growth per year and 8.6% higher increased risk of disasters such as storm, than in the reference scenario with 6% GDP cyclones, flooding and long-term increases in growth per year, by 2030. This reflects the fact sea level. Minimising these risks by building in that the estimated marginal effect of hotter less disaster prone areas can be expensive and climate is greater when incomes are higher. impossible in countries with coastal locations or island states. All thermal power stations Over 50% of the impact of climate change depend on water to cool them. Not only is there on electricity demand is due to extensive increased demand for fresh water, but climate adjustments in cooling and heating change can increase the likelihood of drought requirements. Thus, electricity demand models and fresh water shortages. Another impact for that do not account for extensive adjustments thermal power plants, is that increasing the are likely to underestimate the impact of temperatures in which they operate reduces climate change on electricity demand. This is their efficiency and hence their output. The particularly true for developing countries such source of oil often comes from areas prone as India where, unlike developed countries, the to high natural disaster risks; such as tropical penetration of cooling/ heating technologies storms, hurricanes, cyclones, and floods. An is very low at present. In a warmer and richer example is Hurricane Katrina’s impact on oil economy in the future, there is bound to be rapid extraction in the Gulf of Mexico, as it destroyed adoption of energy-using equipment in India. 126 oil and gas platforms and damaged 183 This particularly highlights the importance of more [Dr. Frauke Urban and Dr. Tom Mitchell, potential interactions between increasing CDDs 2011]. days and increasing incomes, and the impact of However, previously pristine arctic areas will the resulting long-term adjustments (such as now be available for resource extraction. the higher penetration of air cooling devices) b) Nuclear: on the electricity sector. Climate change, along with extreme weather and natural disasters can affect nuclear power Overall, research in economic history reveals plants in a similar way to those using oil, coal, both how closely twined are climate, weather, and natural gas. However, the impact of water and the economy and how remarkably resilient shortages on nuclear power plants cooled by and adaptive is economy. rivers will be greater than on other thermal power plants. This is because old reactor designs This is a valuable insight both because it with water-cooled cores must run at lower

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 10 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) internal temperatures and thus, paradoxically, Many scientists agree that if global warming must dump more heat to the environment to continues, this disruption is likely to increase produce a given amount of electricity. This [Frauke Urban and Tom Mitchell, 2011]. situation has forced some nuclear reactors to c) Hydroelectricity: be shut down and will do so again unless the Changes in the amount of river flow will cooling systems of these plants are enhanced correlate with the amount of energy produced to provide more capacity. Nuclear power by a dam. Lower river flows because of supply was diminished by low river flow rates drought, climate change, or upstream dams and droughts, which meant rivers had reached and diversions, will reduce the amount of the maximum temperatures for cooling. Such live storage in a reservoir; therefore reducing shutdowns happened in France during the the amount of water that can be used for 2003 and 2006 heat waves. During the heat hydroelectricity. The result of diminished river waves, 17 reactors had to limit output or shut flow can be a power shortage in areas that down. 77% of French electricity is produced by depend heavily on hydroelectric power. The nuclear power; and in 2009 a similar situation risk of flow shortage may increase as a result created a 8GW shortage, and forced the of climate change. Studies from the Colorado French government to import electricity. Other River in the United States suggests that modest Cases have been reported from Germany, climate changes (such as a 2 degree change in where extreme temperatures have reduced Celsius that could result in a 10% decline in nuclear power production 9 times due to high precipitation), might reduce river run-off by temperatures between 1979 and 2007. up to 40%. Brazil in particular, is vulnerable In particular: due to its having reliance on hydroelectricity • The Unterweser nuclear power plant as increasing temperatures, lower water flow, reduced output by 90% between June and and alterations in the rainfall regime, could September 2003. reduce total energy production by 7% annually • The Isar nuclear power plant cut by the end of the century [Frauke Urban and production by 60% for 14 days due to excess Tom Mitchell, 2011]. river temperatures and low stream flow in the river Isar in 2006. EFFECTS ON HUMAN BEINGS Similar events have happened elsewhere Effects of climate change on human beings are in Europe during those same hot summers. explained in form of following chart first. CHART - 1

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 11 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018

This Chart - 1 demonstrates the interactions sound basis in the best current science on among climate drivers, health impacts, climate change and its effects. There are gaps in and other factors that influence people’s our understanding of the relationship between vulnerability to health impacts. climate change, the environment, and human i) Health Impacts: health. In its 2010 report, A Human Health A fundamental global environmental change, Perspective on Climate Change (Full Report) , affecting physical systems and ecosystems, will the NIEHS-led Interagency Working Group on affect human health in many ways. However, Climate Change and Health identified major many details are debated. What health effects research areas that need to be further explored will occur? When will they take place? Will and understood. These include the following: there be both beneficial and adverse effects? The climate-health relationships that are •Asthma, Respiratory Allergies, and Airway the easiest to define and study are those in Diseases relation to heat waves, the physical hazards of •Cancer floods, storms, and fires, and various infectious •Cardiovascular Disease and Stroke diseases (especially those that are vector- •Effects of Heat borne). Other important climatic risks to health, •Food borne Diseases and Nutrition from changes in regional food yields, disruption •Human Developmental Effects of fisheries, loss of livelihoods, and population •Mental Health and Stress-Related Disorders displacement (because of sea-level rise, water •Neurological Diseases and Disorders shortages, etc) are less easy to study than these •Vector borne and Zoonotic Diseases factors and their causal processes and effects •Waterborne Diseases are less easily quantified. •Weather-Related Morbidity and Mortality ii) Infectious diseases: iii) Displacement and Migration: Transmission of infectious disease is determined Climate change causes displacement of people by many factors, including extrinsic social, in several ways, the most obvious—and economic, climatic, and ecological conditions dramatic—being through the increased number and intrinsic human immunity. Many infectious and severity of weather-related disasters which agents, vector organisms, non-human reservoir destroy homes and habitats causing people to species, and rate of pathogen replication seek shelter or livelihoods elsewhere. Effects of are sensitive to climatic conditions. Both climate change such as desertification and rising salmonella and cholera bacteria, for example, sea levels gradually erode livelihood and force proliferate more rapidly at higher temperatures, communities to abandon traditional homelands salmonella in animal gut and food, cholera in for more accommodating environments. This is water. In regions where low temperature, low currently happening in areas of Africa’s Sahel, rainfall, or absence of vector habitat restricts the semi-arid belt that spans the continent transmission of vector-borne disease, climatic just below its northern deserts. Deteriorating changes could tip the ecological balance and environments triggered by climate change can trigger epidemics. Epidemics can also result also lead to increased conflict over resources from climate-related migration of reservoir which in turn can displace people. hosts or human populations. In many recent The IPCC has estimated that 150 million studies investigators have examined the relation environmental migrants will exist by the year between short-term climatic variation and 2050, due mainly to the effects of coastal occurrence of infectious disease—especially flooding, shoreline erosion and agricultural vector-borne disease. Studies in south Asia disruption. However, the IPCC also cautions and South America (Venezuela and Columbia) that it is extremely difficult to measure the have documented the association of malaria extent of environmental migration due to the outbreaks with the ENSO cycle. complexity of the issue and a lack of data. Increased notifications of (non-specific) food According to the Internal Displacement poisoning in the UK and of diarrhoeal diseases Monitoring Centre, more than 42 million in Peru and Fiji have accompanied short-term people were displaced in Asia and the Pacific increases in temperature. Further, strong during 2010 and 2011, more than twice the linear associations have been noted between population of Sri Lanka. This figure includes temperature and notifications of salmonellosis those displaced by storms, floods, and heat and in European countries and Australia, and a weak cold waves. Still others were displaced drought seasonal relation exists for campylobacter. and sea-level rise. Most of those compelled to It is critical that adaptation and mitigation leave their homes eventually returned when decisions and policies be developed with a conditions improved, but an undetermined

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 12 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) number became migrants, usually within their a result of sea level rise is expected to threaten country, but also across national borders. vital infrastructure and human settlements. Asia and the Pacific is the global area most This could lead to issues of statelessness for prone to natural disasters, both in terms of the populations in countries such as the Maldives absolute number of disasters and of populations and Tuvalu and homelessness in countries with affected. It is highly exposed to climate impacts, low-lying areas such as Bangladesh. and is home to highly vulnerable population The World Bank predicts that a “severe hit” will groups, who are disproportionately poor and spur conflict and migration across the Middle marginalized. A recent Asian Development East, Central Asia, and Africa [Lois Parshley, Bank report highlights “environmental hot 2016]. spots” that are particular risk of flooding, iv) Security: cyclones, typhoons, and water stress. Climate change has the potential to exacerbate Some Pacific Ocean island nations, such existing tensions or create new ones — serving as Tuvalu, Kiribati, and the Maldives, are as a threat multiplier. It can be a catalyst for considering the eventual possibility of violent conflict and a threat to international evacuation, as flood defence may become security. A meta-analysis of over 50 quantitative economically unrealistic. Tuvalu already has studies that examine the link between climate an ad hoc agreement with New Zealand to and conflict found that “for each 1 standard allow phased relocation. However, for some deviation (1σ) change in climate toward islanders relocation is not an option. They warmer temperatures or more extreme rainfall, are not willing to leave their homes, land and median estimates indicate that the frequency families. Some simply don’t know the threat of interpersonal violence rises 4% and the that climate change has on their island and frequency of intergroup conflict rises 14%” this is mainly down to the lack of awareness [Burke, Marshall; Hsiang, Solomon M.; Miguel, that climate change even exists. In Vutia on Viti Edward, 2015; and Hsiang, S. M.; Burke, M.; Levu, Fiji’s main island, half the respondents to Miguel, E., 2013]. The IPCC has suggested that a survey had not heard of climate change. Even the disruption of environmental migration may where there is awareness many believe that it serve to exacerbate conflicts, though they are is a problem caused by developed countries less confident of the role of increased resource and should therefore be solved by developed scarcity. Of course, climate change does not countries [Betzold, Carola, 2015]. always lead to violence, and conflicts are often Governments have considered various caused by multiple interconnected factors. approaches to reduce migration compelled A variety of experts have warned that climate by environmental conditions in at-risk change may lead to increased conflict. The communities, including programs of social Military Advisory Board, a panel of retired U.S. protection, livelihoods development, basic generals and admirals, predicted that global urban infrastructure development, and warming will serve as a “threat multiplier” disaster risk management. Some experts even in already volatile regions. The Centre and support migration as an appropriate way for the Centre for a New American Security, people to cope with environmental changes. two Washington think tanks, have reported However, this is controversial because migrants that flooding “has the potential to challenge – particularly low-skilled ones – are among regional and even national identities,” leading the most vulnerable people in society and are to “armed conflict over resources.” They often denied basic protections and access to indicate that the greatest threat would come services. from “large-scale migrations of people — both Climate change is only one factor that may inside nations and across existing national contribute to a household’s decision to borders.” [Kurt M. Campbell; Jay Gulledge; migrate; other factors may include poverty, J.R. McNeill; John Podesta; Peter Ogden; Leon population growth or employment options. Fuerth; R. James Woolsey; Alexander T.J. For this reason, it is difficult to classify Lennon; Julianne Smith; Richard Weitz; Derek environmental migrants as actual “refugees” as Mix, 2007]. However, other researchers have legally defined by the UNHCR. Neither the UN been more sceptical: One study found no Framework Convention on Climate Change nor statistically meaningful relationship between its Kyoto Protocol, an international agreement climate and conflict using data from Europe on climate change, includes any provisions between the years 1000 and 2000. concerning specific assistance or protection for The link between climate change and security those who will be directly affected by climate is a concern for authorities across the world, change [Ferris, Elizabeth, 2007]. including United Nations Security Council and In small islands and megadeltas, inundation as the G77 group of developing nations. Climate

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 13 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018 change’s impact as a security threat is expected vi) Social effects of extreme weather: to hit developing nations particularly hard. In As the World Meteorological Organization Britain, Foreign Secretary Margaret Beckett explains, “recent increase in societal impact has argued that “An unstable climate will from tropical cyclones has largely been caused exacerbate some of the core drivers of conflict, by rising concentrations of population and such as migratory pressures and competition infrastructure in coastal regions.” Pielke et al. for resources.” The links between the human (2008) normalized mainland U.S. hurricane impact of climate change and the threat of damage from 1900 to 2005 to 2005 values violence and armed conflict are particularly and found no remaining trend of increasing important because multiple destabilizing absolute damage. The 1970s and 1980s were conditions are affected simultaneously. notable because of the extremely low amounts EXPERTS HAVE SUGGESTED LINKS TO of damage compared to other decades. The CLIMATE CHANGE IN SEVERAL MAJOR decade 1996–2005 has the second most CONFLICTS damage among the past 11 decades, with only • War in Darfur, where sustained drought the decade 1926–1935 surpassing its costs. The encouraged conflict between herders and most damaging single storm is the 1926 Miami farmers hurricane, with $157 billion of normalized • Syrian Civil War, preceded by the damage [Pielke, Roger A., Jr.; Gratz, Joel; et al., displacement of 1.5 million people due to 2008]. drought-induced crop and livestock failure The American Insurance Journal predicted • Islamist insurgency in Nigeria, which that “catastrophe losses should be expected exploited natural resource shortages to fuel to double roughly every 10 years because anti-government sentiment of increases in construction costs, increases • Somali Civil War, in which droughts and in the number of structures and changes extreme high temperatures have been linked to in their characteristics.” The Association of violence British Insurers has stated that limiting carbon Additionally, researchers studying ancient emissions would avoid 80% of the projected climate patterns (paleoclimatology) have shown additional annual cost of tropical cyclones by that long-term fluctuations of war frequency the 2080s. The cost is also increasing partly and population changes have followed cycles because of building in exposed areas such as of temperature change since the preindustrial coasts and floodplains. The ABI claims that era [Zhang, D.; Brecke, P.; Lee, H.; He, Y.; Zhang, reduction of the vulnerability to some inevitable J., 2007]. A 2016 study finds that “drought can effects of climate change, for example through contribute to sustaining conflict, especially for more resilient buildings and improved flood agriculturally dependent groups and politically defences, could also result in considerable cost- excluded groups in very poor countries. These savings in the long term. results suggest a reciprocal nature–society vii) Human Settlements: interaction in which violent conflict and A major challenge for human settlements is environmental shock constitute a vicious circle, sea-level rise, indicated by ongoing observation each phenomenon increasing the group’s and research of rapid declines in ice-mass vulnerability to the other.” [Uexkull, Nina von; balance from both Greenland and Antarctica. Croicu, Mihai; Fjelde, Hanne; Buhaug, Halvard, Estimates for 2100 are at least twice as large 2016-11-01] as previously estimated by IPCC AR4, with an v) Social Impacts: upper limit of about two meters [Pielke, Roger The consequences of climate change and A., Jr.; Gratz, Joel; et al., 2008]. Depending poverty are not distributed uniformly within on regional changes, increased precipitation communities. Individual and social factors such patterns can cause more flooding or extended as gender, age, education, ethnicity, geography drought stresses water resources. and language lead to differential vulnerability vii-a) Coasts and low-lying areas: and capacity to adapt to the effects of climate For historical reasons to do with trade, many of change. Climate change effects such as hunger, the world’s largest and most prosperous cities poverty and diseases like diarrhea and malaria, are on the coast. In developing countries, the disproportionately impact children; about 90 poorest often live on floodplains, because it is percent of malaria and diarrhea deaths are the only available space, or fertile agricultural among young children. Children are also 14–44 land. These settlements often lack infrastructure percent more likely to die from environmental such as dykes and early warning systems. Poorer factors, again leaving them the most vulnerable. communities also tend to lack the insurance, Those in urban areas will be affected by lower savings, or access to credit needed to recover air quality and overcrowding, and will struggle from disasters. the most to better their situation. CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 14 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) In a journal paper, Nicholls and Tol (2006) climate change is the insurance industry. considered the effects of sea level rise: According to a 2005 report from the Association The most vulnerable future worlds to sea- of British Insurers, limiting carbon emissions level rise appear to be the A2 and B2 [IPCC] could avoid 80% of the projected additional scenarios, which primarily reflects differences annual cost of tropical cyclones by the 2080s. in the socio-economic situation (coastal A June 2004 report by the Association of British population, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) Insurers declared “Climate change is not a and GDP/capita), rather than the magnitude remote issue for future generations to deal with; of sea-level rise. Small islands and deltaic it is, in various forms here already, impacting settings stand out as being more vulnerable as on insurers’ businesses now.” The report noted shown in many earlier analyses. Collectively, that weather-related risks for households and these results suggest that human societies property were already increasing by 2–4% per will have more choice in how they respond to year due to the changing weather conditions, sea-level rise than is often assumed. However, and claims for storm and flood damages in this conclusion needs to be tempered by the UK had doubled to over £6 billion over recognition that we still do not understand the period from 1998–2003 compared to the these choices and significant impacts remain previous five years. The results are raising possible. insurance premiums, and the risk that in some The IPCC reported that socioeconomic impacts areas flood insurance will become unaffordable of climate change in coastal and low-lying for those in the lower income brackets. areas would be overwhelmingly adverse. The Financial institutions, including the world’s following impacts were projected with very two largest insurance companies: Munich Re high confidence: and Swiss Re, warned in a 2002 study that “the • Coastal and low-lying areas would be increasing frequency of severe climatic events, exposed to increasing risks including coastal coupled with social trends could cost almost erosion due to climate change and sea level 150 billion US$ each year in the next decade” rise. [UNEP, 2002]. These costs would burden • By the 2080s, millions of people would customers, taxpayers, and the insurance experience floods every year due to sea level industry, with increased costs related to rise. The numbers affected were projected insurance and disaster relief. to be largest in the densely populated and In the United States, insurance losses have low-lying mega-deltas of Asia and Africa; and also greatly increased. It has been shown smaller islands were judged to be especially that a 1% climb in annual precipitation can vulnerable. increase catastrophe loss by as much as 2.8% A study in the April 2007 issue of Environment [Choi, O.; A. Fisher, 2003]. Gross increases are and Urbanization reports that 634 million mostly attributed to increased population and people live in coastal areas within 30 feet (9.1 property values in vulnerable coastal areas; m) of sea level [McGranahan, G.; Balk, D.; though there was also an increase in frequency Anderson, B., 2007]. The study also reported of weather-related events like heavy rainfalls that about two thirds of the world’s cities with since the 1950s. over five million people are located in these vii-d) Transport: low-lying coastal areas. Roads, airport runways, railway lines and vii-b) Cost: pipelines, (including oil pipelines, sewers, water The scientific evidence for links between global mains etc.) may require increased maintenance warming and the increasing cost of natural and renewal as they become subject to greater disasters due to weather events is weak, temperature variation. Regions already but, nevertheless, prominent mainstream adversely affected include areas of permafrost, environmental spokesmen such as Barack which are subject to high levels of subsidence, Obama and Al Gore have emphasized the resulting in buckling roads, sunken foundations, possible connection [Pielke, Roger, 2015]. For and severely cracked runways. the most part increased costs due to events EFFECTS ON GDP: such as Hurricane Sandy are due to increased Pindyck Robert S (2009) while developing the exposure to loss resulting from building “damage function” expects warming to affect insured facilities in vulnerable locations. This the growth rate of GDP as opposed to the level information has been denounced by Paul i.e. he assumes that in the absence of warming Krugman and Think Progress as climate change real GDP and consumption would grow at a denial. constant rate but warming will reduce this rate, vii-c) Insurance: for three reasons: An industry directly affected by the risks of

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 15 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018

First, some effects of warming are likely to for Chief Executives and Policymakers”. be permanent; for example, destruction 2.Betzold, Carola (2015); Climatic Change: Adapting of ecosystems from erosion and flooding, to climate change in small island developing states; extinction of species, and deaths from health Springer Netherlands. effects and weather extremes. If warming 3.Burke, Marshall; Hsiang, Solomon M.; Miguel, affected the level of GDP directly it would Edward (2015-01-01); “Climate and Conflict”. imply that if temperature rise but later fall, for Annual Review of Economics, 7 (1): 577–617. example, because of stringent abatement or doi:10.1146/annurev-economics-080614-115430. geoengineering, GDP could return to its but-for 4.Choi, O.; A. Fisher (2003); “The Impacts of path with no permanent loss. Socioeconomic Development and Climate Change on Severe Weather Catastrophe Losses: Mid-Atlantic Second, resources needed to counter the Region (MAR) and the U.S”. Climatic Change; 58 (1– impact of higher temperatures would reduce 2): 149–170. doi:10.1023/A:1023459216609. those available for research and development 5.Dell Melissa, Benjamin F. Jones and Benjamin A. (R & D) and capital investment, reducing Olken (2008); Climate change and economic growth: growth. Adaptation to rising temperatures is Evidence from last half century, NBER Working equivalent to the cost of increasingly strict Paper no. 14132, Cambridge, MA: National Bureau emission standards, which, as Stokey (1998) of Economic Research, June. has shown with an endogenous growth model, 6.Emily Atkin (March 19, 2014); “First Climate reduces the rate of return on capital and lowers Article On Nate Silver’s Data Website Uses the growth rate. ‘Deeply Misleading’ Data, Top Climatologists Say”. Thinkprogress.org. Retrieved April 16, 2015. And third, there is empirical support for a 7.Ferris, Elizabeth (14 December 2007); “Making growth rate effect. Using historical data on Sense of Climate Change, Natural Disasters, and temperatures and precipitation over the past Displacement: A Work in Progress”, Brookings fifty years for a panel of 136 countries, Dell, Institution; Archived from the original on 6 June Jones, and Olken (2008) have shown that 2011. higher temperatures reduce GDP growth but 8.Frauke Urban and Dr. Tom Mitchell (2011); not levels. Climate change, disasters and electricity generation CONCLUSION Archived 20 September 2012 at the Wayback Climate change is a natural process depends on Machine.. London: Overseas Development Institute behaviour of nature which is variable, but it is and Institute of Development Studies partly has to do with human-induced pursuit for 9.Gupta, Eshita (2012); “Global warming and rapid growth with scientific and technological electricity demand in the rapidly growing city process. It is a very complex system, and of Delhi: A semi-parametric variable coefficient predictability remains a question. The exact approach”, Energy Economics 34.5 (2012): 1407- connection of the climate scale is an area of 1421. active research. What we need to understand 10.Gary D. Libecap and Richard H. Steckel (2011); is the dynamic processes of nature and human The Economics of Climate Change (edited volume), instinct for material progress. The University of Chicago Press. It has been suggested that decarbonisation can 11.https://health2016.globalchange.gov/climate- reduce CO2 and a deep decarbonisation of the change-and-human-health world economy is necessary to remain within 12.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_ the 2oC limit. Since most of the CO2 comes global_warming_on_humans from burning fossil fuels, we therefore need 13.IPCC (2001) Climate Change (2001); Impacts, a sharp reduction in the use of fossil fuels or Adaptation & Vulnerability: Contribution of Working a large-scale system to capture and sequester Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the IPCC; the CO2 that is used. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. If we take into consideration the practical 14.IPCC (2007); Summary for Policy-makers, Climate problem-solving approach then each region Change 2007: Mitigation, Contribution of Working of the world needs to implement a sensible, Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the economically efficient, deep decarbonisation IPCC. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, programme built on the three pillars of energy United. efficiency, low-carbon electricity and fuel 15.John P. Dunne; Ronald J. Stouffer; Jasmin G. John switching. (2013); “Heat stress reduces labor capacity under REFERENCES climate warming”, Geophysical Fluid Dynamics 1.Association of British Insurers (June 2005); “A Laboratory.Bibcode:2013NatCC...3..563D. Changing Climate for Insurance: Archived 20 March doi:10.1038/nclimate1827. 2009 at the Wayback Machine: A Summary Report

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 16 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) 3. EFFECTIVESS OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN TAMIL NADU WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THIRUVALLUR DISTRICT

Dr.P.JAYENDIRA SANKAR, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, College of Administrative and Financial Sciences, AMA International University, Bldg 829, Road 1213, Blk 712, Salmabad, P.O.Box 18041, Kingdom of Bahrain.

ABSTRACT to sanitation facilities to every family, including he study is aimed to identify the effectiveness toilets and adopting the scientific methods to Tof solid waste management in Tamil Nadu collect, process and disposal of municipal solid with special reference to Thiruvallur District. waste. The mission focuses on quality and “In recent times, the continuous increase of sustainability of the service provision as well solid waste is a serious problem with the urban as emphasizing on the commitment on every and rural areas. The rapid growth of population stakeholder to bring about a visible change in and increasing per-capita income has resulted society. in the generation of enormous solid waste The Ministry of Environment, Forest and posing a serious threat to environmental Climate Change, Government of India has quality and human health. Improper disposal notified the solid waste management rules, of waste often results in spread of diseases 2016. As per the rules, solid waste means solids and contamination of water bodies and soils. or semi solid domestic waste, sanitary waste, The impacts on these wastes on the economy commercial waste, institutional waste, catering cannot be ignored and managing them has and market waste and other non-residential become a major problem. Municipal solid wastes, street sweepings, silt removed or waste management continues to be a major collected from surface drains, horticulture challenge to local governments in both urban waste, agriculture and dairy waste, treated and rural areas across the world, and one of bio-medical waste excluding industrial waste, the key issues is their financial constraints”. bio-medical waste and e-waste, battery [9] “In Tamil Nadu there are 12 Corporations, waste, radio-active waste generated in the 124 Municipalities and 528 Town Panchayats. area under the local authorities. As per the In total the solid waste generation is 14,600 rules, the local bodies are responsible for the Tons per day. The Greater Chennai Corporation collection, treatment and disposal of solid generates 5000 TPD, 11 Corporation and all wastes. The board is the monitoring authority Municipalities generate about 7600 TPD and on the said rules and is responsible for granting all the town panchayat generates 2000 TPD. authorization to local bodies of processing and The board is advocating the concept of waste disposal of solid waste”. segregation at source, waste reduction, recycle At present most of the municipal solid waste and reuse to avoid any environmental issues in the Tamil Nadu is disposing unscientifically. during handling”. “This has adverse impacts on not only the KEYWORDS: Municipal Solid Waste ecosystem but also on the human environment. Management, Solid Waste Management Unscientific disposal practices leave waste in Thiruvallur, Effectiveness of Solid Waste unattended at the disposal sites, which Management in Tamilnadu attract birds, rodents, fleas etc., to the waste INTRODUCTION and create unhygienic conditions like odor, The managing of municipal solid waste is a release of airborne pathogens, etc. The plastic foremost function of all urban local bodies content of the municipal waste is picked up by of Tamil Nadu. “All urban local bodies are the rag pickers for recycling either at primary required to meticulously plan, implement and collection centers or at dumpsters. Plastic are monitor all systems of urban service delivery recycled mostly in factories, which do not have especially that of municipal solid waste. With adequate technologies to process them in a limited financial resources, technical capacities safe manner”. and land availability, urban local bodies are REVIEW OF LITERATURE constantly striving to meet this challenge. Pandian, Ramanathan and Rawat (2010) With the launch of the flagship programme “growing waste generation is mainly due to by the Government of India, Swachh Bharat population growth, economic development Mission in 2014 that aims to provide basic and changing lifestyles. Primarily responsible infrastructural and service delivery with respect for waste management, municipalities and

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 17 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018

local agencies have been ineffective in tackling disposal techniques such as composting and the waste problem. Some issues related to incineration. Government agencies believed municipal solid waste management are low privatization to be the panacea for solid waste priority for safe disposal, lack of appropriate problems. Under the impetus of Municipal organization, insufficient financial and technical Solid Waste Rules and the privatization drive, resources, a limited number of disposal Chennai became first city to contract out sites and inadequate knowledge of disposal municipal solid waste management services to methodology.” a foreign agency, the French company Onyx.” Census (2011) “India is rapidly shifting from Nandi (2014) “the impoverished rag pickers agricultural-based nation to industrial and comprise a social group that resorts to waste services-oriented country. About 31.2% picking for meager incomes and some merely population is now living in urban areas. Over for every day survival. Without them, rubbish 377 million urban people are living in 7,935 would not be collected, sorted or recycled. towns/cities. India is a vast country divided The rag pickers spend their days sorting the into 29 States and 7 Union Territories. There endless trash in search of non-biodegradable are three mega cities—Greater Mumbai, Delhi, items they can sell. The landfills are the last and Kolkata—having population of more than point for trash collection, as most recyclables 10 million, 53 cities have more than 1 million have already been removed by other waste population, and 415 cities having population collectors who pick up bags of garbage directly 100,000 or more.” from homes. The activities of the rag pickers Sridhar and Kashyap (2012)“the solid waste are not systematic and they scavenge from one collection efficiency in the city is 97 per cent, locality to another. They can earn US $2.5 to US which is slightly less than the Ministry of Urban $3.5 daily by selling metal, paper, plastic and Development’s benchmark of 100 per cent bricks.” efficiency.” OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY Kumar, Venkata and Rao (2013)“municipal →→ To study the existing solid waste solid waste is simply collected, transported management system of Tamil Nadu with special and dumped without treatment or processing. reference to Thiruvallur District. A substantial amount of waste remains →→ To study the physical and chemical unattended at collection centers, roadsides characteristics of solid wastes of the study area. and riverbanks. Most often cows and other →→ To study and compare different stray animals feed on waste dumped in these methods of waste processing, recovery and to places. Open dumping of garbage facilitates determine their suitability for the waste of the the breeding of disease vectors and unsanitary study area. dumpsites increase the risk of groundwater RESEARCH METHODOLOGY contamination.” The present study will be based on secondary Sivaraman (2013)“it is as if someone’s data. Data and information will be obtained house is set on fire—he does not wait for from published papers, books, periodical, the authorities, but quickly makes efforts to journals, internet websites and official stop a disaster. Similarly, people assumed sources. Study of existing system of solid immediate responsibility for cleaning up their waste management, generation of waste, neighborhoods as a way to deal with the storage and handling, collection, transfer and ineffective waste management system. The transport, processing and recovery, disposal, Chennai Corporation, in spite of having high physical characteristics of waste, and different waste collection rates, does not have a proper methods of waste processing, recovery and to workable plan for solid waste management.” determine their suitability for the waste of the Ahluwalia, Kanbur and Mohanty study area. (2014)“however, in spite of street sweeping, DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION roads remain dirty, spoiling the aesthetic “Municipal solid waste consists of household beauty of cities and towns. It is common waste, construction and demolition debris, to see people throw their rubbish onto the sanitation residue, and waste from streets. This street. The prevailing thought is cleaning up garbage is generated mainly from residential is always somebody else’s responsibility. The and commercial complexes. In Tamil Nadu Government of India issued Municipal Solid due to urbanization and change into lifestyle Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, and food habits, the amount of municipal 2000 to improve waste management. The solid waste has been increasing rapidly and its rules promised environmental sustainability composition changing”. in solid waste management by promoting “In Tamil Nadu, the un-segregated municipal waste separation, recycling, and use of solid wastes generated are collected and are

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 18 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) Table 1 - The Type of Litter Generated and the Approximate Time It Takes To Degenerate

Type of litter Approximate Time it Takes to Degenerate Organic Waste A week or two. (Vegetable and Fruit Peels, Leftover Foodstuff, etc.) Paper 10-30 days Cotton cloth 2-5 months Wood 10-15 years Woolen items 1 year Tin, aluminum, and 100 to 500 years other metal items such as cans Plastic bags One million years? Glass bottles Undetermined either disposed to low-lying areas or water bodies or disposed to the roadside and are set on fire causing air pollution. The leach ate from the dumped solid wastes has caused water pollution, odor nuisance are mainly caused due to the putrefaction of the organic matter present in the un-segregated municipal solid wastes. Kodungaiyur and Pallikaranai in Chennai are the standing example for municipal solid waste dumping sites”. Table 2 - General Composition of the Municipal Solid Wastes Biodegradable matter 50% Supreme Court has directed cities with one million plus population to file an action plan Glass 4% for solid waste management and all the cities Plastics 3% in Tamil Nadu having million plus population namely, Chennai, Madurai and Coimbatore Paper 5% Corporations have filed their action plans Metals 1% before the Honorable Court. The commissioner of municipal administration has taken initiatives Leather and rubber 1% in facilitating the preparation of similar Action Rags 5% Plans by all other urban local bodies in order to Household hazardous 1% comply with the municipal solid waste in a time bound manner. The main requirements in this Inert materials 30% regard are the identification of suitable land for “Government of Tamil Nadu has issued locating disposal facilities”.The problem of odor instructions in all urban local bodies to nuisances, fly nuisances, water pollution and air establish waste processing and disposal pollution can be eliminated. facilities. In addition to this, the Honorable All the Municipal authorities as well as the district collectors who are responsible forthe implementation of the municipal solid waste management and handling rules, 2000 have been instructed to identify a site away from habitations and water bodies for the composting of compostable wastes and land filling of inert wastes. Tiruppur Municipality has identified a site for composting of segregated wastes. Tiruppur Municipality has engaged a private firm for composting of the segregated wastes. The private acility has also been issued authorization at Madurai to process the municipal solid wastes generated from Madurai Corporation. The facility is yet to be commissioned. All other local bodies are in the process of identification of site for composting and secure landfill. All the municipal commissioners have been instructed to take action to stop the disposal of un-segregated municipal solid wastes into low lying areas and water bodies in order to prevent water pollution. Door to door collection of segregated wastes and two-bin system is being implemented in Udhagamandalam municipality. Municipalities have started the source segregation of municipal solid wastes generated in their limits partially or fully. →→ Stop dumping of garbage at Kodungaiyur →→ Start segregation at the transfer points and Pallikaranai dump yards by using conveyor belt system ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 19 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018

→→ Take action to put up waste processing The total solid waste generated per day in facilities at the earliest town is 32 metric tons and the total solid waste The environment problems arising due to cleared per day is 2 metric tons. Number of indiscriminate use and disposal of throw compost yards available and extent in the town away plastic items have been recognized is 2. Number and type of vehicles are 1 lorry and the Tamil Nadu pollution control board and 3 tractors. The carrying capacity of lorry has embarked upon an intensive awareness is 2.5 metric tons and tractor is 2 metric tons campaign. The awareness campaign has per trip. Average number of trips per day is focused on preventing the use of throw away lorry with 2 trips, tractor with 2 trips and agro plastics as well as eco friendly substitutes to tractor 3 trips. Privatization done to collect the plastic items. Billboards educating the people solid waste in all the wards with 2 tractors and about the ill effects of throwaway plastics 6 tricycles. were displayed on metropolitan transport CONCLUSION corporation buses in Chennai. Besides, regular This study has found the municipal solid wastes awareness programmes are conducted in tourist management system in Thiruvallur district has and pilgrim centers and also the girivalam path increase in waste generation. The general public of Thriuvannamalai temple. Training has been should be responsive of the separation at the imparted to self help groups for production of disposal level itself. The administrative body of palm leaf plates, cups in Salem, Vellore and the study area is not able to solve the mounting Cuddalore districts through the central palmgur problems of throw away and hygiene with its and palm products institute of village industries available infrastructural facilities and also with commission. The products are eco friendly the negligence. They should be given proper alternatives to throw away plastics items like training to store wet throw away and dry throw cups, plates etc. The Nilgiris district, Hogenakkal, away separately. The separated dry throw away Kodaikannal, Rameshwaram, Valparai, Yelagiri, and wet throw away should be collected from Yercaud and Thirumoorthy falls etc. have the houses individually in order to enhance the been declared as throwing away plastic free efficiency of management. In the study area it zones. The Government of India, Ministry of is difficult in the recent years because ofthe Environment and Forests notified the Recycled rapid urbanization. In the stations the collected Plastics Manufacture and Usage Rules, 1999 dry throw away and wet throw away should under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 be separated again. Natural method should be to ensure that carry bags and containers used used for the biodegradable throw away. The for packing food stuff are not made of recycled waste plastic and polyethylene plastics should plastics. As per the provision of the rules, only be sent to the plastic recycle centers, waste virgin plastics, permitted additives and colour papers should be moved to the pulp factory are to be used in plastic items shall use for and printing presses and collected waste cloths packaging food stuff. The board has identified should be properly used as required. The 1159 plastic products manufacturing units”.13 necessary suggestions will be given based on “In Thiruvallur district the solid waste generation the study and observation made in the study is the highest in Ambattur among municipalities area. and in Porur among town panchayats. The overall collection efficiency is 88 % with of 344 persons engaged in solid waste management. The primary component of the waste is compostable matter constituting 90% in the total waste”. Total Solid Waste Generated 32 Metric Tons per Day in the Town Total Solid Waste Cleared per 2 Metric Tons Day Number of Compost Yards 2 Available and Extent Number and Type of Vehicle Lorry - 1 used Lorry / Tractor / Tractor -3 Compactor Carrying Capacity of all Lorry - 2.5 Metric Tons Vehicles per Trip Tractor - 2 Metric Tons

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 20 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) REFERENCES 1.Kumar, J.S., S.K. Venkata & P.V.V.P. Rao. 2013. Management of municipal solid waste by vermicompost-A case study of Eluru. Pp. 47-56 in S. A. Uneesa & S. B. Rav (Eds.), Sustainable solid waste management. Toronto, Canada: Apple Academic. 2.Chennai’s per capita waste at 0.7 kg highest in the country. 2014. Times of India, January Accessed April 23, 2016 at: http://timesofindia.indiatimes. com/city/chennai/Chennais-per-capita-waste-at-0- 7kg-highest-in-country/articleshow/28256852.cms 3.Pandian, B. M., A. L. Ramanathan & M. Rawat. 2010. Municipal solid waste management (msw) in selected metropolitan cities in India. Pp. 195-204 in J. Singh & A. L. Ramanathan (Eds.), Solid waste management: Present and future challenges. New Delhi, India: I. K. International. 4.Ahluwalia, I. J., R. Kanbur & P. K. Mohanty. 2014. Urbanization in India: Challenges, opportunities and the way forward. New Delhi, India: Sage. 5.Nandi, J. 2014. Capital dumps a fortune at its landfills. Times of India, April 24. Accessed April 23, 2016 at: http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/ city/delhi/Capital-dumps-a-fortune-at-its-landfills/ articleshow/34131703.cms 6.Sivaraman, R. 2013. Dumping in the dark: Chennai lacks clarity in waste mgmt. policy. Hindu, September 18. Accessed April 23, 2016 at: http:// www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/dumping- in-the-dark-chennai-lacksclarity inwaste -mgmt- policy/article5138997.ece 7.Census. (2011). Provisional population totals, India. Retrieved from http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov- results/datafiles/india/povpoputotalpresentation 2011.pdf 8.Sridhar, K. S. & N. Kashyap. 2012. State of India’s cities: An assessment of urban conditions in four mega cities. Bangalore, India: Public Affairs Centre. Accessed April 23, 2016 at: http:// pacindia.org/uploads/default/files/publications/ pdf/3320be07dd2b01b4 67376c393518726a.pdf 9.M. Balasubramanian and V. Dhulasi Birundha, An Economic Analysis of Solid Waste Management in Madurai District, Tamil Nadu, Applied Journal of Hygiene 1 (1): 01-07, 2012 , http://idosi.org/ ajh/1(1)12/1.pdf 10.Annual Report & Annual Accounts 2015 – 2016, Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board, http:// www.tnpcb.gov.in/Annual_Rep14_15/Annual_ RptEngh14_15.pdf 11.Municipal Solid Waste Management Manual, 2016, Ministry Of Urban Development, http://moud. gov.in/pdf/584e4b8b1e3da584e4a5c4a867Book2. pdf 12.http://www.environment.tn.nic.in/DOCU/ SoEReport2005/WasteManagement.pdf 13.http://www.environment.tn.nic.in/SoE/images/ WasteManagement.pdf 14.http://tnenvis.nic.in/files/THIRUVALLUR%20 %20.pdf. ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 21 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018 4.GLOBAL WARMING AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMBALANCE

Dr. RAKESH A. JOSHI, Associate Professor, Department of Economics,Saurashtra University, RAJKOT (Gujarat) FALGUNI S. VYAS, Asso. Professor, J. J. K. Com. College,RAJKOT INTRODUCTION changes in the frequency of extreme weather he natural resources like earth, wind, events. The instrumental temperature record Twater, trees are the basis of human-life. shows increased global warming of around 0.6 For the bright future of human beings, it is C. over the entire 20th century. essential to use these resources with a great Global Warming will affect India because, in care. ‘Environment’ means the physical, South Asia, warming has been projected to be chemical and biological surroundings in which above the global average. The impact projection an organism exists. Thus, environment is the for India indicates an increasing trend in the gift of nature. Prior to 20th century, there annual mean temperature. was no major evidence of human influence The effects of global warming are the on environment. Environmental degradation environmental and social changes caused up to this period was mainly due to natural by human emissions of greenhouse gases. disasters, like cyclone, earthquake etc. Up to Many impacts of climate change have already that period; natural resources were not used been observed e.g. glacier retreat, changes in beyond their regenerative capacities. So, what the timing of seasonal events and changes in was used, was regenerated. But, after the agricultural production and productivity. In all population explosion in the world, the situation regions, some people are particularly at risk started changing. Gradually, this led to serious from global warming e.g. the poor, children and environmental degradation behind which, the elderly. need and greed of human kind is responsible. GLOBAL WARMING AND FOOD SUPPLY Ever increasing pollution, demolition of Low-latitude areas are at the most risk of having forests and bio-diversity, increase in global decreased crop yields. Some evidences suggest warming, etc. have alarmed us for awareness that, droughts have been occurring more of environmental protection. Worldwide frequently because of global warming and environmental awareness was started during they are expected to become more frequent the 1960s. The main impetus came from the and intense in Africa, southern Europe, the publication of a book ‘Silent Spring’ by Rachel Americas, Australia, south East Asia and west Carson in 1962. This book revealed the risk of Asia. Droughts results in crop failures and the using some pesticides and their bad effects on loss of pasture grazing land for livestock. human life and thereby showed the necessity An increase in temperatures of 0.5 C. to 1.5 C. for the protection of earth. The world summit could produce a decline of wheat and maize held at Rio-de-Janero in 1992, had focused the production in India between 1% to 2.5%. In attention towards environmental problems. India, with predominantly agrarian economy, The economists also started looking afresh the projected increase in temperature will to the central economic problem of resource dampen economic growth by reducing scarcity in relation to their possible uses. After agricultural productivity. 1970, many economists started arguing that ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS development can be made sustainable only with The world had to accept two very serious efficient and judicious use of natural resources. problems as unwanted gifts in the 20th century; In this paper, we have described various factors first is population – explosion and another responsible for environmental hazards and we is environmental – imbalance. The problem have also suggested our duties regarding the of population explosion is limited up to Asia, protection of the earth. Africa and Latin America; while the problem of GLOBAL WARMING pollution or environmental hazards has spread Climate change is the single biggest over the whole world. In this context, necessity environmental and humanitarian crisis to protect the earth should be the first priority. of our time. Western countries are major The proper combination and balance between contributors to global warming and toxic air the natural resources and human-population pollution. Climate change means a change in is called environment, and environment is climate that persists over a sustained period a part of the earth. When excessive use of of time. Examples of climate change are global natural resources due to unlimited human- warming, changes in rainfall patterns and wants takes place; the earth becomes unsafe,

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 22 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online)

Before two generations, the human-wants super power of the world, but it is certain that of our elders were very limited, so, the earth India is and would be one of the most polluted was safe and protected. But ever increasing countries in the world. We are not able to population and ever-increasing demand for the breathe pure air, not able to eat pure food and materialistic consumption; it is very difficult for not able to drink pure water. human beings to live on this earth. Since the OUR DUTIES TO PROTECT THE inception of 20th century, there has been a fast ENVIRONMENT industrial development in various countries For the protection of the earth economists, of the world. The production of necessities scientists, engineers, environmentalists, and prodigal goods has increased a lot. In the government and the people should think some 2nd world war, atom bombs were dropped on concrete policies. Japan, and thereafter so many countries have (i) Environmental policy is essential been experimenting atomic energy privately for solving environmental hazards. It may or publicly for the destructive purpose. The be defined as a set of legal, administrative, problem of pollution has increased seriously governmental and social plans and policies to with the process of national economic control pollution and to protect the earth. In development. In India at least 86,400-ton India, we have also formulated such policy, but insecticides are used annually, which creates air the implementation part is somewhat weak. pollution as well as soil-degradation. In urban Such type of policy must be implemented areas, heavy industrialization and increasing strictly by the administration. number of vehicles are the major responsible (ii) Government alone can not solve the factors in generating pollution of air, water and environmental problems. There should be co- sound. 8.5% of the total vehicles in our country ordination of government’s action with N.G.Os., are in Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata. So, 470 T.P.D. pollution affected people and the polluters. in Mumbai, 810 T.P.D. in Delhi and 1887 T.P.D. Peoples’ participation is essential in all stages of in Kolkata, Carbon Monoxide mixed in the air, environmental protection. In our Indian culture, in 2001. But, due to use of CNG, this volume we worship natural resources or environment, has decreased a little now. Carter Brandun so, without peoples’ involvement, this great and Christan Homan have written that every task cannot be done. People with some social year at least 40,000 people die in India due to movement can protect the earth. The ‘Chipko pollution. Industries like aluminum, cement, Movement’, Narmada River movement, Samaj bricks, chemical, colour, plastic, rubber, Parivartan Samuday’s movement, Silent Valley pharmaceuticals, pesticides, fertilizers, thermal and Dun Valley movement are the good power, etc. pollute the atmosphere leaving examples. carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur (iii) Various industries should manage to dioxide, nitrogen oxide and hydrocarbons. The control pollution. The industries like textiles, temperature has been rising due to pollution. cement, chemicals, drugs, plastic, petro- Undue changes are coming in the climate. The chemicals should be established at least 15 km. rivers, ponds, lakes and oceans have become away from the residential areas of cities and means to dispose the industrial waste. These villages. increase problems regarding human and animal (iv) Tree plantation is the best way to health. T.B.,Cancer, Skin diseases ,Bronchitis protect the earth. Trees absorb polluted air etc. are the outcome of pollution. The polluted and provide clean air. After the tree plantation, water gets absorbed in the cultivation land it is our duty to maintain them in proper way. and it creates serious problems regarding the Students can accelerate this work with the help fertility. Though forests are very useful for of N.S.S., N.C.C. and Scout-Guide activities. environment, in our country only 23% land is (v) Gandhiji wanted ruralisation instead forest land and in Gujarat only 8% land is forest of urbanization, as he knew the dangerous land. Every year 13 lakhs hectare land under outcome of urbanization and industrialization. forests decreased due to cutting of trees and In this context, cottage, rural and small- land encroachments. Floods, land erosion, scale industries should be motivated by the construction of dams etc. are also responsible government. These industries create a little for deforestation. pollution. Prof. Schumacher also agrees about Considering the whole narration, we can say the usefulness of Gandhian thoughts for solving that there is a serious crisis of environmental environmental problems. and ecological degradation in this century. It is (vi) The new buzzword in the international certain that, the time has come to think some industrial circle is clean technology. The plans and actions regarding the protection ultimate aim of clean technology or technology of earth. It is not certain that India would be to ensure clean production is to reduce the

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generation of wastes and toxic emissions. It – Awareness building on the importance of is a creative way of thinking about products recycling and reusing goods should be taken up and processes that help in reducing pollution seriously. at source and enhance profitability. Organic (n) October 3 – World Habitat Day – farming is also useful for the protection of Increasing human activities is threatening the earth, as it does not require chemical fertilizers habitat of other living things. and pesticides. (o) October 1-7 – World Wildlife Week – (vii) We should increase the use of various Celebrate this week by creating awareness on natural energies like solar energy, wind energy, the importance of preservation of our wildlife. water energy, ocean energy, bio-gas energy etc. (p) October 13 – International Day for The use of CNG in automobiles is also useful Natural Disaster Reduction – Efforts should be to reduce the pollution. Some proportion of taken to reduce the natural disasters. ethanol must be mixed in Petrol / Diesel. It (q) November 14 – Children’s Day in India – reduces the pollution of air. Children can work together for a better future (viii) Our Indian culture has the respected by improving the environment around them. place for festival and celebrations. We should (r) December 2 – Bhopal Tragedy Day celebrate the following days, so that the work – Mark this occasion by our best efforts to of earth protection can become speedy: prevent such a tragedy from occurring again. (a) February 2 – World Wetland Day – We humbly hope that by above Wetlands are very important part of our mentioned efforts we can make our earth clean biodiversity and it is necessary to see that they and green. That will control global temperature are well protected. also. It is after all a planet, we borrowed from (b) February 28 – National Science Day – our children and when we leave behind this It is necessary to highlight the contribution of property let it not feel like a burning cauldron science in the protection of the environment. of waste, all in the name of convenience. (c) March 21 – World Forestry Day – REFERENCES Planting the trees and highlighting the urgency 1.Baumol, W. J. and W.E.Oates(1998) ‘ T h e to increase the green cover, is useful for the Theory of Environmental Policy’, Cambridge earth. University Press. (d) March 22 – World Water Day – The 2.Joshi M. V.(2001) ‘Theories and Approaches decision to celebrate this day has been taken of Environmental Economics’, Atlantic Publishers, recently as drinking water source are fast New Delhi. depleting. 3.Joshi M. V.(2004) ‘Environmental Disasters (e) March 23 – World Meteorological Day : Causes, Impact and Remedies’, Adhyayan – Just to remind everybody that weather is an Publishers, New Delhi. integral part of the environment. 4.Kolstad, C. D.(1999) ‘Environmental Economics’, (f) April 7 – World Health Day – WHO was Oxford University Press, New Delhi. established on this day in 1948. In the changing 5.Odum, E. P.(1971) ‘Fundamentals of Ecology’, environment, health is an important issue. Philadelphia. (g) April 18 – World Heritage Day – Just to 6.Sarkhel Jaydeb(2005) ‘Economic Development : give equal respect to human beings. Institutions, Theory and Policy’, Book Syndicate (P) (h) April 22 – Earth Day-Since 22/4/1970, Ltd., Kolkata. this day has been celebrated all over the world 7.Sen Amartya(1974) ‘Resources, Values and as Earth Day. Development’ (i) May 31- Anti Tobacco Day- We can take 8.Reports (2013) UK Royal Society and US National up an anti smoking campaign in our society or Academy of Sciences. in our office. (j) June 5 – World Environment Day – On June 5, 1972, the Stockholm Conference on Human Environment was held in Sweden. Tree plantation should be done on this day. (k) July 11 – World Population Day – Increasing population is a serious problem and such message should be spread. (l) September 16 – World Ozone Day – The United Nations declared this day as the International Day for the prevention of the Ozone Layer. (m) September 28 – Green Consumer Day

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 24 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) 5.CLIMATIC CHALLENGES AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION IN INDIA

Dr.T.SARATHY, Associate Professor (PRIMS),Periyar University, Salem, Pincode -636 011. ABSTRACT the various government agencies, the citizens, lobal climate change is a change in the long- SMEs, large domestic companies, and NGOs to term weather patterns that characterize participate in a collaborative arrangement to Gthe regions of the world. The term “weather” educate, streamline effective policies, develop refers to the short-term (daily) changes in the necessary institutional infrastructure, and temperature, wind, and/or precipitation of provide adequate funding for improving the a region. In the long run, the climatic change environment. could affect agriculture in several ways such KEY MESSAGES as quantity and quality of crops in terms of • Climate change (increases in temperature, productivity, growth rates, photosynthesis and changes in precipitation and decreases in ice transpiration rates, moisture availability etc. and snow) is occurring globally; some of the Climate change is likely to directly impact food observed changes have established records in production across the globe. Increase in the recent years. mean seasonal temperature can reduce the • Observed climate change has already led duration of many crops and hence reduce the to a wide range of impacts on environmental yield. In areas where temperatures are already systems and society; further climate change close to the physiological maxima for crops, impacts are projected for the future. warming will impact yields more immediately. • Climate change can increase existing Drivers of climate change through alterations vulnerabilities and deepen socio‑economic in atmospheric composition can also influence imbalances across the world. food production directly by its impact on plant • Damage costs from natural disasters have physiology. The consequences of agriculture’s increased; the contribution of climate change contribution to climate change, and of climate to these costs is projected to increase in the change’s negative impact on agriculture, are future. severe which is projected to have a great impact • The combined impacts of projected climate on food production and may threaten the food change and socio‑economic development can security and hence, require special agricultural lead to high damage costs; these costs can measures to combat with. be reduced significantly by mitigation and Although India has a rich and long history of adaptation actions. environmental laws dating back to the 1970s, • On-going and planned monitoring and it still ranks very low on air and water pollution research at national level can improve levels compared to the rest of the world assessments of past and projected impacts resulting in higher rates of infant mortality and of climate change, thereby enhancing the lower life expectancy rates. Poor sanitation knowledge base for adaptation. conditions and sewage problems compound the problem affecting the health of ordinary INTRODUCTION citizens in India. The reasons for this disconnect India is both a major greenhouse gas emitter between enlightened environmental laws and one of the most vulnerable countries in the and high levels of pollution could be traced to world to projected climate change. The country existing environmental laws, discrepancies in is already experiencing changes in climate the environmental guidelines for businesses and the impacts of climate change, including to follow between the central government water scarcity, heat waves and drought, severe and at the state levels, and the existence of a storms and flooding, and associated negative large number of SMEs who neither have the consequences on health and livelihoods. resources nor the technical skills to adhere With 1.2 billion but growing population and to the existing environmental laws. Using dependence on agriculture, India probably will extensive secondary research, this paper be severely impacted by continuing climate suggests a series of steps to help the country change. Global climate projections, given achieve safe air and water pollution levels inherent uncertainties, indicate several changes resulting in improved health conditions for its in India’s future climate. citizens. The cornerstone of the prescription Global observations of melting glaciers suggest for improvements in the environment is a that climate change is well under way in the collaborative arrangement that brings together region, with glaciers receding at an average

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rate of 10–15 meters per year. If the rate significant impact on myriad economic sectors increases, flooding is likely in river valleys fed and ecosystems. Climate variability and change by these glaciers, followed by diminished can slow down the pace of development either flows, resulting in water scarcity for drinking through adverse impacts on natural ecosystems and irrigation. or erosion of the adaptive capacity of people • All models show a trend of general warming and society. Climate change is, therefore, not in mean annual temperature as well as only a major global environmental problem, decreased range of diurnal temperature and but an issue of great concern to a developing enhanced precipitation over the Indian country like India. subcontinent. ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH A warming of 0.5 degree C is likely over all India Indoor and outdoor air pollution linkages by the year 2030 (approximately equal to the to health burden, especially among women warming over the 20th century) and a warming children and elderly in rural, urban and semi- of 2-4degree C by the end of this century, with urban areas. Water pollution linkages to health the maximum increase over northern India. burden through indiscriminate use of chemical Increased warming is likely to lead to higher fertilizers and pesticides leading to non point levels of tropospheric ozone pollution and source water pollution. other air pollution in the major cities. IMPACT AND IMPLICATIONS OF • Increased precipitation including monsoonal CLIMATIC CHANGE rains is likely to come in the form of fewer rainy Climate changes noted in the IPCC Assessment days but more days of extreme rainfall events, reports include recession of glaciers, thawing with increasing amounts of rain of permafrost, lengthening of mid- to high- in each event, leading to significant flooding. latitude growing seasons, pole-ward and Drizzle-type precipitation that replenishes soil altitudinal shifts of plant and animal ranges, moisture is likely to decrease. Most global decline in some plant and animal populations, models suggest that the Indian summer early flowering of trees, and changes in insect monsoons will intensify. The timing may also populations and egg-laying in birds. Associations shift, causing a drying during the late summer between changes in regional temperatures and growing season. the observed changes in physical and biological Climate models also predict an earlier snowmelt, systems have been documented in many which could have a significant adverse effect aquatic, terrestrial, and marine environments. on agricultural production. Growing emissions RESPONSES TO CLIMATE CHANGE of aerosols from energy production and other The serious consequences of climate change, sources may suppress rainfall, leading to drier including especially the consequences for India, conditions with more dust and smoke from lead naturally to the question of what should be the burning of drier vegetation, affecting both our response. Two types of responses need to regional and global hydrological cycles and be considered. The first relates to adaptation, agricultural production. i.e., measures that have to be taken given the CLIMATE CHANGE very high likelihood that climate change will Climate change is a change in the statistical occur and will have adverse effects. The second distribution of weather patterns when that relates to mitigation, i.e., steps to be taken that change lasts for an extended period of time (i.e., might reduce the extent of climate change. decades to millions of years). Climate change ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES may refer to a change in average weather There are many environmental issues in India. conditions, or in the time variation of weather Air pollution, water pollution, garbage, and within the context of longer-term average pollution of the natural environment are all conditions. Climate change is caused by factors challenges for India. Nature is also causing such as biotic processes, variations in solar some drastic effects on India. The situation was radiation received by Earth, plate tectonics, and worse between 1947 through 1995. According volcanic eruptions. Certain human activities to data collection and environment assessment have been identified as primary causes of studies of World Bank experts, between 1995 ongoing climate change, often referred to as through 2010, India has made one of the global warming. fastest progresses in the world, in addressing Climate change has emerged, in recent times, as its environmental issues and improving its an important area of both international as well environmental quality. as domestic policy making and development The natural environment with its numerous planning. The recent Assessment Report of the living and non-living resources is man’s Inter governmental Panel on Climate Change most precious heritage. The basic goal of (IPCC) has shown that climate change would have environmental conservation is the management

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 26 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) of human use of these natural resources, so local environmental issues may be integrated that they may yield the greatest sustainable with the database under the National benefits to the present generation while Environmental Monitoring Programme (NEMP). maintaining their potential to meet the needs Capacity building programmes such as training and aspirations of future generations. Like other of trainers, should also be focused on. nations, India too bears the scars of damage The National Museum of Natural History done to its natural environment resulting in a (NMNH), New Delhi, and three regional wide array of environmental problems affecting museums at Mysore, Bhubaneshwar, and the wellbeing of its citizens. While in the Bhopal will be made more effective in natural developed countries, environmental problems history education and awareness with the are largely the by-products of affluence marked introduction of the state-of-the-art education by resource wasteful life-styles. The stress on and interpretation methods. The MoEF has India’s environmental resources comes mainly contemplated setting up of a new regional from the pressures for satisfying the basic museum at Sawai Madhopur with focus on the human needs of a large and growing population. life forms of the region, the details of which are Environment protection is the key to ensure being worked out. a healthy life for the people. Environmental NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING problems are on the increase and are more PROGRAMME (NEMP) prominent in densely populated cities. The Steering Committee on Environment and Exploding urban migration, as experienced Forests for the Eleventh Plan has suggested in the last decade, is bound to widen the gap a unified NEMP for ecology, environmental between demand and supply of infrastructural chemistry, public health, and socio- services such as energy, housing, transport, environmental studies. This programme would communication, water supply, sewerage track the status and change in the socially and solid wastes disposal and recreation for relevant biophysical parameters and their communities. The release of high level of social impacts, wherever possible. NEMP may sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide, oxides of have sub-programmes on forest cover and nitrogen and suspended particulate matter by ecosystem services, apart from air and water industries and vehicles to atmosphere is adding pollution. to air pollution. The programme may have linkages with The area around Manali near Chennai, the belt educational, scientific, and social organizations of Vaniyambadi to Ranipet in Vellore District working in the relevant fields. Accordingly, due to tanneries, textile and dyeing industries the existing programme for Environment in and around Tiruppur and Erode towns, Information System (ENVIS) will be reshaped Cuddalore SIPCOT are most prone to industrial to provide information in interactive formats pollution in Tamil Nadu. for effective use. Real time sharing of data on ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS AND environmental parameters collected under EDUCATION NEMP will be implemented. The Environment Education in School ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND System project initiated in 1999 strengthens DEVELOPMENT environment education in the formal The MoEF supports Centres of Excellence in school curriculum through infusion of research which needs to be strengthened. appropriate education material. Introduction During the Eleventh Plan period, environmental of environmental concepts in Business/ policies and programmes will need strong Management Education is another focus research backup. The identified research area. A committee comprising representatives priorities will be met by a combination of open, from management institutions, AICTE,UGC, competitive research grant programmes, and industry experts, and MoEF is working on this. dedicated support to special organizations During the Eleventh Plan, the programme and centres of excellence. An ‘Environmental of Environmental Education, Training, and Research Grants’ programme should focus on Extension may be continued with further the relevant areas such as clean technologies, linkages with the publicity and awareness preventive strategies, hazardous substances mechanisms of State forest departments. This management, and so on. There should be may include a manual on public participation special programmes on Ecosystem Health, in all activities of MoEF. Public transport like Pollution and Health, Ecological Footprint, railways, buses, and even airways can be NTFP regeneration ecology, Invasive species, extensively used for environmental awareness Fire Ecology, and Forest- Watershed Services. through well designed awareness material. • Documentation of traditional and community Information generated by student activities on knowledge should be a special area of research.

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• Special mechanisms may be set up for co- and characteristics of vegetation and crops. ordination and management of research Increase in the mean seasonal temperature can amongst agencies like Indian Council of Forestry reduce the duration of many crops and hence Research and Education reduce final yield. Food production systems (ICFRE), ICAR, CSIR, DBT, DST, and UGC, as well are extremely sensitive to climate changes as multilateral and bilateral donors and private like changes in temperature and precipitation, foundations. which may lead to outbreaks of pests and diseases thereby reducing harvest ultimately affecting the food security of the country. The net impact of food security will depend on the exposure to global environmental change and the capacity to cope with and recover from global environmental change. Coping with the impact of climate change on agriculture will require careful management of resources like soil, water and biodiversity. To cope with the impact of climate change on agriculture and food production, India will need to act at the global, regional, national and local level. The rapid economic growth experienced by India is resulting in adverse and harmful environmental conditions that are affecting the people of India as well the wider global CONCLUSION population. In the case of India, this is further Climate change and loss of biodiversity exacerbated by the high population density undermines sustainable development. and growth rates. The existing environmental However, there is no dichotomy between laws, although cover a wide spectrum of economic progress and protecting our environmental concerns, they seem to be environment by limiting climate change ineffective due to lack of enforcement, the lack and loss of biodiversity. Indeed, the cost to of resources, and technical challenges faced by mitigate climate change is less than the cost of a large number of Indian companies, especially inaction if one takes the ethical position of not the SMEs. Under these conditions, India has to discounting future generations, and delaying adopt some sustainable actions that need to action can significantly increase costs. Efficient address the myriad issues facing the country resource use (e.g., energy or water) saves including environmental degradation in order money for businesses and households. Valuing to sustain its prospects for continued economic and creating markets for ecosystem services can growth. provide new economic opportunities. A green Sustainable development, that is, both economy will be a source of future employment a prosperous economy and a healthy and innovation. Governments, the private environment that in many respects is the goal sector, voluntary and civil society at large all of diverse interest in the area of environmental have key roles to play in the transition to a low- issues, is the key for the future of India and carbon economy, adaptation to climate change the world. Sustainable development implies and a more sustainable use of ecosystems. If managing the diverse interests of a prosperous we are to achieve our dream, the time to act economy and simultaneously maintaining is now, given the inertia in the socioeconomic a healthy environment. Based on extensive system, and that the adverse effects of climate literature search, we recommend that India change and loss of biodiversity cannot be undertake a new approach in the fight against reversed for centuries or are irreversible (e.g., environmental pollution. The key element of species loss). Failure to act will impoverish this new initiative is the shared and cooperative current and future generations. participation of the people, the government, Climate change, the outcome of the “Global the industrial sector, and NGO’s. This type Warming” has now started showing its impacts of approach seems to have worked for a few worldwide. Climate is the primary determinant countries and it appears to be a doable solution of agricultural productivity which directly for India too. impact on food production across the globe. Agriculture sector is the most sensitive sector to the climate changes because the climate of a region/country determines the nature

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 28 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) REFERENCES 1.Christopher Schlottmann- Conceptual Challenges for Environmental Education: Advocacy, Autonomy, Implicit Education and Values 2.Rainer Matyssek and Clarke, N- Climate Change, Air Pollution and Global Challenges: Understanding and Perspectives from Forest Research (Developments in Environmental Science) 3.Pentagon Press-The Climate Change Challenge and the Failure of Democracy (Politics and the Environment) 4.Hans Günter Brauch-Globalization and Environmental Challenges: Reconceptualizing Security in the 21st Century: 5.Olaf Corry-Traditions and Trends in Global Environmental Politics: International Relations and the Earth 6.Climate change and its impact on agriculture, International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 4, April 2014 7.Climate Change: Challenges Facing India’s Poor, Economic & Political Weekly , Vol XLIV No: 31, August 1, 2009. 8.Climate change perspectives from India, Nov 2009. 9.India impact of climate changes to 2030 a commissioned research report, April 2009. 10.India-Diagnostic Assessment of Select Environmental Challenges, Public Disclosure Authorized June 5, 2013.

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 29 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018 6. IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTIONS AND WASTE MANAGEMENT A.KAVERI, Ph.D Research Scholar, Department of Economics, Thiruvalluvar University, Serkkadu, Vellore -632115.

Dr.S. DHANASEKARAN, Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, Thiruvalluvar University, Serkkadu, Vellore-632115.

ABSTRACT climatic changes, the accumulation of various his paper will discuss the problem of wastes, including radioactive as well as the Tenvironmental pollution and waste eradication of certain plant and animal species, management. Everything that surrounds are just some of the negative consequences of us is directly or indirectly connected to the human activities, which, however, seriously environment. Not only the man, but also endangering his own survival. At present time, other living beings as well as the nature the protection of the environment is of great (volcanic eruptions, earthquakes) have effects importance in the prevention and elimination on environmental pollution. Environmental of these contradictions. The right to protect pollution is present from the very beginning the environment today should be seen as a of life, but today it is a serious problem that unique supranational (international), national threatens the survival of mankind. During the and local unit. Therefore, in order for the preparation of scientific research, we noticed a normative framework to succeed, actions must problem: “What is the influence of the waste be taken at the universal, national, regional and management on the environment?” Today, local levels. every person living on planet Earth is worried Today we can say that we live in a world of waste; about environmental pollution because the because of population growth and production consequences faced every day, through the air increasing amounts of waste that makes landfill we breathe, the food and water we consume, are becoming more numerous and increasingly through pollution and radiation we are exposed degrade the environment. Every day a huge to. Also, the consequences of environmental amount of waste, equally as in the villages and problems are manifested through the lack of in agricultural areas is produced. Every year, natural resources, extinction of plant and animal about 10 million tons of oil products reaches species, as well as the problems in the global rivers and oceans and has more than 500 billion ecosystems and biochemical processes. Based tons of industrial waste. Industrial facilities on the research problem we can hypothesize: and transport throw into the atmosphere Yes, waste management has a great impact on about a billion tons of aerosols and ash. At the environment. the landfill waste is collected for years. In the INTRODUCTION wild landfill reaches up to 70% of total waste. The man, along with all other living beings The biochemical processes of decomposition from the beginning of its existence is closely of waste adversely affect the environment. linked with the entire inanimate and living As for municipal waste that contaminates the nature that surrounds it. This interaction soil and plants, air, groundwater and surface is the basis of the whole modern right of water on them in huge quantities reproduce environmental protection. Through his own rats, mice and insects, which contributes to the development, the man developed his interest spread of infection. This new situation poses a in the way and manner that would harmonize threat to human health, for both present and with the nature that surrounds it, to ensure future generations. This imposes the problem the conditions necessary for their survival. of protecting the environment through waste With each new discovery (ranging from tools management. for tillage and wheel all the way to modern ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION computer technology) man makes bigger part The result of deteriorating environmental of the eternal desire to reconcile nature and situation in various countries and regions where its needs. Contemporary urban, industrial, environmental pollution is the most intense economic and technological development climate is warming; ozone layer is depleting, has provided great benefits to man, but the desertification. According to the definition industrial air and water pollution, uncontrolled adopted by the Un Organization, “pollution is deforestation and their conversion into exogenous chemical substances encountered agricultural land, destruction of the ozone layer on a suitable place, at the appropriate time and global warming of the planet followed by and in inadequate quantities.” According to

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 30 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) the analysis (taken in early 20th century), it is reduce the pollution of water and soil. Industrial concluded that the most polluted spheres Are waste is divided into: atmosphere and hydrosphere. Even the state of • Scrap, Waste wood,Waste plastics and cosmic space around our planet raises serious other materials, Industrial waste concerns. In order to define the concept of WASTE MANAGEMENT STRATEGY the environment, we must consider the basic “The collection, transport, storage and ecological Unit that has its own laws, which is treatment of waste carry a number of risks to characterized by complex factors of animate safety and health of employees in the waste and inanimate nature. This unit is called an industry”.The system activities and activities ecosystem. The man as a conscious being which include the prevention of waste by has a great influence on the Environment. reducing packaging materials, waste reduction, According to the methodology of the World developing a habit of sorting waste in the Health Organization, there are 26 risk factors population represents waste management. to health, some dating from the environment The following activities: that are considered to cause many diseases in • The introduction of formal legal the population of children aged 0 to 19 years. mechanisms, such as the acquisition of WASTE MANAGEMENT knowledge in the field of waste management. In the middle Ages, food waste was dumped • Acquisition and improvement of on the streets, so the rodents and insects education and training of persons who manage transmitted many infectious diseases and waste dangerous epidemics. Today, because of • Establishment of a national body inadequate treatment of waste could be a responsible for the development of educational higher number of infectious diseases. The programs and training in the field of waste general interest of society in our country, management governed by the Law on Waste Management ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION is the management of waste. The objective of Pollution is explained as any substance this law is to provide and ensure the conditions introduced into the environment that for waste management in a way that does not adversely affects the usefulness of resources. endanger human health and the environment Pollution can be in the form of solid, liquid or LAW RELATING TO WASTE gaseous substance. Pollution causes damage MANAGEMENT IS BASED ON THE to human, plant and animal life. The nature FOLLOWING PRINCIPLES and concentration of pollutant determine 1. The principle of optimal choice of options the severity of effect of pollution. Pollution for the environment 2. The principle of is defined as the excess discharge of any proximityand regional approach to waste substance into the environment which affects management 3. The principle of hierarchical adversity quality of environment and causing waste management 4. The principle of damage to humans, plants and animals. Types accountability5. The ‘Polluter Pays’ Principle. Pollutants DISPOSAL HAS ITS DISADVANTAGES THE POLLUTANTS THAT POLLUTE 1. If you make a wrong selection of underground THE ENVIRONMENT IS DIVIDED INTO landfill, it can contaminate groundwater. FOLLOWING TYPES 2. When waste is buried and located in the 1. Air pollution 2. Water pollution 3. Soil middle of the country, there is no oxygen and Pollution 4. Marine pollution 5. Noise pollution its decomposition. Biogas is formed, which 6. Thermal pollution 7. Nuclear hazards consists of various hydrocarbons, mostly AIR POLLUTION methane. Biogas is spread horizontally and can It is defined as the undesirable contamination reach the basements of buildings and in contact of gas, smoke, dust, fume, mist, odor, or with open fames it can ignite and explode. chemical particulates in the atmosphere which 3. When waste is decomposed, its volume are injurious to human beings, plants and decreases, and this causes sagging area, so animals. that in these places we cannot make buildings CAUSES OF AIR POLLUTION and other facilities. 1. Industrialization 2. Urbanization 3. Vehicles INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT emission 4. Deforestation 5. Population, Types A huge number of wastes are created by of air pollutants Air pollutants can broadly technological and technical activities, but classified into two types several types are Re-used: metal, plastic, paper, 1. Primary pollutants glass. A number of issues from environmental 2. Secondary pollutants protection consider the Re-use of materials: Primary pollutants that are emitted directly to reduce the need for primary raw materials, from either natural events or from human

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activities are called primary pollutants. The Acid rain Formed by natural events are dust storms; volcano etc. combination of SO2 and human activities can be emission from and NO2 with water vehicles, industrial wastes. About 90% of global in the atmosphere. air pollution is constituted by five primary pollutants. These are Radioactive materials Present in wastes 1. Carbon oxides (CO and CO2) 2. Nitrogen and (i) uranium and oxides 3. Sulphur oxides4. Hydrocarbons thorium mining and 5. Particulate matter refining (ii) nuclear WATER POLLUTION power plants and (ii) Any physical, biological or chemical change industrial, medical in water quality that adversely affects living and scientific use organisms or makes water unsuitable for certain use is referred as Water pollution. When ON CONSUMING POLLUTED WATER the quality or composition of water changes by FOLLOWING EFFECTS ARE OBSERVED means it becomes unsuitable for any purpose HUMAN BEINGS. and is said to be polluted. Water pollution Amoebic dysentery, Skin cancers, Cholera, Sources Water pollutants are categorized as Typhoid fever, Hepatitis, Malaria, Damage of point source pollution and non-point source nervous system, Genetic mutations/ birth pollution. defects, 1. Point source pollution (Example: ON PLANTS AND ANIMALS Industrial discharge, factory smoke stack, Lower crop yields, Harmful to aquatic life and municipal sewage etc.) wild life, Excess growth of algae can kill aquatic 2. Non-Point source of pollution (Example: life, Reduce Photosynthesis, Disrupts food run off from farm lands, construction sites, chain and food web. A control measures for parking lots, agriculture logging, and animal preventing water pollution waste.) →→ Setting up effluent treatment plans to 3. Causes of Water Pollution treat waste. •Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD),Nutrients, →→ Recycling of water must be encouraged. Suspended solids/ Sediments, Bacteria, Viruses →→ Industrial wastes must be treated before and protozoa. discharge. The concern associated with microorganism’s →→ Educate Public for preventing water infectious disease. Microorganisms are pollution and the consequences of water pollution naturally found in water and elsewhere in the →→ Strict enforcement of water pollution environment and can cause infection. However, control act. the microbes causing the greatest concern →→ Continuous monitoring of water are usually associated with human activities. pollution at different places. Nonpoint sources include run-off from livestock →→ Developing economical method of operations and storm water runoff especially water treatment that associated with combined sewer overflow. →→ River, streams, lakes and other water Poorly performing municipal sewage treatment reservoirs must be well protected from being plant are point sources of pathogenic polluted. microorganisms. CONCLUSION WATER POLLUTION The role of every individual in preventing pollution is of paramount importance because SOURCE OF WATER Comment if every individual contributes substantially the POLLUTION effect will be visible not only at the community, Water and sewage Organic wastes and city, state or national level but also at the global company works sometimes industrial level as environment has no boundaries. It is wastes. Aluminum the responsibility of the human race which has residues from water occupied the commanding positions on this treatment earth to protect the earth and provide conducive Petroleum industry Oil spills from ships, environment for itself an innumerable other oil supertanker species which evolved on this earth. A small disasters and offshore effort made by each individual at his own drilling operations. place will have pronounced effect at the global level. It is appropriately said “Think globally act locally.”Each individual should change his or her lifestyle in such a way as to reduce environmental pollution. CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 32 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) REFERENCES 1.Environmental pollution and waste management (PDF Download Available). Available from: https:// www.researchgate.net/publication/282278985_ Environmental_pollution_and_waste_ management [accessed Jan 18 2018]. 2.Bjelajac Z. Ecological policy of EU and its criminal legal draft, MP4, 2011. 3.Heleta M. System management projecting of environmental, University Singidunum, Beograd 2010. 4.Jovanovic L. Ecomanagement in function of environment protection in towns. Ecological movement of Novi Sad, Novi Sad 1999. 5.Jovanovic L. Ecomanagement in function of environment protection in towns. Ecological movement of Novi Sad, Novi Sad 1999. 6.Jovanovic L. Recycling as an important part of sustainable developmentISO14000, Aranđelovac 2000. 7.Kolomeiceva-Jovanovic L. Chemistry and environmental protection, Belgrade 2010, 8.Rajovic G. “Environmental awareness as a basis for sustainable development of rural areas of Mon- tenegro”, Ecologica, scientific and professional society for Environmental Protection of Serbia, No. 49, Belgrade, 2007. 9.Todić D. Environmental management conditions of globalization, Megatrend University, Belgrade, 2008. 10.http://www.forum.ftn.uns.ac.rs/index. php?act=attach&type=post&id=5558. 11.http://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/odlagaliste_ otpada 12.http://staklenozvono.rs/?p=1254 13.www.dominomagazin.com 14. http://krize.medijskestudije.org.

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 33 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018 7. A STUDY ON GREEN HRM PRACTICES IN AN ORGANIZATION Dr.MU.ARUMUGAM, Assistant Professor in Economics, Sriram College of Arts &science, Perumalpattu, Tiruvallur.

Dr. C. VIJAI, Assistant professor in Commerce,Sriram College of Arts & Science, Perumalpattu, Tiruvallur. ABSTRACT ow a day, the go green policies are adopting performance of organizations. Nin various environment management 3.To identify the green HRM practices for techniques. In India, the corporate world is sustainable growth in the organization. going global; it’s become essential to explore RESEARCH METHODOLOGY green practices in the business as well as in an In order to get Endeavour an emerging concept environment. This study focuses on various green named Green HRM, a systematic literature has HRM practices followed in the organization. been done for the same. The data is collected The paper largely focuses on the various green from various research articles, whitepapers, HRM practices and the relationship between magazines, project works & internet. corporate social responsibility and the green WHY GO GREEN human resource management. And the study Nowadays, concern for environment has extended giving suggestions to the human become the strategic issue that can compress resource department about initiatives to make the competition globally and hence going green the organization green and utilization from is a means of attaining competitive advantage. those values. The two main driving forces behind adoption KEYWORDS: Green HRM, Environmental of green concept in companies are saving Sustainability, organization, green HRM resources/energy for sustainability and to fulfill practices the regulations laid by government. Going INTRODUCTION green involves adopting various changes in daily Ecological imbalances and biodiversity issues operations at every level in the organization are increasing day by day. Many scientists and leads to cost effectiveness and achieve researchers are discussing national issues like competitive differentiation. The company with carbon credits, global warming and climate green image will be definitely paid through high changes resulting into natural calamities returns as well as lower costs. Thus adopting and disasters in national and international green policy in organization is a strategic way conferences. Excess utilization of natural of attaining competitive advantage as well as resources as raw materials by factories, sustainability. industries and other commercial organizations GREEN HUMAN RESOURCE has led to increase in environmental pollution MANAGEMENT (GHRM) and there is also huge pressure on these Green HRM involves undertaking environment resources of our Earth to fulfill requirements friendly HR initiatives resulting in greater of coming generations. In the light of these effectiveness, lower cost and better employee issues, companies are becoming aware of their engagement and retention in turn. The responsibility towards the society green human resource management from where they get resources. The technical comprises of many functions in the human term for this is Corporate Social Responsibility. resource department of an organization. It CSR in organizations is practiced by the HR helps to reduction of paper usage and the department. One of the various methods to implementation of green human resource practice CSR in organization that is increasingly policies such as planning, recruiting, selecting, coming into focus is Environment Management managing employees and the employee / Green Management. The integration of green relations. It makes the environment green practices with HR policies for contributing in in the workplace. All the activities involved development of a culture of sustainability is in the green human resource management called Green HRM. Further explained are some enhance the value of the employees and the concepts of Green HRM. company. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY NEED FOR GREEN HRM 1.To know the concept of green HRM. Today the need for green human resource 2.To understand that how Green HR policies management is important for all over the and practices can improve the environmental world. The ecological consciousness of each

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 34 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) human drives the living style and environment. The environment friendly human resource The general employees are interested in green practices and preservation of knowledge human resource management because of its capital is considered as green human important and need in the current workplace. resource management elements. Opatha, Our personal and professional lifestyle is 2013; Opatha and Anton Arulrajah, 2014. affected due to many consequences. The Defines green HRM as transforming the usual corporate world is the most significant in employees to green employees to achieve enhancing the environment issues and the the environmental organizational goal and as corporate has to give solution to this hazards. to solve the environmental issues. The green GREEN HRM IS A PART OF CSR human resource management involves all the ACTIVITY activities in the organization such as on-going To implement any corporate environmental maintenance that makes the employee green. program, several units of an organization Wehrmeyer 1996, Renwick et al, 2008 and 2013. such as human resource, marketing, finance, States that the companies have introduced operations are put together. But the major duties and responsibilities that incorporated part lies to the human resource department as environmental and social activities. Each corporate social responsibility (CSR). Though the employee will allot some duties relating to green HRM is the wider program of corporate ecological protection wherever and whenever social responsibility. In the organization, human achievable. resource and their systems are the basic GREEN PRACTICES foundation of any business. The green human Renwick, Redman, and Maguire‟s resource management consists of two major (2008) introduce a comprehensive parts of an organization. compartmentalization of Green HRM practices that can be clearly understood, starting at the point of an employee‟s organizational entry and proceed until the point of the employee‟s exit. To be ecological, economical and practical at the same time is possible through by adopting Green Practices. Here are some environmentally-friendly solutions to stay Green. 1. Green Printing 2. Green Manufacturing and Disposal of Staff ID card 3. Job sharing (sharing a full-time job between two employees) 4. Teleconferencing and virtual interviews 5. Recycling 6. Telecommuting 7. Online Training 8. Reduce employee carbon footprints by the Fig 1: Green HRM likes of electronic filling, Green HR involves reducing carbon footprint via less printing of paper, video conferencing and interviews etc. 9. Energy efficient office spaces 10. Green Payroll 11. Car Pooling 12. Public Transport 13. Company Transport 14. Flexi-Work 15. e-filing COMPONENTS OF GREEN HRM

→→ Green recruitment →→ Green Selection →→ Green orientation Fig 2: Green Human Resource Management →→ Green Training Elements →→ Green performance

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→→ Green compensation and reward take initiative to motivate employees for →→ Green counselling implementation green practices and business →→ Green welfare sustainability. GREEN RECRUITMENT GREEN WELFARE PRACTICES Now organisations are giving their Now a day’s many organisations changed advertisement through their web-site. This the concept of health, safety and welfare of method is very fast ,cheap and easy to assess. employees to health, safety and environmental Bauer & Aiman- Smith (1996) identified the management. These companies have impact of proenvironmental factor recruitment continuously giving their effort to reduce stress that employees are encouraged to work in a occupational disease and hazards at work firm which promote green practices. Frank place. (2003) identified the relationship between ADVANTAGES OR BENEFITS OF perception of employee and ethics of company GREEN HRM and found that employees are interested to Green HRM has its prime importance in the work in eco-friendly Company. achievement of broader objectives such as cost GREEN SELECTION saving, corporate social responsibility, talent Interviews are conducted by group discussion, acquisition and management and gaining personal interview, and different activities advantage over the competition. It further has and in online test. Candidates could be given the following benefits: preferences who are more environment friendly for a organisation. →→ It increases employee morale. GREEN ORIENTATION Induction and orientation programmes are →→ It helps in employee retention and framed in such a way that facilitates the new reduces labor turnover. comers about green practices. Green issues like health and safety, use of material and →→ It provides lucrative opportunities for cleanness of area in work place etc. quality human talent. GREEN TRAINING Training should be given on increase of green →→ It helps in building company image to management. Trainer should give their training attract good human resource. on presentation or by video conferencing. Trainer should use more soft materials rather →→ Improves brand image of the company than printed handouts to reduce the use in the market. of paper. Sarkaris (2010) suggested that employees presented better training on →→ It can also be used as a marketing environmental training programme. Daily strategy. (2007) suggested Green training will help the employees to identify the challenges of green →→ It improves the quality of the overall HR principles. organization both internal and external. GREEN PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL In performance appraisal use of green practice →→ It improves relationship of the company should be one of the key performances Area with its stakeholders- customers, suppliers, (KPA). Green performance appraisal motivates vendors, shareholders, government agencies, employees for use of green practices in employees and the media. organisation. Jabbar (2012) studied that human dimensions impacts the organisational →→ It reduces the overall cost of the performance as well as environmental company as costs are largely influenced by the management system or organisation. size of the company and steps taken to make it GREEN COMPENSATION AND REWARD environment friendly. Compensation and reward system should be directly linked to use of green skills. Special →→ It provides competitive advantage to bonuses given to employees for their effort of the company in industry as well as the market. less carbon foot print. Forman and Jorgensen (2001) suggested rewards help to improve →→ With increasing global issues, many employee commitment to environment organizations are becoming vigilant of management programmes. their activities and their impact over the GREEN COUNSELLING environment. Top level managers and counsellers can

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 36 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) →→ Green management practices are environmental pollution by encouraging also beneficial to the companies as it helps practices like car- pooling, video conferencing, to save money and reduces ill- effects on e- recruitments, use of CFC- free air fresheners, the environment, hence avoiding much recycling, online training programs, etc. Green government interventions. HRM is not only a part of HRM but it provides a new dimension →→ It stimulates innovation facilitating to entire organization. Green HR efforts have growth, improvement in quality and most importantly focused on increasing KSA, enhancement of procedures and methods. cut down and knock out environmental havoc and restoring HR product tools and procedures. →→ It helps in efficient use of resources and Environment friendly HR processes give better manages risks more effectually. efficiency, minimize costs and manage to develop and nurture a culture of engaged →→ It develops green learning environment employee helping organization to operate in the organization. in a sustainable manner. To conclude, Green HRM is the need of the hour, requirement of CHALLENGES OR LIMITATIONS TO this century to outlast in the contemporary biz GREEN HRM world by having an edge over the competitors, Apart from the above mentioned advantages or developing distinct green image in the market, benefits, green HRM faces certain challenges. conforming corporate social responsibility The challenges or limitations of Green HRM are and accomplishing the motives of being an as follows. entrepreneur by generation of employment opportunities for talented eco- friendly →→ It is difficult to alter the behavior of manpower. employees in a short span of time. REFERENCES 1.Human Resource Management by Ashwathapa – →→ Not every employee is equally Tata McGraw Hill. motivated to participate in the promotion of 2.Human Resource Management By Dr. C.B. Gupta Green HRM practices in the organization. – Sultan Chand & Sons. 3.Human Relations and OrganisationalBehaviour →→ Developing the culture of Green HRM (5/e) - Dwivedi – Macmillan Publications. in entire organization is a cumbersome and 4.Wehrmeyer, W., (ed)1 Greening People: Human lingering process. Resources and Environmental Management, Sheffield :Greenleaf Publishing →→ It requires high investment at initial 5.Govindarajulu, N. and Daily, B.F.,12 Motivating stage and comparatively slow rate of return. employees for environmental improvement, Industrial. →→ Sourcing and recruitment of green 6.Aggarwal, S., & Sharma, B. : Green HRM: Need employees with quality talents is a challenging of the hour ‘. International Journal of Management task. and Social Science Research Review, 1(8), 63-69. (2015). →→ It is difficult to measure the effectiveness 7.De Prins, P., Van Beirendonck, L., De Vos, A., & of green HR practices in employees’ behavior. Segers, J. ; Sustainable HRM: Bridging theory and practice through the ‘Respect Openness Continuity →→ HR professionals are faced with being (ROC)’-model. Management revue, 263-284. expected to provide the essential green (2014). structures, green processes, green tools, and 8.Jabbar, M. H., & Abid, M. : GHRM: Motivating green thinking to make the best selection Employees towards Organizational Environmental and develop the future green leaders of the Performance. Magnt. Res. Rep., 2, 267-278. (2014). organization. 9.Prasad, R. S. Green HRM-Partner in Sustainable Competitive Growth. Journal of Management CONCLUSION Sciences and Technology, 1(1), 15-18. (2013).. Green HRM practices enable productive use 10.Sayed, S: Green HRM-A Tool of Sustainable of organization’s space and infrastructure. It Development. Indian Journal of Applied Research, improves management and employees and 5(6). (2016). employee- employee relationships by sharing of resources and responsibility to manage and develop green practices to inculcate courtesy of sustainability. It helps in minimizing

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 37 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018 8. AIR POLLUTION IN INDIA – CAUSES, EFFECTS AND SOLUTIONS

K. R. DEVARAJ, M.A.,M.Phil., Part Time Ph.D Research Scholar, Arignar Anna Govt. Arts College, Cheyyar.

ABSTRACT man in quantities and concentrations and ir is the necessary for the very existence of a duration as to cause any discomfort to a Aof human beings, animals and plants that substantial number of inhabitants of a district appeared on the earth. However, due to the of which are injurious to public health or to rapid growth of population and technology the human, plant or animal life or property or which air was polluted day by day. In 2011, India’s interfere with the reasonable comfortable Central Pollution Control Board had presented enjoyment of life and property throughout the the report according to which 180 cities in India state or throughout the territories or area of had particulate matter six times more than states. the permissible limit set by the World Health SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTANTS Organization in the air. Vehicles, biomass There are various pollutants interfere into burning, fuel tarnishing are few of the major the earth like various naturals and manmade causes of air pollution in India. The problem of activities such as dust storm, volcanic eruptions, air pollution is so big that we cannot manage to industrial pollutions, etc. Based on the mode pay for overlook it. As such it has to be handled of generation of pollutants it as classified i) with a high degree of care. This paper focuses Natural Sources and ii) Man-made Sources. on causes, effects of air pollutions in India NATURAL SOURCES OF POLLUTION and steps to solve the problems and policy • Forest fires: is a common feature. Very measures to ensure reduce air pollution to large quantities of smoke and particulate the entire resident of earth. This study mainly matter are liberated during their breakout. descriptive in nature and secondary data are • Volcanic Eruptions: is produced along used for the purpose of the study. The data was with release of minute solid particles, gases collected from books, various articles, journals and radiation. and websites. • Dust Storms: are caused due to the KEYWORDS: Environmental Pollution, Air movement of hot winds around the earth Pollution and Pollutants and are concentrated in certain places at a INTRODUCTION particular time. In the recent decades every man are should be • Pollen Grains: is also caused by the fight every day against various environmental production of pollens in the spring season. pollutions such as Air, Noise, Water, Land etc. They are mainly responsible for causing for Air is one of the five essentials for the human causing allergy. beings. Particularly men breathe nearly 22,000 MAN-MADE SOURCES OF POLLUTION times a day and in hale approximately 15 kg of • Domestic Pollution: is the use of air per day. Even though the air is abundantly insecticides in home for cleaning, burning of available over the surface of earth, but it fuel in home for cooking purpose are primary consist a lot of impurities. Various types of sources of pollution in domestic area. contaminants are entering into the atmosphere • Industrial Pollution: is the industrial of the earth by natural and manmade activities, activities are primarily responsible for the which are taking place on the earth. pollution in India. The elements are emitted CONCEPTS AND DEFINITION OF AIR into the atmosphere along with gaseous POLLUTION pollutants like Sulphur-di-oxide, oxide-of- Air pollution can be defined as the presence of nitrogen and standard particulate matter. the contamination in the outdoor atmosphere • Vehicular pollution: is the most in a sufficient quantity and duration to cause dangerous form of pollution being prevalent in them to be injurious to human health and India because in spite of introducing stringent welfare and plant and animal life and to laws, adopting new standards, changing the interfere with the enjoyment of life and fuel and modifying the design of vehicles property. studies reveal that it is increasing rapidly and According to World Health Organization continuously polluting the whole environment (WHO) Air Pollution is the outer atmosphere through which it is running. of substances or contaminants put there by

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 38 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) AIR POLLUTION IN INDIA Ozone, Nitrogen oxides (NOX), Sulphur-di-oxide In the Yale Environmental Performance Index (SO2) and Carbon monoxide (CO). by the Yale University, India ranked at 174th HOUSEHOLD AIR QUALITY position out of 178 countries on air pollution. Indoor air pollution is among the top five Only Pakistan, China, Nepal and Bangladesh environmental health risks. Household air have worst air quality than India as per the pollution causes more deaths than outdoor i.e. index. For indexing, air quality, water, sanitation 40% of all the diseases burden can be attributed and status of biodiversity have been taken into to household air pollution. In 2012, indoor account. The overall rank of India is 155th, air pollution was linked to 4.3 million deaths whereas most of the other BRICS countries are globally, compared with 3.7 million for outdoor ahead of India on overall rating. air pollution. In 2011, India’s Central Pollution Control Board In India, too, the death due to indoor air pollution had presented the report according to which amounts to 300,000 to 400,000. Artemis 180 cities in India had particulate matter six hospital conducted a survey which found that times more than the permissible limit set by the 76% of the offices and houses in National World Health Organization in the air. Vehicles, Capital Region have unhealthy air quality and biomass burning, fuel tarnishing are few of 34% of people staying indoors have respiratory the major causes of air pollution in India. The problems. Solid fuels are the biggest contributor problem of air pollution is so big that we cannot to the deterioration of household air quality. It manage to pay for overlook it. is estimated that 25%-30% of primary particle FACTS ABOUT AIR POLLUTION IN INDIA pollution in India is from household fuels. Over India is the seventh most environmentally one billion children live in homes where solid unsafe country in the world. Most of the fuels are used in cooking and heating and in industries do not stick to the environmental India, about 64% of the population use solid guidelines, regulations and laws. Pollution fuels with high production. caused by burning fuel wood and biomass is one A study in Andhra Pradesh, India, found that of the main causes of the Asian brown cloud. solid fuel use created a mean 24 hour average This cloud delays the monsoon in India. concentration of particulate matter that ranged Many auto rickshaws and taxis in India use from 73 to 732 μg/m3. Guidelines from the contaminated fuel. This is done to lower down WHO indicate that it shouldn’t exceed 10 μg/ the price but it is the environment and ultimately m3. we who have to pay the charge back. Some of OUTDOOR AIR QUALITY the adulterants are actually very harmful to the Outdoor air pollution is also considered Group environment as these emit unsafe pollutants I carcinogen. The pollution is not only the which further worsen the quality of air. national problem of India but also the problem As per the scientific studies it has been found of the whole of South Asia. India is surrounded out that traffic at low speed especially during by highly polluted neighboring countries like obstruction burn fuel inadequately and emit 4 Pakistan, Bangladesh, China, Nepal, Tibet, to 8 times more air pollutants. There are more Bhutan and Sri Lanka. than 40 different types of dangerous pollutants Sri Lanka has performed best in South Asia in the engine exhaust (diesel and gas). 70% of with the rank 108th in 2016 EPI. Around two the air pollution is caused by vehicles. billion children live in areas where outdoor air Burning of vestige fuel such as coal and diesel pollution exceeds international limits. Almost has reduced the growth of rice harvest in India. 300 million children live in areas where outdoor India is the third largest producer of coal in the air pollution is toxic – exceeding six times the world and at the top as far as CO2 emitted was international limit. considered. 30% children in Bangalore suffer World Health Organization reports are also from Asthma due to air pollution. The city is suggest that urban outdoor air pollution has also regarded as the asthma capital of India. In increased by about 8% between 2008 and NDTV it has been shown that Delhi is the most 2013. It has also been found that in 2012, polluted city in the world and it left behind approximately around 127,000 children under Beijing in air pollution. Industrial and vehicular the age of five died from outdoor air pollution, emissions have caused the pollution to rise at while 531,000 died from household air pollution. this level in Delhi. Each day 1,400 new vehicles China and India have time and again been are added to Delhi roads. observed as areas where air pollution is at its QUALITY OF AIR IN INDIA worst. PM 2.5 and PM 10: On October 31, 2016, In this section, we will assess the quality of air the day after Diwali, Delhi witnessed severe air in India based on indicators like Household Air pollution which was 14-16 times higher than Quality and Outdoor Air Quality affected by the prescribed safety limit.

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On the basis of the data retrieved from children and older people are more responsive the Central Pollution Monitoring Agency, to air pollution. concentrations of particulate matter or PM 10 SOLUTIONS FOR AIR POLLUTION (coarser pollutants) was found to be around The solutions to control of Air Pollution are 1,600 micrograms per cubic metre against discussed below: the safe level of 100 at around 2 am in Delhi’s • Renewable energy sources use like Anand Vihar and PM 2.5 was 14 times the safe sunlight, wind, water, air, etc. is one of the best limit. solutions for air pollution. It is produce energy In fact, according to the Ambient Air Pollution without causing air pollution. Database, WHO, May 2016, India had 13 cities • We want to prevent air pollution we in the world’s top 20 most polluted cities should protect our forests. We should also with Delhi leading the pack along with Patna, grow more and more trees. Also, reforestation Gwalior, and Raipur respectively. Of 1,215 most and forestation should be encouraged. polluted cities recorded, 133 were Indian with • Using solar panels, solar cooker, solar 31 in top 100 most polluted cities. lamps, lights, solar cars, batteries, inverter, Carbon emission: India has seen an increase energy collectors and similar other useful solar of 137% in the carbon emission from 2001 to equipment can help prevent air pollution at a 2013 while China has observed an increase of significant level because solar devices do not 191%. Again from 2014-2016, carbon emission pollute the air. increased in India by 2%. Between 1971 and • Sharing vehicles is also another option 2014, total CO2 emission in India has increased to control air pollution. Individual vehicle cause by more than 1100% with 181 million tons in makes traffic and will pollute air. 1971 to 2190 million tons in 2014. In 2014, • Using bicycles for short distances is also carbon emission from India accounted for a wonderful and interesting way to control air 6.78% of total global emission. pollution. Nitrogen Oxides: From 1997 to 2011, NO2 • Use of electric, hybrid and energy emission in India increased by 28% while efficient vehicles as they produce zero direct Nitrogen Use Efficiency decreased by almost emissions, thus, helping in the prevention of 32%. Sulphur Dioxide (SO2): According to recent air pollution. studies it was found that SO2 emission in India • Proper maintenance and servicing of from 2005-2012 increased by 71% while the vehicles helps in limiting excessive harmful SO2 burden on the environment increased by emissions like carbon monoxide, nitrogen 63%. oxides, hydrocarbons, etc., from vehicles. Effects of Air Pollution • Clean and efficient garbage disposable • Air pollution causes irritation in system should be arranged at various public the throat, nose, lungs and eyes. It causes places so that the garbage can be disposed in breathing problems and aggravates existing the right way. health conditions such as emphysema and • All of us can make individual efforts asthma. towards prevention of air pollution by replacing • Polluted air reduces the body’s defenses plastic bags with paper bags, plastic containers and decreases the body’s capacity to fight other with steel or ceramic containers, plastic infections in the respiratory system. crockery with glass or steel crockery and similar • Polluted air increases the risk of other replacements. cardiovascular disease. Breathing air that is • Efficient and appropriate measures filled with fine particulate matter can induce should be taken to control dust emission hardening of the arteries, triggering cardiac during various activities like mining, building arrhythmia or even a heart attack. constructions, road constructions, etc. Dust • People who exercise outdoors are particles add up to atmosphere and degrade vulnerable to the adverse effects of air pollution the quality of air, causing air pollution. because it involves deeper and quicker • The environmental audits are done in an breathing. organized document form so that a track record • Acid rain contains hydrogen ions, which can be established for necessary measures. can damage trees, crops, harm marine animals • Industries and factories should have and induce corrosion in metals. internal environment audit and control systems • Smoke causes harmful health effects so that the harmful emissions causing air in humans and animals. It creates the black pollution can be limited. lung disease in dolphins of due to high • Human-made products and handicraft concentrations of carbon particles in the air. items are environmental friendly and help • People afflicted with heart disease, control air pollution.

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 40 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) • Use unmodified vehicular fuels. With the rising price of petrol and diesel, many people have started using adulterated fuel. • Creating awareness for air pollution is very necessary. If people stay aware about air pollution, its causes and dangerous effects, they will definitely make individual efforts to combat and prevent air pollution. CONCLUSION The earth is an important planet for all human, animal and plants. But human only destroying natural resources and creating problem of air pollution. Hence, it is our responsibilities to find out the problems and follow the measures to solving it. Let us take a pledge to grow trees more and more and to protect healthy environment. It is only the seeds of our coming healthy generation. REFERENCES 1.R.K.Khitoliya (2004), “Environmental Pollution- Management & Control for Sustainable Development”, Book Published by S.Chand & Company, New Delhi, First Edition, 2004, p.68-71. 2.Reports on Central Pollution Control Board Ministry of Environment, Forests & Climate Change, Parivesh Bhawan, East Arjun Nagar, Delhi-110032. 3.Sehba (2016), Air Pollution: Meaning, Causes, Effects and Solution, Importantindia.com on November 3, 2016. 4.Hanzalaaman (2017), A Compatative Study of Air Polution in India, Published by YKA, October 23, 2017.

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 41 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018 9. PERSPECTIVE STUDY OF ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON PUBLIC HEALTH Dr.M.MOHAN RAJU M.A.,Ph.D.,B.Ed., Assistant Professor of Economics, S.S.Government Arts College, Tiruthani -631209.

ABSTRACT of public infrastructure, such as access to n this paper it is critically review the economic drinking water, sanitation, and lack of health Iliterature on the effects of environmental care as well as emerging problems of industrial changes on public health ,in both the developed pollution. The Occurrences of Asthma are and the developing wolrd. The first focus on the rising dramatically throughout the developed economic methodologies that are available for countries, and environmental factors appear the evaluation of the effects of environmental to be at least partly to blame . The Millennium changes on public health .Then it explain how Ecosystem Assessment synthesis report warns the monetary valuations of these effects can that the erosion of ecosystems could lead to feed back in the construction of economic an increase in existing diseases such as malaria policy for creating agent specific incentives for and cholera, as well as a rising risk of new more efficient public management,which is also diseases emerging. equitable and environmentally sustainable. Climate change is also posing risks to human Every minute, five children in developing population health and well-being and thus countries die from malaria or diarrhoea. Every is emerging as a serious concern worldwide hour, 100 children die as a result of exposure to [3–6]. In 2000 climate change was estimated indoor smoke from solid fuels. Every day, nearly to be responsible for approximately 2.4% 1,800 people in developing cities die as a result of worldwide diarrhoea and 6% of malaria . of exposure to urban air pollution. Every month, According to the IPCC third assessment report nearly 19,000 people in developing countries the world temperature is expected to further die from unintentional poisonings. rise during the century, implying increased INTRODUCTION health threats for human populations, The environment affects our health in a especially in low-income countries. A study in variety of ways. The interaction between Mexico revealed that lower greenhouse gases human health and the environment has been emissions would result in avoidance of some extensively studied and environmental risks 64,000 premature deaths over a twenty year have been proven to significantly impact period. human health directly by exposing people to ECONOMIC VALUATION TECHNIQUES harmful agents by disrupting life-sustaining The impacts of environmental degradation on ecosystems . Although the exact contribution human health is essential for the development of environmental factors to the development of well-informed policies by the health sector of death and disease cannot be precisely and consequently many valuation studies determined, the World Health Organization have been conducted worldwide the past (WHO) has estimated that thirteen million decades addressing environmental risks to deaths annually are attributable to preventable public health. The main approaches for health environmental causes. The report also estimates impact valuations can be broadly classified into that 24% of the global disease burden (healthy revealed and stated preference techniques. life years lost) and 23% of all deaths (premature The first take into account observable market mortality) are attributable to environmental information which can be adjusted and used factors, with the environmental burden of for revealing an individual’s valuation. Revealed diseases being 15 times higher in developing preferences include cost of illness, human countries than in developed countries, due to capital surveys, hedonic pricing and the Quality differences in exposure to environmental risks Adjusted Life Year studies. In stated preferences and access to health care. studies the market for the good is ‘constructed’ The huge economic development and through the use of questionnaires. The two population growth result in continuing most-well-known stated preference methods environmental degradation. Intensification of are the Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) agriculture, industrialization and increasing and the Choice Experiments (CE). energy use are the severe driving forces of environmental health problems. For countries The Quality Adjusted Life Year (QALY) studies in the early stages of development the major measure both the quality and quantity of life. environmental hazards to health are associated The values for a Life Year range from 0, implying with widespread poverty and severe lack death, to 1, implying a year of perfect health.

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 42 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) Therefore, QALYs provide an indication of the mortality attributable to particulate matter, benefits from a healthcare intervention in lead, nitrogen and sulphur oxides and low terms of health-related quality. Combined with level ozone are reported. The main conclusion the costs of providing different interventions, a from the literature review is that some forms cost-effectiveness analysis (cost per QALY) can of air pollution, notably inhalable particulate follow to allow for comparisons of different matter and ambient lead, are serious matters interventions. A monetary value can also for concern in the developing world since they be placed on a QALY to estimate the dollar are associated with severe health damages in benefits of a health intervention or policy and monetary terms. allow for a subsequent cost-benefit analysis. Since then a number of valuation studies Stated Willingness to Pay, elicited through a have been conducted in developing countries contingent valuation study or a discrete choice estimating social benefits from air pollution study, is often used, to monetize QALYs. Other reduction in terms of either averted mortality methods to value a QALY include time-trade- or averted morbidity due to air pollution offs, standard gamble and the visual analogue mitigation strategies. To provide economic scale. Hedonic pricing methods assess estimations of health risk reductions authors differences in the price of housing in polluted rely on existing epidemiological studies that or unpolluted areas, or the difference in wages establish the relationship between pollution between hazardous and non-hazardous jobs. concentrations and health hazards. Valuation Variations in housing prices and wages reflect studies are then conducted to monetize health the value of health damages avoided to those outcomes given the number of exposures and individuals and therefore reveal individual’s the associated risk predicted from the dose- willingness to pay to avoid damages. response functions. ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT OF WATER QUALITY ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH IMPACTS: Contact with unsafe drinking or bathing water EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE can impose serious risks to human health. There is increasing recognition that Microbe contamination of groundwater due linked environment and health impacts to sewage outfalls and high concentration of require economic assessment in order to nutrients in marine and coastal waters due receive adequate consideration in policy. to agricultural runoff are among the most Consequently, a huge increase in the number serious threats . According to the European of valuation studies trying to quantify the Commission’s (EC) recent statistics, 20 percent environmental impacts on human health in of all surface water in the EU is seriously monetary terms and evoke public preferences threatened by pollution. In the infrastructurally for health and environmental policies that disadvantaged developing world the water reduce the risk of illness or mortality has contamination problem is even more been experienced in recent years.In the prominent.Although epidemiological studies subsequent sections important applications have provided evidence of severe morbidity of the valuation techniques that have been attributed to polluted water the issue has conducted to estimate the social benefits received limited attention in terms of valuation associated with increased air and water quality studies. Only few studies explicitly address dislike of climate change are reviewed. health effects of drinking and bathing water AIR QUALITY quality to inform efficient water resources Air pollution is a major environmental risk to management policies mainly in high income health and is estimated to cause approximately countries. two million premature deaths worldwide per In the developing world, health damages from year [7] A reduction of air pollution is expected drinking water contamination are examined to reduce the global burden of disease from by Dasgupta and Maddison et al. The former respiratory infections, heart disease, and lung study estimates a health production function cancer. As air quality is a major concern for to derive the total cost of illness related to both developed and developing countries, a Diarrhoeal diseases in urban India,. Annual large number of empirical studies attempting health costs are calculated and aggregated to monetize the benefits to health generated over the whole population are found to by improved air quality have appeared in the equal € 2,821,587. The latter estimates literature worldwide. Pearce [8] provides a aggregate willingness to pay to avoid health summary of the main studies conducted to that risks, including various cancers, associated day valuing health damages from air pollution with consumption of arsenic contaminated in the developing world. In particular, valuation groundwater in Bangladesh. Based on Value estimates for health symptoms and risks of of Statistical Life estimation from studies in

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 43 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018 India, authors report an aggregate WTP of policy-makers with the necessary information $2.7 billion annually to avoid mortality and to acknowledge the contribution of health morbidity cases. benefits in the social welfare associated with CLIMATE CHANGE environmental resources justifying the need for An understanding of the likely impacts of policy intervention to eliminate health effects climate change on human welfare is crucial for from environmental hazards. Once aggregated making an informed decision about the best over the full range of beneficiaries, monetary response strategy to the enhanced greenhouse benefits estimated through valuation studies effect. Consequently, a number of studies can be compared with the costs of the relevant have attempted the evaluation of climate environmental or health intervention policies change-related health hazards.However the through cost-benefit analysis to derive useful studies provide a total cost estimation of the information on the efficiency of the planned climate change in $ per tonne of carbon and policy. Welfare changes from alternative health effects are not distinguished. Based policy initiatives can be also assessed and the on the existing literature, Tol concludes that impact of social, economic and attitudinal policy response to climate change should be characteristics on individual valuation can be dominated by adaptation, not by mitigation. examined. In this respect, valuation studies Welfare losses associated with health impacts are significant for policy-making to guide the induced by global warming are also estimated selection of economic instruments to allocate by Bosello et al.. Authors apply a general resources among socially valuable endeavours equilibrium macroeconomic model to infer CONCLUDING REMARKS costs estimates relating to cardiovascular and Environmental degradation poses a significant respiratory disorders, diarrhoea, malaria, threat to human health worldwide. Because dengue fever and schistosomiasis occurrences environment and health are so intimately through changes in labour productivity and linked for the environmental and health demand for health care. Consistent with the policies. However, health impacts are non- literature, results imply the welfare costs marketed and thus hard to quantify in (or benefits) of health impacts contribute monetary terms. The subsequent risk of being substantially to the total costs of climate ignored in policy-making is a major concern change both in terms of GDP and investment. worldwide. To address this challenge a number Health effects from illnesses associated with of valuation studies have been conducted in climate change are also examined in the both developing and developed countries developing world by Tseng et al. using the applying different methods to capture health dengue fever in Taiwan as a case study. The benefits from improved environmental quality. relationship between climate conditions and Valuation results are crucial for the formulation the number of people infected by dengue of economic instruments to internalize the fever was first established and the monetary externalities created by the public nature of assessment was then attempted applying a environmental resources. Enhancing air quality contingent valuation study. Results indicate and securing adequate supplies of safe drinking that people would pay € 15.78, € 70.35 and water is associated with significant benefits € 111.62 per year in order to reduce the for human health and well-being. Significant probabilities of dengue fever inflection by 12%, benefits are also found to be associated with 43%, and 87%, respectively. bathing water quality socially justifying the THE USE OF VALUATION RESULTS IN costs for abatement policies. Climate change POLICY DESIGN effects mitigation is also of great importance Climate change and anthropogenic forcing in terms of public health benefits. However, threaten environmental stability and with it certain limitations of the existing literature ecosystems’ capacity to provide goods and have been identified.Further to provide services that can be translated to economic accurate monetary estimates of the benefits benefits for humans including values of reduced health symptoms associated with associated with health quality and death environmental hazards, collaboration between mitigation. Although environmental goods economists and epidemiologists should be and services have value to society, are often further enhanced to establish more informed neglected in policy-making as they are not dose-response functions and accordingly traded in markets and as such are not priced. A formulate the valuation scenarios. Finally, primary cause for environmental degradation since health benefits from environmental and consequent health hazards is failure to improvements accrue in the long run their identify and internalize in decision-making the assessment should recognize their long-run economic value of ecosystems. In the absence nature. of markets, valuation studies can provide

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 44 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) REFERENCES 1.World Health Organization Preventing disease 15. Bosello F, Roson R, Tol RSJ. Economy-wide estimates through healthy environments: Towards an of the implications of climate change: Human health. estimate of the environmental burden of disease. Ecol. Econ. 2006;58:579–591. Available online:http://www.who.int/quantifying_ 16. Tseng WC, Chen CC, Chang CC, Chu YH. Estimating ehimpacts/publications/preventingdisease/en/ the economic impacts of climate change on infectious index.html (accessed 23 June 2009). diseases: a case study on dengue fever in Taiwan. 2.Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Ecosystems Climate Change. 2009;92:123–140. and Human Well-Being: Synthesis. Island Press, 17. Birol E, Karousakis K, Koundouri P. Using economic Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Series; methods and tools to inform water management Washington, DC, USA: 2005. policies: a survey and critical appraisal of available 3. Kovats RS, Haines A. Global climate change and methods and an application. Sci. Total Environ. health: recent findings and future steps. Can. Med. 2006;365:105–122. [PubMed] Assoc. J. 2005;172:501–502. [PMC free article] [PubMed] 4. Cifuentes L, Borja-Aburto VH, Gouveia N, Thurston G, Davis DL. Hidden health benefits of greenhouse gas mitigation. Science. 2001;17:1257–1259. [PubMed] 5. Tol RSJ. Why worry about climate change? A research agenda. Environ. Values. 2008;17:437– 470. 6. Stern N. The Economics of Climate Change: the Stern Review. Cambridge University Press; New York, NY, USA: 2007. 7. World Health Organization (WHO) WHO guidelines for air quality 2003. Fact Sheet No. 187. Available online: http://www.who.int/inffs/en/ fact187.html (accessed 23 June 2009). 8. Pearce D. Economic valuation and health damage from air pollution in the developing world. Energ. Policy. 1996;3:627–630. 9. Fleisher J, Kay D, Wyer M, Godfree A. Estimates of the severity of illnesses associated with bathing in marine recreational waters contaminated with domestic sewage. Int. J. Epidemiol. 1998;27:722– 726.[PubMed] 10. Dwight RH, Fernandez LM, Baker DB, Semenzad JC, Olson BH. Estimating the economic burden from illnesses associated with recreational coastal water pollution—a case study in Orange County, California. J. Environ. Manage. 2005;76:95–103. [PubMed] 11. Le Goffe P. The benefits of improvements in coastal water quality: a contingent approach. J. Environ. Manage. 1995;45:305–317. 12. European Communities The Water Framework Directive. 2002. Available online:www.europa. eu.int/comm./environment/water/water- framework/pdf/brochure_en.pdf (accessed 23 June 2009). 13. Dasgupta P. Valuing health damages from water pollution in urban Delhi, India: a health production function approach. Environ. Devel. Econ. 2004;9:83–106. 14. Maddison D, Catala-Luque R, Pearce D. Valuing the arsenic contamination of groundwater in Bangladesh. Environ. Resour. Econ. 2005;31:459–476.

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 45 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018 10. ENERGY RESOURCES AND ITS PRESENT USE IN INDIA S.MANJULA, Assistant Professor, Department Of Economics, D.g.govt.arts College For Women, Mayiladuthurai. Mobile No: 9840910296, E-Mail Id: [email protected].

ABSTRACT Energy is an essential input and a basic Energy is an essential ingredient for human life requirement for oiling the wheels of production on earth. It is used in all activities of society, and has manifold applications in domestic, social for preparing meals, making cloth, building and economic activities. As Schumacher says, house, industries and other activities. Human “There is no substitute for energy; the whole beings require energy at an increasing rate for edifice of modern life is built upon it. Although their sustenance and well-being. The present energy can be bought and sold like any other study is an attempt to understand the details commodity, it is not ‘just another commodity’, with types of energy use in India. The largest but the pre-condition of all commodities, a energy source is coal, followed by petroleum basic factor that is equal to water and earth”. and traditional biomass. According to the 2011 Energy is an important input in all sectors of the Census, the household-level data indicates economy of any country. The standard of living that only 55.3 per cent of rural homes used of a given country can be directly related to per electricity as the primary source for lighting. capita energy consumption. Presently, energy Energy access, with about one fourth of the crisis has become the major concern all over population lacking access to electricity and the world because of two reasons. The first, the energy security, with the country relying on population of the world has increased rapidly imports for a considerable amount of its energy and the second, the standard of living of human use, particularly for crude petroleum are key beings has increased. The per capita energy challenges that the country faces with respect consumption is a measure of the prosperity of to energy. Wide disparity in energy use pattern the nation. between the haves and have-nots, urban and OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY rural are also a cause of concern. 1.To understand the present pattern energy use KEYWORDS: Energy, Human being, Sources in India. of Energy, Uses of Energy. 2.To identify the production of commercial INTRODUCTION sources of energy. Energy is required for every aspect of our daily 3.To know the availability of energy resources life. The requirement of energy has gone up in in India. the last few years and would touch unimaginable METHODOLOGY proportions because of population explosion This study is based on secondary data which and improved living standards in our country. is collected from the Directorate of Economics In rural India, people once used cow dung and Statistics, published reports of news paper, and wood for their energy needs. With better journals, websites, etc. economic conditions, more and more people PRESENT STATUS OF ENERGY are using cleaner and more convenient forms of RESOURCES USE IN INDIA energy viz. electricity and gas for home usage. In India, of the 121 crore Indians, 83.3 crore The availability of both these forms of energy live in rural areas while 37.7 crore stay in is limited. The shortage results in frequent urban areas. Energy availability, access and power breakdowns, disrupts daily life, causes affordability are vital if our country is to keep manpower loss in offices and adversely affects its pace of development. As on 30.11.2017, the industrial production and thereby the electrification in 3,269 census villages has been economy. reported as unelectrified. Among them, 1,052 Energy is the capacity to do work and overcome villages have been reported un-inhabited. resistance. Its unit is Joule. Heat, light and Remaining 2,217 villages are expected to be electricity possess the capacity to do work. They electrified by 1st May 2018. These 2217 villages provide what are called heat energy, light energy are located in the State of Arunachal Pradesh and electric energy. Mechanical energy, heat (1069), Assam (214), Bihar (111), Chhattisgarh energy, light energy, sound energy, electrical (176), J&K (99), Jharkhand (176), Karnataka energy, chemical energy and atomic energy are (8), Madhya Pradesh (34), Manipur (54), different forms of energy. Mechanical energy Meghalaya (50), Mizoram (11), Odisha (182) can be classified as potential energy and kinetic and Uttarakhand (33)21% of our villages and energy. about 50% of rural households are as yet not

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 46 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) electrified. It is targeted to achieve universal (MTs) as compared to 609.18 MTs during 2014- household electrification in the country by 15, registering a growth of 4.93%. 31st March 2019. • The Lignite production during 2015-16 During 2015-16, the per capita energy was 43.84 million tones which is 9.18% lower consumption in India is 1075 kilowatt-hour than the production during 2014-15 (48.27 (Kwh). According to the official data the total million tons). installed capacity of the country stood at • Considering the trend of production 315426.32 MW, as on February 28, 2017. from 2006-07 to 2015-16, it is observed that Thermal power plants constitute 68.2 % of the coal production in India was about 430.83 MTs installed capacity and hydropower about 14. during 2006-07, which increased to 639.23 There are 21 nuclear power reactors in the MTs during 2015-16 with a CAGR of 4.02%. country with a total installed capacity of 5780 • During the same period, the CAGR MW. of Lignite was about 3.43% with production The peak power deficit was 1.6 % during increasing from 31.29 MTs in 2006-07 to 43.84 2016-2017 as against 3.2% last year. As on MTs in 2015-16. March 2017, 99.20 percentages of villages (ie. • Production of crude petroleum 5, 92,972) were electrified. India’s per capita increased from 33.99 MTs during 2006-07 to electricity consumption is 1075 kWh in 2015- 36.95 MTs during 2015-16, a CAGR of about 16. 0.84%. There is a wide disparity in the per capita • The CAGRs for natural gas and energy consumption pattern between rural electricity were 0.16% and 4.68% respectively and urban areas. As per NSSO 68th round for the period 2006-07 to 2015-16. Electricity data, 67.3% of rural households depend on has experienced the highest CAGR i.e. 4.68% firewood for cooking and about 15% on LPG among all the commercial sources of energy as against 14% of urban households depend since 2006-07 to 2015-16. on firewood for cooking and about 68.4% on LPG. Similarly for home lighting, while 26.5% AVAILABILITY OF ENERGY RESOURCES of rural households depend on kerosene and IN INDIA 72.7% depend on electricity, 96.1% of urban I) Availability of Coal and Lignite households depend on electricity and 3.2% →→ The total availability of raw coal in on kerosene. However, the number of LPG India in 2015-16 stood at 843.27 MTs and that connections in the country has been increasing of lignite at 45.47 MTs. and as on 1.11. 2017, the LPG penetration in →→ The availability of coal in the year 2015- the country stands at 78.3%. 16 increased by 1.60% compared to 2014-15. Women spend up to four hours of their The availability of lignite decreased by 8.27% productive time of a day in fetching fuel wood during the same period. and cooking. Children too are involved in →→ The availability of coal has increased at collection of fuel wood. A significant amount of a CAGR of about 5.74% during the period from rural energy used is derived from biomass. This 2006-07 to 2015-16. This increased availability puts heavy pressure on the already declining might be attributed to the increase in the coal vegetation in villages. Use of inefficient chulhas production (482.37 MTs during 2006-07 to often increases the drudgery of women and 843.27 MTs during 2015-16) supplemented by children who are involved in collection of fuel imports. wood. Moreover, the smoke generated during →→ The availability of lignite has increased indoor cooking from these chulhas affects the at a CAGR of about 3.65% during the period respiratory health of women and children to a from 2006-07 to 2015-16. great extent. II) Availability of Natural Gas Increased energy conservation, improved →→ The production of natural gas has energy efficiency and enhanced energy steadily increased from a mere 37.60 BCM production from renewable sources can during 2006-07 to 48.83 BCMs during 2015- definitely lead India in general and rural 16, registering a CAGR of 2.65%. Most of this areas in particular to become self sustainable increase in the indigenous production is due to communities. discovery of new reserves. PRODUCTION OF COMMERCIAL SOURCES III) Availability of Crude Oil and Petroleum OF ENERGY Products Production of Coal, lignite, crude petroleum, →→ The availability of crude oil in the natural gas & electricity: country increased from 145.49 MTs in 2006-07 • Coal production in the country during to 239.80 MTs during 2015-16. the year 2015-16 was 639.23 million tones →→ During this period, crude oil production

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 47 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018

increased from 33.99 MTs to 36.95 MTs and the net import increased from 111.50 MTs to 202.85 MTs between 2006-07 and 2015-16. There was increase of 5.69% in availability of crude oil during 2015- 16 over 2014-15. IV) Availability of Electricity →→ Electricity available for supply increased from 6, 39,008 kwh in 2006-07 to 11, 04,228 kwh in 2015-16, thus recording a CAGR of 5.62% during this period. The availability of electricity increased at 4.73% in 2015-16 over its value in 2014- 15. CONCLUSION This study reveals to know about the uses of energy, Production of commercial sources of energy and availability of energy resources in India. • Energy is the capacity to do work. Energy comes in various forms, such as motion, heat, light, electrical, chemical, nuclear energy, and gravitational. Total energy is the sum of all forms of the energy a system possesses. • The internal energy of a system is made up of sensible, latent, chemical and nuclear energies. The sensible internal energy is due to translational, rotational, and vibration effects of atoms and molecules. • Coals are sedimentary rocks containing combustible and incombustible matters as well as water. Coal has impurities like sulfur and nitrogen and when it burns the released impurities can combine with water vapor in the air to form droplets that fall to earth as weak forms of sulfuric and nitric acid as acid rain. • Petroleum oil is a naturally occurring flammable liquid consisting of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights, which define its physical and chemical properties, like heating value, color, and viscosity. • Natural gas is a naturally occurring mixture, consisting mainly of methane. REFERENCES 1.Ministry of Coal, 2013. Annual Reports 2012- 2013. New Delhi. 2.Ministry of Power, Annual reports 2013, New Delhi, Government of India. 3.Energy Statistics – 2017. 4.www.powermin.nic.in.

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 48 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) 11. AN ENVIRONMENTAL STUDY ON PROBLEMS FACED BY HEALTHCARE VISITORS OF KANCHIPURAM DISTRICT

Dr.N.PALANIRAJ, Head & Associate Professor, PG & Research Department of Economics, Pachaiyappa’s College for Men, Kanchipuram – 631 502.

PRAKASH V, Ph.D Research Scholar, PG & Research Department of Economics, Pachaiyappa’s College for Men, Kanchipuram – 631 502.

ABSTRACT is regarded as hazardous and may pose a ndia as a developing economy is healthier variety of health risks. The remaining 10-25% Ination because of proper and well-developed is hazardous and can be injurious to humans healthcare infrastructure. This leads to and animals and dangerous to the environment improvement in the life years and happiness (Rao, 2004). of the population. The high life style increases the unhealthy practices of eating culture, fast Table 1. Approximate percentage of waste food, no exercise and other. Even children’s are type per total waste facing serious health issues in early ages. Due Non-infectious waste 80% to this, every individual’s visiting the hospitals at least once in a month. Many get diseases Pathological waste and 15 % while visiting hospitals where there is poor infectious waste maintenance of various wastes, which leads to Sharps waste 1 % air pollution, waste water pollution, bio medical waste pollution, and soil pollution. Tamil nadu Chemical or pharmaceutical 3% serve as a hub of medical services in India waste which also spreads to major hospital accrued Pressurises cylinders, broken Less than 1 % infections to human beings as well as to the thermometers.. environment. This research study highlights about the environmental problems which are RESEARCH PROBLEM posed by the health care centers to the humans India has World’s second highest population, and animals. next to China, having 127 crores of population KEYWORDS: hospital waste ,environmental with increasing number of health care facilities, pollution, bio medical waste silently producing thousands of tons of medical INTRODUCTION wastes everyday such as pathological wastes, Health care waste is any waste, generated during blood wastes, etc. These health care wastes are the diagnosis, treatment or immunisation of highly infectious to those who handle it, may be human beings or animals. These wastes are also doctors, nurses and other health care related generated during research activities or in the people. The danger is really fall on the public production or testing of biological materials. who are using the healthcare facilities like The solid or liquid waste arising from health care Hospitals, Dispensaries, Labs, PHCs, CHS have including collected gaseous waste. The wastes the potential source to infect via these hospital which are disposed and/or originated from wastes. This study aims to understand the any private and public healthcare institutions, different environmental problems and impact can affect human well being and health, and on human health of the same. the environment i.e., air, water, soil, animals, LITERATURE REVIEW landscape, and also the public order and Ramesh Babu B (2009) studied with the objective security. Health care waste includes all types of to highlight the effect of hospital waste in the waste generated by health care establishments, environment including air, land, and radioactive research facilities, and laboratories. pollution. Air pollution in indoor chemicals 75 per cent to 90 per cent of wastes produced from poor ventilator causes diseases like Sick by the health care establishments are general Building Syndrome (SBS); in outdoor pollution, or non-risk wastes comparable to domestic waste without pre-treatment, if it is dumped in wastes. These wastes come mostly from the open area will enter into the atmosphere. The administrative and housekeeping functions of Air Atmosphere too gets contaminated, causes healthcare centres and may also include wastes respiratory diseases. Some radioactive effects generated during maintenance of healthcare also disturb the health of the environment. premises. The remaining 10-25% of wastes The liquid waste which let into water bodies

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can alter the parameters such as pH, BOD, Viral Hepatitis VHA Faeces COD, etc., and in some cases the dioxin mix type A is also reported near incineration. Land gets polluted due to infectious waste, discarded Viral Hepatitis VHB, VHC Blood, biological medicine, chemical, lead and mercury which type B and C fluids gets absorbed with water, water bodies, which Source: Nikos, 2011 will enter in food chain. Hospital waste was not being managed but it was Hospital Pollution simply ‘disposed off’. The disposal of hospital An undisclosed study says, the infectious waste can be very hazardous particularly when hospital waste may contain variety of it gets mixed with municipal solid waste. All pathogenic microorganisms. These may enter the waste dumped in uncontrolled or illegal human body through puncture or cut in the landfills such as vacant lots in neighbouring skin, mucous membranes or by inhalation. residential areas, inhabited lands and slums. Sharps are very dangerous because it can infect Further, unhygienic conditions in general ward the wounds more. It has the dual risk of injury toilets, coupled with frequent strikes by Class and disease transmission. The poor hospital IV staff creates what are virtually secondary waste management may lead to the cause of foci of infectious diseases within the hospital Hepatitis B and C, HIV infection, Gastro-enteric premises. Such areas are often stockpiles infection, skin infection, respiratory infection, of heterogeneous infectious material and blood stream infection, and radioactive toxicity contribute greatly to the incidence of and health problems associated with air and nosocomial infections. For example, according water pollution. to a WHO report the excreted loads of some Table 2. The types of infections, determined by selected enteric diseases are as follows: the contact with biomedical waste, pathogen Table 3 Excreted loads of Infectious Agents agents and transmission INFECTIOUS AGENT AVERAGE NO. PER Infection Type Pathogen Transmission GRAM FECES Agents Path Shigella spp. 107 Gastrointestinal Enterobacteria: Faeces or/and Salmonella typhi 108 infections Salmonell, vomiting liquid Shigella spp. Escherichia coli 108 Vibrio cholera (pathological) Helminthis Hepatitis A virus 106 Respiratory Mycobacterium Respiratory Source: Saurabh Sikka 2000 infections tuberculosis secretions, saliva The persistence of these organisms in the Measles virus environment at 20-30o C is shown to variations Streptococcus from 2 weeks to a month. This aggravates pneumonae health hazards when associated with the Eye infections Herpes virus Eye secretions biomedical wastes generated in the hospitals. Genital Neisseria Bio-medical waste are being buried in small infections gonorrhoeae pits near the centres itself and gets exposed Herpes virus Genital when stray dogs and pigs dig it out in search secretions of food. The well defined and documented evidence is that, in developing countries, the Skin infections Streptococcus Purulent impact of miss-managed health care wastes are spp secretions transmitting hepatitis B and C, the HIV viruses Anthrax Bacillus Secretion of skin through injuries by needles & syringes which anthracis lesions are contaminated with human blood. Meningitis Neisseria LCR meningitides BEDS AND MATTRESSES Hospitals have more beds; a single bed is used AIDS HIV Blood, semen, for different types of patients in the hospitals. vaginal secretions Some mattress can absorb the infections and Haemorrhagic Junin Viruses, Biological fluids blood or any other secretion of human. Soiled fevers Lassa, Ebola and secretions linen and mattresses may contain pathogenic Marburg microorganisms from one diseased person Septicaemia Staphylococcus Blood which can be easily transferred to the other ssp patients using it.

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 50 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) HOSPITAL PREMISES Chemicals and pharmaceuticals may also Akter et al., (1998) reported that, there were determine lesions of skin, eye, and respiratory several incidences (10 cases out of 17) of injury mucosa. Chemical waste removed by drainage due to exposure to medical wastes inside or system may have toxic effects on ecosystems outside the hospital premises. These were as and water where are discharged. follows: ACID GASES •Hands cut due to handling broken glass The acid gases (e.g., hydrogen chloride, nitrogen •Injured by needle and fingers permanently oxides and sulphur dioxides), cause acute damaged/ became cured effects such as eyes and respiratory irritation, •Right hand became paralysed by the injury by can contribute to acid rain and may enhance the a needle toxic effects to heavy metals. Particulate matter •Two legs became paralyzed due to injury by a can cause chronic health effects. Burning of needle chlorine made material e.g., PVC, creates dioxin, •Skin diseases on legs and hands/ body a known animal carcinogen, and considered as •Pus due to injury sometimes human carcinogen. A lack of understanding of •Ulcer on legs the modes of transmission of agents associated INJECTIONS with blood borne diseases, the fear of a fatal The greatest risks possessed by infectious disease such as the Acquired Immuno Deficiency waste are accidental needle stick injuries, Syndrome (AIDS), and a distrust of health care which can cause Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C facilities and often misleading media coverage and HIV infection. There are numerous other has led to intense public pressure on politicians diseases which could be transmitted by contact to regulate medical waste. with infectious health care workers. A report ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS on injection practices in India, submitted to The improper management in bio-medical the Ministry of Health, shows that two-thirds waste causes environmental problems that of the injections administered are unsafe. It is causes air, water and land pollution. estimated that 0.6 to 0.8 million needle stick Air pollution can be in both indoor and injuries are annually among heath care workers. outdoor atmosphere. Biomedical waste that The needle stick injuries have been related to generated by air pollution can been classified certain work practices like: in to three types namely – Biological, chemical •Recapping, and radioactive. Pathogens present in the •Transferring of sharps between hands, biomedical waste can enter and remain in the •Failing to properly dispose of sharps in air for a long period in the form of spores or puncture proof containers. as pathogens. The indoor air pollution caused DIOXIN due to the chemicals from poor ventilation The term “dioxin” is to refers both can cause diseases like Sick Building Syndrome polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and (SBS). Most Chemicals utilized are not as per polychlorinated dibenzofurans, a family of 210 prescribed norms and over use of chemicals highly toxic and persistent chemicals that are should be avoided. unintentional by products of medical waste Outdoor air pollution can be caused by incineration and PVC plastic production. Health pathogens. The bio-medical waste without effects of dioxin exposure at even in extremely pre-treatment if transported outside the HCF, low concentration includes the following: or if it is dumped in open areas and roads, •Chronic lymphocytic leukemia, soft-tissue pathogens can enter into the atmosphere. sarcoma, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, and Chemical pollution that causes outdoor air Hodgkin’s disease have been linked to dioxin pollution has two major sources: open burning exposure. There are further more evidence of and incinerators. Open burning of bio-medical a possible association with liver, lung, stomach waste is the most harmful practice. When and prostrate cancers. inhaled can cause respiratory problems. •Immune system effect and low exposures to Water Pollution, The liquid waste generated, dioxins result in susceptibility to bacterial, viral let into sewers can lead to water pollution, and parasitic diseases. without treatment or proper treatment. Water •Reproductive and Developmental effects in pollution can alter parameters such as pH, animals, decreased fertility, decreased litter BOD, DO, COD, etc. There are instances where size and inability to carry pregnancies. dioxins are reported from water bodies near CHEMICAL WASTE incinerator plants. Dioxins can enter the water These hospital wastes cause poisoning by body from air and water. absorption through the skin or mucous Radioactive waste in liquid form can come from membranes, by inhalation or by ingestion. chemical or biological research, body organ

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imaging, decontamination of radioactive pills, REFERENCES patient’s urine and from scintillation liquids 1.Rao SK, Ranyal RK, Bhatia SS, Sharma VR. (2004). used in radio immunoassay. Research and Biomedical waste management: an infrastructural radio-immunoassay activities may generate survey of hospital. MJAFI;60:379-82 small radioactive gas. 2.Ramesh Babu, A.K.(2009). Management of Soil pollution of bio-medical waste is caused Biomedical waste in India: A review. Journal of due to infectious waste, discarded medicines, International Environmental Application and chemicals used in treatment, ash and other Science, Vol. 4 (1): 65 – 78. waste generated during treatment processes. 3.Nikos E. Mastorakis, Carmen A. Bulucea, Tatiana Heavy metals such as cadmium, lead, mercury A.Oprea, Environmental and health risks associated etc., which are present in the waste, gets with biomedical waste management. absorbed by plants and its entering into the 4.Saurabh Sikka. (2002). Mercury Recovery from human body through the food chain. Nitrates Biomedical Waste. Congress Proceedings, R’99. Vol. and phosphates present in the leachates from IV, 356-361, Geneva, Switzerland. landfills are also pollutants. Excessive amount of trace nutrients element including heavy metals in soil are harmful to crops and are also harmful to animals and human beings. The WHO reveals that more than 50,000 people die every day from infectious diseases. HIV, hepatitis, tuberculosis, pneumonia, tetanus, and whooping cough are the diseases those spread through improper waste management. SUMMARY The following are the summary of environmental impacts associated with the improper care of hospitals: • Pollutants from medical waste (e.g., heavy metals and PCBs) are persistent in the environment • Ground water contamination, decrease in water quality • Pathogens leads to long term accumulation of toxic substances in the soil, Specimens collected for analysis have the potential to cause diseases and illness in man, either through direct contact or indirectly by contamination of soil, ground water, surface water, and air. • With domestic animals being allowed to graze in open dumps, there is the added risk of reintroducing pathogenic microorganisms into the food chain • Public nuisance (e.g., odors, scenic view, block the walkway, aesthetics, etc.,) • Improper sterilization of instruments used in labour room may cause infection both to mother and child Inadequate hospital management thus will cause environmental pollution, unpleasant smell, growth and multiplication of vectors like insects, rodents and worms and may lead to the transmission of diseases like typhoid, cholera, hepatitis and AIDS through injuries from needles and syringes contaminated with human bloods. Various communication diseases which spread through water, sweat, blood, body fluids and contaminated organs, are important to be prevented.

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 52 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) 12. ECONOMICS AND AIR POLLUTION- AN ANALYSIS OF CHENNAI CITY Dr. PREETHI MOHAN.M, Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, Bharathi Womens College, Chennai. ABSTRACT internalized through a market mechanism. ir pollution causes a variety of The six-scale Air Quality Index (AQI) rates air Aenvironmental effects, besides harming quality from ‘good’ (minimal impact) to ‘severe’ human health. Acid rain is precipitation (affects healthy people and seriously impacts containing harmful amounts of nitric and those with existing diseases). The air quality sulfuric acids. These acids are formed primarily in Chennai has deteriorated sharply, with the by nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides released AQI downgrading air quality in the city from into the atmosphere when fossil fuels are ‘satisfactory’ to ‘very poor’. burned. In the economics of pollution, we see INTRODUCTION that there is a point where both society and There are numerous effects of air pollution the environment have some satisfaction, or in on the ecosystem which in turn have various other words, there is an optimum amount of economic implications. In simple terminology, pollution. The optimum amount of pollution we can say that air pollution effects can can be defined as the point where the marginal be both direct and indirect. For instance, benefit equals the marginal cost of pollution. pollution of air primarily causes respiratory Air pollution is responsible for major harmful and other health hazards in people who are effects on human health, animal lives, natural being directly exposed to various harmful ecosystems and the man-made environment. It gases. The secondary, and long run impact, is also responsible for climate change due to would be that following the health problems, the enhanced greenhouse effect, acid rain, and the productivity of workers might be adversely the depletion of the ozone layer that constitute affected which in turn hamper output levels. important global environmental problems. This is how air pollution exerts an indirect The relationship between environmental effect on the overall economy. degradation and economic growth has Air pollution causes a variety of environmental been object of constant debate among effects, besides harming human health. Acid rain environmental economists. During the last is precipitation containing harmful amounts of two decades, the debate between economic nitric and sulfuric acids. These acids are formed growth and the environment introduced into primarily by nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides the discussion. External effects or externality released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels is one of the most basic concepts evoked are burned. In the economics of pollution, we by economists when looking at problems of see that there is a point where both society environmental pollution. The market impacts and the environment have some satisfaction, of outdoor air pollution are projected to lead to or in other words, there is an optimum amount global economic costs that gradually increase of pollution. The optimum amount of pollution to 1% of global GDP by 2060. Costs related can be defined as the point where the marginal to additional health expenditures and labour benefit equals the marginal cost of pollution. productivity losses dominate in the long run. Air pollution is responsible for major harmful From an economics perspective, demand law effects on human health, animal lives, natural suggests an inverse relationship between price ecosystems and the man-made environment. and the quantity consumed of a marketable It is also responsible for climate change due to product. However, when a product does the enhanced greenhouse effect, acid rain, and not have a very well-established market, the depletion of the ozone layer that constitute this product will be most likely underpriced. important global environmental problems. This is the case of natural systems such as In 2015, WHO and OECD estimated that air or water. The lack of property rights for the economic cost of premature death and these natural inputs and the absence of disability from air pollution in Europe is environmental regulation or legal protection close to USD 1.6 trillion. New technologies to pollution receptors make a firm to perceive that contribute to emissions’ reductions are air as an input that can be freely used, like a constantly being developed. Setting emission common resource, thus neglecting all external limit values for air pollutants, as done under costs imposed to other agents of the economy. the different Protocols of the Convention, have In other words, if there were well-defined proven to be an effective tool in stimulating property rights for air, firms would have to buy investment in clean technologies. Benefits of the right to pollute it and emissions could be improved technology to reduce air pollution

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have been quantified in many cases. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY AIR POLLUTION AND ECONOMICS 1.To study the economic impact of Air pollution Air pollution takes its toll on the economy in using economic tools. several ways: it costs human lives, it reduces 2.To analyse the economic effect of Air Pollution people’s ability to work, it affects vital products in Chennai City. like food, it damages cultural and historical ECONOMIC TOOLS AND ANALYSIS OF monuments, it reduces the ability of ecosystems AIR POLLUTION- AT INTERNATIONAL to perform functions societies need and it LEVEL costs money in remediation or restoration. Economic models show that with the The relationship between environmental introduction of additional measures some degradation and economic growth has been sectors will lose jobs (e.g. the fossil fuel sector); object of constant debate among environmental but that other sectors will gain jobs (e.g. economists. During the last two decades, the the building and equipment sectors). In the debate between economic growth and the long run environmental policy will favour the environment introduced into the discussion. economy as it stimulates more efficient use External effects or externality is one of the most of resources, and the health benefits would basic concepts evoked by economists when increase GDP by up to 10%. A larger market looking at problems of environmental pollution. for clean technologies will reduce the costs of The market impacts of outdoor air pollution are producing the required equipment and thus projected to lead to global economic costs that the abatement measures. Countries that move gradually increase to 1% of global GDP by 2060. first expand their possibilities for a growing Costs related to additional health expenditures clean tech industry. Reducing emissions is a and labour productivity losses dominate in the wise long term investment that contributes long run. to several development goals and ultimately From an economics perspective, demand law will yield substantial benefits. The Convention suggests an inverse relationship between price sets emission limit values for air pollutants and and the quantity consumed of a marketable these have proven to be an effective tool in product. However, when a product does not stimulating investment in clean technologies, have a very well-established market, this including in the energy sector, and will thus also product will be most likely underpriced. This is promote sustainable industrialization. the case of natural systems such as air or water. A techno-economic database of information The lack of property rights for these natural on control technologies for air pollution inputs and the absence of environmental abatement and their costs is being developed regulation or legal protection to pollution internationally. The information may be used receptors make a firm to perceive air as an input both in the formulation of draft revisions of that can be freely used, like a common resource, technical annexes to existing Protocols to the thus neglecting all external costs imposed to Convention, as well as for input data to integrated other agents of the economy. In other words, if assessment modelling. The information assists there were well-defined property rights for air, countries in identifying technologies, including firms would have to buy the right to pollute it for industry and in the energy sector that helps and emissions could be internalized through a reduce air pollution which gives an affordable market mechanism. and clean energy and sustainable development The six-scale Air Quality Index (AQI) rates in industry, innovation and infrastructure. air quality from ‘good’ (minimal impact) to HEALTH BENEFITS AND ECONOMIC ‘severe’ (affects healthy people and seriously VALUE impacts those with existing diseases). The air The results of risk assessments can be used as quality in Chennai has deteriorated sharply, part of an assessment of the economic benefits with the AQI downgrading air quality in the from reducing emissions. The Environmental city from ‘satisfactory’ to ‘very poor’. Economic Benefits Mapping and Analysis Program assessments are used to evaluate the cost and (BenMAP) is a tool for estimating health the economic impact of a policy or regulation impacts, and the associated economic values, related to air quality management. They can resulting from changes in ambient air pollution. also be used to estimate the economic value Economic Analysis of the benefits of an air pollution policy or Guidelines for Preparing Economic Analyses program. Taken together, these assessments establish a sound scientific framework for can help identify air quality management performing economic analyses of environmental policies needed to address the risks that have regulations and policies. been identified, as well as to focus on the most Economic and regulatory impact analyses cost effective ones. conducted by EPA for many air pollution rules,

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 54 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) as well as guidance and tools for cost, benefit also entails large-scale suffering. The report and economic analyses for air pollution rules ranks air pollution as the fourth biggest fatal can be found at Economic and Cost Analysis risk factor in the world. Air pollution kills for Air Pollution Regulations. The EPA report more people than tobacco, alcohol or drug received extensive review and input from the use or unsafe sex in most countries. At 10.1% Advisory Council on Clean Air Compliance of total deaths globally, air pollution ranked Analysis, an independent panel of distinguished fourth among the leading fatal health risks economists, scientists and public health experts after metabolic risks, dietary risks and tobacco established by Congress in 1991. smoke. For poorer countries, the impact of bad ECONOMICS OF AIR POLLUTION- air quality has been worse. Low- and middle- INDIAN SCENARIO income countries account for 93% of the It has been estimated by a study that air deaths and non-fatal illness each year from pollution cost India 8.5% of its GDP in 2013. air pollution. India and China also accounted A World Bank study shows that welfare costs for the highest number of deaths due to air and lost labour income due to air pollution pollution in 2013. But while China reported an amounted to 8.5% of India’s GDP in 2013 increase of only 7% between 1990 and 2013, Measures to safeguard the environment are deaths due to air pollution in India during the often considered to be economic spoilers as same period increased by 34.5%. they entail putting restrictions on economic The number of deaths due to air pollution was activity such as shutting a polluting factory or also higher for children and older people. In scrapping old vehicles. What is not taken into 2013, the mortality rate due to air pollution account while making these calculations is the was 18 deaths per 100,000 people under age 5, cost imposed on people living in regions where which increased to 397 deaths per 100,000 in pollution and environmental degradation is people over age of 70, according to the report. higher. Disability-adjusted life years, too, were higher The cost of air pollution: strengthening the for young children and among adults aged economic case for action, a joint study by World 60-64 years. Disability-adjusted life year is a Bank and University of Washington, released measure of overall disease burden, expressed on Thursday, might be useful in dispelling as the number of years lost due to ill-health, such a blinkered view on costs of controlling disability or early death. For young children, pollution. According to the report, total welfare the majority of deaths resulted from lower losses between 1990 and 2013 because of respiratory infections, while for the older age premature deaths from air pollution increased groups, heart and pulmonary diseases were by 94%. Of this, damages from ambient PM 2.5 the major causes. air pollution rose by 63% during this period to SCENARIO IN CHENNAI $3.5 trillion, while damages from household air Chennai is one of the important coastal mega pollution from cooking with solid fuels jumped cities in India. It is located in the eastern coastal almost four-fold to $1.5 trillion, adjusted to the side of South India. Many industries have come purchasing power parity (PPP) in 2011. up in the city over the past two decades which In terms of welfare losses because of air are located near the coast. Due to change in the pollution, India ranks second after China at roughness length and difference in land and $505.1 billion, or 7.69% of its gross domestic sea temperatures, sea breeze is developed and product (GDP), in 2013. Premature deaths Thermal Internal Boundary Layer is observed. due to air pollution in 2013 cost the global Due to this all the pollutants released from the economy about $225 billion in lost labour industries will be dispersed towards the inland income, or about $5.11 trillion in welfare and in turn affect the environment and health. losses, worldwide, according to the report. Tamil Nadu constitutes the south-eastern India reported the highest loss in labour output extremity of the Indian peninsula. Chennai is in 2013 owing to air pollution globally at $55.39 the capital city of the State, besides being an billion (2011 PPP-adjusted), or 0.84% of its important district. The district city is one of GDP. China followed close behind with $44.56 the metropolises of India and serves as the billion, or 0.28% of its GDP, lost due to forgone gateway of the culture of South India. Chennai labour output.Adding welfare costs and costs is situated on the north-east end of Tamil Nadu of lost labour due to air pollution puts India’s on the coast of Bay of Bengal. It lies between GDP loss at more than 8.5% in 2013. India’s 12* 9’ and 13* 9’ of the northern latitude and GDP growth at constant prices was less than 800 12’ and 800 19’ of the southern longitude 7% in 2013-14. So air pollution alone might be on a `sandy shelving breaker swept beach’. offsetting the Indian economy’s growth efforts. It stretches nearly 25.60 kms along the Bay As is to be expected, increasing air pollution coast from Thiruvanmiyur in the south to

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 55 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018 Thiruvottiyur in the north and runs inland in a concentrations of SO2 range from 6.10µgm-3 at rugged semi-circular fashion. It is bounded on residential areas and 40.90µgm-3 in industrial the east by the Bay of Bengal. Chennai is one areas. An increase in the concentrations of SO2 of the leading cities in India today from the and NO2 is observed from 2000 to 2004. Low point of view of trade and commerce, with conditions of NAAQS standards are observed the fourth largest port in the country and the in the concentrations of SPM in both industrial first to have developed a full-fledged container and residential areas terminal tointernational standards. Chennai is Air Quality Index for Kilpauk also one of the most important industrial cities 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 of the sub¬continent. The data is collected from Central Pollution JANUARY 164 156 156 95 44 92 Control Board (CPCB) New Delhi, for the period FEBRUARY 99 139 121 94 115 271 from 2000-2004 in industrial and residential MARCH 117 149 113 190 135 541 areas for the selected coastal Mega City- APRIL 100 95 95 98 162 301 CHENNAI. ANALYSIS AND RESULTS OF THE MAY 91 123 143 76 113 301 STUDY JUNE 81 103 86 99 81 212 The concentration of SO2, NO2 and SPM in JULY 129 79 119 78 127 162 Chennai are analyzed from 2000 to 2004. The AUGUST 52 87 94 87 176 170 pollution levels in this mega city of India have SEPTEMBER 147 200 119 97 137 168 been exceeded the WHO air quality guidelines. The data is collected for three industrial and OCTOBER 154 135 99 93 125 160 two residential areas at different locations NOVEMBER 200 165 149 63 86 170 in the city, these are Kathivakkam (I), Manali DECEMBER 182 128 119 79 170 115 PS (I), Thiruvottiyur (I), General Hospital (R), Air Quality Index for Anna Nagar Santhome (R). 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 AIR QUALITY INDEX: The following discussion summarizes JANUARY 94 105 105 154 154 123 the information that can be drawn from the FEBRUARY 119 129 207 109 119 125 calculated indices. AQI for four places of MARCH 101 141 132 170 103 164 Chennai city are given in Tables 2 to5 APRIL 100 98 98 125 137 111 Air quality Index for T.Nagar MAY 91 147 194 154 210 246 JUNE 57 149 111 178 113 190 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 JULY 91 182 170 133 92 92 JANUARY 94 105 105 154 154 123 AUGUST 88 96 160 160 182 96 FEBRUARY 119 129 207 109 119 125 SEPTEMBER 90 113 182 167 287 176 MARCH 101 141 132 170 103 164 OCTOBER 97 121 160 177 279 176 APRIL 100 98 98 125 137 111 NOVEMBER 135 159 164 83 255 271 MAY 91 124 194 154 210 246 DECEMBER 143 167 204 129 253 107 JUNE 57 149 111 178 113 190 JULY 91 182 170 133 92 92 Air Quality Index for Adyar AUGUST 88 96 160 160 182 96 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 SEPTEMBER 90 113 182 167 287 176 JANUARY 54 61 61 30 44 53 OCTOBER 97 121 160 177 279 176 FEBRUARY 45 61 74 37 29 76 NOVEMBER 135 144 164 83 255 271 MARCH 39 44 43 40 36 91 DECEMBER 143 162 204 129 253 107 APRIL 31 39 36 31 41 58 Likewise, the concentration levels of SO2, MAY 36 49 51 43 59 77 NO2 and SPM are observed from the data collected from CPCB. The concentrations JUNE 31 41 25 36 34 78 of SO2 and NO2 are observed to be in low JULY 40 27 19 29 44 65 conditions according to NAAQS standards in AUGUST 31 24 39 33 55 57 both industrial and residential areas (6). But SEPTEMBER 32 44 33 27 55 71 compared to residential areas i.e., General OCTOBER 53 67 50 28 86 71 Hospital and Santhome the concentrations in the industrial areas i.e., Kathivakkam, Manali PS NOVEMBER 43 53 60 34 75 83 and Thiruvottiyur are observed to be more. The DECEMBER 63 61 65 45 92 72

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 56 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) If the index is 0 to 100 the air quality is good, if the index is 101-200, the air quality is moderate, if the index is 201-300, the air quality is poor, if it is 301-400, the air quality is very poor, if it is 401-500, the air quality is severe. The air quality in T. Nagar and Anna Nagar lies between moderate and poor status. The air quality in Kilpauk liesbetween very poor and severe status.AQI remains good in Adyar. From the above tables AQI got worsened from the year 2007 to 2012. Impacts on Human Health Gender of respondents. Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Male 81 89.0 89.0 89.0 Female 10 11.0 11 100 Total 91 100 100

Occupation of respondents.

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative % DRIVER 31 34.1 34.1 34.1 VENDOR 47 51.6 51.6 85.7 PASSERBY 13 14.3 14.3 100.0 Total 91 100.0 100.0

Age of respondents

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative % <=30 24 26.4 26.4 26.4 31-40 30 33.0 33.0 59.3 41-50 21 23.1 23.1 82.4 >50 16 17.6 17.6 100.0 Total 91 100.0 100.0 Person with disease Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative % Valid no disease 45 49.5 49.5 49.5 Disease 46 50.5 50.5 100 Total 91 100 100

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off older vehicles, periodic check on vehicle pollution certificates and encouraging people to use public transport means like metro rails and high capacity buses. The survey results prove that most of the people affected by air pollution resulted in chronic diseases. 2.The people also has to take up some severe precautions to bring down the concentration of pollutants and reduce the use of energy consumable goods. REFERENCES 1.Faiz, A., Sturm, P. J., 2000. “New directions: air pollution and road traffic in developing countries. Atmospheric Environment 34, 4745-4746. 2.Mohanthy, U.C., Dube, S.K. and Singh, M.P., 1983, “A study of heat and moisture budget over the Arabian Sea and their role in the onset and CONCLUSION maintenance of summer monsoon”. 1.The analysis of data collected from CPCB, 3.Goyal.P, Siddartha, 2004, “Modeling and Delhi during 2000 to 2004 shows that the monitoring of suspended particulate matter concentration levels have been increased from Badarpur thermal power station, Delhi” from 2000 to 2004 due to dense population Environmental modeling & software 19 (2004) 383- and rapid industrialization. Industries, 390. automobiles, domestic fuel consumption and 4.Sawford, B. L. and Guest, F. M.: 1991, “Lagrangin the use of domestic appliances contribute Statistical Simulation of the Turbulent Motion of to the emissions while gases from garbage Heavy Particles”, Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 31, dumps contaminate the air. Due to increase in 3369–3382. pollutants the temperatures inside the cities 5.Wark. K. and Warner C.F.(1981) Air Pollution. Its are higher around 40 C to 60 C compared to Origin and Control. Harper and Row, New York. the surrounding rural areas. 6.Singh.M.P, Goyal.P, Panwar.T.S, Agarwal and S. 2.Increasing economic growth and energy has Nigam ., “Predicted and observed concentrations lead to a significant increase in the emissions of SO2, SPM and Nox over Delhi. 15 February 1988 of air pollutants. and 9 February 1989. 3.Rising emissions, together with other factors, 7.Gudi Sudhakar et al., “A case study on atmospheric such as climate change, has led to increasing pollution over Mumbai-Awest coastal mega city in concentrations of particulate matter (PM2.5) India”,pg 7-8, Vol-4, IJAR¬2014. and ground level ozone. 8.AlliraniThiyagarajan (2003) Air Pollution and 4.Increasing concentrations of PM2.5 and Respiratory Illness. Proceedings of the Third ozone has led to substantial effects on health International Conference on Environment and and the environment. In particular, premature Health, Chennai, India, 15-17 December 2003, pp deaths from outdoor air pollution in 2010 588- 596 amounted to around 3 million people, while 9.Chelani, A.B., Chalapati, Rao C.V., Phadke, K.M., they are projected to be 6-9 million in 2060. Hasan, M.Z.,( 2002). Formation of an airquality index 5.The annual costs of these premature deaths for India. International Journal of Environmental from outdoor air pollution, calculated using Studies 59, 331-342. estimates of the individual willingness-to-pay 10.Indian Air Quality Index, 2005, http://home.iitk. to reduce the risk of premature death, are ac.in/~mukesh/ . projected to be USD 18-25 trillion in 2060. In 11.John A. Maga& John R. Goldsmith M.D. (1960) addition, the costs of pain and suffering from Standards for Air Quality in California , Journal of illness are estimated at estimated at around the Air Pollution Control Association, 10:6, 453-467 USD 2.2 trillion by 2060. 12.Nagendra, S., Venugopal, K. and Jones, S. (2007) “Assessment of air quality near traffic intersections SUGGESTIONS in Bangalore city.”, Journal of Transportation 1.Measures have to be taken by government Research Part D, vol 12, 167-176. to improve ambient air quality taking in view of the public health. These measures include usage of clean fuel such as CNG, closure of high polluting industrial units, phasing out

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 58 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) 13. A STUDY ON WATER QUALITY IN KANYAKUMARI DISTRICT, TAMIL NADU, INDIA Dr. R. STEPHEN CHELLAKAN, Assistant Professor, College of Administrative and Financial Sciences, AMA International University, Bldg 829, Road 1213, Blk 712, Salmabad, P.O. Box 18041, Kingdom of Bahrain.

ABSTRACT for agricultural and industrial uses. The Analyses of physical and chemical examinations effects of water pollution are detrimental to were undertaken for the river and pond water human beings, plants, animals, fish and birds. resources of Kanyakumari district, Tamil Nadu, Polluted water also contains virus, bacteria, India. The study has chosen two main rivers intestinal parasites and other pathogenic and four ponds in the study area mainly microorganisms. Using it for drinking purpose because these water sources are used by village is the prime cause for waterborne diseases people for drinking and bathing purposes. such as diarrhoea, dysentery and typhoid Water quality parameters viz., Turbidity, Total SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION dissolved solids, Electrical conductivity, pH, The important sources of water pollution Total Hardness, Nitrite, Sulphite, Phosphate, are domestic wastes, industrial effluents and Bacteriological examinations, and Faecal agricultural wastes. Other sources include Coliform were analysed as per the Bharat Indian oil spills, atmospheric deposition, marine Standard. The laboratory results of pH, Nitrate dumping, radioactive waste, global warming (NO3), Sulphate (SO4) and Faecal Coliform per and eutrophication. Among these, domestic 100 ml are within the standard permissible waste (domestic sewage) and industrial waste limits for all four tap water samples. In generate maximum pollutants, which make Villukuri, the values of Turbidity, Total Harness, their way to groundwater and surface water Electrical conductivity, Total Hardness, Nitrate, bodies. Nitrite and Sulphate have shown the highest Depending on the origin, the sources are among the four stations viz., 6 NTU, 740 mg/L, classified as point source and non-point 1112 micS/cm, 312 mg/L, 022 , 10, and 39 source. Point source pollution discharges the mg/L respectively. The Faecal coliform and the harmful waste directly into water bodies, E. coli counts exceeding acceptable limits are for example, disposal through wastewater indicative of pollution from domestic wastes treatment plants. On the other hand, the from several informal settlements located main form of nonpoint source pollution is the along the riverbank. Water uses in the area polluted runoff that drains into streams, rivers, were determined and were found to be mainly lakes and estuaries, Schulz and Howe (2003). domestic and recreational. The gross pollution Runoff occurs when rainwater or irrigation of the river exposes the local people who water does not soak into the ground but rather depend on it for their primary water source to runs off the land or developed surfaces into a serious health risk. body of water. As runoff flows over surfaces of KEYWORDS: water quality, river, water, physic- streets, parking lots, yards, construction sites, chemical farms, and forests, it picks up the things in its INTRODUCTION path including fertilizers, loose soil (sediment), Water pollution is an undesirable change in animal waste, leaking motor oil, chemicals the state of water, contaminated with harmful such as pesticides and herbicides, oil, grease, substances. When toxic substances enter metals, pathogens (bacteria and viruses) and lakes, streams, rivers, oceans, and other water trash. This runoff then drains either directly to bodies, they get dissolved or lie suspended in a water body and carries with it the pollutants water or get deposited in the bed. This results it has picked up, Dwivedi et al (2006). in the pollution of water whereby the quality DISEASE BURDEN DUE TO WATER of the water deteriorates, affects aquatic POLLUTION AT THE GLOBAL LEVEL ecosystems. Pollutants can also seep down Polluted water, the root cause of most of the and affect the groundwater deposits. It is the water borne diseases, is caused by human second most important environmental issue activities like rapid unplanned urbanization, next to air pollution. industrialization, agricultural pollutants like Pollution of the water bodies disturbs the pesticides and insecticides, improper waste ecosystem as a whole. Polluted water is management in the urban areas. Poor water not only unsafe for drinking and other quality continues to pose a major threat consumption purposes, but it is also unsuitable to human health. Diarrhoeal disease alone

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amounts to an estimated 4.1 per cent of the are spread either directly or through flies or total Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) of filth, water is the chief medium in the spread global burden of disease and is responsible of these diseases and hence they are termed for the deaths of 1.8 million people every year as water-borne diseases. (Battersby, 2013). It was estimated that 88 Most intestinal (enteric) diseases are infectious per cent of that burden is attributed to unsafe and are transmitted through faecal waste. water supply, sanitation and hygiene and is Pathogens, which include virus, bacteria, mostly concentrated on children in developing protozoa, and parasitic worms, are disease countries. producing agents found in the faeces of infected DISEASE BURDEN DUE TO WATER persons. These diseases are more prevalent POLLUTION IN INDIA in areas with poor sanitary conditions. These The public health impact of water pollution pathogens travel through water sources and in India is enormous. A number of diseases interfuses directly through persons handling with high morbidity and mortality are wide food and water. Since these diseases are highly spread in the communities specially living in infectious, extreme care and hygiene should be unsuitable environmental conditions in urban maintained by people looking after an infected slums and vast rural areas. The major diseases patient. Hepatitis, cholera, dysentery, and that are attributed to water pollution and typhoid are the more common water-borne poor drinking water supply are: diarrhoeal diseases that affect large populations in the diseases, cholera, shigellosis, escherichia tropical regions. coli diarrhoea, poliomyelitis, typhoid, water A large number of chemicals that either borne viral hepatitis. Of these, diarrhoeal exist naturally in the land or added due to diseases alone causes more than 0.6 million human activity dissolve in the water, thereby deaths annually. In slum areas of major cities, contaminating it and leading to various diarrhoeal incidence is as high as 10.5 episodes diseases. Exposure to polluted water can per child per year (Selendy, 2011). cause diarrhoea, skin irritation, respiratory Diseases caused by faeco-orally transmitted problems, and other diseases, depending on enteric pathogens account for 10 per cent the pollutant that is present in the water body. of total burden of disease in India. Statistics Stagnant water and other untreated water indicate that intestinal group of diseases claim provide a habitat for mosquitoes and a host of about 5 million lives and about 50 million other parasites and insects that cause a large people suffer from these diseases every year. number of diseases especially in the tropical Apart from biological contaminants, chemical regions. Among these, malaria is undoubtedly contaminants namely fluoride, arsenic and the most widely distributed disease that causes other heavy metals pose a very serious health more damage to human health. hazard in the country. It is estimated that about MATERIALS AND METHODS 70 million people in 20 states are at risk due to Study Area excess fluoride and around 14 million people Surface water is vital to the survival of not are at risk due to excess arsenic in ground only humans but also aquatic life, and wildlife. water (Pathak, 2007). Apart from this, increase Rivers, lakes, ponds and streams form surface in the concentration of chloride, Total Dissolved sources. In Kanyakumari district, the surface Solids (TDS), nitrate, iron in ground water is water is traditionally used for fishing, drinking, of great concern for a sustainable drinking swimming, domestic, and irrigation purposes. water programme. With over extraction of However, in spite of the fact that the district groundwater, the concentration of chemicals is is industrially backward, water of the ponds, increasing on a regular basis. lakes and river are polluted mainly due to HEALTH EFFECTS OF WATER discharge of waste water from residential POLLUTION areas, sewage outlets, solid waste, agriculture The effects of water pollution are not only run-off, dumping of garbage, hospital wastes, devastating to people but also to animals, automobile and oil waste. In recent years, fish, and birds. Polluted water is unsuitable surface water sources lose their importance for drinking, recreation, agriculture, and due to the introduction of bore-well technology industry. It diminishes the aesthetic quality of and centralized water supply system. In rural lakes and rivers. More seriously, contaminated areas, all the people do not get safe drinking water destroys aquatic life and reduces its water sources and so people make use of reproductive ability. Eventually, it is a hazard surface water sources also. Some households to human health. Water-related diseases make use of both surface sources and piped are infectious, spread primarily through water. Hence the investigator has collected contaminated water. Though these diseases water samples from rivers, ponds, and tap

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 60 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) water from different locations and given for Thengapattanam, about 56 kilometres west of testing in laboratory. Various physical and Kanyakumari town. The sample collected from chemical parameters collected from different Tamirabarani river is near Marthandam bridge, sources of water samples are presented below. which is at the end of the river. The quality of Rivers in many parts of rural India are the main the river water is affected by various agents, water source for agricultural, industrial and which enters into the river on its way. The domestic purposes. The two major rivers in tested values are given in the following table . the district are Pazhayar (R1) and Tamirabarani Kanyakumari district is also called as “The (R2). The Pazhayar originates from the forested District of Ponds”. A pond is a body of standing area of Surulacode, carries small streams from water, either natural or man-made, that is Mahendragiri peak and flows through Thovalai usually smaller than a lake. Ponds have been and Agastheeswaram taluks. The total length of used since time immemorial as the traditional the river is about 37 km and it passes through source of water source in this district. The Boothapandi, Thazakudi, Putheri, Nagercoil, investigator has collected water samples from Suchindrum and finally joins the Arabian Sea. four different ponds covering the entire district The sample collected from Pazhayar river is near viz., Rettaikulam (P1), Kariyankulam (P2), Suchindrum bridge. The river Tamirabarani KakaiponKulam (P3) and Chenkulam (P4) to is locally known as Kuzhithuraiar. The origin test the quality of water in ponds. The table 2 of Tamirabarani is in the Western Ghats and shows the test results of quality of four ponds the river confluences with Laccadive Sea near in the study area. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 3.1. Quality of River Water The tested values of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), pH, Total Hardness (CaCO3), Nitrate (NO3) and Sulphate (SO4) show that these values are recorded within the permissible limits, but the turbidity value of water samples varied from 17 to 18 Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTUs) in Pazhayar and Kuzhithuraiar rivers respectively, these values exceed three times above the BIS standard of 5 NTU. Water should be free from turbidity because turbidity impedes efficient chlorination. Electrical conductivity (EC) values are higher than permissible limit of zero micS/cm, the values are 490 micS/cm and 122 micS/cm in Pazhayar and Kuzhithuraiar rivers respectively, indicating the presence of high amount of dissolved inorganic substances in ionized form. TABLE 1 QUALITY OF RIVER WATER IN THE SURVEYED AREA Sl. No Parameters BIS Range R1 R2 Comparison with BIS Standard 1 Turbidity NTU 5 17-18 17 18 Exceed 2 Total dissolved Solids mg/L 500 81-323 323 81 within 3 Electrical conductivity micS/cm 0 122-490 490 122 Exceed 4 pH 6.5 to 8.5 7.15-7.84 7.84 7.15 within 5 Total Hardness as CaCO3 300 40-128 128 40 within 6 Nitrite as NO2 0 0.18-1.84 1.84 0.18 Within (Except R1) 7 Nitrate as NO3 45 2-3 3 2 within 8 Sulphate as SO4 200 3-17 17 3 within 9 Phosphate as PO4 0 0.8-1.85 1.85 0.8 Exceed 10 Bacteriological Organisms 0 25506-25664 25506 25664 Exceed 11 Fecal Coliform per 100mml. 0 630-780 630 780 Exceed Source: Test Reports A trace of Nitrate content is found in river water detergents. The values of phosphates are samples. It varies from 0.8-1.85 miligrams per highest in Pazhayar with 1.85 mg/l and lowest litre (mg/l). Nitrate should be zero in potable in Kuzhithuraiar with 0.8 mg/l. The low waters, its presence indicates pollution of value indicates that decreased land drainage, recent origin. Phosphate in surface water sewage and fertilizer disposal from the surface mainly originates from sewage effluents, run-off. The table 1 also shows a high presence which contain phosphate-based synthetic of bacteriological and Faecal Coliform contents ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 61 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018

in both the rivers, which means the water gets polluted while passing through its way. QUALITY OF POND WATER From the table 2 it is clear that, in all the four ponds, the tested results of Total Dissolved Solids, Total Hardness, Nitrite, Nitrate, and Sulphate are within the permissible limits.All other parameters are above the BIS standard. While, Chenkulam recorded the lowest values among other ponds for the parameters viz., Turbidity 4 NTUs, Total Hardness 98 mg/l and Nitrate 2 ppm, it has the highest bacteriological organisms of 25,738 and 2300 coliforms per 100 mml water. TABLE 2 QUALITY OF PONDS IN THE SURVEYED AREA No. Parameters BIS Standard Range P1 P2 P3 P4 Comparison with BIS Standard 1 Turbidity NTU 5 4-16 9 16 5 4 Exceed 2 Total dissolved 500 98-398 160 398 341 98 within Solids mg/L 3 Electrical 0 148-603 243 603 517 148 Exceed conductivity micS/cm 4 pH 6.5 to 8.5 7.29-9.24 9.24 7.68 7.49 7.29 Within (Except P1) 5 Total Hardness 300 40-152 48 140 152 40 within as CaCO3 6 Nitrite as NO2 0 0.16-0.24 0.18 0.24 0.16 0.18 Within (Except P2) 7 Nitrate as NO3 45 2-7 3 7 3 2 within 8 Sulphate as 200 4-24 6 24 10 4 within SO4 9 Phosphate as 0 0.65-1.15 0.65 0.75 1.15 0.85 Exceed PO4 10 Bacteriological 0 25508- 25508 25666 25728 25738 Exceed Organisms 25738 11 Fecal Coliform 0 60-2300 460 60 180 2300 Exceed per 100mml. Source: Test Reports It means Chenkulam is highly contaminated samples. In Villukuri, the values of Turbidity, while compared with other ponds with domestic Total Harness, Electrical conductivity, Total and agricultural wastes. Kariyankulam has Hardness, Nitrate, Nitrite and Sulphate have the highest turbidity of 16 NTUs, electrical shown the highest among the four stations viz., conductivity of 603 micS/cm, Nitrite of 0.24 6 NTU, 740 mg/L, 1112 micS/cm, 312 mg/L, 022 mg/l due to decaying of plants and animals , 10, and 39 mg/L respectively. People living and Nitrate (NO3) of 7 mg/l. The pH value nearby these surface water resources largely is highest in Rettikulam with 9.24 units, due depend as a sources for drinking and domestic to biological activity and inflow of cottage purpose. Numerous studies indicate a possible industries/ effluents and Total Hardness is link between water pollution and human highest in Kakaiponkulam with 152 units. From disease. The river water from these localities the results, all the four ponds are not fit for any should be avoided totally for drinking and domestic purpose other than bathing animals. cooking purpose. Adopting proper collection, CONCLUSION transporting, treatment, and disposal of waste From the discussions carried out above, it is water system for the adjoining habitations observed that, all the surface water sources along the surface river and pond will give the tested are highly polluted. The finding is found solution in order to protect not only the surface to be within the framework of negative water water, but also to save the Kanyakumari District externality theory. The laboratory results of from the pollution. pH, Nitrate (NO3), Sulphate (SO4) and Faecal Coliform per 100 ml are within the standard permissible limits for all four tap water

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 62 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) REFERENCES 1.Battersby, Stephen (2013) Clay’s handbook of environmental health. Routledge, London 2.Pathak, Bindeshwar. (2007)”Human health in the twenty-first century: Prospects and perils.” World Affairs 11, no. 2: 116-124. 3.Selendy, Janine MH, ed. (2011) Water and Sanitation Related Diseases and the Environment: Challenges, Interventions and Preventive Measures. John Wiley & Sons. 4.Dwivedi A.K., Shashi, J. Singh (2006), “Water pollution and ground water recharging”; Current Science, Volume 91, Number 4, 25 August 2006, pp. 407. 5.Schulz, K. and B. Howe (2003). Uncertainity and sensistivity analysis of water transport modeling in a layered siol profile using fuzzy set theory. J. Hydroinform., 1: 127-138.

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 63 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018 14. ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS ANDIT’S IMPACT ON HUMAN HEALTH G. GEETHA, Ph.D Research Scholar, Department of Economics, Thiruvalluvar University, Serkkadu, Vellore - 632115.

Dr.S. DHANASEKARAN, Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, Thiruvalluvar University, Serkkadu, Vellore - 632115.

ABSTRACT activities and may cause adverse effects on his paper provides the insight view about human health and the environment. Increased Tthe environmental hazards and its impact combustion of fossil fuels in the last century on human health. Environmental hazards is responsible for the progressive change in means every type of disorder that occur in the the atmospheric composition. Air pollutants, environment .Hazards can present themselves such as carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide to us in various media e.g. air, water. The (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), volatile organic influence they can exert on our health is very compounds (VOCs), ozone (O3), heavy metals, complex and may be modulated by our genetic and reparable particulate matter (PM2.5 ), makeup, psychological factors and by our differ in their chemical composition, reaction perceptions of the risks that they present. Every proper ties, emission, time of disintegration and year thousands of deaths are reported because ability to diffuse in long or short distances. Air of environmental hazards. Environmental pollution has both acute and chronic effects on hazards can affect a particular organ or body human health, affecting a number of different system, directly damaging it or leading to systems and organs. It ranges from minor upper further complications. In this paper we discuss respiratory irritation to chronic respiratory and about various hazards such as physical hazards heart disease, lung cancer, acute respiratory (electromagnetic radiation and ionizing infections in children and chronic bronchitis in radiation),chemical hazards (combustion adults, aggravating pre-existing heart and lung of coal, petroleum), biological hazards disease, or asthmatic attacks. In addition, short- (contamination of water) and psychosocial and long-term exposures have also been linked hazards (stress).And also various types of with premature mortality and reduced life pollution caused by the environmental hazards expectancy. These effects of air pollutants on which results in various health problems such human health and their mechanism of action as liver damage, chronic headaches, mental are briefly discussed here. retardation or damage to reproductive organs. Although a number of physical activities These hazards place extra stress on our bodies. (volcanoes, fire, etc.) may release different INTRODUCTION pollutants in the environment, anthropogenic Environmental hazards may be defined as those activities are the major cause of environmental extreme events either natural or anthropogenic air pollution. Hazardous chemicals can escape which exceed the tolerable magnitude to the environment by accident, but a number within or beyond certain time limits, make of air pollutants are released from industrial adjustment difficult, resulting catastrophic facilities and other activities and may cause losses of property, income and lives and adverse effects on human health and the become head lines of different news media at environment. By definition, an air pollutant world level. The term environmental hazard is any substance which may harm humans, may be distinguished from environmental animals, vegetation or material. As far as disaster as follows. Hazards are the processes humans are concerned an air pollutant may which cause an accident or extreme event or cause or contribute to an increase in mortality or danger whereas disaster is a sudden adverse serious illness or may pose a present or potential or unfortunate extreme event which causes hazard to human health. The determination of great damage to human beings as well as whether or not a substance poses a health risk plants and animals, i.e., disasters occur rapidly, to humans is based on clinical, epidemiological, instantaneously and indiscriminately. Thus, and/or animal studies which demonstrate that environmental hazards are the processes exposure to a substance is associated with whereas environmental disasters are the health effects. In the context of human health, results or responses of environmental hazards. ‘‘risk’’ is the probability that a noxious health Hazardous chemicals escape to the environment effects may occur. by a number of natural and/or anthropogenic

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 64 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) NATURAL HAZARDS IMPACTS OF PHYSICAL HAZARDS ON A natural hazard is a naturally occurring HEALTH event that might have a negative effect Important issues concerning physical hazards on people or the environment. It includes include those relating to health effects geophysical hazards which encompass of electromagnetic radiation and ionising geological and meteorological phenomena radiation. If one excludes the occupational such as earthquakes, coastal erosion, volcanic environment, then noise and other physical eruption, cyclonic storms, and drought. hazards may present a nuisance to many Natural hazards are further subdivided into inhabitants, and impair general wellbeing. two categories: Environmental noise does not usually Planetary Hazards contribute to deafness but notable exceptions Endogenous Hazard may include noisy discotheques and “personal Hazards which originate inside the surface of stereos”. the earth are termed as endogenous hazard or Electromagnetic radiation ranges from low terrestrial hazard. Eg. Volcanoes,Earthquake. frequency, relatively low energy, radiation Exogenous Hazard such as radio and microwaves through to Hazards which originate above the surface infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays and of the earth (in the atmosphere) are called gamma rays. These last as well as other forms exogenous hazard. Eg. Cyclone, Drought, of radioactivity such as high energy subatomic Rainfall etc. particles (e.g. electrons - Beta rays) can cause Extra Planetry Hazards intracellular ionisation and are therefore called Hazards which originate outside the region of ionising radiation. Exposure to ultraviolet (UV) the planetary orbits. radiation carries an increased risk of skin cancer Anthropogenic Hazards such as melanoma, and of cataracts which are Manmade disasters are hazards caused by to an extent exposure related. Some pollutants human action or inaction. They are contrasted such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used as with natural hazards. Manmade disasters may refrigerants or in aerosol propellants or in the adversely affect humans, other organisms and manufacture of certain plastics can damage biomes and ecosystems. The frequency and the “ozone layer” in the higher atmosphere severity of hazards are key elements in some (stratosphere) and thus allow more UV light to risk analysis methodologies. reach us, and harm us directly. Radioactivity PHYSICAL HAZARDS is associated with an exposure dependent risk Physical hazards affect populations all over the of some cancers notably leukemia. Contrary world, regardless of wealth, location or other to popular belief however, most radiation to factors which tend to differentiate people and which the average person is exposed is natural cultures from one another. Physical hazards in in origin, and, of the manmade sources, the environment are naturally occurring events medical diagnosis and treatment is on average and disasters with the capability of threatening the largest source to the individual. A very physical safety. Hurricanes, volcanic eruptions, important issue is the extent to which radon tornados, earthquakes, floods, and landslides gas arising from certain rock types beneath are all different types of physical hazards dwellings can contribute to cancer risk.. that can have devastating effects on mankind CHEMICAL HAZARDS (Library Index, Natural Hazard, 2011). Chemicals can be broken down into .hazard There are primary and secondary effects to classes and exhibit both physical and health these physical hazards. Primary effects are hazards. It is important to keep in mind, that a result of the event or disaster itself. For chemicals can exhibit more than one hazard instance, flood waters damaging houses and or combinations of several hazards. Several buildings, or the collapse of structures due to factors can influence how a chemical will an earthquake, hurricane, landslide or sinkhole. behave and the hazards the chemical presents, Secondary effects occur because a primary including the severity of the response: effect has caused them to happen. An example •Concentration of the chemical. of a secondary effect is a power outage, or •Physical state of the chemical (solid, liquid, a fire started because of an earthquake. gas). Although we cannot predict a precise location •Physical processes involved in using the or the magnitude of a physical hazard, some chemical (cutting, grinding, heating, cooling, of the consequences can be greatly reduced by etc.). strategies such as building design, better land •Chemical processes involved in using the management and regulations, and education chemical (mixing with other chemicals, on how we can better use our land. purification, distillation, etc.).

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Other processes (improper storage, addition the water is soft. There is good epidemiological of moisture, storage in sunlight, refrigeration, evidence that this can have a relatively small etc.). but measurable harmful effect especially on IMPACT OF CHEMICAL HAZARDS ON neurological function even at levels hitherto HEALTH considered “acceptable”. Other adverse effects General airborne pollution arises from a variety can arise from chemicals added to the water. of causes but can usefully be subdivided into BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS pollution from combustion or from other Biological hazards are micro-organisms such as sources. The image shows the silhouette viruses, bacteria, fungi, microscopic, parasitic of a power station - an important source of worms, or other pathogens. These harmful airborne products of combustion. Combustion micro-organisms are described as a substance of coal and other solid fuels can produce smoke that is naturally occurring which can be harmful (containing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons - to humans, causing disease and illness. These PAH) and sulphur dioxide besides other agents hazardous biological agents can enter the body such as those also produced by: in different routes. Combustion of liquid petroleum products which can generate carbon monoxide, oxides TYPES OF BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS of nitrogen and other agents. Industry and →→ Biological hazards can be put incineration can generate a wide range of into different categories. The most products of combustion such as oxides of common biological hazards include: sulphur and nitrogen, polycyclic aromatic Bacteria – microscopic organisms that hydrocarbons, dioxins etc. Combustion of live in soil, water, organic matter or the bodies any fossil fuel generates varying amounts of plants and animals and are characterized by of particulate matter. It also adds to the lack of a distinct nucleus and the inability to environmental burden of carbon dioxide - an photosynthesize. important “greenhouse” gas but in these low →→ Viruses – a group of pathogens that concentrations it does not affect human health consist mainly of nucleic acids and that lack directly. cellular structure. viruses are totally dependent Health effects of concern are asthma, on their hosts for replication. bronchitis and similar lung diseases, and there →→ Fungi – any of a major group of lower is good evidence relating an increased risk of plants that lack chlorophyll and live on dead or symptoms of these diseases with increasing other living organisms. concentration of sulphur dioxide, ozone and Examples of different types of biological other pollutants. Although high occupational hazards: exposures to exhaust especially from diesel, →→ Bacteria – Escherichia coli and to benzene does increase the risk of (E.coli),Mycobacterium tuberculosis some cancers, reliable direct evidence of an (TB),tetanus increased to cancer risk to the population • Virses – common cold influenza, at large from the lower levels to which they measles, SARS, Hantavirus, rabies. are exposed is lacking. Incineration can also • Fungi – athlete’s foot, mould, Rusts, generate hazardous substances if substances mildew, smut, yeasts, mushrooms. not best suited for disposal by incineration • Insects stings/bites are “disposed” of in this way or if incineration • Allergic reactions e.g., peanuts, pollen is carried out at too low a temperature (for grains, bee stings example this may generate dioxins). • Poisonous plants/animals e.g., →→ Large scale industrial releases with poisonous ivy, cobras. serious acute effects are fortunately rare but you might recollect some events such as in IMPACTS OF BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS Bhopal (India). Various smaller scale events ON HEALTH occur such as leaks from road tankers, or fires Many infectious diseases can spread from in warehouses and factories. Special local contact between people. environmental exposures can arise for example For example: in communities exposed to drifting pesticide • Athlete’s foot – can be spread by sprays containing say, organophosphates. Some sharing footwear and walking barefoot in natural phenomena such as volcanic eruptions public showers or change rooms. can present serious risks to health. Fortunately • Eye infections – can spread they are rare but can be catastrophic. through sharing of makeup applicators, Water can be an important source of chemical brushes and wipes or by hand to eye contact; hazards. It can leach lead from pipes especially if e.g., rubbing eyes.

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 66 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) • Colds or flu–can spread through close personal contact; e.g., hand to hand, then the hand is placed near mouth, nose or eye. • Mononucleosis–can spread through mucus and saliva by kissing or sharing drinks/ water bottles and cigarettes. • HIV – can spread by exposure to blood and body fluids. • Hepatitis–two strains hepatitis (B and C) can be spread by exposure to blood or body fluids. HIV and hepatitis B and C are very serious diseases that can lead to death. CONCLUSION It appears that polluted environment is global an issue and world community would bear worst results more as they already faced. As effective response to pollution is largely based on human appraisal of the problem and pollution control program evolves as a nationwide fixed cost-sharing effort relying upon voluntary participation. Education, research, and advocacy, are lacking in the region as preventive strategy for pollution especially in Asia. At present the adoption of environmental auditing in any economic sector is voluntary but future legislation could well make it mandatory and still time available to use technology and information for environmental health decision. Healthy people mean human resources are the main object of any successful business or country. This brief presents the adverse effects of a number of pollutants in human health. The main conclusion is that, in view of increased exposure of human in a diversity of pollutants, dietary interventions, rich in plant –derived foods, may protect or decrease their effects on different organs. REFERENCES 1.Foday Pinka Sankoh, et al., “Environmental and Health Impact of Solid Waste Disposal in Developing Cities”,Journal of Environmental Protection2013, 4, 665-670. 2.Aunan, K., G. Pátzay, H. Asbjorn Aaheim and H. Martin Seip (1998), “Health and Environmental Benefits from Air Pollution Reductions in Hungary”, Science of the Total Environment 212: 245-268. 3.Melse, J.M. and A.E.M. de Hollander (2001), “Human Health and the Environment”, background document for the OECD Environmental Outlook, OECD, Paris. 4.Dr. Mashhood Ahmad Khan, et al., “Environmental Pollution and Its Effects On Life And Its Remedies“,- Journal of Arts, Science & Commerce. 5.Marilena Kampa et al., “Human health effects of air pollution”, Environmental Pollution 151 (2008) 362e37.

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 67 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018 15. DISPOSAL OF HOUSEHOLD WASTE: PRACTICES, CHALLENGES & MANAGEMENT

Dr. K.SIVA SANKARI, Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, J.B.A.S. College for Women (Autonomous) Chennai – 18.

ABSTRACT can be classifies as hazardous waste which ousehold waste comprises of garbage and includes pest control, home cleaners, garbage Hrubbish from individual home and flats/ oil, batteries and non-hazardous waste are apartments. This waste consists of fruits and those from fruits and vegetables, flowers, food vegetables, food scrapes, papers, cans and scrapes, animal slaughter, furniture, clothes, bottles, clothes, chocolate wrappers, shampoo hair and plastic covers. The hazardous waste bottles and sachets etc. These are non- should be disposed carefully and safely so that hazardous wastes generated by household and it will not affect the living beings and also the can be recycled. Hazardous wastes are those environment. from pest control, home cleaners, batteries, The increase in generation of waste can garage oils which have adverse impact on be attributed to population explosion, the environment and threatens human life urbanization, development of technology, and other living organisms. The improper changing life style and fashion and increase disposal of household hazardous waste by in income of the people. In particular, the pouring waste oils and cleaners on the ground transition from low income to middle/high or disposing the containers along with other income results in vast increase of solid waste. wastages affects the people living in that area This is so because when income increases and also affects the health of sewage cleaners. consumption level also increases and much Dumping of solid wastes in the outskirts or income is diverted to the purchase of consumer open area has created huge landfills which durables. Similarly, people in urban spend large pose serious threats on environment causing amount of their income on goods and this has air pollution, contamination of ground water. resulted in mounting solid waste and landfills. Another serious problem in improper disposal The improper disposal of household waste of domestic waste is in regard to the process of has adverse impact on human being, living collecting household waste. Lack of equipment organisms and environment. It affects the and infrastructure for collection, inadequate natural resources mainly air, soil and water. number of bins and bin capacity, lack of Dumping of solid waste in open area leads to manpower and technical skills and high rate landfills which results in air pollution, depletion of generation of waste from household sector. of soil fertility and pollutes under ground water. The present paper is intended to investigate This also generates many organisms and micro- the practices in the disposal of household organisms such as flies, mosquitoes, bacteria waste, problems and challenges of improper which cause various diseases and pose serious disposal and measures for effective household threat on human health. waste management. The paper also highlights suggestions for proper disposal of household REVIEW OF LITERATURE waste. Abraham Lingan and Poyyamoli (2014) KEYWORDS: Household waste, practices of investigated the status of municipal waste disposal, household waste management management in Cuddalore municipality. The INTRODUCTION study concluded that Cuddalore produced the Generation of waste in unavoidable in all high level of waste but the waste management activities of life and in all sectors of production. technology adopted by the municipality was Anything which cannot be used further and ineffective because the waste were discarded anything which has lost its value and purpose in street and improper disposal method was is termed to be waste. All human activities, be practiced. The collection and transportation it household, commercial, industries generate was not updated and old equipment were used waste i.e. certain things, commodities or for this process. The study suggested that co- materials which are not required by its owner ordination between private sector, rag pickers, or producer becomes waste. This study and people, individuals, NGOs and municipality concentrates on solid waste generated by would lead to effective and proper disposal of household sector. Household waste comprises waste. of garbage and rubbish from individual Indira et al (2015) focused their study on the household, flats/apartments. Household waste attitude of the people about household solid

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 68 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) waste disposal in Kumbakkonam district and was a major constraint in adopting landfilling also to explain about the people’s awareness and composting process. Incineration was the on disposal of waste. The study concluded prime method of solid waste disposal and this that people were using small bins of different does not affect human health and environment. colours and segregated the waste before Sunil Kumar et al (2017) made a descriptive disposal, wastes were disposed every day and analysis on waste management system in India. people were satisfied with the work done by The authors opined that India has moved from the sweepers. waste dump to waste management. The Joshi and Ahmed (2016) had evaluated the analysis identified that population growth parameters to study the municipal solid waste and development of cities were the major management system, generation of waste, causes for increase in generation of waste collection and treatment methods adopted in in India and the quantity of waste depends India. The study concluded that decentralized on standard of living, eating habits of the solid waste units and formal recycling industry people, type of commercial activity, etc. would lead to more effective and scientific The study also explored the status of waste method of waste management. management in India, various legislations Niyati Mahajan (2016) explored the waste in waste management, recycling and reuse, management process of informal sector role of informal sector, impacts of improper particularly Exnora. Informal sector increases disposal of waste on human and environment, income of waste workers and also convert landfills and barriers to improved waste waste into valuable commodities. The study management. The analysis concluded that identified the strengths and challenges faced by proper and safe disposal of waste, sustainable Exnora and also the impact of civic awareness waste management system, waste-to-energy created by Exnora to the people. The study facilities, engineered landfills, trained persons concluded that the Civic Exnora innovation in collection and management of waste would had created awareness among the people ad lead to protection of environment and effective also the co-ordination of local governments, disposal of waste. community and technical improvements had METHODOLOGY positive impact on disposal of solid waste by Scope of the Study household sector. The present paper intends to make a descriptive Parvathamma (2014) examined the impact analysis on the practices adopted in disposing of geopolitical factors on waste management household waste, impacts of such disposal, at global and local levels and also the challenges faced while disposing waste, proper, effect of socio-economic factors on waste scientific and effective methods of disposing management. Significance was also given for and managing household waste. studying the quantity of solid waste generated Objectives of the Study and its impact on environment and health →→ To study the present scenario in of the people. The study concluded that the disposing the household waste and the impacts collection and transportation of waste were of such disposal. effective but few modifications were required →→ To identify the challenges encountered for scientific collection and disposal of waste. while such disposal method. Decentralized system of waste collection and →→ To explore the effective methods of holistic approaches in the generation of waste, disposing household waste. recycle and reuse would reduce waste and Source Of Information produce energy. The study uses secondary information collected Ravesh Agarwal et al (2015) studied the from various books, journals, newspapers and practices of waste management in India, its websites. impact on human being and also suggested Disposal of household waste - Present Scenario measures for its improvement. The study Presently, household waste are disposed concluded that proper strategic planning unhazardly in an unscientific manner and and implementation of such plan would these wastes are not treated or cleared which protect human health and environment. The creates odour, release of airborne diseases, etc. suggestions were creating awareness among The common way of disposing waste adopted people, inclusion of waste management by household sector it to collect all the waste, methods in education for sensitizing people. both biodegradable and non-biodegradable Sivaraman (2015) in his article concluded that together in a plastic bag or small bin and throw incineration was the best method of solid waste it in the large bins or containers provided by disposal. The study conducted in Puducherry the corporation. Many times these wastes are and outlined that the non-availability of land thrown on the roadside, streets or open area

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nearby, causing severe health and environment • Spillage of waste due to uncover and issues. In some cases, waste from vegetables, improper transportation. fruits, egg shell are thrown in the garden or • The collected wastes are dumped pots as fertilizer for plants. This method of indiscriminately in unhygienic way. disposal is improper and unscientific and • No proper monitoring and supervision destroys the growth of the plants. during collection of waste. IMPACT OF IMPROPER DISPOSAL OF EFFECTIVE METHODS OF DISPOSING HOUSEHOLD WASTE HOUSEHOLD WASTE • Affects health of the people and all Waste management encompasses all living organisms. activities needed for managing waste, right • Reduces quality of life. from collection transportation, treatment, • Degrades environment and causes disposal and also proper supervision and global warming. regulation. This also includes the legal acts • Deteriorates natural resources. and provisions required for proper disposal of • Creates odour which leads to air waste. Organized and well planned disposal of pollution. household waste requires the co-ordination • Dumping on land affects ground water, and co-operation of public, private, individual • Improper disposal causes premature households and NGOs. The public sector death. should initiate policies, regulations and • Landfills blocks drainage and sewerage measures for scientific disposal of waste which system causing water logging and floods. will protect human health, living organisms and • Insects, mosquitoes and flies are environment. Advanced technology, provision generated. of required equipment, vehicles, manpower, • Contaminates water resources training the sanitary workers, monitoring which cannot be used for drinking and other and supervision would led to management purposes. of waste and also protect the environment. • Unscientific method of burning wastes Following are some of the methods identified creates smoke and emits pollutants that lead as effective for disposal of waste. to breathing and lungs problems. →→ Segregation: Waste should be Challenges in unscientific method of disposing segregated as biodegradable and non- household waste biodegradable at household level. Similarly, • Disposal of all types of waste together hazardous waste should also be disposed by household sector. separately in different bins or bags. This will • No usage of proper dustbins at home. enable recycling and scientific disposal. • Lack of segregation between →→ Collection :Waste from different sectors biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste. such as household, industry, agriculture, • Inadequate number of dustbins on construction, medical, commercial, complex roads and also less capacity of dustbins. should be collected separately. This is because • Lack of technology in the collection of some sectors contain hazardous and non- garbage. biodegradable waste. • Lack of infrastructure and equipment →→ Reduce, Reuse, Recycle:Reduce the for collecting the garbage. usage of plastic and general wastage of food • Less number of sanitary workers and items, fruits and vegetables. Use the amount cleaners. required for the family. Recycling and reusing • Limited availability of trained and of waste generated is the best method of skilled manpower for strategic planning and disposal of waste. Waste water recycling and framing policy for collection and management reusing for flush and gardening are gaining of waste. popularity. • Shortage of funds to cover the →→ Transportation: The collected waste cost required for collection, segregation. should be transported safely to the place of Transportation and treatment of waste. landfill and incineration. Open transport leads • Lack of accountability and responsibility to spilling of waste carried in vehicles all over of the officials and workers. the streets. Covered and closed tempos, mobile • Non availability or limited availability of compactors should be used for transportation land for disposal of waste. of waste. • Collection of all types of waste such →→ Landfilling: This method is dumping as solid, liquid, e-waste, animal slaughter, of waste in a low lying open area outskirts construction waste, metal, medical waste of residential area. But landfilling leads to together in the same bin/vehicle. production of methane and carbon dioxide

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 70 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) gases which has serious effects on human and be given to children at school and briefing about environment. This also leads to greenhouse the impact of improper disposal of waste. effect and affects the ozone layer. But the effect • The sanitation workers and cleaners can of landfilling can be reduced through waste demonstrate how to segregate waste effectively minimization, reuse, recycle, etc. and also the difficulties of collecting the waste Incineration: This is method adopted for thrown just like that. disposing solid waste. Here the solid wastes are • Fine/penalty can be collected from set on fire or combustions and are converted household which violate the disposal laws and into heat, steam or ash form. regulations. →→ Plastic recycling: Plastic wastes are • The authorities can send messages on segregated from other type of waste and cleanliness, proper and scientific method of formed as thread and cut into small pieces. disposal, impact of proper disposal on health Separate plastic moulding machines are used and environment in social media. for moulding to make different products. • Corporation/Municiplity can organize →→ Kitchen garden/Terrace garden: The competitions like essay writing, poster painting, vacant land within the home premises can be collage, rangoli, poetry writing, debate, quiz at utilized for growing spinach and all vegetables school and college level to create awareness by converting kitchen waste into organic among the students. manure. • Prize/awards can be given to the area →→ Shed :Construction of common Shed which abides to the rules of disposal of waste. in each area separately for dumping the waste • Government should enlighten and also a common compost pit for composting knowledge on recycling and reusing. This paves wastes. way for minimization of waste. →→ Cloth bag:Using cloth bag will minimize • Provision of proper equipment the waste gradually. Cloth bags can be used for and vehicles required for collection and shopping and this is reusable. transportation of waste and also employing →→ Composting: this is a method of adequate manpower. converting biodegradable waste into organic • Installation of decentralized composting manure and fertilizers that can be used in units to reduce landfilling and dumping of agriculture. This organic manure is high in waste in open area. nutrition content required for plants and • Course in waste management should be vegetables. Much of composting are labour mandatory at school/college level irrespective intensive. of discipline/stream. →→ Vermicomposting: In this method the • Manufacture and use of plastic bags biodegradable organic wastes are decomposed and other non-biodegradable items should be by introducing earthworms on them and these banned by the government. The law should be can be used for plantation. very stringent and strict action should be taken →→ Anaerobic digestion: Also known as against those violating the law. biomethanation process and is a sustainable • Awareness should be created on the process of biodegradable wastes. Through significance of service rendered by sanitary stabilization, organic waste is converted as workers, cleaners and sweepers. People should biogas which can be used as energy. change their attitude towards these people and SUGGESTIONS FOR EFFECTIVE respect them. DISPOSAL OF HOUSEHOLD WASTE. • Appropriate water treatment • Provision of different colour bins in technology should be adopted to preserve the each street or area for segregating the waste as contaminated water by dumping the waste. biodegradable and non-biodegradable. CONCLUSION • Creating awareness among people Population growth, urbanization, transition about the significance of segregation of waste to high income and change in the life style of for disposal. the people have resulted in the increased the • Awareness through pamplets, street generation of household waste in our country. plays, hoardings, cartoons in television, small The improper and unscientific method of play in theatres before starting the movie can disposal of waste had adverse impact on human be displayed. life and environment. The need of the hour is to • Educational institutions can encourage develop the existing method of waste disposal the habit of separating the wastes like food and also monitor that the household strictly items, papers, plastic, waste from stationery in adheres to law of disposal. This can be achieved different bins. through the co-ordination and co-operation • Orientation on solid waste disposal can of general public, government, private sector,

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NGOs. One effective measure of sensitizing people is creating awareness on segregation, composting, vermicomposting, kitchen gardening, recycle and reuse through street plays, propoganda, pamplets, demonstration, hoardings and banners. Hence, waste disposal and management will be more effective through the combined efforts of the entire nation and this will pave way for sustainable development of our country. REFERENCES 1.Abraham Lingn and Poyyamoli 2014, “A study on current status of Municipal Solid Waste Management Practices in cuddalore Municipality, India”, World Applied Science Journal, 31(6) pp. 1096 – 1103. 2.Indhira, Senthil and Kumar, 2015, Awareness and attitude of people perception twards household solid waste disposal-Kumbakkonam Town TN India”, Vol.7(3), pp. 6 – 12. 3.Niyati Mahajan, 2016, “Sokid waste management in Chennai-lessons from Exnora”, The Innovation Journal The Public Sector Innovation Journal Vol.21(2) Article 4. 4.Parvatamma 2014, “An analytical study on problems and policies of solid waste management in India – Special Reference to Bangalore city” IOSR Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology (IOSR - JESTFT) Vol.8 Issue 10, pp. 6 – 15. 5.Rajkumar Joshi and Ahmed, 2016, “Status and challenges of MSWM in India – A review”, Environmental Chemistry, Pollution and Waste Management/Review article, Cogent Environmental Scince, 2-1139434, pp. 1-8. 6.Ravesh Agarwal, Mona Choudary, Jayveer Singh 2015 “Waste management initiatives in India for human well-being”, European Scientific Journal Special Edition, e-ISSN 1857-7431. 7.Sivaraman 2015, “Incinerators best method for solid waste processing”, The Hindu, February 2015. 8.Sunil Kumar, Stephen R Smith, Geoff Fowler, Costas Velis, Jyoti Kumar, Shashi Arya, Rena, Rakesh Kumar and Christopher Cheeseman, 2017, “Challenges and opportunities associated with waste management in India”, Vol.4, Issue 3.

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 72 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) 16.A PROSPECT EVOLVEMENT OF HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURE ON WATER SUPPLY FOR HEALTH BENIFITS IN CHENNAI Mrs. R. VIJAYA BAVANI., M.A., M. Phil, Research Scholar,Department Of Economics, Madras Christian College, Tambaram, Chennai.

ABSTRACT Water supply and sanitation in India continue Due to rapid urbanization, especially in to be inadequate, despite longstanding efforts developing countries such as India, has affected by the various levels of government and the availability and quality of groundwater is communities at improving coverage. The level contaminated, its quality cannot be restored of investment in water and sanitation, albeit by stopping the pollutants from the source. low by international standards, has increased in The common pollutants of groundwater size during the 2000s.For example, in 1980 rural are discharge of agricultural, domestic, and sanitation coverage was estimated at 1% and industrial waste, pesticides, etc., which leads to reached 21% in 2008. Also, the share of Indians water-borne diseases. Water-diseases may be with access to improved sources of water has of microbial origin such as diarrhoea, dysentery, increased significantly from 72% in 1990 to 88% cholera and typhoid and chemical origin such as in 2008. fluorosis and methemoglobinemia, therefore, At the same time, local government institutions in order to consume the quality water people in charge of operating and maintaining the need to spend more on water supply as other infrastructure are seen as weak and lack the household expenditure, such as: food, clothing, financial resources to carry out their functions. housing (rent), energy, transport, etc., A In addition, only two Indian cities have significant number of people purchase water continuous water supply and according to an from private and public water suppliers and estimate from 2008 about 69% of Indians still that they incur a sizeable expenditure on water lack access to improved sanitation facilities. A purchases; some of these households are also study by Water Aid estimated as many as 157 willing to pay additional amounts for improved million Indian or 41 percent of Indians living in water supply from public and private sources urban areas, live without adequate sanitation. for their health benefits. The results suggest India comes top for having the greatest number that improvements in water supply would of urbanites living without sanitation. India tops significantly increase the welfare of the people. urban sanitation crisis, has the largest number This is clearly a public health risk that must be of urban dwellers without sanitation and the addressed along with the issue of water service most open defecators over 41 million people. affordability. A number of innovative approaches to improve KEYWORDS: Household expenditure on Water water supply and sanitation have been tested supply, water problems and health in India, in particular in the early 2000s. These INTRODUCTION include demand-driven approaches in rural Water is essential for life. We need water water supply since 1999, community-led total for every activity in life. Millions of people sanitation, a public-private partnerships to worldwide suffer from serious diseases because improve the continuity of urban water supply they do not have access to clean drinking water. in Karnataka, and the use of micro credits for It is impossible to imagine our lives without an water supply and sanitation in order to improve adequate water supply. According to National access to water and sanitation. Water Policy “adequate drinking water facility METHODOLOGY should be provided to the entire population The study is based on only secondary data both in rural and in urban areas and drinking which were collected from books, journals, water needs of the human beings should be the government reports, websites and other data. first change on any available water’. Adequate Objectives: water supply is not merely dependent on the The general objective of the study is to identify existence of a water source. Therefore, when the household expenditure for water and assessing people’s level of access both to water sanitation, hygiene and health problems in the supply and sanitation, it is important not to city of Chennai. restrict this only to issues of distance to a source However, the specific objectives of the study and density of users, but it further involves are: many aspects such as regularity, sufficiency, 1.To examine the patterns of water sources, affordability, quality and safety. supply, access to consumer, connections in Chennai city;

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2.To analyse the household expenditure for that a large number of poor households do not water supply in Chennai; have access to good quality water. When the 3.To examine and analyse sanitation, hygiene, government fails, the households will have to diseases and to identify indoor and outdoor risk depend on alternative service providers to meet factors in Chennai so as to suggest strategies for out their water needs. The increased demand overcoming them. accompanied by huge scarcity of water in urban WATER SOURCES areas leads to emergence of institutions such Chennai Metropolitan Water Supply and as private water markets. In recent years, the Sewerage Board (CMWSSB) is depending mainly private operators are playing an important role on surface water, partly on groundwater and in fulfilling the household water requirements water from two desalination plants for its water in major cities like Chennai. supply to Chennai city. The main water sources water in Chennai city has become a scarce for Chennai city are as follows: economic commodity and even the poor end 1. Poondi, Cholavaram, Redhills and up shelling out a substantial amount of their Chembarambakkam Reservoirs. income on it. Poor makes informal payment for 2. Krishna River water received in the Poondi the public supply; around 50 percent of them reservoir through Kandaleru-Poondi Canal. pay an additional amount for private water. 3. Veeranam Lake in Cuddalore District. Informal payment to the rent seekers suggests 4. Desalination Plants at Kattupalli near Minjur that poor households are willing to pay for (100 MLD) and Nemmeli near Mahabalipuram ensuring existing public service, even though the (100 MLD) quality is bad. Their preference towards private 5. Ground water sources from Wellfields in the water suggests that they are interested to pay Araniyar-Koratalaiyar River Basin and from more for better quality service. However, when Neyveli aquifer. the improved public supply scheme is proposed, WATER SUPPLY SERVICES the level of keenness to participate and pay for The abstraction from a water source, conveyance, it is found to be low as the private sector is treatment, storage and distribution of potable already responding adequately to the changing water, water intended to be converted to preferences of the consumers. This implies potable water and water for industrial and/or that when a good service is already available other uses, where such water is provided by from the private sources, preference towards or on behalf of a water services authority, to improvements in the existing public supply consumers or other water services providers is may get suppressed. Apart from improving termed as water supply services. This includes their existing service delivery system to serve all the organizational arrangements necessary to the people better, the Government needs to ensure the provision there is including amongst regulate the informal water markets properly others, appropriate health, hygiene and water and monitor their functions adequately so that resource use education, the measurement the informal markets could play an effective of consumption and the associated billing, ‘supplementary’ role in fulfilling water supply collection of revenue and consumer care. needs of the people, including that of the poor Institutional arrangements in Chennai: (L. Venkatachalam). Depending on where one lives within Chennai ACCESS TO CONSUMER metropolitan area, four distinct systems of In 2015, 88% of the total population had access water supply can be found in Chennai: to at least basic water, or 96% in urban areas i) Supply of water by the Metro Water Board – and 85% in rural areas. The term “at least mainly for Chennai City; basic water” is a new term since 2016, and is ii) Municipal supply – in 9 towns adjoining related to the previously used “improved water Chennai; source”. In India in 2015, 44% had access to “at ii) Self-provision by many households and least basic sanitation”, or 65% in urban areas industries – by drilling of shallow wells or deep and 34% in rural areas. In 2015, there were still tube wells; 150 million people without access to “at least iv) Private market – (a) bulk supply by means basic” water and 708 million without access to of tanker trucks of 12, 000 litres capacity and “at least basic” sanitation. (b) retail distribution of ‘bottled water’ in jerry In earlier years, in 2010, the UN estimated based cans of 10 or 12 litres capacity and water cans on Indian statistics that 525 million people 25 litres capacity practice open defecation. In June 2012 Minister Providing good quality water in adequate of Rural Development Jairam Ramesh stated quantity to urban households in developing India is the world’s largest “open air toilet”. He countries will reduce poverty and increase also remarked that Pakistan, Bangladesh and social welfare considerably. But the reality is Afghanistan have better sanitation records.

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 74 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) In 2008, 88% of the population in India had It is felt that these might price the poor out of access to an improved water source, but only the delivery system. 31% had access to improved sanitation. In Many governments fear that fully recovering rural areas, where 72% of India’s population costs will hurt the poor, yet increasing prices to lives, the respective shares are 84% for water enable cost recovery in the delivery of services and only 21% for sanitation. In urban areas, may actually help the poor (WDR, 1994), They 96% had access to an improved water source often pay much higher prices per unit of water and 54% to improved sanitation. Access has because they are not connected to public improved substantially since 1990 when it was service networks that have lower unit costs, and estimated to stand at 72% for water and 18% because they do not benefit from subsidies to for sanitation. users of the public system - usually the better- According to Indian norms, access to improved off. Expansion of access benefits the poor by water supply exists if at least 40 liters/capita/ allowing them to rely on less costly sources of day of safe drinking water are provided within water. a distance of 1.6 km or 100 meter of elevation To determine household expenditure for water difference, to be relaxed as per field conditions. in urban areas is a very complex process. There should be at least one pump per 250 Households, with house connection, may be persons. willing to pay additional charge for improved In urban areas, those that do not receive water pressure, quantity or quantity of water. from the piped network often have to purhchase Households without house connection may pay expensive water of dubious quality from private for improved public standpost or new house water vendors. For example, in Delhi water connection. In addition, the payments can be trucks get water from illegal wells on the banks made in terms of one-time houseconnection of the Yamuna River for 0.75 rupees per gallon and monthly water charge. (about USD 2.70/m3). WHY USERS SHOULD PAY FOR WATER Category Quantity Price (each) Volume of AND SANITATION? sales (INR*) • Available capital and public funds are inadequate to meet costs. 250ml 5,000,000 INR 1/ 5,000,000 • State intervention and control has sachets proven to be inefficient and ineffective 1 litre water 75,000 INR 10 -12 750,000 • Socio-economic benefits of improved bottles -900,000 water and sanitation service justify payment. 12 litre cans 1,00,000 INR 18-30 1,800,000- • Subsidies disempower users by denying 3,000,000 them choice. • Subsidies discourage cost-effectiveness 20–25 litre 25,000 INR 20 and 500,000 and the development lose level of solutions cans up minimum • Evidence of willingness to pay is strong Tanker 10,000 INR 700- 7,000,000- as many poor people are already paying for lorries 900 9,000,000 services. (12,000 • Properly regulated user charges would litres) mean the poor would pay less and get better Table 1. Water supplied by the private sector in Chennai service. (daily basis). • Payments increase sense of value and Source: Information gathered by the author commitment among users. Payments maximise from different sources including the South the rise of available resources andimprove India Packaged Drinking Water Manufacturers’ quality/standard of service. Association. *USD 1 ¼ approx. INR 45 (in 2010). PROBLEM OF WATER HEALTH THE HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURE FOR Water safety and quality are fundamental to WATER SUPPLY IN CHENNAI human development and well-being. Providing Inadequate access of basic services to the poor access to safe water is one of the most effective is one of the major problems ofurban India. instruments in promoting health and reducing The Government has undertaken a number of poverty. initiatives to provide basic services to the poor. Water health believes that everyone deserves However, it is observed that the public-sector safe, pure and affordable drinking water agencies have not been able to provide the regardless of their geographical location or services. With the introduction of economic economic situation. Yet, for several decades, reforms in our country, there is a demand for about a billion people in developing countries improving cost recovery, increase in service have not had a safe and sustainable water charges and privatization in urban basic services. supply. It has been estimated that a minimum of

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7.5 liters of water per person per day is required households. The study measures household in the home for drinking, preparing food, and expenditurefor improved water services and personal hygiene, the most basic requirements averting behaviour for quality improvement for water; at least 50 liters per person per day of drinking water. The results indicate that is needed to ensure all personal hygiene, food reliability of both water services and quality is hygiene, domestic cleaning, and laundry needs. of value to the households. Both services and A poor water supply impacts health by causing quality are important such that households are acute infectious diarrhoea, repeat or chronic willing to pay for improved water services and diarrhoea episodes, and non-diarrheal disease, also adopts averting behaviour for improved which can arise from chemical species such as water quality. For the household’s household arsenic and fluoride. It can also affect health expenditurefor improved water services, by limiting productivity and the maintenance the study estimates that there is statistically of personal hygiene.Finally, improvements in significant effect of location that in urban areas, water supply are essential prerequisites for households have more household expenditure improved personal andhome hygiene and to for improved water services. The study also finds enable sanitation facilities to be kept clean. that sources of water have a significant effect Consequently, the directhealth effect of on household expenditurei.e. the household improved water supply is likely to be extended who have own source are willing to pay in the by its indirect effects on sanitation and hygiene. higher range further tap water has significant FINDINGS AND SUGGESTIONS effect on household expenditure for the first Findings suggest that targeting subsidies to two quartiles. As expected, education level increase private connections amongst the low- significantly affects household expenditurefor income urban population would lead to financial safe drinking water. savings, in addition to enabling a significant In averting behaviour strategies (Filters, Boiling, decrease in economic expenditure. While a Chemical) for quality improvement, the study pro-poor policy in rural area is more complex to finds that there are statistically significant achieve because of the prevalence of alternative effects of education on the water purification water sources, it is not impossible. Should a behaviour of the households. Interestingly, pro-poor policy be developed for these areas, higher income quartile is highly significant in as a priority it would need to address the low all strategies, while in source of water people functionality rate of formal sources in the dry getting water from tap or fetch from outside, is season (to the benefit of all poverty categories) highly significant in both boiling and chemical. and provide strategic support—such as point- But tap is significant in filter use at 10 percent of-use treatment options—so that households level of significance. As expected, the study may continue to rely on informal sources. finds that there is a strong effect of quality These forms of self-supply are ways used by (unfavourable taste, smell, appearance) on all households to cope with over-crowded, distant water purification behaviour of households i.e. or expensive formal water points—these will water quality is highly significant in all strategies. also need to be retained. Finally, an important Apart from above variables, awareness has an issue uncovered by the research is the large effective role in influencing the general public proportion of population utilizing water sources perception towards the opportunity cost for whose water quality is not being monitored. using unsafe water. This is clearly a public health risk that must be addressed along with the issue of water service affordability. CONCLUSION Poor environmental quality leads to individuals facing serious health risks in their everyday lives. Individuals will adopt measures to improve their environmental quality only if they perceive the associated health risks and if they can afford to pay for the prevention measure. It is the role of awareness as separate from the income constraint that we try to evaluate in this paper in the context of drinking water in urban India. The existing system of drinking water in Chennai is not reliable in both services and quality to meet the requirements of the

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 76 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) REFERENCES 1.United Nations, WHO, Economic Commission for Europe, Regional office for Europe, Working group on Water and Health, Second meeting, Geneva, 2-3 July 2009, Agenda item 6, Information paper 16. 2.L. Venkatachalam, Role of ‘Informal Water Markets’ in Urban Water Supply: AHousehold Survey Based Case Study of Chennai City, India. MIDS 79 Main Road, Gandhinagar Adyar, Chennai -600 020, India. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 2015. Vol.31,No. 1, 134–145, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/079006 27.2014.920680. 3.P. B. Anand2001, Discussion Paper No. 2001/140, Water ‘Scarcity’ in Chennai, IndiaInstitutions, Entitlements and Aspects of Inequality in Access, World Institute of Development Research, United World University. 4.Willingness to Pay for Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation, September, Department for International Development Regional Water anrd Sanitation Grouip - Sotth AsiaReport.1997, pp-8. 5.www.wikipedia.org.in 6.Dr. Ryan Schweitzer, Dr Christelle Pezon, Dr Abdul Pinjari, Catarina Fonseca and Dr. James R. Mihelcic, (September 2013), lead author, Dr.Ryan Schweitzer, Published by IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre. University of South Florida-Tampa, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, pp-10. [email protected]

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 77 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018 17. AN ANALYSIS OF AIR POLLUTION AND HUMAN HEALTH EFFECTS

Mrs. R. SHANMUGA PRIYA, M.A., M.Phil., M.B.A., Assistant Professor Department of Economics, Chellammal women’s college, Chennai, India Mobile : 9500364757.E mail Id : [email protected].

ABSTRACT health effects. In the context of human health, Hazardous chemicals escape to the environment ‘‘risk’’ is the probability that a noxious health by a number of natural and/or anthropogenic effects may occur. activities and may cause adverse effects on human health and the environment. Increased OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY combustion of fossil fuels in the last century 1.To study the impact of air Pollution on Human is responsible for the progressive change in health. the atmospheric composition. Air pollutants, 2.To Study the Air Quality of Indian scenario. such as carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide 3.To obtain the knowledge and understanding (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), volatile organic necessary for developing preventive and compounds (VOCs), ozone (O3), heavy corrective measures. metals, and respirable particulate matter, REVIEW OF LITERATURE differ in their chemical composition, reaction The World Commission on Environment and properties,emission, time of disintegration and Development (WCED) opines that “the future ability to diffuse in long or short distances. Air is to face ever increasing environmental decay, pollution has both acute and chronic effects on poverty, hardship and an even more polluted human health, affecting a number of different world”. systems and organs. It ranges from minor upper Aziz (1992) observes that urban environmental respiratory irritation to chronic respiratory and issues are tending to assume an important heart disease, lung cancer, acute respiratory dimension especially in developing countries infections in children and chronic bronchitis in since there is a rapid increase both in the adults, aggravating pre-existing heart and lung number of cities and in the urban population. disease, or asthmatic attacks. In addition, short- Nagdeve (2007) argues that both population and long-term exposures have also been linked growth and un-sustainable development are with premature mortality and reduced life a cause for concern in India. Population size expectancy. This paper discussed about effects and growth tend to expand and accelerate of air pollutants on human health. these human impacts on the environment. KEYWORDS: Air pollutant; Human health; The biggest concern is that the increasing Environment. population will grow to such an extent in future INTRODUCTION that it will cause overall scarcity of resources. Although a number of physical activities According to NEERI (2002) the share of PM10 in (volcanoes, fire,etc.) may release different the metropolitan city of Mumbai is as follows: pollutants in the environment, anthropogenic Transport: 32 percent, 45 percent from industry, activities are the major cause of environmental 18 percent from area sources, and 5 percent air pollution. Hazardous chemicals can escape from building and road construction. to the environment by accident, but a number Air pollutants do not only restrict their impact of air pollutants are released from industrial to causing impaired health conditions, but they facilities and other activities and may cause greatly influence the global problem of climate adverse effects on human health and the change caused due to the release of the Green environment. By definition, an air pollutant House Gases (GHGs). Mumbai being a coastal is any substance which may harm humans, city and most of its population living in the animals, vegetation or material. As far as humans lowlying areas, people will be greatly affected are concerned an air pollutant may cause or by climate change. (MCGM, 2011) contribute to an increase in mortality or serious METHODOLOGY illness or may pose a present or potential This study based on secondary data. The data hazard to human health. The determination of were collected from books, journals, magazines whether or not a substance poses a health risk and published articles from leading journals. to humans is based on clinical, epidemiological, AIR and/or animal studies which demonstrate that The air we breathe is heavy with toxins. Air exposure to a substance is associated with pollution is responsible for half the cases

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 78 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) of chronic coughing in urban children and burning sensation in the eyes or nose, and facilitates the spread of respiratory infection. In throat irritation, to cancer, bronchitis, severe the poor and developing countries, air pollution asthma, and a decrease in lung function. in the form of soot and smoke has increased. →→ BIOLOGICAL POLLUTANTS: These are More than one billion urban residents mostly allergens that can cause asthma, hay worldwide breathe air that does not meet fever, and other allergic diseases. WHO air quality standards (Sharma, 2001). In →→ LEAD: Prolonged exposure can cause developing countries, indoor air pollution is damage to the nervous system, digestive largely attributed to smoking and the use of problems, and in some cases cause cancer. It is biomass for cooking (Rehfuess et al., 2006). especially hazardous to small children. This indicator provides a measure of the state of →→ RADON: A radioactive gas that can the environment in terms of air quality and is an accumulate inside the house, it originates from indirect measure of population exposure to air the rocks and soil under the house and its pollution. The air we breathe contains varying level is dominated by the outdoor air and also levels of pollutants such as particulate matter, to some extent the other gases being emitted sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, ozone, carbon indoors. Exposure to this gas increases the risk monoxide and volatile organic compounds of lung cancer. derived from motor vehicles, industry, housing →→ OZONE: Exposure to this gas makes our and commercial sources. Despite efforts to eyes itch, burn, and water and it has also been reduce pollution levels, they continue to pose associated with increase in respiratory disorders risks to human health. such as asthma. It lowers our resistance to colds Epidemiological evidence shows that various and pneumonia. health effects, including illness and death →→ CARBON MONOXIDE: CO (carbon from respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, monoxide) combines with haemoglobin to are associated with air pollutants. Exposure lessen the amount of oxygen that enters our to air pollutants may lead to short-term blood through our lungs. The binding with other effects such as reduced visibility, headaches, haeme proteins causes changes in the function allergic reactions, irritation to the eyes, nose of the affected organs such as the brain and the and throat, and longer term effects such as cardiovascular system, and also the developing breathing difficulties, asthma and various foetus. It can impair our concentration, slow chronic respiratory illnesses such as lung our reflexes, and make us confused and sleepy. cancer and heart disease. Indoor air pollution AIR POLLUTION IMPACTS ON is responsible for over 1.5 million deaths from RESPIRATORY HEALTH Environment and Health Environmental Health In 2012 alone, 7 million deaths in the world Perspectives of a Panchayat in Idukki District were attributable to the combined effects of Western Ghats 15 respiratory infection per of ambient (3.7 million) and household (4.3 year and for 2.7 percent of the global burden million) air pollution (WHO, 2015). Ischemic of disease (WHO, 2006). In infants and young heart disease is at the forefront in this ranking of children, the effects can be far more (Smith et causes, and COPD, lower respiratory infections, al., 2004). Children with asthma are believed lung cancer are also amongst the top five to be particularly sensitive to air pollution. Air causes of deaths worldwide. Table 1 presents pollution may also act synergistically with other data for every five years from 1990 to 2010 for environmental factors to worsen asthma. the percentage of total global deaths due to HEALTH IMPACT OF SPECIFIC AIR causes attributed to air pollution categorized POLLUTANTS under three main diseases. As per the data Some of these gases can seriously and adversely observations, it can be said that the total global affect the health of the population and should be deaths due to all the major respiratory diseases given due attention by the concerned authority. seem to be reducing systematically for the The gases mentioned below are mainly outdoor time period in consideration. This is also due air pollutants but some of them can and do to the improvements made over these years, occur indoor depending on the source and the 1990 to 2010, in the quality, accessibility and circumstances. availability of health services and medicines, →→ TOBACCO SMOKE: Tobacco smoke that are being provided to the geographical generates a wide range of harmful chemicals areas where treatment from the illnesses are and is a major cause of ill health, as it is known required. There is insufficient data to be able to to cause cancer, not only to the smoker but state that the percentage of total global deaths affecting passive smokers too. It is well-known that are attributed to air pollution have reduced that smoking affects the passive smoker (the over these years due to improvements in global person who is in the vicinity of a smoker and air quality. is not himself/herself a smoker) ranging from ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 79 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018

TABLE: 1 PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL GLOBAL DEATHS DUE TO CAUSES THAT ARE ATTRIBUTED TO AIR POLLUTION Years Chronic Lower Pneumoconiosis Other Chronic Total Obstructive Respiratory Respiratory Pulmonary Infections Diseases Disease 1990 6.7 7.3 0.4 0.6 15 1995 6.3 6.7 0.3 0.6 13.9 2000 5.7 6.1 0.3 0.5 12.6 2005 5.4 5.5 0.2 0.5 11.6 2010 5.5 5.3 0.2 0.6 11.6 Source: WHO 2015

INDIAN SCENARIO for sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide (World Deterioration of India’s air quality has Development Indicators, 2000). The total urban been accentuated by industrialization and air pollution of SO2 and NOx from major cities in urbanization. While India’s gross domestic India are 300 micrograms per cubic meter and 250 product has increased 2.5 times over the past microgram per cubic meter during 2004 (World two decades, vehicular pollution has increased Development Report, 2005). Deterioration of eight times, while pollution from industries has air quality is a problem. A majority of the 300 quadrupled. Household energy consumption million urban Indians, about 30% of India’s also cannot be ignored in this respect. population is directly experiencing this (Gurjar Households are a major consumer of energy and et al., 2008). Recently an Environment and contribute, to a large extent, to the total energy Forest Ministry Report, Government of India, use of the nation. At present, the share of direct released on September 14,2007 has identified energy use of households in India is about 51 cities that do not meet the prescribed 40% of the total direct commercial and non- Respirable Particulate Matter(RSPM) levels, commercial indigenous energy use (Pachauri specified under the National Ambient Air Quality and Spreng, 2002). If, in addition, one takes into Standards(NAAQS). In 2005, an Environmental account the indirect or embodied energy in all Sustaibility Index (ESI) placed India at 101st goods and services purchased by households, position among 146 countries(Environmental then about 70% of the total energy use of Pollution in India,2008). the economy can be related to the household CONCLUSION sector, the remaining 30% comprise the energy Air pollution is a serious environmental concerns requirements of government consumption, all around the globe. Over the last few decades, investments and net imports (Pachauri and the intensified process of industrialization and Spreng, 2002). The distribution of population urbanization, coupled with rapid population with regard to energy consumption also shows growth has resulted in sever environmental that over 60% have a per capita total household degradation. In particular, harmful pollutants energy requirement of less than 0.5kw per such as Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Nitrogen Dioxide year. In addition to the wide disparities in the (NO2), Ozone (O3), Total Suspended Particles quantities of energy used, there are large Matter (TSPM) etc, are emitted and these variations in the types of energy used and pollutants even exceed air quality guidelines pattern of consumption among households. recommended by the World Health Organization A survey by Central Pollution Control Board (WHO, 2005). This brief review presents the India (CPCB, 2000) has identified 23 Indian cities adverse effects of a number of (air) pollutants to be critically polluted. 12 major metropolitan in human health. As shown, major impairments cities in India produce 352 tonnes of oxides of of different organs can be observed. The main nitrogen, 1916 tonnes of carbon mono oxides conclusion drawn is that, in view of increased from vehicular emission and 672 tonnes of exposure of humans in a diversity of pollutants, hydrocarbon. The CO, SO2 and NOx in the dietary interventions, rich in plant-derived ambient air of India are above the WHO safe foods, may protect or decrease their effects on limit. WHO annual mean guidelines for air different organs. quality standards are 90 micrograms per cubic meter for total suspended particulates, and 50 CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 80 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online)

REFERENCES 1.Greenstone M.,Nilekani J, Pande R, Ryan N,Sudarshan A and Sugathan A (2015). Lower Pollution, Longer Lives: Life Expectancy Gains if India Reduced Particulate Matter Pollution. Economic and Political Weekly. Vol l No 8. 2.Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India (2012). National action plan and monitoring framework for prevention and control of NCDs. New Delhi, India: GOI. 3.TERI (The Energy and Resources Institute). 2009. GREEN India 2047 Renewed: Looking Back to Change Track. New Delhi: TERI.

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 81 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018 18. BIODIVERSITY TOOLS FOR BOOSTING IMMUNE SYSTEM OF HOMOSAPIENS: AN IN VITRO STUDY OF ABUTILON INDICIUM LEAVES Dr.R.RAJ BHARATH, M.B.B.S., M.D., Assistant Professor of Transfusion Medicine, The Tamil Nadu Dr.M.G.R Medical University, Guindy, Chennai -600032. ABSTRACT organs, cells and proteins that protect the limate change is attributed directly or body from viruses and bacteria or any foreign Cindirectly to human activity that alters substances. The immune system works to the compositions of the global atmosphere. neutralize and remove pathogens like bacteria, Human beings are both agents and victims viruses, parasites or fungi that enters the body, of environmental change. Therefore, climate recognize and neutralize harmful substances change is the main reason for the environmental from the environment, and fight against the challenge that the world faces today. To body’s own cells that have undergone changes overcome these negative impact on human due to an illness. The cells of the immune system health, biodiversity has given powerful tools and originate in the bone marrow, then migrate to healing powers in the form of plants and herbs guard the peripheral tissues, circulating in the for boosting human body’s immune system blood and in the specialized system of vessels which keeps homosapiens finally strong, hale called the lymphatic system. and healthy. Many complex diseases including Human beings face illness when the performance heart problems require long and expensive of the immune system is compromised. treatment which common man in developing Sub-normal activity of the immune system countries cannot afford. India has a long leads to severe infections and tumors of history for the treatment of various diseases immunodeficiency while hyper-normal activity using traditional medicinal plants. In contrast of immune system results in allergic and auto- to synthetic compounds, herbal products are immune diseases. Immune System has been safer with minimum side effects and preferred categorized into two parts. They are as follows. largely for the treatment of various ailments. 1. Innate Immune System: Innate immune Thromboembolism involving the arterial or system works as a general defense against venous circulation or arising from the heart is pathogens. a common cause of morbidity and mortality. 2. Adaptive Immune System: Adaptive immune India with its numerous plants variety offers system targets specific pathogens. costless method and inexpensive treatment to a These two immune systems complement each number of disorders such as thromboembolism. other to protect the body as well as in any The present study explores how to find out the reaction to a pathogen or harmful substance. in vitro anticoagulant activities of abutilon Healthy immune function begins with good diet. indicium leaves extracts, in addition to Generally, obesity arises as a result of impaired comparing and contrasting the findings with immune response, so a plant based diet can other similar studies authored by a number of support immune system in double ways; medical practitioners. boosting immune system as well as keeping the INTRODUCTION body healthy. Following are some of the plant Climate change has affected human beings products available commonly, which will boost all over the world irrespective of their level of body’s immune system economic attainment. However, developing countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America 1.Garlic: Garlic is full of powerful molecules that have suffered a lot and felt the climate change can disinfect wounds besides preventing and catastrophes to a larger extent since poor people fighting infections. in these countries do not possess sufficient 2. Onion: Onions enhance digestive system and income and wealth to protect themselves in immune system. terms of mitigation and adaptation measures 3. Cabbage: It has more antioxidant capacity. against the vagaries of climate change such as 4. Ginger: Ginger is a well known antibacterial heat waves, tidal waves and tsunami. Extreme food that has been shown to be more effective disasters have led to human sufferings, diseases against bacterial staph infections than and impairment of immune system. antibiotics. In addition, it kills cancer cells and IMMUNE SYSTEM resolves brain inflammations. Immune system is an interactive network of 5. Green Tea: Green tea is a potent source of

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 82 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) antioxidants called polyphenols which can activity in fruits and vegetables. Kee et al in his destroy influenza and common cold viruses. study on medicinal plants in South Africa found 6. Aloe Vera: Aloe Vera plant and its gel have that the plant Leonotis leonurus root extract the healing powers. had anticoagulant activity. Ki Min et al found 7. Citrus Fruits: Oranges and grape fruits packed that algal fucoidan had thrombolytic activity with C vitamin , raise the body’s resistance to and a stimulatory effect on the thrombolytic infections. activity of Tissue-Plasminogen activator in a 8.Mushrooms: Mushrooms increase the dose dependent manner in a murine arterial production and activity of white blood cells, thrombosis model. making them more aggressive and keeps Studies in algae done by Shanmugam et al in immune system healthy. South India found out sulfated polysaccharides METHODOLOGY presence which has the potential anti thrombin Climate catastrophes witnessed in the last mediated anticoagulant activity. Abutilon few decades have culminated in a number of indicum is an erect, velvety tomentose under human disorders reducing the performance shru, ranchlets with short stellate pubescent. of immune system, besides increasing heart Leaves are crenate-dentate and acute- problems. Primary data and secondary data acuminate. Flowers are golden yellow, solitary, have been used to analyze the objectives and schizocarps gloose, densely stellate-hairy, the related research question. The present black when ripe. In Ayurveda, it is called atiala study through a number of laboratory tests and in Siddha, it is called thuthi. The plant on human blood, tries to find out how Indian root, leaf, flower are used as cure for piles, medicinal plants could be used as a costless ulcers, haematemesis, cough, leprosy, dysuria, method in the treatment of heart disorders leucorrhoea, jaundice and for other drug instead of expensive allopathic treatment. reactions. The leaves of the abutilon imdicium Thromboembolic diseases such as myocardial are used as diuretic and demulcent. infarction, stroke, deep vein thrombosis, AIM pulmonary embolism are the main causes of The aim of the study is to find out the in vitro death worldwide. As thrombosis results from anticoagulant activities in leaves of abutilon increased blood clotting, anticoagulant therapy indicium extracts. is administered to counteract thrombosis. MATERIALS AND METHODS Chronic anti thrombotic therapy involves the Leaves of abutilon indicium were identified, use of anticoagulants, antiplatelets that are collected, shade dried, powdered and aqueous given either as mono-therapy or in combination extracts are prepared from the plant. They are for prevention of thrombotic complications. then lyophilised into powdered form. Plant Rapidly acting parental anticoagulant such extract accounting for 0.1 gram were weighed as heparin are used for prevention and in an electronic weighing balance and mixed treatment of thromboembolism and during with 1000 micro-litre of distilled water. revascularization procedures and the slow Blood samples were taken from volunteers and acting vitamin K antagonists are used for long their blood grouping have been carried out. term therapy. Heparin has been the mainstay of Then platelets were removed from the plasma anticoagulant treatment for acute thrombotic and were separated based on the following disorders but has several side effects such as blood groups A, B and O. Platelet poor plasma inefficiency in anti thrombin deficient patients, samples of 1 ml. each of A blood group of ten bleeding complications, heparin induced volunteers were pooled in a test tube. The same thrombocytopenia, immune-suppression and procedure has been repeated for B and O blood osteoporotic complications with long term groups also. effects. But these anticoagulants have certain Pooled plasma weighing 1000 micro-litres of serious side effects such as hemorrhage and also A, B and O blood groups were mixed with 50 have a narrow therapeutic window. Limitations micro-litres of extract. For the control, another of these existing anticoagulants have led to the 1000 micro-litres of pooled plasma of A, B search for novel agents of natural origin. & O blood groups were mixed with 50 micro- REVIEW OF LITERATURE litres of distilled water. The following tests The use of plants with medicinal properties for carried out were prothrombin time, Activated the prevention and treatment of diseases is partial thromboplastin time and Thrombin one of the most ancient forms of health care. time in a semi automated coagulometer. The Plants contain several secondary metabolites coagulometer was calibrated using the quality that present many biological activities. Studies control standard reagent given for all the three have been conducted which had shown the tests. The following tests were run again with antiplatelet, anticoagulant and fibrinolytic a higher concentration (0.2 grams) of the plant

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extract in cases where the extract exhibited clotting time significantly. Anticoagulant activity anticoagulant properties. of Phylanthus niruri linn was seen in the aerial Results and roots aqueous extracts which affected the ABUTILON INDICIUM (0.1 gm in 1000 µl) intrinsic and common pathway of coagulation. Prothrombin time This prolongation of APTT occurred in all the BLOOD CONTROL TEST (in sec) three blood groups A, B and O respectively.. GROUP (in sec) Juliana et al in their study on leaves of Jatropha gossypifolia showed significant activity in APTT A 12.4 12.6 but not in PT suggesting an action towards B 12.5 12.6 intrinsic and common pathway of coagulation. Similar study by Woo Jung et al revealed that O 10.1 10.0 fucoidan extracted from the plant Undaria Thrombin time pinnatifida prolonged the activated PTT BLOOD CONTROL TEST (in sec) significantly. GROUP (in sec) Tests have been carried out on the samples for APTT by doubling the concentrations from 0.1 A 4.6 5.4 to 0.2 gm per ml. of the extract. Findings have B 5.0 6.2 established that there was significant increase O 5.1 6.1 in the APTT on increasing the concentration of the dose level. This was again confirmed in Activated partial thromboplastin time (0.1 gm all the three blood groups. Similarly, Caroline in 1000 µl & 0.2 gm in 1000 µl) et al in their study on in vitro anticoagulant BLOOD CONTROL TEST TEST activity of the plant melastoma malabathricum GROUP (in sec) (0.1gm) (0.2gm) linn. have observed that the plant affects A 34.0 54.0 59.6 the intrinsic pathway of coagulation cascade (APTT) and markedly prolonged, depending B 33.0 65.7 72.4 on the level of concentration but not in PT O 44.0 67.8 79.2 and TT. However, Karim et al in their study on evaluation of anticoagulant property of DISCUSSION Morinda citrifolia extract have observed that it An ideal anticoagulant should have the following prolonged both the prothrombin and activated features such as effectiveness, safety and lack partial thromboplastin time to time. of serious toxicity, a wide therapeutic window, There was however, no significant increase no need for monitoring, oral bio-availability, in blood PT in all the three blood groups. safety during pregnancy and low cost. It has Manjappa et al in their study have established been observed that heparin; the widely used that the seeds of the plant Momordica charantia anticoagulant has its own side effects and exhibited strong anticoagulant property in adverse reactions. This has led many researchers intrinsic pathway of blood coagulation and not to search for the ‘perfect’ anticoagulant which in extrinsic pathway (PT). has the capability of the highest therapeutic There was no significant change in Thromin efficacy with no adverse effects. time( TT) in the present study which reflects Tests have been carried out on the controls the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin but of all the three blood groups A, B and O Wonhwa Lee et al in their study of plant separately. Analysis revealed that O blood cyclopia subternata have revealed that the group had prolonged APTT compared to A and active compound present vicenin- 2 prolonged B blood groups. This may be due to the O group PT, activated PTT and inhibited production of individuals having 25% lower plasma levels of thrombin and factor X. Moreover, another Factor VIII and Von Willie brand factor compared study done in vivo of citrus lemon and punica to the other blood groups.. Factor VIII level play granatum on rabbits by Azra et al suggested an important role in the intrinsic pathway and that they possessed anti- thrombin activity. lower levels prolong the activated PTT. However, caution should always be exercised The study has found out that the extract resulted when introducing new anticoagulants as in prolonged activated partial thromboplastin therapeutic excesses can lead to bleeding time (APTT) but not in thrombin time (TT) as risk and therapeutic limitations can increase well as in prothromin time (PT). The findings thrombotic risk as well. were comparable to another similar study CONCLUSION by Rita et al. In their study on the same plant The leaf extract of abutilon indicium showed abutilon indicium, they have found out that prolongation of activated partial thromboplastin aqueous extract of the leaves prolonged time and normal levels in prothromin time and

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 84 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) time and normal levels in prothromin time and Antithrombotic/anticoagulant and anticancer thrombin time. This confirms the anticoagulant activities of selected medicinal plants from south activity of the plant in vitro by affecting the Africa. African Journal of Biotechnology 2008; intrinsic pathway of the coagulation cascade. 7(30):217-223. Therefore, the study establishes the value of 11.Raka Kamal, Manas Mathur, Jaya Sharma. plants as a tool of biodiversity in preventing Antiplatelet activity of phyllanthus niruri linn. Elixir health complications at a cheaper cost, suitable Appl. Biology 2012. (47):8778-8781. to the socio-economic conditions of common 12.Raul Altman. New oral anticoagulants: are man in less developed countries. In the context coagulation units still required? Thrombosis Journal of the above, the governments both at the 2014. 12:3 centre and states should evince keen interest in 13.Rita Mahajan, Dhananjay More. Evaluation promoting and propagating the use of medicinal of anticoagulant activity aqueous and ethenolic plants through extensive research grants and extracts and their isolated phytochemical of some permission to carry out both in vitro and in vivo medicinal plants. International journal of pharmacy test trials for establishing and authenticating and pharmaceutical Sciences. 4(4) 2012. the credentials of medicinal plants for the 14.Soon-Ki Min,Sung-Mi Han, Hong- Tae Kim, Oh- sustainable benefit and use of mankind. Choon Kwon et al. Algal fucoidan, unlike heparin has REFERENCES thrombolytic activity in a murine arterial thrombosis 1.Azra Riaz, Rafeeq alam khan. Effect of combination model. Blood coagulation and fibrinolysis. 2012; doses of citurs lemon and punica granatum juice on 23(5): 359-366. blood parameters in rabbits. International journal of 15.Surjeet kumar, Lincy Joseph, Mathew George, phytotherapy research 2013:3(4). Anmol Sharma. A review on anticoagulant/ 2.Caroline Manicam, Janna Ong Abdullah, Eusni antithrombotic activity of natural plants used in Rhayu Mohd Tohit et al . Invitro anticoagulant traditional medicine. 2011; 8(1): 70-74. activities of Melastoma malabathricum linn. 16.Torres Urrutia, Constanzaa, Guzman, Luisa et al. Aqueous leaf extract : A preliminary novel finding. Antiplatelet, anticoagulant and fibrinolytic activity in Journal of Medicinal plants Research 2010 ; 4(14): vitro of extracts from selected fruits and vegetables. 1464-1472. Blood coagulation and firinolysis 2011; 22(3):197- 3.Donnell J, Laffan MA. The relationship between 205. ABO histo-blood group, factor VIII and von Willebrand 17.Wonhwa Lee, Jong Sup Bae. Antithrombotic and factor. Transfusion Medicine 2001 Aug;11(4):343-51. antiplatelet activities of vicenin-.2. blood coagulation 4.Elena I.Sinauridze, Mikhael A.Panteleev,Fazoil and fibrinolysis 2015;26:628-634. I.Ataullakhanov. Anticoagulant therapy : 18.Woo Jung Kim, Sung Min Kim, Hyun Guell Kim et al. basic principles,classic approaches and recent Purification and anticoagulant activity of a fucoidan developments. Blood Coagulation and fibrionolysis from Korean undaria pinnatifida sporophyll. Algae 2012; 23: 482-493. 2007; 22(3):247-252. 5.John W. Eikelboom, Jeffrey I. Weitz. Update 19.Yoga Narasimhan S.N, Medicinal Plants of India – on Antithrombotic therapy New anticoagulants. Tamil Nadu. Vol.2000., pp.65-69. Circulation 2010; 121:1523-1532. 6.Juliana Felix silva, Thiago Souza, Rafael arros et al. Invitro anticoagulant and antioxidant activities of Jatropha gossypifolia L.(Euphobiaceae) leaves aiming therapeutical applications. Complementary and Alternative medicine 2014.4:405. 7.M.Shanmugam, K.H Mody, Heparinoid-active sulfatedpolysaccharides from marine algae as potential lood anticoagulant agents. Current Science 2000.79(12): 1672-1683. 8.Manjappa, Bhagyalakshmi; Gangaraju, Sowmyashree; Girish, Kesturu S.; Kemparaju, Kempaiah et al .Blood Coagulation & Fibrinolysis 2015; 26(2) : 191-199. 9.Mohd.Arif.Abdul.Karim, Sabariah Md Noor, Zainina Seman et al., Evaluation of anticoagulant property of aqueous and ethanolic extracts of Morinda citrifolia. International journal of tropical medicine 2013; 8(1):1-5. 10.Nalise low Ah kee, Nandipha Mnonopi,Hajierah Davids, Ryno J.Naude,Carminita L.Frost.

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 85 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018 19. IMPACT OF WATER POLLUTION IN TAMIL NADU

Dr. J. JACOB STANLEY INBARAJ., Ph.D, Assistant Professor of Economics, Sacred Heart College (Autonomous), Tirupattur – 635 601. Email: [email protected] Mr. A. KANNAPPAN, II Master of Arts Economics, Sacred Heart College (Autonomous) Tirupattur – 635601. Email: [email protected].

ABSTRACT fall, wastes due to recreational use, intrusion of ater resource is one of the important sea water and many more such activities cause Wnatural resources it essential for the pollution of water bodies. survival of living organisms. The adequate In the state Tamil Nadu most of the rivers are safe water is essential to human lives and it affected due to sewage, oil, chemicals and is required in day to day life. Water pollution effluents. The discharge of domestic waste and may take place due to natural causes such industrial effluents into water courses such as as silt carried by run-off, organic wastes of rivers, streams and lakes in Tamil Nadu results plants and animals, minerals leaching through of physical, chemical and biological changes soils, thermal pollution and algal blooms. In leads to undesirable condition. The growth of most of the developing countries are being urbanization is lead to increase in industrial polluted beyond their capacity because of high activity and dependence of the agricultural population growth. Increasing the urbanization sector use on chemicals and fertilizers has leaded and industrialization has reason for create a to pullulated ground waters. In different types very large point of water pollution. Agro – based water has polluted: surface water pollution, oil industries has seriously damaged surface water pollution, chemical water pollution, agricultural quality’s, even in many rivers and groundwater pollution, ground water pollution and thermal has been contaminated. Polluted water is like pollution. poison for human beings. A large number of RESEARCH METHODOLOGY diseases in Tamil Nadu can attributed to drinking In this study based on explanatory research and of sewage mixed water. Various diseases like adopt a secondary date. The data are collected polio, cholera, patches, jaundice, fever, viral from different journals, books, government fever etc are spread through polluted water. annual reports and periodicals for the purpose KEYWORDS: pollution, contaminated, of the study. sewage, ground water. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY INTRODUCTION 1.To study the impacts of water pollution. Water resource is one of the important natural 2.To study the water pollution control policies. resources it essential for the survival of living 3.To examine the health impact due to organisms. The adequate safe water is essential contamination of water. to human lives and it is required in day to day TAMIL NADU POLLUTION CONTROL life. Water pollution may take place due to BOARD (TNPCB) natural causes such as silt carried by run-off, Tamil Nadu pollution control board (TNPCB) was organic wastes of plants and animals, minerals constituted by the Government of Tamil Nadu on leaching through soils, thermal pollution and 27th February,1982 in pursuance of the Water algal blooms. It may also be due to the discharge Prevention and Control of Pollution Act, 1974 of domestic and industrial wastewaters. In (Central Act 6 of 1974). Increasing the pace most of the developing countries are being of industrialization in Tamil Nadu its need to polluted beyond their capacity because of high monitoring pollution level continuously. In the population growth. Increasing the urbanization 3 industries are required to provide pollution and industrialization has reason for create control measures to meet the standards a very large point of water pollution. Agro prescribed by the board. In the board field – based industries has seriously damaged officers are inspect the industries continually surface water quality’s, even in many rivers with some pollution control measures provide and groundwater has been contaminated. by the industries sewage, trade effluent and Toxic chemicals used for agriculture and other emissions. For effective monitoring industries purposes, solid wastes, oil from garages and are categorized as Red, Orange, Green and cleaning of vehicles, drainage from farms and White according to their pollution level. Also manure, land surface drainage, cattle washing, in the industries has been classified a large, watering and dipping agricultural wastes, dust medium and small scale based on the gross fixed

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 86 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) assets of the industry. And depending upon are cement units, distilleries, sugar, sago, paper, the category and size industries are monitored dairying, electroplating, chemical and fertilizers periodically. (Agro chemicals), mining industries, ores/ The various legislations are created by the mineral processing industries and a variety of government to control the water pollution. other industries which are water consuming Water pollution control legislations with which and also generate large quantities of effluent. the TNPCB is concerned are given below. Some of the industries have also provided the Most of the legislations are implements treated effluent for irrigation with some degree directly by the TNPCB and some of other of success. legislations implemented by deportments of COASTAL POLLUTION the government. The major activities that are responsible for •The water (prevention and control of pollution) coastal pollution in Tamil Nadu are discharge and act, 1974 as amended in 1978 & 1988. disposal of untreated domestic and industrial •Tamil Nadu water (prevention and control of wastes, discharges of coolant waters, harbour pollution) rules, 1983. activities such as dredging, cargo handling, •The water (prevention and control of pollution) dumping of ship wastes, spilling of cargo’s 3 cess act, 1977, as amended in 1991 and 2003. chemicals and metal ores, fishing activities •The water (prevention and control of pollution) etc. There are 14 major industries located in cess rules, 1978 as amended in 1992. the Ennore-Manali areas. The industries at •Coastal Regulation Zone notification, 2011. Manali and Ennore are mostly chemical based, •The Solid Wastes Management Rules, 2016. manufacturing petro-chemicals, fertilizers, MAJOR CAUSES OF WATER POLLUTION pharamaceuticals, paints etc. There are two It can be classified under two broad categories. power plants at Ennore, namely, Ennore • Point source: which occurs when Thermal Power Plant with a production capacity harmful substance are emitted directly into the of 200 MW and North Chennai Thermal Power body of water. Plant with a production capacity of 600 MW. • Non-point source: which occurs when The fly ash continuously deposits in the sea. harmful substances are emitted directly into The industries at Ennore-Manali are using a a body of water and ‘nonpoint source’ which wide variety of raw materials and discharge delivers pollutants indirectly through transport waste products into the air, water or land as or environmental change. gaseous emissions, liquid effluents and sludge, Important Driving Forces respectively. In the coastal area of Tamil Nadu The following are considered to be the major 488.02 MLD of wastewater is generated and driving forces of water pollution. only 226 of MLD is treated. 1. Urbanization 2. Industrialization SEWAGE POLLUTION Impact of water pollution in Tamil Nadu The state Tamil Nadu out of 152 municipalities INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION and 5 corporations, only 15 municipalities In Tamil Nadu have a more than 3000 industrial and 4 corporations have partial underground units are classified under highly polluting or red sewerage system. The river water is used category industry. In the red category industries downstream for irrigation or drinking by total effluent generated around 6 lakh liters per people/livestock, contamination of the river day of which more than 5 lakh liters (85%) of has increasingly become a serious problem total effluent generated by large scale industries. in many of the river basins of the State. River About 400 units discharge directly into rivers; basins like Palar, Tamiraparani, Cauvery, Noyyal, of particular concern are the tanneries which Bhavani and Amaravathy face serious pollution are located in Vellore, Kancheepuram, Dindigul problems due to sewage. and Erode districts. The effluents have caused RESPONSE serious problems in the Palar basin. Similarly, All the industries discharging effluents are there are a large number of textile bleaching regulated by the Tamil Nadu Pollution Control and dyeing units in Tiruppur, Erode, and Board. In the board fixed the effluent standards Karur, which have contaminated the Noyyal, in the industries. Industries pay a cess based Amaravathy and other water bodies. In majority on their water consumption to the Tamil Nadu of effluents come from main five industrial Pollution Control Board. Most of the industries complexes in Tamil Nadu: Manali/Ennore, have a own effluent treatment plants. In small Ranipet, Cuddalore, Mettur and Tuticorin size industrial 109 pollution clusters, although areas placed chemical, petro-chemical and the units are connected to common effluent other industries. These complexes have also treatment plants. become more environmental hotspots. There

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COMMON EFFLUENT TREATMENT Radioactive substances produced from nuclear PLANTS (CETPS) explosions also reach the water bodies and Leather industry creates emission of high makes drinking water severely contaminated. incidence is pollution affecting the ground water If one uses this water, one can fall a victim to quality. In order to arrest the effluents of waste terrible diseases like cancer. The use of such from the leather industries the board has been water also increases the risk of having children directing the leather industries come under the with disabilities. fold of common effluent treatment plants.in CONCLUSION addition to the leather industry, textiles, dying, Polluted water is like poison for human beings. hotels and lodges are also bound to generate A large number of diseases in Tamil Nadu can adverse externality. The common effluent attributed to drinking of sewage mixed water. treatment plant constructed in Nagalkeni near Its creates various diseases like polio, cholera, Pallavarm is showcasing the effective role of the patches, jaundice, fever, viral fever etc are TNPCB in abatement of water pollution. spread through polluted water. Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board was following the IMPACTS OF HUMAN HEALTH Indian water pollution control acts, rules and Polluted water is like poison for human beings. notifications. The TNPCB officers inspecting A large number of diseases in Tamil Nadu can the industries periodically with some pollution attributed to drinking of sewage mixed water. control measures. In the board monitoring Various diseases like polio, cholera, patches, the industries effectively and categorized a jaundice, fever, viral fever etc are spread Red, Orange, Green and White according to through polluted water. Polluted water contains their pollution level. In many of the Tamil lead which when consumed by the humans Nadu river basins contaminates with industrial while drinking water leads to producing various effluents. River basins like Palar, Tamiraparani, aliments such as joint pains, kidney disease and Cauvery, Noyyal, Bhavani and Amaravathy face heart disease in them. serious pollution problems due to sewage. The waterborne diseases are infectious which In the study concluded that urbanization and spread primarily from polluted water. Hepatitis, industrialization is the main reason for the cholera, dysentery and typhoid are the water pollution its creates many diseases in common waterborne disease, which affect the human beings. majority of tropical area. If the polluted water REFERENCES gets stagnated, it becomes a breeding ground 1.Royal Edward Williams A and Parvez Ahmed for mosquito and many other parasites which MP.(2015), Impact of water contamination in are very common in tropical areas. In children Domestic Water sources in Tirupattur, Vellore often get sick if they drink polluted water and District., Research & Review: Journal of Ecology sometimes they even die due to intensity of the and Environmental Sciencs,Tamil Nadu, ISSN:2347- diseases. Large amounts of chloride in drinking 7830. P.P 1-5. water deform the spine which becomes snaky 2.Jesu A, Prabu doss Kumar L and Dheenadayalan and their teeth go yellow, start falling and more MS.(2013), Environmental Impact of Ground Water over their hands and feet lose flexibility of the in Dindigul District Tamil Nadu, India. Research and bones and thieir body deforms. It also increases Reviews: Journal of Engineering and Technology, the risk of kidney diseases. A large amount e-ISSN: 2319-9873. P.P 26-32. of sulphide in polluted water is the reason 3.http://www.tnpcb.gov.in/pdf/tnpcb_you2013.pdf of various respiratory diseases and drinking 4.http://www.pcbolgprs.in/about.html water contaminated with urea increases 5.http://www.indiacelebrating.com/environmental- intestinal disorder. Thus continuous intake of issues/effects-of-water-pollution/ contaminated drinking water is the reasons 6.http://www.theworldcounts.com/stories/how- behind various stomach related disorders and does-water-pollution-affect-humans other diseases like lumps in throat, tooth decay, 7.http://iced.cag.gov.in/wp-content/ etc. uploads/2013/09/Water%20pollution.pdf. Composition of nitrate resulting from fertilizer and chemicals used in agricultural lands, waste dumps or pit latrines causes contamination of the groundwater. Such contaminated drinking water is the reason of blue baby disease in kids which changes their skin colour. In this disease, nitrate contamination in groundwater results in decreased oxygen carrying capacity of haemoglobin in babies, leading to their death.

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 88 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) 20.CHALLENGES OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON HUMAN HEALTH SHARON P.R, PhD Research Scholar, Bishop Heber College ( Autonomous), Trichy -17.

Dr S. SEETHALAKSHMI, Assistant Professor, Bishop Heber College (Autonomous), Trichy-17

ABSTRACT and comfort conferred by climatic stability. limate change is the biggest global health The world’s climate system is fundamental Cthreat of the 21st century. Climate change is to this life-support. But today, humankind’s adversely affecting the human health. Maximum activities are altering the world’s climate. We impact of global warming and climate change are increasing the atmospheric concentration will be seen on underdeveloped and developing of energy-trapping gases, thereby amplifying countries like India. In Indian context the the natural “greenhouse effect” that makes implications of climate change are broadly the Earth habitable. These greenhouse gases classified into rising sea levels, increasing (GHGs) compromise, principally, carbon dioxide CO2 levels, rising temperatures and extreme (mostly from fossil fuel combustion and forest weather conditions. Climate change affects the burning), along with other heat-trapping gases human health in various ways. In developing such as methane (from irrigated agriculture, countries like India, the health sector and the animal husbandry and oil extraction), nitrous infrastructural facilities are very weak. The oxide and various human-made halocarbons. impact of the human activity on climate system To support this in further, the Fifth Assessment is the most serious environmental challenge Report (2014) of the UN’s Intergovernmental nowadays. The impacts of climate change on Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) stated: “There human health will be difficult to reverse in a few is a clear human influence on the climate. It is years or decades. Yet, these possible impacts can the dominant cause of observed warming since be avoided or controlled. This paper analyses 1950s.” the challenges of climate change on health. As humans are the primary cause of sudden INTRODUCTION changes in the planet’s climate, it is important Climate change is a geological process which to understand that climate change is a has been occurring throughout the planet’s significant threat to the health of present lifetime. The increase and decrease in and future generation of our community. The atmospheric temperature has been happening impacts of human-induced climate change at a low rate due to the changes in Earth’s orbit. are increasing worldwide. Rising greenhouse However the sudden climate change happening gas concentrations have resulted in increased now can be described as earth’s response to temperature, precipitation changes, increased human activities which has caused an increase frequency and intensity of extreme weather in the emission of carbon dioxide and other events, and rising of sea levels. These effects greenhouse gases. As the level of carbon dioxide of climate change has shown its impacts on in the atmosphere increases, the oceans are climate-related extremes including alteration absorbing more carbon dioxide, making them of ecosystems, disruption of food production more acidic and warmer. As oceans become and water supply, damage to infrastructure warmer, they can expand and can aid in and settlements, morbidity and mortality, and shrinking of glaciers and snow. This will further consequences for mental health and human increase the atmospheric temperature as snow well-being. According to the IPCC, there has been reflects heat into the space. increased heat-related mortality and decreased Drastic change in our atmospheric climate is cold-related mortality in some regions as a having a wide scale impact on the economy result of warming. As the climate continues to by affecting many global sectors including change, the risks to human health continue to agricultural sector and industrial sector. The grow. Another key finding from the Working global economy is further affected, due to the Group II, Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of the long term effects of climate change such as Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change natural disasters and conservation of animal (IPCC) supports this by stating that health and plant species. issues caused by climate change have occurred Populations of all animal species depend on in the past and are currently occurring. Even supplies of food and water, freedom from excess with immediate reductions in greenhouse gas infectious disease, and the physical safety emissions, the health of our community will be

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affected will continue to occur for at least the foreseeable future. For instance, the changes EXTREME HEAT EVENTS– EFFECT ON in temperature and rainfall have altered the HEALTH distribution of water-borne illness and disease Climate change also affects human health vectors. by increasing the frequency and intensity of The World Health Organisation (WHO) 2017 extreme heat events. Increase in the overall estimates that the climate change undermines temperature of the atmosphere and oceans access to safe water, adequate food, and associated with climate change cause changes clean air, explaining the approximately 12.6 in the wind, moisture, and heat circulation million deaths each year that were caused by patterns. These changes contribute to shifts avoidable environmental risk factors. Between in extreme weather events, including extreme 2030 and 2050, climate change is expected to heat events. Extreme heat events can trigger a cause approximately 250,000 additional deaths variety of heat stress conditions, such as heat per year, from malnutrition, malaria, diarrhoea stroke. Heat stroke is the most serious heat- and heat stress, and in turn will need billions related disorder which occurs when the body of dollars to cover the costs of maintaining becomes unable to control its temperature and a healthy community. The impact of global eventually cause overheating. Extreme heat warming and the greenhouse effect is cited events (EHEs) cause dehydration which is defined as the world’s most serious environmental as loss or deficiency of water in body tissues challenge. caused by sweating, vomiting and diarrhoea. Our personal health may seem to relate mostly Symptoms for dehydration include excessive to prudent behaviour, hereditary causes, thirst, nausea, and exhaustion. Furthermore, occupation and local environmental exposures. heat cramps can be described as a heat event in However, environmental degradation and which painful and often incapacitating cramps climate change represent one of the biggest occur in muscles. Symptoms for heat cramps threats to human health, particularly the include dry, hot skin, high body temperature health of younger people in future and that of (usually over 105F), and mental dysfunction; future generations. Although global warming higher atmospheric temperatures are also may bring some localised benefits, such as linked to the increase respiratory illnesses fewer winter deaths in temperate climates and present in the current global population. This increased food production in certain areas, the is because higher temperatures contribute to overall health effects of a changing climate are the build-up of harmful air pollutants. These likely to be overwhelmingly negative – as it extreme heat events will lead to an increase in affects social and environmental determinants heat-related deaths and illness. of health. AIR QUALITY AND HEALTH According to the National Climate Assessment, IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON climate change will affect human health HEALTH by increasing health problems, including Climate change represents a fundamental diminished lung function, increased hospital threat to lives and wellbeing. Its effects are admissions and emergency department visits being felt most immediately and severely for asthma and increase in premature deaths. among those living in least developed countries Climate change decreases the quality of the air and developing countries like India. However, we breathe. When we burn fossil fuels, such as ultimately the global population will be coal, we release carbon dioxide (CO2), which indirectly or directly affected by the drastic builds up in the atmosphere and causes Earth’s change in climate. The major climate changes temperature to rise. This extra trapped heat are raising sea levels, increasing CO2 levels, disrupts many of the interconnected ecosystem rising temperatures and extreme weather – in our environment. Climate change also affects which are causing issues which affects the human health by making our air less healthy human health and quality of life. to be inhaled. Higher temperatures lead to an Immediate action is now needed to protect increase in allergens and harmful air pollutants. health from climate change. This is recognised in For instance, longer warm seasons can mean the reference made in the Paris Agreement for longer pollen seasons – which can increase the need to protect “the right to health”, and for allergic sensation and asthma episodes, the need to hold global warming to well below which will in turn diminish productive work. 2 degree Celsius above pre-industrial levels, Exposure to allergens causes health problems and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature for many people. When sensitive individuals increase to 1.5 degree Celsius. are simultaneously exposed to allergens and air pollutants, allergic reactions often become

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 90 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) more severe. People with existing pollen diseases. The development and survival of allergies may have increased risk for acute ticks, their animal hosts, and the bacterium that respiratory effects. causes vector-borne diseases are all strongly Climate change can increase natural disasters influenced by climatic factors. such as wildfires at a larger scale, which will RAINFALL AND DROUGHT further reduce air quality and affect people’s Water is fundamental for life. Increase in health in a number of ways. Firstly, smoke precipitation extremes, either heavy rainfall exposure can increases acute respiratory events or droughts, can impact our health. illness, leading to increased respiratory and Warmer temperatures cause more water cardiovascular hospitalisations, and medical to evaporate into the air and allow that air visits for lung illnesses. Rising temperatures and to hold more water. This sets the stage for wildfires and decreasing precipitation will lead heavier downpours. At the same time, global to increases in ozone, a harmful air pollutant. temperatures influence the way heat and This issue is being addressed by the Government moisture move around the planet, meaning of India by introducing compressed natural gas drier conditions will occur in some regions of (CNG) for transport and replacement of wood the world. Over the last several decades, we fire for cooking by the liquid petroleum gas have already seen an increase in the number (LPG) in villages. of heavy precipitation events in India. These DISASTERS AND HEALTH events have contributed to more severe Globally, the number of reported weather- flooding in certain regions. Floods are one of related natural disasters has more than the deadliest weather-related hazards. Living tripled since the 1960s. The disasters include with poor air quality and damp conditions has excessive floods, cyclones, storms, tsunamis, been shown to increase health problems. These droughts and earthquakes. Every year, these health problems include aggravation of asthma disasters result in over 60,000 deaths - mainly and other upper respiratory tract symptoms in developing countries. such as coughing and wheezing due to mould Climate change also affects human health exposure. They also include lower respiratory by impacting the quality and safety of both tract infections like pneumonia. People living in our water supply and our recreational water. drought conditions are more likely to encounter As the earth’s temperature rises, surface certain dangerous situations which can range water temperatures in lakes and oceans from dust storms to flash floods. Wildfires are also rising proportionally. Flood waters associated with drought conditions greatly often contain a variety of contaminants as reduce air quality. This poor air quality affects floods can overwhelm a region’s drainage or people’s health in a number of ways. wastewater treatment systems, increasing HEALTH EFFECT DUE TO FOOD the risk of exposure to bacteria, parasites and INSECURITY other unhealthy pollutants. There is also loss of Food insecurity has been associated with health life and property. Increased coastal and inland in variety of ways. Food insecurity refers to the flooding exposes populations to a range of short lack of nutritious foods in sufficient quantities term and long term negative health impacts to maintain good health. Food insecurity and before, during, and after events. hunger have been associated with increased VECTOR-BORNE AND RODENT-BORNE risk for poor nutritional status and poor health INFECTIOUS DISEASES outcomes. Climate change can cause food One way climate change might affect human insecurity as increasing temperatures and more health is by increasing the risk of vector-bone variable rainfalls and loss of agricultural land are and rodent-borne infectious diseases. A vector expected to reduce crop yields. This is further is any organism such as mosquitoes, ticks, fleas, supported as the dynamic crop models indicate rodents, rats or ground squirrels when they a decrease in the yield of crops as temperature carry diseases that can transmit a pathogen, increases in different parts of India. Children or infectious agent from one host to another. who are food insecure may be at higher risk for Different insects can carry different diseases. As chronic health conditions, such as anaemia and warmer average temperatures can mean longer asthma. Malnutrition causes number of deaths warm seasons, earlier spring seasons, shorter each year and it is one of the important public and milder winters, and hotter summers - health problems. In India, almost half of the conditions might become more hospitable for children under age five and more than two out many carriers of vector-borne diseases, with of five women are undernourished. malaria and dengue being the most important. MENTAL HEALTH AND WELL-BEING There is historical evidence of association The effects of global climate change on mental between climatic conditions and vector-borne health and well-being are integral parts of the

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overall climate-related human health impacts. should also be altered to being eco-friendly. Mental health consequences of climate REFERENCES 21. CLIMATE & ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: change range from minimal stress and distress 1.Rashmi Krmari Shinha, “Climate Change and symptoms to clinical disorders, such as anxiety, Health”, Third Concept, Vol.21, No.241, March 2007, TOWARDS ALTERNATIVE THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT depression, post-traumatic stress and suicidal Pp 57-58 thoughts. The social and mental health 2.Akshay Gambhir, “Consequences of Warming on Prof. RUDRAPPAN, D., President, AMECA, Former Joint Director of Collegiate consequences of extreme weather events Health”, Green Energy, Vol. 4, No.2, Mar-Apr, 2008, Education, Govt. of Tamil Nadu, Ethiopian Civil Service University, Ethiopia have been the focus of research for more Pp 31-32 E-mail: [email protected] than three decades. The mental health and 3.Sachin Tiwale, Dipti Hingmire, “Scapegoating well-being consequences of extreme events, Climate Change”, Economic and Political Weekly, Dr.S.VEERAMANI, Organizing Secretary, AMECA, Associate Professor,Department particularly natural disasters are common and Vol. LI. No. 23, June 4, 2016, Pp 69-70 of Economics, DRBCCC Hindu College, Chennai.E-mail:[email protected] form a significant part of the overall effects on Subhrabaran Das and Alfina Khatun Talukdar, health. The cumulative and interactive effects “Health Status and Demand for Health Care: A “ We, the human species, are confronting a of climate change, as well as the threat and District-level Study from India”, Journal of Health planetary emergency-a threat to the survival of perception of climate change, adversely impact Management, Vol.18, No.4, December 2016, Pp our civilization that is gathering ominous and individual and societal health, mental health, 536-544 destructive potential-----; but there is hopeful and well-being. Websites news as well; we have the ability to solve the SUGGESTIONS TO OVERCOME 4.http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/ CLIMATE CHANGE crisis and avoid the worst though not all of its 5.http://www.envfor.nic.in/ consequences, if we act boldly, decisively and →→ Reduction in the use of fossil fuels 6.https://health2016.globalchange.gov/ quickly”.- →→ Use of renewable energy resources that Former Vice-President Al Gore, Noble Lecture do not emit Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) at Oslo, December 10, 2007. →→ Reducing deforestation ABSTRACT →→ To raise the awareness on climate The present day global economic problems change have brought new attention to chronic →→ Institutionalisation of disaster risk structural flaws in current economic models reduction approaches and assumptions. As world economies struggle →→ To limit the growth of population to recover, many are taking a closer look at the →→ To plant more trees alternative theory of economic development →→ Recycling of waste materials the one that simultaneously promotes →→ To use bio-technical methods like bio- sustainability and economic growth. Welfare of gas and bio-diesel etc Homo sapiens is inextricably linked to earth’s →→ Reduction of plastic materials CONCLUSION climate. The manner in which human beings respond to climate change is critical not only According to World Health Organisation (WHO), to survival but also to their well-being. It is a “health is defined as a state of complete irrefutable fact that current economic growth physical, mental and social well-being and not of the world is based on high resource-use merely the absence of disease or infirmity”. and high carbon-use industries which result In this regard, this paper shows the linkages in production and accumulation of unwanted between the climate change and human health. green house gases beyond tolerable limits of The climate change is now a mainstream earth’s carrying capacity leading to formation issue affecting the human health. There are of holes in the ozone layer. Climate change is important mechanisms in which climate change a powerful force in shaping the life chances of can affect population health: through extreme deprived people and climate related risks are a heat events, air quality, disasters, vector-borne major cause of human suffering, poverty and and rodent-borne infectious disease, rainfall reduced opportunity which will lead to large and drought, food insecurity, mental health and scale human development reversals in third well-being. These climate changes are affecting world countries particularly Asian and African quality of human health directly and indirectly. countries. Though the real output of African Even the developed nations are struggling countries are growing at an annual average to cope up with the challenges posed by the rate of about 5.8%, there are indications that changing climate; hence concluding that India the current pattern of growth may not be needs to put more efforts to counter the same. sustainable, because it is based on the use of Moreover, the longer we wait to reduce the non-renewable or exhaustible natural resources causes of climate change, the more expensive it and has not been associated with increases in will become. By concluding this article it is vital employment. Unbridled economic activities, to understand that the government policies unplanned industrialization, population alone will not be able to make a large impact explosion and ill-planned urbanization have on the climate change. Our day to day activities led to unimaginable increase in global warming

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21. CLIMATE & ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: TOWARDS ALTERNATIVE THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT Prof. RUDRAPPAN, D., President, AMECA, Former Joint Director of Collegiate Education, Govt. of Tamil Nadu, Ethiopian Civil Service University, Ethiopia E-mail: [email protected]

Dr.S.VEERAMANI, Organizing Secretary, AMECA, Associate Professor,Department of Economics, DRBCCC Hindu College, Chennai.E-mail:[email protected]

“ We, the human species, are confronting a perpetuating climate risks and tragedies. planetary emergency-a threat to the survival of Climate shocks pose many undesirable our civilization that is gathering ominous and consequences such as threats to health and destructive potential-----; but there is hopeful nutrition, loss of savings and assets, damage news as well; we have the ability to solve the to property, and loss of crops. The short crisis and avoid the worst though not all of its term and long term cost of extreme climate consequences, if we act boldly, decisively and events can have devastating consequences quickly”.- for human development. In the race for rapid Former Vice-President Al Gore, Noble Lecture economic development among all countries, at Oslo, December 10, 2007. environmental concerns are often neglected. ABSTRACT The paper discusses vividly not only the The present day global economic problems calamity that will be caused by green house have brought new attention to chronic gases and their consequent effects on earth, structural flaws in current economic models human development and the economy and assumptions. As world economies struggle but also offers climate change compatible to recover, many are taking a closer look at the development paradigm which will go along alternative theory of economic development with climate adaptation and mitigation the one that simultaneously promotes strategies for sustainable development. Thus, sustainability and economic growth. Welfare of climate compatible development path has Homo sapiens is inextricably linked to earth’s necessarily become an alternative paradigm of climate. The manner in which human beings development embracing economic, social and respond to climate change is critical not only environmental issues not only for meeting the to survival but also to their well-being. It is a needs of resource use of the present generation irrefutable fact that current economic growth but also of the future generation as well. of the world is based on high resource-use INTRODUCTION and high carbon-use industries which result The persistence of chronic poverty and in production and accumulation of unwanted degradation of the environment can be traced to green house gases beyond tolerable limits of a sequence of market and institutional failures earth’s carrying capacity leading to formation that make the existing economic theories far of holes in the ozone layer. Climate change is less efficient than it otherwise would be in a powerful force in shaping the life chances of advancing sustainable development goals. deprived people and climate related risks are a These market and institutional failures are well major cause of human suffering, poverty and known to economists, but little improvement reduced opportunity which will lead to large has been made to address them. For example, scale human development reversals in third there are not sufficient mechanisms to ensure world countries particularly Asian and African that polluters pay the full cost of their pollution. countries. Though the real output of African There are “missing markets” – meaning that countries are growing at an annual average markets do not systematically account for the rate of about 5.8%, there are indications that inherent value of services provided by nature, the current pattern of growth may not be like water filtration or coastal protection. A sustainable, because it is based on the use of “market economy” alone cannot provide public non-renewable or exhaustible natural resources goods, like efficient electricity grids, sanitation and has not been associated with increases in or public transportation. And economic policy employment. Unbridled economic activities, is often shaped by those who wield power, with unplanned industrialization, population strong vested interests, and rarely captures the explosion and ill-planned urbanization have voice and perspectives of those poor people, led to unimaginable increase in global warming mostly at risk.

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Even as early as 18th century, Classical ALTERNATIVE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT economists particularly Malthus expressed THEORIES concern over increasing pressure of population Climate changes have complex relationships and its consequent threat to food security and with economic variables such as consumption, other natural resources. However, mainstream production and distribution. The global climate classical economists downplayed the change has paradigm shifting implications for importance of the natural environment factors development theories which remain aligned in the process of economic development. In the with various schools of economic thought in the race for rapid economic development among all last fifty years. Even as early as 18th century, countries following neo-classical market driven Malthus expressed concern over increasing development theory since 1980’s, climate and pressure of population and its consequent environmental concerns are often neglected. As threat to food security and other resources. a result, climate and environmental risks pose Neo-Malthusians argument also hovers around threat to health, nutrition and life, damage population pressure and the accompanying to property and loss of assets and crops all increase in human activities which would lead over the world. Under business as usual to resource scarcity and competition over the scenario, high consumption fossil-fuel based scarce means to sustain livelihoods. Extreme development path disturbs ecological balance, climate related events such as drought, flood brings man made calamities and further can and rising sea level would force the people hasten the seismic / geological processes such to migrate to other areas as environmental as tsunami which may result in catastrophic refugees leading to human development destruction of earth’s eco-systems threatening reversals and greater competition and conflicts the future of mankind. The short run and long for the available resources in destination areas. term aggregate cost of extreme climate hazards However, optimist economists have argued can have devastating consequences for human that improvements in technology and efficiency development. The Global Climate Convention, would outstrip the constraints imposed by 1992 at Rio de Janeiro declaration requested increased population while at the same time the world countries to protect the climate environmental degradation affects human system for the benefit of the present and wellbeing negatively. IPCC as well as UNDP future generations of humankind, on the basis reports have confirmed that global warming of equality and in accordance with the common is caused by increased human activities but differentiated responsibilities and respective such as excess fossil fuel consumption and capabilities. Besides discussing climate change deforestation. Therefore, this section discusses calamities and other development theories cardinal features of three main development such as Inclusive and Sustainable Globalization, theories relating to climate change. the paper offers climate change compatible NEO-LIBERAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY alternative paradigm of development which Orthodox neo-classical market driven will be in sync with climate change adaptation, development policy followed by countries all mitigation and coping strategies paving the way over the world since 1980’s has been based for sustainable development as laid down by on two distinct features namely, growth of the World Summit on Sustainable Development national income and high energy consumption. at South Africa. Climate disasters as seen However, consequent climate catastrophes above have been increasing in frequency which have been witnessed so far have taken and intensity affecting lives of many millions, place as a result of high fossil fuel consumption particularly people living in poor countries. and have necessitated the dire need for evolving The catastrophic development setbacks are an alternative paradigm of climate compatible avoidable and the ability to control climate development path. Neo-liberal policy has change is linked with the theories of economic treated environmental effects of economic development pursued by different countries growth as externalities and ignored them until for their development as explained below. reaching a threshold level of income. Instead Thus, climate compatible green economy and of integrating and balancing the objectives green growth path has necessarily become an of national income growth and bio-physical alternative development theory embracing resilience, the neo classical model emphasized economic, social and environmental issues not mainly on income growth through market only for meeting the needs of resource use forces and policy tools such as liberalization, of the present generation but also the future privatization and globalization which have generation as well. resulted in foreign direct investment (FDI) led growth rather than broad based industrial

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 94 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) growth using endogenous productive capacity. theory has neglected sustainable livelihood Neo-liberal economic policies have apparently of human beings, overlooked environmental favored Trans National Corporations (TNCs) and sustainability and ignored sustainability of foreign investors with more incentives such as tax resources and the phenomenon of jobless holidays and non-insistence of environmental growth. (Chang, 2009) Furthermore, the neo- conditionality for the operation of TNCs, over- liberal paradigm has treated climate and the riding the interests of domestic manufacturers. natural environment as exogenous to economic The undue emphasis placed on the principle forces and this has resulted in several social, of comparative advantage in foreign trade economic and environmental disorders leading under this policy has led to specialization of to the formulation of the following inclusive and production in mono culture primary products sustainable globalization theory of economic rather than diversified agricultural products, development. low wage in manufacturing and extractive INCLUSIVE AND SUSTAINABLE GLOBALIZATION industries and jobless economic growth which THEORY are not conducive for the development of poor Emphasizing on environmental standards and countries ( Rudrappan, 2004). The Ramsey- best practices in all the production, distribution Cass- Koopmans growth model formulated on and marketing activities of TNCs along with the basis of neo-classical model of Solow-Swan, many other features of market economy, the emphasized physical capital based economic World Bank President Robert Zoellick has growth but it is also less sensitive to climate favored inclusive sustainable globalization change effects. model with a pro-active government promoting ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND and integrating local producers in the process ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION: AN of global supply chain. (Zoellick, 2008) In INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE addition to stressing the role of public-private A widely discussed concept under neo-classical partnerships (PPPs) in promoting sustainable theory is that of Environmental Kuznets Curve development objectives which have been which shows that as per capita income increases, formulated at the 2002 World Summit on environmental quality initially worsens but with Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, this continued increase in income, environmental model also favored Washington Consensus quality starts improving, giving rise to an inverted strategy of achieving economic growth with ‘U’ shaped curve. Another reason attributed a human face, targeting mainly the poorest is that as economic development progresses, among the poor in developing countries. there tends to be a parallel progression in (WBCSD, 2007) environmental regulation as one goes from little However, in the context of shortcomings of or no regulation at low levels of development to this model such as “neutral” industrial policies, strong environmental regulation at high levels this model also has had limited results in of economic development highlighting the developing broad-based sustainable growth enhanced role of institutional development and at the local region which is essentially required property rights. (Yandle et al, 2004) Ignoring for resolving the challenges posed by climate safe ecological limits under the neo classical risk and vulnerability. Therefore, an alternative theory of development will increase the risk of paradigm of development has been formulated undermining long run prospects of development subsequently to cope with climate uncertainty in the world as attested below by the IPCC along with its associated risks and vulnerability. report. Climate disasters have been increasing CLIMATE COMPATIBLE NEW PARADIGM in frequency affecting the lives of many millions OF DEVELOPMENT of people. Between 2000 and 2004, nearly 326 Contributions of Alice Amsden, (2003) Chang, climate disasters occurred affecting some 262 (2009) Johnson, Lyuba Zarsky, Robert Wade million people on an average per annum. While and Sharukh Rafi Khan (2011) have advocated climate disasters affect 98 per cent of people a new development agenda and they tried living in poor countries, the economic impact to create virtuous cycles of prosperity in the and losses have been reported mainly in rich place of vicious cycles of poverty through the countries on the basis of estimated insured process of institutional development. Besides losses as well as higher property values. emphasizing on higher growth of national In view of the above, it is observed that the income with emphasis on social justice, the neo-liberal policy has several deficiencies objective of the new paradigm is to encourage as a result of which climate stability could endogenous productive and technical capacity not be restored through climate change of socio-economic and institutional structure mitigation and adaptation strategies. Focusing with a pro-active industrial policy pursued only on growth of income, old development by the government for transformation and

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diversification of the economy so as to capture of many ecosystems will be undermined the benefits of global market economy both by climate change. With the increase in in domestic and foreign trade. (Rodrick, 2007) temperature beyond 20 C, the world will be While focusing more on overcoming market facing unprecedented losses of biodiversity and failures which inhibit economic development, the collapse of ecological systems which are climate compatible model advocates intrinsically bad for both human and economic government’s strategic role in partnership development during the 21st century. To with TNCs to promote quality foreign direct avoid this, it is essential to adopt climate investment (FDI) in industrial development resilient development through green energy in low carbon and zero carbon green energy sources which are not only renewable and job sources which will promote employment. generating, but also sustainable with a higher The model not only restricts investment environmental benefit. in high resource-use, high energy-use and CONCLUSION industries which results in high pollution but There are ways of addressing persisting poverty also encourages mobilization of domestic and income inequality among 2.5 billion people savings for channeling it into investment in of the world in the context of environment and local broad based productive capacity based climate change. Lack of economic opportunities on sustainable livelihood, sustainable resource forces people to exploit the natural resources use and environmental protection with cleaner around them unsustainably, leading to production processes. It is pointed out further destruction of forests and other carbon sinks. that this type of investment will pave the way for Income poverty leads to inefficient use of the promotion of social solidarity coupled with energy in households, and the absence of economic and environmental sustainability. electricity and clean fuels for the household use Among the three development models drastically reduces the productivity and socio- discussed, the above climate resilient economic well being of the people. This can be development model has been found overcome by combining poverty eradication robust since it contains critical components and development projects with climate change namely economic growth, social equity and mitigation programs. Investing in these green environmental sustainability and designed to energy technologies which are sustainable in go along with climate change mitigation and the long run will generate millions of jobs, revive adaptation strategies because of its sound the economy and bring overall socio-economic features of building an endogenous productive development. Thus, eradicating poverty and capacity with an inclusive growth and a strong reduction of income inequality through the role for the government which alone will alternative paradigm of development can also enable carbon neutral development trajectory be made a part of climate change mitigation reducing climate risks and vulnerability. The action. truth is that in the race for rapid economic development among the world countries, environment is often neglected. As a result major environmental challenges faced so far were forest and agricultural land degradation, resource depletion such as water, mineral, forest, sand, rocks, environmental degradation, public health, loss of biodiversity, loss of resilience in ecosystems and the livelihood security of the poor. Climate change is global but its effects will be felt at the local level. Extreme climate events threaten developing countries more intensively because these countries lack sufficient financial and technical capabilities to manage climate risk. Addressing these needs will not be easier for developing countries as development will get harder with climate change. The forces generated by climate change will be superimposed on the world marked by deep and pervasive human development deficits and disparities that divide the ‘haves’ and ‘have not’s. IPCC projections show that the resilience

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 96 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) REFERENCES 1.Amsden, Alice (2003). The rise of the rest, challenges to the west from late- industrializing Economies, New York: Oxford University Press. 2.Chang, H.J. (2009). Hamlet without prince of Denmark: How development has disappeared from today’s ‘development’ discourse, In Sharukh Rafi Khan & Jens Christiansen (eds.) Towards New Developmentalism: Market as means rather than as master (pp.47-58) 3.IPCC, (2007). Climate Change 2007. The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group 1 to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. United Kingdom and New York, USA, pp. 994-996. 4.Rodrik, D. (2007). One Economics, Many Recipes. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Rudrappan, D. (2004).Port-reform rural employment scenario in India with special reference to Tamil Nadu. The Indian Economic Journal, 51(3, 4), 55-68. 5.Rudrappan, D. (2010, June 3).Save planet earth, Business Day, p.14 6.Sharukh Rafi Khan, (2011). Exploring and naming an economic development alternative In Sharukh Rafi Khan & Jens Christiansen, Towards New developmentalism: Market as means rather than as master (pp.3-19). 7.Stern Nicholas, (2007). The economics of climate change: The Stern Review. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge university press. The Full Stern Review is available onlineathttpl://www/hm_treasury. gov.UK/independent_review_economics_climate_ change/stern review_index.cfm. 8.United Nations Development Programme. (2008). Human Development Report, 2007/2008.Fighting Climate Change

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 97 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018 22. A STUDY ON AIR POLLUTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES IN CHENNAI CITY R. DHANALAKSHMI, Ph.D Full Time Research Scholar Department of Economics, Presidency College of Chennai – 600 005.

ABSTRACT pollution of hydrosphere or water is termed as nvironmental pollution is a severe issue in water pollution, while pollution due to disposal Eboth developed and developing countries. of waste water is termed as industrial effluents Pollution is defined undesirable state of pollution, Indian cities also have serious natural environment being contaminated problem of noise pollution. with harmful substances as a consequence of OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY human activities. There is clear relationship •The objective of study is to focus the between the growth manmade green house gas environment in Chennai city. emissions and observed environmental climate •To estimate problems of air pollution change are claimed by policymakers. The most environment in Chennai city. important causes of air pollution are human •To suggest growth of population health cost economic activities such as use of vehicles and and cost of time in Chennai city. industrial operations mainly in Chennai city. •To control the Government measures to Air pollution is various types such as noise, control air pollution environment Chennai city. water, air. It causes damages that are normally METHODOLOGY inflicted in society at large rather than on those The data based on secondary sources. The directly responsible. In several city air is already necessary secondary data have been obtained polluted that it has been causing illness and from various published works such as books, deaths among elderly people and children. The reports, sound, articles, magazines, periodicals high pollution density has placed great strain on and electronic web materials. In addition to available infrastructure and major problem for this the researcher has made use of the data environmental in major cities of Tamil Nadu. It and other information pertaining to air quality, is recognized that climate change due to global pollution and health conditions. Secondary data warming going to important threat safety of are derived from documents and files of Tamil millions of people not only living near coastline Nadu pollution control board and internets. but also impacts on changing cyclones. The The table given below shows decadal growth of aim of the study focuses on objectives to population in Chennai city. With the increase environment in Chennai city to estimate the in population the harmful effects of pollution problems of air pollution environment in tends to increase. Health costs of vehicular Challenge in Chennai city and suggest health pollution in Chennai increases air pollution this cost of vehicular pollution and to suggest the leads to cost of time working peoples. Government measure to control air pollution in THE FOCUS OF AIR POLLUTION IN environment Chennai city. CHENNAI INTRODUCTION Air pollution may result in negative effects Environmental pollution is a global phenomenon such as global warming, respiratory and heart experienced by economically advanced as well complicatory acid rain, destruction ozone layer as developing countries. Due to urbanization and natural habitats. there is a problem of environmental pollution VEHICULAR POLLUTION congestion, transportation etc. In several cities Transport activities have a wide variety effects air is already polluted that it has been causing on the environment challenge such as air illness and death among elderly people and pollution, noise from road traffic. The different children. Environmental challenge is to deal with factors are types of engines used, the age of carbon dioxide the emission can include various vehicles, poor road conditions and congested toxic and carcinogenic chemicals and fibers, traffic in Chennai. The principal vehicular photo chemical pollutants, lead and carbon pollutants are carbon monoxide, oxide of monoxide which is harmful to human health. nitrogen, hydrocarbons suspended particulate Rapid and uncontrolled growths of mega cities matters, a varying amount of sulphur dioxide, in India have lead to the problems of increasing depending on sulphur content of fuel and lead slums vehicular traffic and air pollution. compounds. Environmental pollution is classified into ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS OF AIR various groups. For instance, pollution of air POLLUTION IN ENVIRONMENT CHENNAI CITY is termed as the atmospheric pollution, the Air pollution in Chennai cities has increased

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 98 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) more and more people crowded the city. Harmful gases like nitrogen oxides and sulphur RESPIRATORY AND HEART PROBLEMS oxides are released into atmosphere duty The effects of air pollution are alarming. This burning fossil fuels. leads to several respiratory and heart conditions GLOBAL WARMING with cancer among body some of them direct or Global Warming also adversely affect human indirect effects of air pollution in millions. health leading to increases in heart related ACID RAIN diseases and death. Another direct effect in Chennai is immediate To suggest health cost vehicular pollution table alterations due to Global Warming like acid rain. population growth and cost of time table.

TABLE 1 : GROWTH OF POPULATION IN CHENNAI CITY 1901 – 2001 Component City Population Area in sq. Km % Annual growth Population rate in lakhs density per/sq. km 1901 5.41 68.17 _ 8000 1911 5.56 68.17 0.26 8200 1921 5.78 68.17 0.41 8500 1931 7.13 68.17 2.12 10500 1941 8.65 77.21 0.69 11200 1951 14.27 128.83 0.22 11100 1961 17.49 128.83 2.06 13600 1971 26.42 128.83 3.93 20000 1981 32.84 176 0.41 18700 1991 38.84 176 1.58 21800 2001 43.44 176 1.23 24700 Source : Census of India 2011 Table explains the population growth, area, It is confirmed that urban population in Chennai growth of population and density of population. city has tremendous increased. Since 1971 to It is estimated that the total population of 2011 which account for 26.42 lakhs to 43.44 Chennai city stood at 5.41 lakhs in 1901 but lakhs. The growth of urban areas influences it was increased to 7.13 lakhs in 1931 due the growth of population meantime. The city to migration of people from various parts of faces many urban problems such as housing, the country to Chennai city and to seeking water, sanitation and pollution. Therefore, due employment opportunity and better education. to increase the urban population the number of Subsequently, the total population has grown vehicle increases as a result, the vehicle emits up to 14.27 lakhs in 1951 and 17.49 lakhs in large number of chemical in the air. However the 1961. It is estimated that the Area of population urban population creates severe air pollution by in Chennai city stood at 68.17sq. km in 1901 the ways of vehicles. Hence we have to reduce but it was increased to 77.21 sq. km in 1941 population to reduce pollution. due to migration of people from Chennai city. The above table 2 shows that the health costs Subsequently to area of population has grown are incurred by the people who affected by the up to 128.83 sq. km in 1951 and 176 sq. km air pollution increases due to the number of taxi to 2001. It is confirmed that urban population increases which accounts for 13.28 were due to in Chennai city has increased. Since 1981 to pollution emitted at 8.95 for CO, 29.61 for NOX. 2011 which account for 176 sq km population. The health cost are incurred by the people who It is estimated that the population density affected air pollution increases due to number in Chennai city stood at 8000 lakhs in 1901 of bus increases.Which account for at 1.91 for but it was increased to 2.12% Annual growth CO, 1.44 for NOX total pollutant 78.01 were due rate increased in 1931 due to annual growth to pollution emitted at 37.44 for CO, 35.72 for rate and population density of Chennai city. NOX. It is confirmed that the urban population Subsequently, Annual growth rate 3.93 lakhs in Chennai city is increasing total health costs in 1971, population density 20000 sq km and total pollutant. Therefore, due to increase increased. the urban population vehicles are increased as

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 99 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018 result, vehicle emit large number of chemicals in Air. However the health cost of vehicular pollution creates severe Air pollution by the way of vehicles. So we have to reduce vehicles without air pollution. TABLE 2 : HEALTH COSTS OF VEHICULAR POLLUTION IN CHENNAI Estimated Emission Tonnes Estimated Health Per km/day Estimated for 2008 Damages (for 2008-2009) in (Based on CCTS Data) Rupees crores

Health Costs (Rs/Kg) CO NOX HC PM CO NOX HC PM Total Based Sengupta etal Health (2005) costs

Two Wheeler 7.23 0.28 4.68 0.20 0.03 0.26 0.28 1.48 2.05 Car 2.33 0.60 0.38 0.09 0.01 0.56 0.02 0.69 1.28 Auto 6.86 0.04 4.53 0.15 0.03 0.04 0.27 1.17 1.50 Taxi 10.16 3.75 0.74 1.28 0.04 3.51 0.04 9.69 13.28 Bus 8.95 29.61 2.48 3.76 0.04 27.72 0.15 28.45 56.36 Other Modes 1.91 1.44 0.23 0.29 0.01 1.35 0.01 2.16 3.53 Total by 37.44 35.72 13.04 5.77 0.15 33.44 0.77 43.64 78.01 Pollutant Source : Computed by authors based on CCTS (2010) Velmurugan (2005) and Sengupta e tal (2005).

TABLE 3 : COST OF TIME Vehicles Work Business Education Others Modal Share Two Wheeler 0.53 1.06 0.26 0.26 26 Car 1.08 2.16 0.54 0.54 7 Auto 0.35 0.7 0.15 0.11 6 Taxi 0.42 0.84 0.21 0.21 30 Bus 0.32 0.64 0.16 0.16 27 Train / Metro 0.5 0.99 0.25 0.15 4 Total by 47.99 19.79 6.53 67.05 0.54 purpose Source : Value to Time by Nature Work and type CCTS (2010) data indicates estimates computed by authors based weighted average. The above table shows that the cost of time Two wheeler, Car in working condition 1.08 increased in 2.16 in business peoples in economy of Chennai city. Likewise business people in Chennai city Train/Metro increase to total by purpose 19.79. The problem in vehicles of Chennai city to working peoples and Business peoples in cost of time lead to population in Economy. The education in cost of time leads to 0.26 in others 0.54. The model share of cost of time in 26 Two wheelers is cost of time increasing 30 in Taxi. This is cost of time increase in vehicles resulted increasing in working condition. Therefore we have to reduce air pollution the cost of time decrease. STEPS TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENT emissions. TO CONTROL POLLUTION 3.The top court ordered taxis plying city must Enforced special measure taken convert CNG from March next year. 1.The Supreme Court has also banned the MEASURES TO CONTROL AIR registration of luxury SGVS and diesel cars above POLLUTION 2000cc in the national capital. Diesel cars are In Chennai, pollution is not simple as prevention believed to major source of vehicular emissions. of air pollution. Fuel selection and utilization 2.The Delhi Government prepared odd/even process change or equipment site selection rule where odd numbered registration plates and zoning control of aerosol emission. Zoning would even dates. This is to reduce congestion is a control measure based upon knowledge well to reduce pollution resulting vehicular mechanics of atmosphere.

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LEGAL CONTROLS Technical and scientific knowledge alone is not sufficient in controlling air pollution administrative control of atmospheric pollution can be most effectively developed into laws national level public health administration, industrial hygiene, fuel usage, agriculture, science, industry and urban areas through the formation of committee representing. CONCLUSION There are several simple things that people can do daily basis to minimize impacts on environment challenge in Air Pollution. All types of environmental pollution have negative impacts on human health and types of pollution challenging in Chennai. The impact of environmental systems of the country well as global eco system. The growth of population increases in Chennai due to vehicular air pollution and cost of time for working people in environmental challenges in Chennai city. The carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and sulphuric acid are causes threat to human life. Thus Government International Organisation and Committees must work together. Each and every person must ensure the work economically in environmental challenge to sustainable. REFERENCES 1.Environmental effects of Impacts Air Pollution in Chennai. 2.Website : Source www.tn.gov.in, based on authors CCTS (2010) Velmurugan (2005) & Sengupta e tal (2005)

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 101 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018 23. IMPACT OF AIR POLLUTION IN TAMIL NADU

A.PREMKUMAR, II MA Economics, Sacred Heart College (Autonomous), Tirupattur. [email protected].

T.VINOTH, II MA Economics, Sacred Heart College (Autonomous), Tirupattur. [email protected]. ABSTRACT OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY his paper outlines the impact of air pollution 1.To understand the concept of Air pollution. Tin Tamil Nadu. Air pollution is the any form 2.To study about the impact of air pollution. of solid, liquid and gaseous substance present in 3.To know the problems facing by the people in the atmosphere that may or tend to be injurious Tamil Nadu. to human beings, other living creatures, plants, HEALTH PROBLEMS property or the environment in general. Air Air pollution can harm us when it accumulates pollution is probably one of the most serious in the air in high enough concentrations. environmental problems confronting our Millions of Americans live in areas where urban civilization today. Most often, it is caused by smog, particle pollution, and toxic pollutants human activitiessuch as mining, construction, pose serious health concerns. People exposed transportation, industrial work, agriculture, to high enough levels of certain air pollutants smelting, etc. However, natural processes such may experience: as volcanic eruptions and wildfires may also 1.Irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat. pollute the air, but their occurrence is rare and 2.Wheezing, coughing, chest tightness and they usually have a local effect, unlike human breathing difficulties. activities that are ubiquitous causes of air 3.Worsening of existing lung and heart pollution and contribute to the global pollution problems, such as asthma. of the air every single day. 4.Increased risk of heart attack. INTRODUCTION ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS Air pollution emanates from many sources, Along with harming human health, air pollution stationary sources such as factories, power can cause a variety of environmental effects: plants, smelters and smaller sources such as Acid rain is precipitation containing harmful dry cleaners and degreasing operations, mobile amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids. These acids sources such as cars, buses, planes, trucks, and are formed primarily by nitrogen oxides and trains; anthropogenic activities and naturally sulfur oxides released into the atmosphere when occurring sources such as windblown dust and fossil fuels are burned. These acids fall to the volcanic eruptions. In an even broader sense, Earth either as wet precipitation (rain, snow, or air pollution means the presence of chemicals fog) or dry precipitation (gas and particulates). or compounds in the air which are usually not Some are carried by the wind, sometimes present and which lower the quality of the air hundreds of miles. In the environment, acid or cause detrimental changes to the quality of rain damages trees and causes soils and water life (such as the damaging of the ozone layer or bodies to acidify, making the water unsuitable causing global warming). for some fish and other wildlife. In Tamil Nadu air pollution is widespread in As of now in Chennai, the pollution control urban areas where vehicles are the major board operates eight manual ambient air quality contributors and in a few other areas with a monitoring stations, National Environmental high concentration of industries and thermal Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) has three power plants. Vehicular emissions are of and Central Pollution Board has three CAMS in particular concern since these are ground level IIT, Alandur and Manali. In addition, there are sources and thus have the maximum impact on 24 CAMS set-up by industries in Manali and the general population. Gummidipoodi areas whose data will be sent to RESEARCH METHODOLOGY TNPCB, said another TNPCB official. Being an explanatory research, researcher The number of vehicles in Coimbatore has adopted secondary data for this study. The doubled from 4, 37,088 lakhs in 2000 (research secondary data are from reviews journals, books data from Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and and periodicals for the purpose of the study. Natural History) to over nine lakhs in early 2006. Therefore whatever information is revealed by According to Central Pollution Control Board the present study is secondary data. data there has been a steady increase in the levels of pollutants such as sulphur dioxide,

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 102 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) nitrogen dioxide as well as Suspended ALTERNATE FUEL Particulate Matter that will affect the air quality. For controlling vehicular emission, cleaner fuel Though all vehicles are supposed to obtain like unleaded petrol, petrol with 3 per cent the emission check certificate called Pollution benzene and low sulphur fuel (0.05 per cent) under Control (which has to be renewed every have been introduced in Chennai Metropolitan six months), the methods adopted are not Area. Passenger cars complying with Bharat stringent enough to ensure total compliance. stage-II norms alone are registered in Chennai IMPACT OF AIR POLLUTION IN since July 2001. 2T oil auto dispensing system INDUSTRIAL SECTOR has been provided in retail outlets. The Board A national survey of the industrial sector states is also participating in a research project with that the total estimated emissions of SPM from a Non-Governmental Organization and the Civil the 7 critical industries (Iron and steel, Cement, Supplies Department to study the use of gas Sugar, Fertilizers, Paper and paper board, chromatograph to detect fuel adulteration. Copper and Aluminum) increased from 2 lakh CONCLUSION tonnes in 1947 to 30 lakh tonnes in 1997. Of Urban air pollution has long been a serious these seven critical industries, Tamil Nadu has problem in the FSU, reflecting both the a significant presence in cement, sugar and importance of highly polluting, resource- fertilizer industries. Many studies have revealed intensive industries for the national economy that pollution is concentrated in a few industrial and political factors such as the low priority sub-sectors and that a sector’s contribution of environmental issues and lack of public to pollution is often disproportionate to its participation. At the beginning of the transition contribution to the industrial output. For from a centrally planned to a free market example, petroleum refineries, textiles, pulp economy and a more open society, it was and paper, and industrial chemicals produce 27 assumed that environmental performance in per cent of the industrial output but contribute the FSU would improve. In particular, a shift 87 per cent of sulphur emissions and 70 per cent away from heavy industries to less resource- of nitrogen emissions. Likewise, iron and steel, intensive sectors and improvements in energy and nonmetallic mineral products, produce efficiency were expected to reduce air pollution about 16 per cent of the industrial output levels. All countries of the FSU experienced but account for 55 per cent of the particulate a decline in industrial output following the emissions. change in economic regime and emissions VEHICULAR EMISSIONS of main pollutants have fallen as a result of a The density of motor vehicles per sq.km has slump in production. increased from 22 in 1996 to 52 in 2004. This Many commentators saw this as a much needed has led to traffic congestion and release of break for the environment. However, while many toxic air pollutants into the atmosphere. absolute levels of emissions have decreased, Particularly, the growth of two wheelers is the ongoing economic crisis and persisting increasing in a steep manner, contributing to financial problems have ensured that decreases about 50.6 per cent of the pollution load. Poor in emissions have been smaller than declines in maintenance of vehicles results in the spewing output as a result of the associated deterioration out of noxious fumes into the atmosphere. of regulatory mechanisms, a lack of investment Roughly 400 tonnes of smoke units are being into pollution abatement equipment, weak discharged into the atmosphere every day by enforcement of environmental legislation and the vehicles in Chennai. Adulterated fuel adds public disengagement. In the areas benefiting another dimension to the problem of pollution. from economic changes, and especially in large AIR POLLUTION CONTROL cities, environmental pressures have increased The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) because of growing car ownership. Act, 1981 as amended in 1987 aims to prevent REFERENCES and control air pollution and preserve the 1.http://www.environment.tn.nic.in air quality. As per the provisions of the Act, 2.http://www.tnpcb.gov.in the State of Tamil Nadu is declared as an `Air 3.http://www.rusnature.info Pollution Control Area’. The Board monitors 4.http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp- industrial emissions through regular inspections national/tp-tamilnadu/air-pollution-on-the-rise/ of the air pollution control measures provided article3145956.ece by the industries. Ambient air quality survey / 5.Daniel Vallero, Fundamentals of Air Pollution stack emission survey are conducted to assess (Fifth Edition). the quality of the emissions let out. In 2003-04, 6.David Cooper, Air Pollution control text book. Ambient Air Quality surveys are conducted in 687 industries.

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 103 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018 24. RAINFALL AND ITS IMPACT ON MAIZE YIELD

A.S. KALAIVANI, Ph.D. Research Scholar (Full Time), Dept. of Business Admn., Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar.

Dr. M. RAMESH, Professor, Dept. of Business Administration. Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar.

ABSTRACT below shows the rainfall, production and he present study is to analyze the impact of productivity of major categories of food crops Trainfall on maize yield in Cuddalore district for the past four years. based on ten years data (2005-2006 to 2014- The 20th century bears testimony to the 2015). The study conducted with the objective of indubitable fact of climate change as evidenced relationship between area, production, actual by increases in global temperatures and changes rainfall, and maize yield in the study area. The in rainfall patterns and rates (IPCC, 2001; Jung results of the study reveal that actual rainfall et al., 2002). In India, mean temperature, adversely affects maize productivity, while the based on data from 73 meteorological stations, effect of actual rainfall is maximum negative has shown a significant increase in warming and no significant for maize crops. amounting to 0.4°C over the last 100-year KEYWORDS: Maize area, production, rainfall. period (Hingane et al., 1985). IPCC has projected INTRODUCTION that by the end of the 21st century, rainfall over Climate is the main factor that influences India will increase by 10-12 percent with more any agricultural operation starting from field frequent and heavy rainfall days while the mean preparation to harvesting. Agriculture which annual temperature will rise by 3-6°C (IPCC, relays on the climatic condition contributes 2014). These changes may culminate in adverse to 10 per cent of Gross Domestic Product and impacts on agriculture in terms of productivity provides employment for about 60 percent of loss, pest and disease increases and labor the rural work force in Tamil Nadu. Temperature, migration that will threaten food security and humidity, rainfall, wind, atmospheric pressure, agricultural employment. The impact of climate precipitation and other metrological condition change on agriculture is generally estimated decides the climatic condition of a particular using two broad approaches – agronomic (or place. Since the past few years the cropping crop simulation) and economic modeling, pattern is experiencing a change due to the particularly Ricardian approaches (World Bank weather prevailing in the area. The effects Report, 2010). of climate change have been found to have Agronomic methods are based on controlled implications for dry land and irrigated crop yields experiments where crops are grown in field or as well as irrigation water use (Rosenzweig & laboratory settings, simulating different climate Iglesias, 1994). Except rainfall, all other climatic and CO2 effects (Aggarwal & Mall, 2002, factors are uniform and have little influence on Saseendran et al., 2000; Hebbar et al., 2008; crop yield. The drastic changes in the rainfall Geethalakshmi et al., 2011). However, these pattern of Tamil Nadu affect the significant area models do not include farmers’ adaptation to under cultivation. changing climate conditions and can overstate Tamil Nadu is the eleventh largest and the the damage caused by climate change seventh most populous state (6%) in the (Mendelsohn & Dinar, 1999). The Ricardian country. The cultivated area of the state is models, on the other hand, use cross-sectional 4.7 million ha, comprising 36% of the total data to measure the impact of climate variables geographical area. The irrigated area covering on land values or net revenues (Mendelsohn et 2.15 million ha is 46% of the cultivated area. The al., 1994 & 1996; Mendelsohn and Dinar, 1999 cropping intensity is around 113%. The red and & 2003; Kavikumar, 2009). Numerous studies black soils are deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus using the Ricardian approach suggest that and zinc. The major crops are rice, jowar, bajra, changes in temperature and rainfall in India maize, cotton, groundnut, mungbean, urdbean, could reduce average rice yield by 15 to 25 banana and sugarcane. A clear knowledge on percent, average wheat yield by 30 to 35 percent rainfall of a particular area, it would be possible (Kavikumar & Parikh, 1998) and farm net income to plan the production strategies suitable to by 8% (Mendelsohn et al., 1994). However, that area in a better way. The major amount of a shortcoming of this approach is the failure rainfall is obtained through northeast monsoon to account for time-independent location- followed by southwest monsoon. The table specific factors such as the unobservable skills

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 104 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) of farmers and soil quality. In addition to these 150 mm per day has increased by 10 per cent models, researchers have also used panel data per decade for the past 50 years. Besides, after to analyze the sensitivity of yield to weather 1980, the temperature in the winter is more variables (Chen et al. 2004; Isik & Devadoss, than that is in the summer. The maximum 2006; McCarl et al., 2008). Panel data models winter temperature is 1.25° Celsius, summer with fixed effects address the problems of temperature is 0.7° Celsius and the minimum estimation bias due to the omission oftime- temperature is 0.7° Celsius in winter and 0.3° independent location-specific variables. Thus, Celsius in summer across the country. Winter in our study, we use a panel data approach to season temperature in North India is more than (i) to measure the impact of climate variables in South India. North India was affected by cold on the yield of major food crops; and (ii) to wave in 2002-03 but heat wave in 2003-04. project the impact of climate change on yield Swaminathan (2009) examined points out that, sensitivities using the Regional Climate Model not only the rainfall, but also the distribution (RegCM4). Researchers often rely on Feasible of rainfall is very important for the survival of Generalized Least Squares (FGLS) models for crops, cattle and to maintain food security. capturing the impact of climate variables, given Temperature variation, frequent droughts and heteroscedastic panel data (McCarl et al., 2008; floods are caused by climate changes. Climate is Kim & Pang, 2009; Barnwal & Kotani, 2010). not consistent in India. Regions facing drought This poses another estimation challenge during the month of June and July face floods because the FGLS formula for standard errors in August and September. Moreover most of assumes that the error process is known and the rainfall occurs within 100 hours of a year. not estimated (Beck & Katz, 1995). But, in panel This rainfall situation is not good for production data models, the error process has a large and productivity of many crops and affects the number of unknown parameters, resulting in poor’s livelihood adversely. unreliable FGLS estimates of the standard errors Parsai (2009) investigated climate change and of estimated coefficients. In this context, Beck its threat to the world is real in the recent days. and Katz (1995) propose using Panel Corrected It is estimated that by 2025, in some parts of Standard Errors (PCSE) models with Monte Asia and Africa and in India, the crop yields will Carlo analysis. These models perform well decline by 20 to 40 per cent as a result of rise and produce accurate estimates of sampling in temperature. Moreover climate change will variability even in the presence of complicated make the land unfit for cultivation and many panel error structures. Following Beck and Katz crops will be affected by pests and diseases. (1995), this study employs the PCSE model to Ultimately, with water shortage and low food measure the impact of climate change on the production, it is difficult to feed the world yield of major food crops in Tamil Nadu, India. An population. important feature of climate impact modeling Panda (2009) expressed that developing is how future climate projections are made. countries are more vulnerable to climate Many impact studies either assume certain change than developed countries. Agriculture changes in climate variables from the baseline and allied activities are the most affected sector or use projections based on coarse resolution by climate change than other sectors. Indian 2 South Asian Network for Development and agriculture basically depends upon temperature Environmental Economics climate models such and rainfall, and variation in any one of these as Global Circulation Models (GCMs) (Chen et affects the production and productivity of al., 2004). In this study, we use projections from crops. Ultimately it leads to decline in the GDP a Regional Climate Model (RegCM4), which growth rate and creates adverse impact on leads to better estimations of future climate the food security of rural poor and farmers. conditions since its horizontal resolutions are It is expected that, by 2100, the global mean finer than those of GCMs (IPCC, 2007). temperature may increase between 1.4° Celsius REVIEW OF LITERATURE and 5.8° Celsius and create much damages to Bhatta (2009) investigated the rainfall and the agricultural sector. temperature pattern for the past 50 years in Mathi (2011) examined that globally the India. In India, rising average wind speed is production of wheat and maize declined by responsible for the increase in temperature. 5.5 per cent and 3.8% respectively from 1980 Due to high evaporation, rising sea surface to 2008. During this period, in Russia, wheat temperature and air temperature, high production declined by 15% due to unfavourable intensity rain occurs. The occurrence of weather. As a result of the unfavorable weather extreme rainfall is increasing and moderate the prices of crops like maize, wheat, rice and rainfall is decreasing. But moderate rainfall is soyabean have gone up by 20%. If preventive needed for crop growth. Extreme rainfall above measures are not taken, by the end of the 21th

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 105 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018 century the temperature will reach 2° Celsius. (r = .744) positively correlated and there is The author forecasts that in Tamil Nadu there significant relationship with maize area. Annual will be a 15 to 20 per cent decline in crop rainfall (r = -.043) are negatively correlated and production there is no significant relationship with maize STUDY AREA area. Maize production (r = -.250) are negatively Cuddalore district consists of nine taluks viz. correlated and there is significant relationship Cuddalore, Panruti, Kurinjipadi, Chidambaram, with maize yield. Maize yield (r = .434) positively Kattumannarkoil, Virudhachalam, Bhuvanagiri, correlated and there is significant relationship Veppur and Tittagudi of which Cuddalore, with annual rainfall. Annual rainfall (r = -.084) Kurinjipadi and Chidambaram are coastal taluks are negatively correlated and there is no lying in the heavy wind and cyclone zone while significant relationship with maize production. other five taluks lye in the flood prone zone. Due to instable rainfall in Cuddalore district Cuddalore is in the highly cyclone prone zone during the year 2005-2015 the yield is negatively of the East coast and its neighborhood falls correlated. Climate change is mostly affected to under rainfall surplus category with an annual the crop yield. precipitation of 1200 mm and the temperatures CONCLUSION vary between 190 C to 260 C in winter and 310 Cuddalore district has faced extreme weather C to 420 C in summer. The district gets rainfall events like untimely and heavy rainfall and mostly in the months of October to December flash floods in affecting huge damage tothe from the Northeast monsoon recording which major crops and properties of farmers. It is accounts for 72 per cent of the total rainfall. 60 expected that the above-mentioned situation per cent of land in Cuddalore district is used for will increase as a function of climate change. crop cultivation with respect to agriculture crops Rainfall decides the food grains production and like rice, maize, ragi. Black gram, green gram, productivity in the significant area in both rain horse gram, sugarcane, turmeric, groundnut, fed and irrigation agriculture. It is identified cotton. In Cuddalore district rice is majorly that the monsoon rainfall are very useful to cultivated. So the present study considers the agriculture production. Predicting the monsoon maize yield alone. and deciding the crops as per the monsoon STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM will increase the production of food grains. The This study is to determine the rainfall impact catchment reservoirs could be cleaned before on maize yield and factors (area, production, the raining season to increase the water holding rainfall and yield). In this study to find out the capacity of the dams which serves as a major major problem and issue for maize yield affected irrigation source for the agricultural lands. The by rainfall. government should take the action of national Objective of the study level river linking system/Project soon to save or To study the relationship between maize preserve the agricultural land. production, area, yield and actual rainfall. REFERENCES Methodology 1.Bhatta. (2009). Rain Shocked. Down to Earth, This study is descriptive in nature base on 17(20), 24 - 31. secondary data (2005-06 to2014-2015) and 2.Mathi, S. (2011). Climate Change Hits Food collected from agriculture, economics, statistics Production. Down to Earth, 20(3), 50. and meteorological department in Cuddalore 3.Panda. (18 April, 2009). Assessing Vulnerability district. to Climate Change in India. Economic and ANALYSIS Political Weekly, 105-107. 4.Parsai, Gargi. (23 Dec, 2009). Climatic Change Maize Maize Maize Rainfall will hit Small Farmers most. The Hindu. area yield production 5.Swaminathan, M.S. (2009). Monsoon Management in Era of Climate Change, The Maize Area Hindu, 10. Maize yield -.681* Maize .744* -.250 production Rainfall -.043 .434 -.084 The above table reveals the correlation between maize yields with respected to area, production and annual rainfall in Cuddalore district during 2005-06 to 2014-15. Maize yield (r = -.681), are negatively correlated and there is no significant relationship with maize area. Maize production

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 106 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) 25. A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN RURAL AND URBAN AREAS OF TAMIL NADU Dr.R.KARTHIKEYAN, Associate Professor of Economics, AVC College (Autonomous), Mayiladuthurai, 609 305 E mail: [email protected].

Dr.S.USHA RANI, Asst. Professor of Economics, ADM College for Women (Autonomous), Nagappattinam. 611001. ABSTRACT solid wastes in the study area and to find the he major environmental problems that pose difference if any, in the method of disposal serious threat today include solid waste between rural and urban areas; and to explore Tdisposal, waste water management, corrosion, the problems in the Solid Waste Management fouling, deforestation, pollution etc, These among the respondents in the study area; and problems deny a clean and healthy environment to suggest possible measures to formulate for living, Rapid industrialization, population strategies for effective solid waste management growth and urbanization, sophistication in life in the study area. This paper suggests that style and unlimited use of synthetic chemicals proper measures to be taken to create public are of specific concerns among others in one awareness and to bring about changes in public side and changes in economic structure in rural behaviour through development of public areas on the other in contributing to overall awareness programs, such as Promotion of environmental problems. These wastes have “Reduce, Re-use and Re-cycle (R-R-R)” of Waste been proved to be extremely toxic and infectious principle; Promotion of Public Participation in the uncontrolled and unscientific dumping of SWM Systems; Provision of Information Hot- such wastes has brought about a rising number line; Inculcation of Public Education through of incidents of hazardous to human health. More Group Education by Group Meetings in the serious risk to human health is envisaged due community, Workshops, Exhibitions, Lecture to contamination of surface and ground water. series, Panel Discussions, etc.; Promotion The management of urban and rural solid waste of Mass Education through the Use of Print suffers from many problems and constraints, and Electronic Media, Use of School Children, which inhibit the proper and effective disposal Provision of Primary School Curriculum to cover of solid waste, these problems and constraints the subject, Involvement of National Cadet Corps result in operational and maintenance (NCC), National Social Service, Involvement functioning and in inadequate salvaging of Religious Leaders, Involvement of Medical of resources present in the wastes, These Practitioners, Involvement of SHGs, Resident problems need to be highlighted, discussed and Associations and Voluntary Organizations/NGO overcome through political will, administrative involvement determination, technical skills, reorientation of RATIONALE efforts and overcoming of barriers in decision The solid wastes have become significant making at all levels. Thus, there is a need to political, social and environmental issues; understand the implementation issues related to setting new disposal facilities to manage these solid waste management with a view to provide wastes have become difficult as the population Eco- friendly, Sustainable and community-based to grow rapidly. Much of what has come to be solutions to waste management problems. considered the “Garbage crisis” in the world is Based on the above, the present paper entitled not the product of immediate past practices or “A Comparative Analysis of solid Waste present inaction, but a series of chronic problems Management in Rural and Urban Areas of Tamil interrelated in such a way as to defy a clear Nadu” makes an attempt to study the aspects solution. Rapid industrialization, population of solid waste management in rural and urban growth and urbanization, sophistication in life areas of Nagapattinam district. However, the style and unlimited use of synthetic chemicals specific objectives are to analyse the region are of specific concerns among others in one wise sources and quantum of solid wastes in the side and changes in economic structure on the study area; to study the causes for solid wastes other in contributing to overall environmental generation and disposal in the study area; to problems. The waste management in India is probe in to the methods of disposal of the responsibility of local governments, though it has been intended that local government

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would raise the financial resources required for management in the study area. the provision of basic civil amenities, including Based on these objectives the following waste management, As a result, local authorities hypotheses have been formulated. It is assumed are not strongly placed to have a comprehensive that there are host of factors influencing the set of waste management policies of their own. household solid wastes management, such Instead; they act only as implementing agencies as, religion, educational status, family size, for scheme formulated at the national level. income, consumption pattern, occupation etc. Urbanization and industrialization in general among these factors, the economic factors are terms, the urban population produced two to influencing more than that of others. three times more of the municipal solid waste There is a significant difference registered in the than the semi-urban and rural population per quantity of wastes disposal and method of solid capita per year. The management of urban wastes management followed between the and rural solid waste suffers from many urban and rural area problems and constraints, which inhibit the There is a significant difference registered in proper and effective disposal of solid waste, the incidence of problems in the disposal of these problems and constraints result in solid wastes between rural and urban areas. operational and maintenance functioning and However, the urban respondents are suffering in inadequate salvaging of resources present more than that of rural respondents in the wastes, These problems need to be MATERIALS AND METHODS highlighted, discussed and overcome through Nagappattinam district has been purposively political will, administrative determination, chosen as the study area since it is one of the technical skills, reorientation of efforts and environmental disaster prone and recently overcoming of barriers in decision making at trifurcated districts of Tamil Nadu. Then all levels. Some of these problems such as in to represent urban area, one taluk from sufficient funds available with local bodies, lack the district, Mayiladuthurai was chosen, of established and efficient system of collection, followed by Five representative wards of the transportation, disposal of wastes, lack of Municipality and to represent the rural area, trained and knowledgeable manpower in local Five representative revenue villages of the taluk bodies, inadequate employees performance have been chosen. A total of 208 respondents monitoring, motivation, discipline to mention a consisting 94 respondents from urban area and few. 114 respondents from rural area were selected Across the country, many organization and at randomly. individuals have found innovative ways to The present study has been based on Primary reduce and manage the solid wastes through data; Survey Method has been adopted for the a coordinated mix of practices. Thus, there data collection. The data relating to demographic is a need to understand the implementation characteristics, socio-economic profiles of the issues related to solid waste management with households, information on waste generation, a view to provide Eco- friendly, Sustainable components of solid wastes, waste disposal and community-based solutions to waste practices, problems faced by the respondents management problems. Based on the above, in the wastes disposal and management, etc. the present paper entitled “A Comparative have been gathered through a well structured Analysis of solid Waste Management in Rural interview schedule. and Urban Areas of Tamil Nadu” makes an MAJOR FINDINGS attempt to study the aspects of solid waste The solid waste generation and disposal is management in rural and urban areas of closely associated with the social variables the Nagapattinam District, Tamil Nadu. basic social profile such as the sex, religion, OBJECTIVES AND HYPOTHESES community, age, family type and family size However, the specific objectives are to analyse is taken for analysis and it is found from the the region wise sources and quantum of solid analysis that around 85 % are male and only 15 wastes in the study area; to study the causes % are female, more than 70 % are the Hindu for solid wastes generation and disposal in and negligible per cent of Muslim and Christian the study area; to probe in to the methods of are found in both the rural and urban areas of disposal of solid wastes in the study area and the study. Further the community distribution to find the difference if any, in the method of registers more than 40% belong to BC, about 20 disposal between rural and urban areas; and % belong to SC/STs and MBCs and only less than to explore the problems in the Solid Waste 8 % are OC respondents in the study area. It is Management among the respondents in the also observed that still the joint family system study area; and to suggest possible measures prevails in the region i.e. 16% of the respondents to formulate strategies for effective solid waste in the urban area and 20 % of the rural

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 108 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) respondents reside with joint family system. generation in the study area shows that there There is no vast difference in the medium family is a direct association between the income and size distribution i.e. 27 % of the respondents quantity of solid waste generated both the rural but 19% of the respondents’ households belong and urban areas. However, the respondents to the large family size group. whose income is up to Rs.5000 generate 520 As the aspects of solid waste management is Gms of solid waste per day while it is 810 Gms closely related to the economic status of the for the respondents whose monthly income is respondents the major economic variables such above Rs.20000 in urban areas whereas it was as income, expenditure, savings position, Asset 480 Gms and 600gms respectively in the rural Position, indebtedness of the respondents have areas. The average difference between urban been taken for analysis and it is found that and rural regions ranges between 40 Gms and with regard to income distribution only 2 % 110 Gms. of the urban respondents and 9 % of the rural There is a significant difference registered respondents have earned less than Rs.5000/- between the rural and urban respondents in monthly and it is 38 % of the urban respondents the case of waste generation with regard to and 23 % of the rural respondents have earned educational status since the difference in the more than Rs. 15000/- per month. Majority absolute quantity of waste ranges between of the respondents about 60 % have earned 50 Gms and 180 Gms. From the hypotheses up to 15000/- per month in both the regions. testing, it can be inferred that the quantity of However, comparatively the income of urban waste is dependent on education (Chi square respondents is higher than that of the rural value 43.74); on Community Status (Chi- value respondents in the study area. The same trend 89.83)of the sample respondents. is attributed in the case of expenditure and The average quantity of waste is increased savings also. Since the income has its influence with the level of consumption in both regions. on the level of consumption and savings 12 % But there is a significant difference registered of the urban respondents and 27 % of the rural between the rural and urban respondents in respondents have spent less than Rs.4000/- per the case of waste generation with regard to month and 38 % of the urban respondents and monthly consumption expenditure since the 19 % of the rural respondents have spent more difference in the absolute quantity of waste than Rs.12000/- per month on consumption.; ranges between 40 Gms and 165 Gms. while 7.5 % of the urban respondents and 25 The average quantity of waste is increased with % of the rural respondents have not saved any the value of asset position in both regions. amount so far in one side and it is appreciable to But there is a significant difference registered note that about 10 % of the urban respondents between the rural and urban respondents and 2 % of the rural respondents have saved in the case of waste generation with regard more than Rs.40000- on the other. Similarly, to asset position since the difference in the the indebtedness is also more among urban absolute quantity of waste ranges between 40 respondents than that of rural respondents. Gms and 135 Gms respectively. Further there since about 10 % of the urban respondents is a significant difference registered between have indebted more than Rs.5 Lakhs while the rural and urban respondents in the case only less than 1 % of the rural respondents of waste generation with regard to occupation have highly indebted in the study area. Further since the difference in the absolute quantity of it is observed that there are variations in the waste ranges between 20 Gms and 240 Gms.; economic status between the urban and rural Further, it is found that the quantity of waste respondents in the study area. is dependent on the occupation (Chi- Square Since the environmental awareness is closely value is 67.56) of the sample respondents. associated to level of education the educational It is also found that the average quantity of waste status of the respondents has been compared. is increased with the family size in both regions It is found that still 2 % of the urban respondents and there is a significant difference registered and 6 % of the rural respondents are illiterates between the rural and urban respondents in in one side and 7 % of the urban respondents the case of waste generation with regard to and 3 % of the rural respondents are higher family size since the difference in the absolute educated on the other. Further it is known that quantity of waste ranges between 55 Gms and more than 50 % of the rural respondents are 165 gm. primary educated and about 50 % of the urban To measure the factors influencing the quantity respondents are higher secondary educated. of household solid waste generation the From the analysis, both the rural urban areas regression model has also been applied. It is the literacy level exceeds the state average. calculated that the value of R2 is 0.79 which The income wise quantity of solid waste implies that 79 % of variation in the quantity

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of generation of solid wastes is influenced plastic basket (28%), plastic container (23%) , by these variables which are included in the plastic bag (14%) and slurry pits (3%) where model. From this model, it is found that among as in the rural area, the slurry pits stands first these variables, the Consumption Expenditure i.e.52% respondents have dumped their wastes is primarily influencing the quantity of waste into slurry pits followed by plastic basket generation since the calculated regression (23%), plastic bag (11%), plastic container (8%) coefficient for consumption expenditure is 0.26 and only 6% have dumped into concrete bin. followed by income ( 0.21), Family Size (0.19), From this it is clear that in the urban area the Asset Position ( 0.14), Level of Education concrete bin is used as the prime source and ( -0.16) and Occupation ( 0.17). from this in the rural area the slurry pit is used as the model it could be inferred that the economic prime source of container of dumping of solid variables such as consumption expenditure, wastes. It is also observed that the rural people income, asset position come together having save their domestic wastes for some times 61 5 of influence on the waste generation the and some extent of urban people are having hypothesis that hypothesis that there are host of habit of disposal of wastes immediately it was factors influencing the household solid wastes generated. management, such as, religion, educational In the study area this it is found that in the rural status, family size, income, consumption area the Lorry is used as the prime vehicle and pattern, occupation etc. among these factors, in the urban area the Tricycle is used as the the economic factors are influencing more than prime vehicle for waste collection. Further, that of others is proved. the collection of solid waste is done by three Further based on the‘t ‘value given in the different modes viz, directly by Municipal analysis, it could be obvious to infer that there is Corporation,/ Panchayats or through contract a significant difference registered in the quantity or through community organizations. of waste generation at 1 % level between urban The gender wise incidence of problems in the and rural areas and hence the hypothesis that solid waste management i.e. collection, storage there is a significant difference registered in and disposal of solid wastes reveal that among the quantity of wastes generation between the the urban respondents 26% (85% are male urban and rural area is also proved. and 15% are female) are facing problems in In the present study area, among the urban collection, 46% (82 % are male and 18 %are respondents majority (56.5 %) have thrown the female) are facing the problems relating to wastes into their Backyard followed by thrown storage and 28% (74 % are male and 26% are in to Common garbage Bin (15. 9 .%) and it is female) are facing problems relating to disposal appreciable to note that only 12 respondents of solid waste. Whereas in the rural area,28% have burnt the wastes. Where as in the rural (39% are male and 61% are female) are facing areas, more than 75 % of the respondents have problems in collection, 39% (57 % are male thrown the wastes into their Backyard and it and 43 % are female) are facing the problems is to be noted hat the plastic wastes have not relating to storage and (54 % are male and 46% been properly managed as they disposed off are female) 33% are facing problems relating to either in open place, or other unsafe modes. disposal of solid waste. It is found that the male It is pathetic to find that the other than plastic, are comparatively realizing more problems than glass, tin, kitchen wastes, paper, polythene that of female. Further it is known that among wastes are also been not effectively managed these three major problems, the problems in in the study area as about 5.5 % of the the storage stands first followed by disposal and urban respondents and 11.4 % of the rural collection. It could also be observed that in both respondents have burnt the wastes. the areas, as the level of education improves With regard to storing of solid waste, In the the incidence of problems in the solid waste study area, about 45 % of the urban respondents (collection, Storage and disposal) declines. It have kept their wastes inside of their home is found that there is a significant difference and only 25 % of the rural respondents have registered in the incidence of problems in the kept their wastes inside of their home. This disposal of solid wastes between rural and urban difference may be mainly due to availability of areas. However, the urban respondents are out side place which is normally short in urban suffering more than that of rural respondents. areas than rural areas. it is known that out of SUGGESTIONS total sample respondents 66 % have kept the It is observed from the analysis that in the wastes outside. study municipality, the solid-waste collection The source wise dumping of the wastes in the in residential and commercial sites has been be noted that in the urban area, the concrete done by street-sweeping services and waste bin was primarily used (32%) followed by collection from households and commercial

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 110 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) areas. System, Use of School Children, Provision of It is suggested that the effective solid waste Primary School Curriculum to cover the subject, management system viz, resource recovery Involvement of National Cadet Corps (NCC), through sorting and recycling i.e., recovery National Social Service, Involvement of Religious of materials such as paper, glass, metals or Leaders, Involvement of Medical Practitioners, recovery of energy through biological, thermal Involvement of SHGs, Resident Associations or other processes. Waste transformation leads and Voluntary Organizations/NGO involvement to reduction in volume and toxicity, which helps There is need to bring all stakeholders i.e., in safe and sustainable disposal in landfills municipal authority, development authority, should be followed. community, NGO’s and waste collectors Measures may be taken to create awareness together to manage solid waste in the study on the incidence of the problems of waste area environmentally and economically viable accumulation and the way it affects their lives manner. This requires to create awareness directly. about the environmental aspects and to develop The practice of minimisation of generation of sustainable solid waste management public solid wastes should be encouraged through practices to all stakeholders. It is appreciable inculcation of educating people about it like to suggest that in the study area recently using less of plastics or reduce waste disposal Tamil Nadu Central University (Tiruvarur) by recovering maximum possible recyclable was established with special attention. More materials from it. Research and Development activities may be It is also suggested that the municipal solid undertaken by the university authorities for the waste should be segregated into organic, effective Solid Waste Management through its inorganic, recyclable and hazardous waste, Department of Environment in this district on which has not been observed in the study area. model basis which can be disseminated in all For effective solid waste management possible other areas in future. alternatives such as Composting – from organic CONCLUSION portion of waste and Incineration- for non- The solid wastes have become significant recyclable portion of waste can be considered political, social and environmental issues; for working out the economic value for the solid setting new disposal facilities to manage these waste disposal besides land filling of solid waste wastes have become difficult as the population for the study area. to grow rapidly. Much of what has come to be It is suggested that the Local bodies may considered the “Garbage crisis” in the world is introduce fiscal control measure such as penalty not the product of immediate past practices of administrative charges or special cleaning or present inaction, but a series of chronic charges for those who litter the streets or cause problems interrelated in such a way as to defy nuisance on the streets to punish them. a clear solution. What once was considered It is suggested that Green Productivity and simply a nuisance or even more seriously a Other Waste Minimization Approaches may be health hazard in the past has become a major adopted by the study area like already it has environmental plight in the 20th centuries the been practiced the Metropolitan city Delhi. problem of environmental pollution in India Proper measures may be taken to promote crises more from the rivers which have been public participation in waste management heavily polluted by the discharged of effluents efforts through private partnership where from factories and the dumping of sewage. It feasible. is fond hope that through wide propagation of Above all, proper measures to be taken to create the message that the “Clean City Program” and public awareness and to bring about changes in “Clean Village Program” through government public behaviour through development of public initiatives and public participation, the problem awareness programs, such as Promotion of of solid waste management can be solved to “Reduce, Re-use and Re-cycle (R-R-R)” of Waste the desirable extent both in rural as well as in principle; Promotion of Public Participation in urban areas. SWM Systems; Provision of Information Hot- line; Inculcation of Public Education through Group Education by Group Meetings in the community, Workshops, Exhibitions, Lecture series, Panel Discussions, etc.; Promotion of Mass Education through the Use of Print Media, Use of TV / Cable TV / Radio/Web Site, Use of Cinema Halls, Street Plays, Puppet Shows, etc., Posters, Pamphlets, Use of Public Transport

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REFERENCES 1.Agarwal, A., A. Singh Mar et al. [2005],”Municipal Solid Waste recycling and associated Markets in Delhi, India. Journal of Resources, Conservation and Recycling,No. 44.1; pp. 73-90 2.Chakrabarty, P., et al [1995] “Solid Waste Disposal and the Environment – A Review”. Indian Journal of Environmental Protection Vol. 15 (1), pp 39–43. 3.Garg, S., and Prasad, B., [2003] “Plastic waste generation and recycling in Chandigarh”. Indian Journal of Environmental Protection Vol 23 (2), pp. 121–125. 4.Govidarajalu [2009]”Solid Waste Management in Coimbatore Corporation” Kisan World , Chennai, Vol.36 No.4 5.Jyoti P.Patil [2009], ”Urban S0lid Waste Management. A Micro Study” Southern Economist Vol.48 6.Kithira Srinivasan [2006], ”Public, Private and Voluntary Agencies in Solid Waste Management-A study In Chennai City, Economic and Political Weekly. Vol, 22 7.Sandhya Venkadeswaran, [1994], “Managing Waste; Ecological Economic and Social Dimensions”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 29, pp. 2907- 2911 8.Vanitha [1997]”,Determinants of Willingness to Pay for House hold Solid WasteManagement”Southern Economist Vol. 9 http;www.tnpcb.gov.inssss 9.http;//urbanindia.nic.in/moud/moud.htm

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 112 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) 26. A STUDY ON THE AWARENESS OF THE STUDENTS TOWARDS HEALTH HAZARDS AND ITS IMPACT WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO CHENNAI CITY Dr. LEELA BHASKAR, (Retd) Associate Professor, Department of Economics, Ethiraj College For Women, Chennai-600008 Email-leelabhaskar3@gmail. com, Ph:00-91-9962089727.

Mrs. R. SANGEETHA, Part time PhD Scholar, Department of Economics, Kumararani Meena Muthiah College of Arts & Science (Co-Ed),Adyar, Chennai-600008 [email protected], Ph: 9840130432.

INTRODUCTION Rabeya Begum Raba et.al brings out the he environment is a place to live our life problems arising due to the water salainity that Thappily. A happy life is a contented life with leads to unsafe drinking water in the areas of no problems. But the environment needs to Bangladesh. be protected from various problems which Roya Kelishadi brings out the various causes ultimately affect the health of human beings. for the environmental pollution due to gas The environment is now being affected by emissions and acid deposits and changes in various factors and is becoming a great threat lifestyle patterns and measures to control them. all over the world. The environment is affect by Pollution is one important factor that needs to be air, water and sound in the form of air pollution, controlled to protect the environment and the water pollution and noise pollution. It is not health of mankind. There are different types of only pollution that is affecting the environment pollution namely air pollution, water pollution, but even the usage of tobacco for example , can noise pollution. Apart from the normal causes have a harmful effect on human lives. The study of pollution, we should know that pollution can is intended to find out the awareness of the also be caused by biomass such as firewood, student community towards the health hazards crop residue and even cow dung cake that is and their impact. used as a main source of fuel. This happens in OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY places where these materials are used as fuel. 1.To find out the awareness of the students According to the Census 2011, more than 60 regarding the health hazards and its impact on per cent of people in India use biomass such health as firewood, crop residue and cow dung cake 2.To bring out the remedial measures as the main source of fuel. In rural areas more 3.To obtain suggestions for the same than 85 per cent of households use biomass as RESEARCH METHODOLOGY cooking fuel by directly burning them. Health Aim: To find out the awareness of the students hazards can be due to a number of factors regarding the health hazards and its impact on like the use of tobacco, mobile phones, plastic health covers, ultra violet radiation, improper garbage PRIMARY DATA: Information to be obtained disposal, climatic changes, and many more. through a survey with the use of a questionnaire The study was conducted to find out the SECONDARY DATA: books, references, journals, awareness of the students towards the various web sources health problems caused by the hazards in the Sample size: 30 environment. Health is one main factor that Sampling technique: convenience sampling contributes to the development of the society Tools used: percentage analysis and the nation. Human resource is one that REVIEW OF LITERATURE cannot be replaced by any other resource. Remoundou K et.al points out that the major The healthy society will lead to advancement reason for the cause of premature deaths needed for the society. is because of air pollution. He also says that CAUSES FOR POLLUTION CAN ALSO diseases caused by air pollution like respiratory BE DUE TO THE FOLLOWING FACTORS: infections, heart diseases and lung cancer can →→ Tobacco smoke be controlled by proper measures taken to →→ Asbestos control it. →→ Paints Thompson RC et.al points out the harmful →→ Traditional fuel effects of chemicals use in the manufacture of →→ Solid fuels plastics and how these cause health problems →→ Biomass fuels, and many more. to human beings. The researcher mentions few laws to protect

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the environment that can be cited below: of the industrial development projects. General 2000 - The Municipal Solid Wastes 1986 - The Environment (Protection) Act (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000 authorizes the central government to protect apply to every municipal authority responsible and improve environmental quality, control and for the collection, segregation, storage, reduce pollution from all sources, and prohibit transportation, processing, and disposal of or restrict the setting and /or operation of any municipal solid wastes. industrial facility on environmental grounds. 2000 - The Ozone Depleting Substances 1986 - The Environment (Protection) Rules (Regulation and Control) Rules have been laid lay down procedures for setting standards down for the regulation of production and of emission or discharge of environmental consumption of ozone depleting substances. pollutants. 2001 - The Batteries (Management and 1989 - The objective of Hazardous Waste Handling) Rules, 2001 rules shall apply to (Management and Handling) Rules is to control every manufacturer, importer, re-conditioner, the generation, collection, treatment, import, assembler, dealer, auctioneer, consumer, and storage, and handling of hazardous waste. bulk consumer involved in the manufacture, 1989 - The Manufacture, Storage, and Import processing, sale, purchase, and use of batteries of Hazardous Rules define the terms used in or components so as to regulate and ensure the this context, and sets up an authority to inspect, environmentally safe disposal of used batteries. once a year, the industrial activity connected 2002 - The Noise Pollution (Regulation and with hazardous chemicals and isolated storage Control) (Amendment) Rules lay down such facilities. terms and conditions as are necessary to reduce 1989 - The Manufacture, Use, Import, Export, noise pollution, permit use of loud speakers and Storage of hazardous Micro-organisms/ or public address systems during night hours Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells (between 10:00 p.m. to 12:00 midnight) on or Rules were introduced with a view to protect the during any cultural or religious festive occasion environment, nature, and health, in connection 2002 - The Biological Diversity Act is an act with the application of gene technology and to provide for the conservation of biological microorganisms. diversity, sustainable use of its components, 1991 - The Public Liability Insurance Act and and fair and equitable sharing of the benefits Rules and Amendment, 1992 was drawn up arising out of the use of biological resources to provide for public liability insurance for the and knowledge associated with it purpose of providing immediate relief to the WATER persons affected by accident while handling 1882 - The Easement Act allows private rights any hazardous substance. to use a resource that is, groundwater, by 1995 - The National Environmental Tribunal viewing it as an attachment to the land. It also Act has been created to award compensation states that all surface water belongs to the state for damages to persons, property, and the and is a state property. environment arising from any activity involving 1897 - The Indian Fisheries Act establishes two hazardous substances. sets of penal offences whereby the government 1997 - The National Environment Appellate can sue any person who uses dynamite or Authority Act has been created to hear appeals other explosive substance in any way (whether with respect to restrictions of areas in which coastal or inland) with intent to catch or destroy classes of industries etc. are carried out or any fish or poisonous fish in order to kill. prescribed subject to certain safeguards under 1956 - The River Boards Act enables the states the EPA. to enroll the central government in setting up 1998 - The Biomedical waste (Management an Advisory River Board to resolve issues in and Handling) Rules is a legal binding on the inter-state cooperation. health care institutions to streamline the 1970 - The Merchant Shipping Act aims to deal process of proper handling of hospital waste with waste arising from ships along the coastal such as segregation, disposal, collection, and areas within a specified radius. treatment. 1974 - The Water (Prevention and Control 1999 - The Environment (Siting for Industrial of Pollution) Act establishes an institutional Projects) Rules, 1999 lay down detailed structure for preventing and abating water provisions relating to areas to be avoided for pollution. It establishes standards for water siting of industries, precautionary measures to quality and effluent. Polluting industries be taken for site selecting as also the aspects must seek permission to discharge waste into of environmental protection which should have effluent bodies. been incorporated during the implementation

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 114 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) The CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board) was on the health of human beings. constituted under this act. TABLE 1 SHOWING THE GENDER OF THE 1977 - The Water (Prevention and Control of RESPONDENTS Pollution) Cess Act provides for the levy and collection of cess or fees on water consuming No. Of Percentage industries and local authorities. respondents 1978 - The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Rules contains the standard MALE 20 67% definitions and indicate the kind of and location FEMALE 10 33% of meters that every consumer of water is required to affix. Total 30 100% 1991 - The Coastal Regulation Zone Notification puts regulations on various activities, including DIAGRAM SHOWING THE GENDER OF construction, are regulated. It gives some THE RESPONDENTS protection to the backwaters and estuaries. AIR 1981 - The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act provides for the control and abatement of air pollution. It entrusts the power of enforcing this act to the CPCB . 1982 - The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Rules defines the procedures of the meetings of the Boards and the powers entrusted to them. 1982 - The Atomic Energy Act deals with the radioactive waste. 1987 - The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Amendment Act empowers the central and state pollution control boards to meet with grave emergencies of air pollution. 1988 - The Motor Vehicles Act states that all hazardous waste is to be properly packaged, TABLE 2 SHOWING AWARENESS OF labelled, and transported. RESPONDENTS REGARDING HARMFUL EFFECTS The above laws have been sourced from: OF ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION ON HEALTH Environmental policy-making in India – The process and its pressure, TERI report. No. Of Percentage Indian Environmental Legislations, list from the respondents MOEF web site. Strengthening Environmental Legislations in YES 23 77% India, document by Centre for Environmental NO 7 23% Law, WWF. SOME OF THE MEASURES THAT CAN BE Total 30 100% ADOPTED TO CONTROL POLLUTION DIAGRAM 2 SHOWING THE AWARENESS OF THE RESPONDENTS REGARDING THE HARMFUL →→ Awareness on the harmful effects of EFFECTS OF ULTRA VIOLET RADIATION ON biomass HEALTH →→ Using biogas instead of biomass →→ Producing gobar gas using cowdung as an alternative instead of cowdung →→ Fuel efficient & smokeless cooking stoves →→ Cross ventilation, window above stoves The above measures can be cited as examples to control pollution , as there are several measures to control the different types of pollution. ANALYSIS AND INTEPRETATION OF THE STUDY The study was intended to find out the awareness of the students with regard to the environmental health hazards and their impact

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TABLE 3 SHOWING AWARENESS OF TABLE 5 SHOWING THE AWARENESS OF RESPONDENTS REGARDING THE RISK DUE TO RESPONDENTS ABOUT THE RISK DUE TO THE SMOKING USAGE OF MOBILE PHONES No. Of Percentage respondents No. of Percentage YES 26 87% Respondents NO 4 13% YES 16 53% Total 30 100% NO 14 47% DIAGRAM 3 SHOWING AWARENESS OF TOTAL 30 100% RESPONDENTS REGARDING THE RISK DUE TO SMOKING DIAGRAM 5 SHOWING THE AWARENESS OF RESPONDENTS ABOUT THE RISK DUE TO THE USAGE OF MOBILE PHONE

TABLE 4 SHOWING THE AWARENESS OF THE RESPONDENTS REGARDING HEALTH TABLE 6 SHOWING THE AWARENESS OF THE PROBLEMS DUE TO AIR POLLUTION RESPONDENTS REGARDING THE HARMFUL No. of Percentage EFFECTS OF NOISE POLLUTION respondents No. of Percentage YES 18 60% Respondents NO 12 40% Yes 17 57% Total 30 100% No 13 43% Total 30 100% DIAGRAM 4 SHOWING THE AWARENESS OF DIAGRAM 6 SHOWING THE AWARENESS OF THE RESPONDENTS REGARDING HEALTH THE RESPONDENTS REGARDING THE HARMFUL PROBLEMS DUE TO AIR POLLUTION EFFECTS OF NOISE POLLUTION

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TABLE 7 SHOWING THE AWARENESS OF THE TABLE 9 SHOWING THE DISPOSAL OF GARBAGE RESPONDENTS TO THE GLOBAL CLIMATIC IN A PROPER MANNER BY THE RESPONDENTS CHANGE AND ITS IMPACT ON HEALTH No. of Percentage No. Of Percentage respondents respondents YES 21 70% YES 18 60% NO 9 30% NO 12 40% Total 30 100% Total 30 100% DIAGRAM 7 SHOWING THE AWARENESS OF DIAGRAM 9 SHOWING THE DISPOSAL OF THE RESPONDENTS TO THE GLOBAL CLIMATIC GARBAGE IN A PROPER MANNER BY THE CHANGE AND ITS IMPACT ON HEALTH RESPONDENTS

TABLE 8 SHOWING THE AWARENESS OF THE RESPONDENTS REGARDING THE USE OF TABLE 10 SHOWING THE AWARENESS OF THE PLASTICS AND THE RISK FACTORS ASSOCIATED RESPONDENTS REGARDING THE VARIOUS WITH IT LAWS RELATING TO PROTECTION OF THE No. of Percentage ENVIRONMENT FROM VARIOUS HEALTH respondents HAZARDS

YES 24 80% No. of Percentage NO 6 20% Respondents Total 30 100% YES 16 53% DIAGRAM 8 SHOWING THE AWARENESS OF THE RESPONDENTS REGARDING THE USE OF NO 14 47% PLASTICS AND THE RISK FACTORS ASSOCIATED TOTAL 30 100% WITH IT DIAGRAM 10 SHOWING THE AWARENESS OF THE RESPONDENTS REGARDING THE VARIOUS LAWS RELATING TO PROTECTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT FROM VARIOUS HEALTH HAZARDS

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2.Kumar GS, Kar SS, Jain A. Health and environmental FINDINGS sanitation in India: Issues for prioritizing control →→ Majority of the respondents were aware strategies. Indian Journal of Occupational and of the health problems caused by the pollution Environmental Medicine. 2011;15(3):93-96. in the environment doi:10.4103/0019-5278.93196. →→ Most of the respondents know that 3.Environmental Laws and Constitutional Provisions laws exist to protect the environment In India ( Save as .pdf )Published : October 22, 2015 →→ The male respondents very well know | Author : advrudra about the adverse effect of the use of tobacco 4.Thompson RC, Moore CJ, vom Saal FS, Swan →→ More than half of the respondents know SH. Plastics, the environment and human health: the harmful effects of the radiation caused by current consensus and future trends. Philosophical the cell phones as they are using the mobile Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological phones for longer hours Sciences. 2009;364(1526):2153-2166. doi:10.1098/ →→ Most of the respondents say that the rstb.2009.0053. effect of noise pollution is little when compared 5.Rabeya Begum Raba, Tapan Kumar, Ram to the other types of pollution Proshad, Tapos Kormoker, Bidhan Chandra Saha →→ The awareness regarding the harmful and Mohammed Mahmud Kahn. Assessment of effects of climatic changes is lesser Temporal Variability of Soil and Water Salinity in →→ Most of the respondents know the the Saline Prone Vicinity of Bangladesh. Journal of harmful effects of the plastic covers over the Environment Pollution and Human Health. 2017; environment 5(3):99-103. doi: 10.12691/jephh-5-3-4 →→ With regard to garbage disposal, the 6.Roya Kelishadi, Environmental Pollution: Health respondents said that it is disposed properly Effects and Operational Implications for Pollutants in their homes as they segregate the wastes RemovalJournal of Environmental and Public accordingly HealthVolume 2012 (2012), Article ID 341637, 2 SUGGESTIONS pageshttp://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2012/341637 →→ The respondents are interested to 7.Questionnaire – On Health Hazards And Its Impact contribute to the protection of the environment On Human Health →→ They are able to convey the harmful effects of tobacco usage to their friends and influence very few to stop the usage of tobacco →→ The respondents do know that there are laws to protect the environment but not in detail →→ The respondents want to limit the usage of their cell phones as it causes harmful effects due to its radiation →→ The respondents also said that they have reduced the use of plastic covers in many places CONCLUSION The environment needs to be protected from various health hazards. It is the duty of each one of us to undertake measures that can contribute to protect the environment. It can also be in form of avoiding plastics for example and using paper bags or cloth bags instead. The study was able to find out the awareness of the respondents regarding the environmental health hazards and obtain suitable measures from the respondents for the same. This small study will serve as a small drop of rain that will help to make a healthy society. REFERENCES 1.Remoundou K, Koundouri P. Environmental Effects on Public Health: An Economic Perspective. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2009;6(8):2160-2178. doi:10.3390/ ijerph6082160.

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 118 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) 27. CLIMATE CHANGE: COPING STRATEGIES FOR A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE IN INDIA Dr. (MRS) S.AMERJOTHY, Former Dean of Science, Presidency College, Chennai-5 Dr. RAJ BHARATH, R., Asst. Professor, Dept. of Transfusion Medicine,Tamil Nadu Dr.MGR Medical University, Chennai, India PROF. RUDRAPPAN, D., President, AMECA, Ethiopian Civil Service University, Ethiopia ABSTRACT Kyoto Protocol. oday, human race faces many threats but OBJECTIVES Tnone is greater than the climate challenge. The objectives of the paper have been listed I quote Ban Ki-moon, the Secretary General of below UN, “ climate change does not respect borders; To find out the causes of climate change and it does not respect who you are-rich and, the the extent of destruction caused by climate poor, small and big. Therefore, this is what we change, and call ‘ global challenges’ which require global To suggest remedial measures in terms of solidarity”-co-operation and collaboration mitigation and adaptation for reducing climate among all people and all governments of the change extreme events. world. Our globe, is a world of looming climate METHODOLOGY challenges. Climate change is happening here Descriptive study is adopted using secondary and happening now. Hence, human beings data for outlining causes and catastrophes of should not become architects of their own climate change in addition to explanation on destruction. With the available knowledge and various measures formulated and followed by tools, it is essential to reduce global warming the Governments both at the Centre and States. in terms of the mitigation and adaptation Discussion strategies. Therefore, this paper delineates Usually, changes in the climate system occur various climate change coping strategies slowly and are responsible for the existing followed all over the world with a detailed bio-diversity on the planet. However, the description of measures formulated and last few decades have seen rapid changes adopted in India. in this phenomenal world such that flora INTRODUCTION and fauna have not been able to adapt to In 2006, Nicholas Stern, head of the United changing climate. Human activities are largely Kingdom’s Government Economics Service responsible for this and human induced climate presented his report on ‘Economics of Climate change has been widely recognized as one of Change’ to the British Government where he the major problems threatening the earth has advocated climate change mitigation as today. Though natural events such as volcano one of the cardinal objectives (Stern, 2007). eruption and solar radiation contribute to some The Stern report stated that if we don’t act, extent in increasing the global temperature, the overall costs and risks of climate change the rise is caused mainly by greenhouse gases would be equivalent to loosing at least five per such as carbon dioxide, methane, water vapour cent of global GDP each year now and forever. and other gases as a result of human activities If a wider range of risks and impact is taken induced factors. The present global warming into account, the estimates of damage could is a phenomenon where there is an increase rise to 20 percent of GDP or more. In contrast, in earth’s surface temperature leading to a the costs of action reducing GHG emissions change in global climate, melting of ice glaciers to avoid the worst impacts of climate change and consequent increase in the sea level. Ozone can limit to around one per cent of global GDP depletion in the troposphere which is the lowest each year. Therefore, all out efforts have to be part of the earth atmosphere also contributed taken for climate change mitigation globally in to warming of earth surface. Preventing view of its low cost and high benefit in terms dangerous climate change is the agreed of job generation and sustainable economic ultimate objective of climate policy formulated development(Rudrappan,2004). A sustainable in the 1992 U.N. Framework Convention on emission pathway will be meaningful only if it is Climate Change. (UNFCC) through mitigation translated into practical national strategies and and adaptation strategies. national carbon budgets among all countries. Climate change mitigation target should also be Many European Union countries have credible transformed into policies which are considered targets with a few countries like Canada and more challenging politically. The starting point USA fall short of the target laid down under the of mitigation is putting a price on carbon

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emissions in the following two ways: organizations and local community groups. 1) Tax on carbon dioxide emissions which could The adaptive capacity of a country depends be used to support wider environmental tax on five forms of livelihood capital- physical, reforms. natural, social, human and financial capital 2) Cap-and–trade where the government seeks as well as on access to technology, access to an overall emission cap and issues tradable information on climate variability, capacity of allowance that grant business the right to emit institutions, equitable distribution of resources, a set amount (Christopher & Robert, 2009). and international cooperation. However, in view Those who can reduce emissions more cheaply of the inadequacy of above factors among poor are able to sell these allowances. Therefore, countries, many African and Asian countries carbon markets are an essential condition for are not able to build up adaptation capacity of the transition to lower level carbon economy. communities sufficiently (Rudrappan,2010). Moreover, the governments have a critical CLIMATE CHANGE ACTION PLAN IN role in fixing regulations and in supporting INDIA research and development for a carbon After climbing up steadily for at least two neutral economic growth. The USA has used decades, India’s green house gas emission began tax instrument to increase the development of to decline rapidly after 1995 suggesting the renewable wind power energy source. IPCC has start of decoupling process of environmental advocated enhanced energy efficiency to reap challenges and economic growth, as has double dividend not only by lowering carbon occurred historically in rich countries at higher dioxide emissions but also reducing energy per capita income levels in terms of Kuznets cost in sectors like automobile. The automobile inverted ‘U’ shaped curve. India’s per capita sector which accounts for more than 30 per emission ranks among the lowest averaging cent of green house emissions in rich countries, only 25% of the world and 5 % of USA’s present adoption of regulatory standard is a must to emission. Furthermore, pressure from citizens unlock double dividends. activists and Government’s policies driven by In addition to this, international trade could environmental challenges have reduced green also play a major role for the development of house gas emission (Rudrappan,2011). alternative fuel such as ethanol which is more In terms of UNFCC accord, Kyoto Protocol, efficient in cutting carbon emission as seenin Marrakesh, Copenhagen and Cancun Brazil. Another key for mitigation is carbon agreements signed so far, several measures are dioxide capture on storage (CCS) which helps being undertaken in India, which contribute to coal fired power generation with mere zero GHG mitigation. Some of them are: emission. This cutting edge CCS technology 1.Establishment of the Technology Information, should be developed further as a costless Forecasting and Assessment Council under the method and deployed more rapidly around the Department of Science and Technology, which world. Adaptation of climate mitigation policies facilitates the transfer of environmentally sound requires proper planning and implementation technology. capacity. However, the capability is lacking in 2.Extensive efforts in conservation of forests poor countries as a result of absence of social and biodiversity. protection, insufficient infrastructure and 3.Involvement of a number of governmental inadequate climate related risk information. and independent agencies in climate change ADAPTATION STRATEGY TO REDUCE research in India. THE RISK OF CLIMATE CHANGE 4.Using satellite data received from INSAT, cloud Response to global warming requires immediate imageries will be projected. This will be used curtailment in the level of future climate change to derive cloud motion vectors, sea surface through adaptation. The aim of adaptation is to temperatures, and outgoing long wave radiation increase the climate resilience of communities which in turn would be utilized for formulating by enhancing their capacity to cope with less mitigation measures. predictable rainfall patterns, more frequent To achieve the above mitigation strategy, droughts, stronger heat wave, different diseases following eight Missions have been established and weather hazards. It is the responsibility focusing on promotion of understanding of of all governments to develop strategies and climate change, adaptation, mitigation, energy projects that will enable people to cope with efficiency and natural resource conservation. changes occasioned by climate change. Several 1.National Solar Mission: In view of India’s countries have been implementing adaptation position in the equatorial Sun Belt getting projects for building resilience among the abundance of solar power throughout the year, people through federal, state, local governments generation of more solar power has been given as well as with the help of non-governmental much importance.

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 120 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) 2.National Mission for Enhanced Energy directed all new four wheeled vehicles should Efficiency: The industrial sector of India which comply with Euro IV standard emission norms has been consuming 42% commercial energy and heavy vehicles should use Compressed emits 31% of total CO2. Therefore, the mission Natural Gas (CNG) in big cities. For mass transit aims at increased energy efficiency in this in urban areas, metro railways are being built sector. up. The government also has introduced bio- 3.National Mission on Sustainable Habitat: fuel in the form of ethanol-blended gasoline The aim of the Mission is to make habitats more and provides incentives for the production as sustainable through improvements in energy well as commercialization of bio-fuels. efficiency of buildings to achieve 30% electricity CONCLUSION savings in new buildings, management of The “Perform Achieve and Trade”(PAT) scheme Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) and urban public launched in April 2011 is an energy saving transport mechanism based on emission certificates 4.National Water Mission:As water becomes a targeting key industrial sectors with trading scarce resource, the National Water Mission aims scheme. Despite no binding emission targets, at conserving water, minimising wastage and Government of India acknowledged that it ensuring more equitable distribution through has a major role to play in global mitigation Integrated Water Resource Management and efforts in line with the principle of common modern irrigation techniques. but differentiated responsibility and respective 5.National Mission for Sustaining the capability. In spite of being the second largest Himalayan Ecosystem: Land-use planning polluter of greenhouse gases of the world, and water-shed management practices the USA has not realised its shared global for sustainable development of mountain responsibility and its President Donald Trump ecosystems have been formulated. has withdrawn from the commitment of 6.National Mission for a Green India: Aiming at financial help to poor countries to overcome enhancing ecosystem services such as carbon climate disasters as well as from the global sinks, it provides for Green India campaign for climate Paris Accord, signed by all countries in the afforestation of 6 million hectares and the 2015. As such, India magnanimously took on the national target of increasing land area under voluntary target of reducing its carbon intensity forest cover from 23% to 33%. by 25%. India’s vision is to build a self-sustaining 7.National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture: prosperous economy in terms of its capacity to The objective is to make Indian agriculture more unleash the creative energies of its people and resilient to climate change by identifying new the country is mindful of its responsibility to varieties of climate resilient crops, especially the present and future generation. thermal resistant ones and alternative cropping patterns. 8.National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change: Apart from usual budget grants, the mission aims at establishing a special Climate Research Fund also to promote research in climate change and related field in collaboration with global community. Implementation: Each mission has to be implemented by the respective ministries and the progress made by them would be submitted to the Prime Minister’s Council on Climate Change annually for evaluation. Further, India is an active participant in the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) established by the Protocol and has more than 500 registered CDM projects accounting for about a third of all global projects and most of them are bio-mass and renewable energy projects. Under a CDM project, all incandescent bulbs in residences will be replaced into compact fluorescent bulbs. The price differentials will be recovered by the role of carbon credits. It is estimated that this will reduce 24 million tons of CO2 annually. Under transportation, the government has

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REFERENCES 1.IPCC. (2007). Summary for Policymakers, In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Sciences Basis Contribution of Working Group 1 to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. United Kingdom and New York, USA: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. pp. 2-3. 2.IPCC, (2007). Climate Change 2007. The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group 1 to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. United Kingdom and New York, USA, pp. 994-996. 3.Nakicenovic, N. et al., (2001). An Overview of Scenarios: Resource Availability. IPCC Special Report on Emissions Scenarios, IPCC. 4.National Academy of Sciences. (2008). Understanding and Responding to Climate Change, United States National Academy of Sciences, 2008. 5.Oreskes, Naomi. (2004). Beyond the Ivory Tower: The Scientific Consensus on Climate Change, Science 306: 1686. 6.Rudrappan, D. (2004).Port-reform rural employment scenario in India with special reference to Tamil Nadu. The Indian Economic Journal, 51(3, 4), 55-68. Rudrappan, D. (2010, June 3).Save planet earth, Business Day, p.14. 7.Rudrappan,D. (2011). Reconciling climate Change and Economic Growth: The need for an Alternative Paradigm of Development. Covenant University Press, Canaanland, Ota, Nigeria, pp.3-34. 8.State of the World. (2009). State of the World, 2009: Into a Warming World, World Watch Institute, Washington, DC. pp. 8-12. 9.Stern Nicholas, (2007). The economics of climate change: The Stern Review. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge university press. The Full Stern Review is available onlineathttpl://www/hm_treasury. gov.UK/independent_review_economics_climate_ change/stern review_index.cfm. 10.United Nations Development Programme. (2008). Human Development Report, 2007/2008.Fighting Climate Change: Human Solidarity in a divided World, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, p.75. 11.Yandle, B. Vijayaraghavan, M. & Bhattarai, M. (2004). The Environmental Kuznets Curve: A Review Of Findings, Methods, And Policy Implications, PERC research study, Property And Environmental Research Center, Montana.

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 122 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) 28. MITIGATING THE RISK OF DISASTER THROUGH COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT AND DISASTER PREPAREDNESSTRAINING – WITH A SPECIAL REFERENCE TO SAMIYARPETTAI- A MODEL VILLAGE AT CUDDALORE DISTRICT, TAMILNADU. RAJAN JAYABALAN, Asst. Prof & Head,PG Department of Social Work,DRBCCC Hindu College, Chennai. South India. Email: [email protected].

ABSTRACT communities who had occupied the disaster- his paper analyses; how the community prone areas left with no other alternatives for Tbased approach and orientation on Disaster secured and safer living. They were marginalized mitigation and preparedness program has to be habituated in the undervalued lands, tremendously helped the communities to survive hazard prone sites and to built housings which through the course of natural calamities, such are fragile and vulnerable to disaster. as Tsunami. Furthermore, the paper engages In the essence of disaster management, it is to study the effectiveness of community necessary to analyse the system of resource engagement and their active participation distribution and other social issues that has in the Disaster mitigation management pushed the majority of the marginalized rurals program. In turn how,the program devolved to become victims of natural disaster. the community members to take precautionary IMPERATIVES OF COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT action and as a result to safe guard their lives In order to reap the effective results from the perilous disaster situations. Taking the” through Disaster Preparedness training , the Samiyarpettai” – a small marine village exist in communities need to be actively engaged with coastal line of Cuddalore district, Tamilnadu, a clear framework instructing with indicators: as a special reference. And how the initiative What can be achieved as a community with in disaster management training to the people the initiatives that reflects ownership. To of Samiyarpettai has empowered to survive understand community engagement, we need when tidal waves of tsunami struck the village to look through the lens of research orientation. in 2004,Dec. It is defined as “ Community Engagement is the process of working collaboratively with KEYWORDS: Community Engagement, and through groups of people affiliated by Vulnerability, Mitigation. geographic proximity , special interest , or similar situation to address the issues affecting INTRODUCTION the well-being of those people , it is a powerful Thirty five years ago ( Maskey 1984) the paper vehicle for bringing about environmental and on community based hazard mitigation was behavioural changes that will improve the presented in the proceedings of International health of the Community and its members Conference held in OchoRios. The presentation it often involves partnership and coalition gained its significance as engagement of that help to mobilize resources and influence communities has been the key factor to reduce systems , change relationship among partners the risk of the disaster. The paper stresses the and serve as catalyst for changing policies, involvement of community should be regarded programs and practices( CDC 1997) as foremost and inevitable approach to mitigate any life- threatening disaster, Community based approach grounds on Through this paper, we focus to throw light the principle of consultation,involvement, upon ; why the poor rural communities are information and empowerment. Community vulnerably exposed to the natural disaster.? Engagement can be envisaged as multi- There are various characteristics which could dimensional concept that can be identified be deemed as reasons. The vital among the in the above-mentioned perspectives. The different factors which has been indicated; that baseline model for community approach must is inequalities in socio- territorial resources. focus on long term -sustainable engagement. To be more specific and clear the resources To intersect community and engagement, the pertaining to social needs, safety of territorial prime focus must concentrate to reform from living and social infrastructure were not “individuality to inclusivity’. The inclusiveness distributed in the equitable mode. The poor must ensure diversity within any community.

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In building relationships within community spirit, responsiveness towards the mechanism ‘trust’ takes the crucial place for its long term of evacuation , traditional skills and intermixing and successful engagement. Without purposeful with the community. establishment of trustful relationship, bonding In the milieu of coping capacity, it differs from of community may fail, thus leading to the house to house in the existing community. The infractions in the development process of indicator such as promise for employment, community engagement. when they have been evacuated to different Throughout the formal initiation of community habitation, certain household may incline engagement , the channels of communication positively for such policies, whereas on the plays instrumental role in determining the other hand there are households which could definitiveness of trust building. The propensity be non-receptive. of effective communication ensures the long The degree of intermixing among the community term engagement of the community. The most members varies from moderate to poor. In inevitable factor that encounters community connection with the small marine villages engagement could be ‘conflict’ which would which are on the coastal line of the Cuddalore have been ignited by value clashes and district, a study reveals that twenty percent of disagreements , these two dimensions has the household in Madhavapallam habitation proved to be crucial facets of community are willing to take up community responsibility. conflicts. Immediate address to the frictions of In contrast the other coastal villages such as conflict would comprehensively determine the Annappanpettai, Velinganpettai, almost all progress of community building. house holds were considerably willing to engage In the context of community and engaging it as community thereby taking responsibilities constructively in disaster mitigation can be with an ownership attitude to overcome the risk possibly achieved by building their capacities, of natural disaster, such as tsunami. ultimately strengthening its preparedness. In The villagers assemble for informal meetings to such a way gaining the capacity to undertake discuss about risk exposure and design survival localized disaster mitigation mechanism, such as strategies to mitigate disaster. Regarding ensuring accesses to safe land area and availing vulnerability , there is a dynamic phenomenon the service of public works department ensures which is oriented in the aspect of how it is mitigation to avert the risk of disaster. modified in the in the shorter duration. Although In the attempt of engaging communities in , the initiatives of the community is effectual the process of mitigating disaster, the two ,but their predominant expectation lies on the components have to be taken into account. administrative authorities need to interact and First, development of socio-cultural and consult the respective communities before political baseline. The communities which are establishing policies , plans and programs and identified as poor and vulnerable and seek monitoring of the disaster mitigation planning. resolutions to their local problems ,such as The criterion of the community engagement related to the basic standards of living and the can be stabilized through participatory and socio-political risk factors ,also unemployment transparent approaches. Taking these small , poverty , communal clashes and intolerance. marine villages into consideration the majority Second, persuade community participation of the households are assured of source in the government -based disaster mitigation of employment except Annappanpettai and programs. For example: Samiyarpettai – a Samiyarpettai. remote coastal village of Cuddalore district and RANGES OF VULNERABILITY AT THE its community’s active participation in disaster HABITATIONS OF THE COMMUNITY mitigation programs which has enabled the The early warning of disaster for coastal villages village of samiyarpettai to reduce considerable are generally communicated to the community death toll during the tsunami of 2004 Dec., on through various media such as community leaders the other hand which had caused irreparable , television media , over the telephones from damages to many villages of the Indian Ocean. friends and relatives. Predominant members SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF THE of the population have been responsive to the HAZARD PRONE COMMUNITIES early warnings and takes precautionary steps to In the light of socio-economic status the move to the safer places. The habitation area of interaction within the community and other the coastal villages of Cuddalore maximizes its groups reflects to be the underlying element of rescue operations with trained manpower and community based approach. The harmonizing provides shelters sufficiently up to the range of parameter which are highly relevant for twelve habituating villages. identifying the socio-economic factors have The local authorities are capable to provide safe been included,such as : social cohesion ,team drinking waters,emergency first aid assistance,

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 124 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) food grains and kerosene in the event of arrangement responsibilities were taken care disaster . Mock drills are regulated .In the by the respective groups. context of vulnerability index among marine The surrounding villages of Samiayarpettai such villages : Samiyarpettai and Pudupettai found as Puthukuppam, Parangipettai experienced to be in acute level. The study also reveals that heavy death toll . Unlike those villages Samiyarpettai is found to be most vulnerable Samiyarpettai attributed to lower death rate habitation in the year 2010-11. Through ,because of the training imparted on Disaster the sensitization program and disaster risk Management. The folks of the village testified management training offered to the community that training on how to mitigate disaster and ofsamiyarpettai under UNDP -initiatives have natural hazards proved to be highly effective reduced loss of lives ,when tsunami struck in as enhanced the capacity of the community 2004. Samiyarpettai suffered less death toll as to protect the lives from the devastating compared to nearest Pudukkupam which had tsunami,2004 Dec identical size and habituation of Samiyarpettai. This implications only indicates that vulnerability is at lower range when the community is better prepared and equipped in the event of Natural Disaster. 5.Samiyarpettai- a Model village in Mitigating Disaster- Tsunami(2004). Samiyarpettai , a marine village exist at the coastline of of Cuddalore district, Tamil Nadu. It is considered as small village with the habitation of less numbers of households compared to other villages that is surrounded. Although , tsunami which struck Samiyarpettai in 2004 , it could only devastate the Catamarans, fishing boats and the living houses. But the lives of the people were considerably saved from the ferocious tidal waves . There were only less number of death toll which were counted up to 30. The UNDP – funded ( United Nation Development Program) ‘ Disaster management and Mitigation Awareness Program’ organized FIG 1. COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT AND to impart an effective design of the training DISASTER PREPAREDNESS module to the people community of Samiyarpettai. The people’s active involvement CONCLUSION and participation in the training sessions paid The natural disasters are unavoidable , it is not a rich dividends at the time of Tsunami Attack. about that the disaster could be prevented but The villagers took precautionary measures the degree of vulnerability such as loss of lives through the enlightenment received from the and livelihood can be reduced . Considering, Disaster Mitigation Program. the model village that of samiyarpettai , the The community of Samiyarpettai adopted the disaster of tsunami was mitigated through ability in sensing the early signals of the tidal disaster management program . The maximum waves on the previous day. The members of number of death rate were reduced through the community prudently shifted to the safe such “ Disaster Preparedness Initiatives”. zone and other shelters as oriented and trained This paper suggest a constant preparation in the Disaster Mitigation Program. Even the through training on disaster management, in assistant Collector of Cuddalore“Anu George” the process of Community Engagement which pointed out that Cuddalore is one of the seven shall produce effective results in managing the districts among various other districts identified natural hazards as multi-hazard prone zone. Furthermore, through this paper, we efforted to The villagers of Samiayarpettai were envisage the effective community engagement approached to adhere Community Engagement must be locally based and active partnership process, thereby forming several groups which between government authorities and were trained in the context of easy- to -follow communities have proved the effectiveness rescue operations. The other needs like food, of sustainable disaster mitigation. The success provisions , mobile phones and vehicle facility of reducing the risk of disaster at hazard

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prone zones could be evidently possible by establishing Community Engagement process and preparedness training to mitigate the disaster such as Tsunami of 2004 Dec. REFERENCES 1.Principles of Community Engagement: First Edition, Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, CDC/ ATSDR committee on Community Engagement, 1997. 2.Aese.psu.edu/research/centres/CECD/ engagement-tool box/engagement/what is community -engagement. 3.https://www.outlookindia.com/newswire/ story/samiyar-pettai-shows-the-way-for-other- villages/270236 4.Maskrey Andrew (2011) Revisiting community- based disaster risk management, Environmental Hazards, 10:1, 42-52 5.Development of habitation vulnerability assessment framework for coastal hazards: Cuddalore coast in Tamil Nadu, India—A case study S. Saxenaa, V. Geethalakshmib,n, A. Lakshmananb.

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 126 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) 29. IMPACT OF URBANISATION AND ITS EFFECT ON COASTAL COMMUNITIES IN CHENNAI REGION

SAMA A, Ph.D Research Scholar, PG & Research Department of Economics, The New College (Autonomous), [email protected].

Dr. M. ABDUL JAMAL, Assistant Professor & Research Supervisor, PG & Research Department of Economics, The New College (Autonomous), Chennai-600014. [email protected].

ABSTRACT the urban population during pre-independence mpact of Urbanisation in India is the process time was 13.9 percent (1941) which rose to Iresulting into increase in the proportion of 17.3 per cent (1951) after the independence. urban population to the total population in an The rise in urban population during the decades area. The coastline of India is characterised kept growing and by 1991 it reached 40 per by several ecosystems and resources. The cent. This count increased to 28.53% according population in cities is generally increasing to 2001 census, and crossing 30% as per because they provide easy access to ocean, 2011 census, standing at 31.16%. Before the rivers beaches and other natural areas and are independence of the country nearly 15 percent a good source for raw material and food. In people were living in towns, and now their share India, Chennai is the fifth-largest city and 36th- has become more than double. The reasons in largest urban area by population in the world. increase of the urban proportion of the total The Quality of Living Survey rated Chennai as population may be very many, but mainly the the safest coastal city in India. As a growing Indian urbanization is the result of movement metropolitan city in a developing country, of rural population to urban areas. Chennai confronts substantial pollution and The definition of “urban” apart from size and other logistical and socio-economic problems. density specifies that 75 percent of the workforce The objective of the study is to identify the should be engaged in non-agricultural pursuits. environmental pollution hotspots and preparing Hence infrastructure has to be planned not only an environment management plan that includes for the population per se but also according to rehabilitation and mitigation measures. The the requirements of the economic sectors in study draws the importance to maintain a terms of water supply, waste disposal, power, balance between the ecology and economy in telecommunications, etc. The higher density the region to ensure sustainable development. of urban areas is an advantage because it may On the other hand, suggesting the measures provide economies of scale in the provision of to face the problems related to salinity ingress these and other urban services. in land and water resources, depletion and Table 1 degradation of coastal ecosystems and natural Urban Population of Tamil Nadu resources, pollution of resources like sewage intrusion, garbage disposal, etc, which have 2001 2011 Variation impacted on the life and livelihoods of people No. of Districts 30 32 2 in multiple ways. Innovative approaches are needed to regulate the processes of salinisation No. of Sub-Districts 201 215 14 and to manage to live with it since it cannot be No. of Towns 832 1097 265 eliminated.Keywords: Impact of Urbanisation, Coastal Environment, Sustainable Development. No. of Statutory 721 721 0 Towns INTRODUCTION No. of Census 111 376 265 Urbanisation has become a common feature Towns of Indian society. Growth of Industries has No. of Villages 16317 15979 -338 contributed to the growth of cities. As a result of industrialisation people have started moving Table 2 towards the industrial areas in search of employment. This has resulted in the growth Percentage of Urban Population of towns and cities. Urbanisation can also 2001 2011 be defined as a process of concentration of population in a particular territory. In India, 44.04 48.45

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sustainable development. It is a big challenge to Table 3 policy makers to promote economic growth in Overall Urban Population of Tamil Nadu the region along with protecting and promoting the ecology of the region. Persons Rural Urban Total Male 18663701 17495170 36158871 EFFECTS OF URBANISATION ON Female 18525528 17454559 35980087 COASTAL REGION Total 37189229 34949729 72138958 URBAN POPULATION DENSITY: The density of URBAN COASTAL REGION population in urban areas not only reveals the Indian coastal region is highly heterogeneous and concentration of people in urban areas but also very complex. It possesses variety of resources, highlights the structural condition of the town/ habitats and is also very rich in biodiversity, and city. Although density is essentially the quotient can be considered as one of the most productive obtained by division of the population of an ecosystems on the earth. The Indian coastal area by the extent of the area, the resultant region can be divided in three parts namely; figure enables the following trend analyses the western coastal region, the eastern coastal while expressing the average population region and group of Islands. The western coastal density of the area, it also reveals size and class region is generally exposed to heavy surf and distribution of the population. Difference in the rocky shores. The eastern coastal region is density of population from the central area to generally shelving with beaches, lagoons, deltas the settlement fringes. and marshes. GROWTH OF SLUM: Slums are a formidable The coastline of India is characterized by several problem merely because the gap between ecosystems and resources. Such ecosystem is resources and demand for shelter tends to exist characterized by the several economic resources. perpetually. The urban poor by themselves can In coastal districts, large economic activities are neither afford to build pucca house or spare the located. Coastal ecosystem protects the region hard earned money for stay in rented houses from saline winds, cyclones, tsunami, waves etc. with basic amenities. Such people encroach It promotes raw materials for the number of Government and private lands kept vacant. manufacturing activities. The population in cities Many slums are situated in vulnerable locations is generally increasing because they provide like river margins, water logged areas, road easy access to ocean, rivers beaches and other margins, etc. The slum population prefers to live natural areas and are a good source for raw in unhygienic conditions and in areas prone to material and food. In addition, they provide good floods and accidents. It is estimated that more access to jobs, employment, housing and port, than 35 percent of the population of Chennai and access to a wider market etc. The coastal regions more than 25 percent of the urban population where land and water meet are ecologically of the State live in slums. The Tamil Nadu Slum dynamic and sensitive regions, as marine and Clearance Board and Public Works Department coastal ecosystems continuously impact on each have jointly identified 33,313 families living on other. These regions are rich ecologically as river margins and 8164 slum families squatting they are home to a large variety of ecosystems, on the river beds in Chennai. such as mangroves, water bodies, seaweeds URBAN INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION: The high coral reefs, fisheries and other marine life, and influx of population to urban areas, increase in other coastal and marine vegetation. Coastal consumption patterns and unplanned urban and ecosystems protect the region from saline industrial development have led to the problem winds, cyclones, tsunami waves etc, promote of air pollution. The larger industries have a carbon sequestration and promote biodiversity very high aggregate pollution potential. Analysis as well as provide raw materials for a number by CSE exposes steady and rapid increase in of manufacturing activities. Coastal regions are pollution levels, high local impacts and high also attractive for carrying out major economic traces of toxics making its air dangerous to activities such as construction of ports and breathe. Unlike other megacities, Chennai jetties, trade, ship building and ship breaking, represents a different pollution challenge. large export based manufacturing including Its annual average pollution levels though oil refinery and petroleum based industries, lower than other megacities still vary between agriculture, tourism, aquaculture and fisheries moderate to critical. Without the sea breeze etc, all of which are likely to put tremendous in this coastal city, the peaks could have been pressure on the coastal ecology. It is important worse. therefore to maintain a balance between the VEHICULAR EMISSIONS AND CONGESTION: ecology and economy in the region to ensure Vehicles pose a special challenge. In terms of

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 128 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) actual exposure, people are more vulnerable related to salinity ingress in land and water to vehicular fumes while traveling and in close resources, depletion and degradation of coastal proximity to roads. Pollution concentration in ecosystems and natural resources, pollution of our breath is 3-4 times higher than the ambient resources etc, which have impacted on the life air concentration. In densely-populated cities, and livelihoods of people in multiple ways. more than 50-60 percent of the population lives It appears that coastal livelihoods are threatened or works near the roadside where levels are by a number of modern developments taking much higher. The Ministry of Environment and place on the coast. Some of the important Forests show vehicles contribute 14 percent of developments are intensive agriculture, particulate matter and 68 percent of nitrogen aquaculture, mining & quarrying, infrastructure oxides. Some other studies show that 35 percent development, industrial development, of PM2.5 in Chennai comes from vehicles tinier tourism and increasing urbanization. Intensive the particles higher the share of vehicles. A agriculture, encouraged under the green study carried out by scientists of University of revolution has promoted the economic growth Berkeley published in Environmental Science in these regions. However, the green revolution, and Technology in 2012 shows that the exposure which frequently resulted in excessive use to vehicular fumes (in terms of population- of fertilizers, pesticides, improved seeds and weighted intake fraction, or the grams of vehicle irrigation, has affected ecology of coastal areas pollution inhaled per grams of vehicle pollution adversely. Ingression of salinity and alkalinity in emitted) in Chennai (72) is one of the highest in land and water, eutrophication, depletion and cities studied in India – third after Kolkata (150) degradation of ground water etc. are some of and Delhi (100). the adverse effects of intensive agriculture that SEWERAGE:Coastal waters receive a variety did not take adequate care of land and water of land-based water pollutants, ranging from resources. petroleum wastes to pesticides to excess The sustainability of livelihood in agriculture on sediments. Marine waters also receive wastes the one hand and resulted in shortage of potable directly from offshore activities, such as ocean- water supply on the other hand. Aquaculture based dumping (e.g., from ships and offshore oil development is another important development and gas operations). One pollutant in the ocean that has contributed to economic development is sewage. Human sewage largely consists of of this region, particularly in Tamil Nadu. excrement from toilet-flushing; wastewater from Some of the adverse effects are destruction of bathing, laundry, and dishwashing; and animal mangroves; seawater ingression through shrimp and vegetable matter from food preparation farms and overuse of groundwater if shrimp that is disposed through an in-sink garbage plant is dependent on groundwater. These have disposal. The waterways of Chennai are not resulted in exposing the coast to strong winds, perennial in nature and receive flood discharge storms and tsunami waves, affecting adversely only during the monsoon season; the rest of the the safety and security of coastal populations. year these act as carriers of wastewater from Mining and mineral based industries, other sewage treatment plants and others. industries and infrastructural projects like ports SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL: Solid waste is generated and jetties, highways etc on the coast. However, in almost all parts of the urban areas and solid wrong locations and excessive scale of these waste management becomes complicated in activities as well as unsustainable methods of bigger cities. Collection, transportation and disposal of discharges have frequently led to disposal of solid waste are the major operations excessive salinity as well as excessive pollution involved in solid waste management. Everyday of land, air and water resources in this region. 4500 MT of garbage is collected and removed The higher incidence of urbanization, which is a from the city. Night conservancy is being carried consequence of these developments, has once out in all important roads and commercial areas again raised pressure on natural resources and of the city. impacted adversely on coastal livelihoods of people when it is accompanied by unsustainable IMPACTS OF URBANISATION ON use of natural resources. COASTAL COMMUNITIES The impacts on coastal resources, the increased Most coastal states in India have not been able salinity of land and water is an important to maintain this balance between economy impact, as (1) it is widespread covering a large and ecology, with the result that they are number of coastal districts and states, (2) it has facing serious problems with respect to life impacted significantly on coastal livelihoods in and livelihood of coastal population on the one most states and (3) innovative approaches are hand and sustainability of the development on needed to regulate the processes of salinization the other hand. These areas are facing problems and to manage to live with it since it cannot

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 129 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018 be eliminated. There is a need therefore to have increased. Cycle rickshaws have totally have comprehensive view of coastal salinity to vanished from the city, negatively impacting the have a proper understanding of this important last mile connectivity. Significant increase noted phenomenon. This understanding will provide in the share of two wheeler trips followed by car useful insights into the problem, and help in trips. formulating policy and programmes to deal with ● The Chennai Metropolitan Area (CMA) salinity effectively, and to protect and promote covers some 1,189 sq km, of which the city limits livelihood of people in salinity affected areas. are a mere 176 sq km. The sewage generated by ● Chennai’s STPs are all situated at the this gigantic extended area flows into the same far corners of the city. Wastewater is pumped waterways, which get heavily polluted before across the city to these plants located on the they even enter the city limits. outskirts. This would make eminent sense if the ● Chennai Metro Water has had the treated wastewater was reused in nearby areas, advantage of being a public utility which has kept for irrigation or by industries. Instead, the bulk of a reasonably good control over its finances. But the treated and clean wastewater is disposed off its increasing dependence on more expensive into rivers and canals, which traverse the entire water projects will jeopardise this position. Its length of the city (carrying this wastewater) cost of water is increasing and this should be a before flowing into the sea. source of worry for its planners – particularly as it charges high rates from consumers and still FINDINGS AND SOLUTIONS needs huge investments in managing sewage. ● Chennai’s much vaunted sewage ● Chennai had some past experience in treatment infrastructure, its waterways using seawater for drinking. MetroWater built a continue to receive sewage from the colonies battery of reverse osmosis plants in the colonies and industries along their way. In 2000, some along the sea, mostly inhabited by fisherfolk. The 532 MLD of sewage was generated in the basins aim was to provide drinking quality water from a of Chennai’s water bodies. source close to where people live. These plants ● Coastal waters receive a variety of land- are small, built specifically for drinking water of based water pollutants, ranging from petroleum local communities. wastes to pesticides to excess sediments. Marine ● The reuse of sewage and wastewater waters also receive wastes directly from offshore for industrial and even domestic water use is activities, such as ocean-based dumping (e.g., another option worth exploring. Chennai has from ships and offshore oil and gas operations). the distinction of having the country’s first One pollutant in the ocean is sewage. Human recycling project – the city’s sewage was sold sewage largely consists of excrement from toilet- to the Chennai Petroleum Company Limited flushing; wastewater from bathing, laundry, and (CPCL), which in turn used reverse osmosis dishwashing; and animal and vegetable matter technology to filter the sewage and turn it into from food preparation that is disposed through water for its use. This industry found sewage an in-sink garbage disposal more reliable than water and the costs were low ● The waterways of Chennai are not as compared to its use. This approach to turn perennial in nature and receive flood discharge waste into wealth needs to be promoted in this only during the monsoon season; the rest of the city of water stress and scarcity. year these act as carriers of wastewater from ● Centre for Science and Environment sewage treatment plants and others. Everyday checked out the impact of car centric 4500 MT of garbage is collected and removed infrastructure on pollution and carbon emissions from the city. Night conservancy is being carried in a few locations. This is diagnostic. Car centric out in all important roads and commercial areas infrastructure (signal free roads, flyovers and of the city. foot over bridges etc) increases interferes with ● Collection of Municipal Solid Waste walking accessibility, increases travel distances, at source(Door to door collection) has been encourage more motorized travel, and lead to implemented in all Zones. About 95% of the more emissions. households were covered under this programme. ● The population exposed newer This has been achieved only on introduction challenges like ozone, PM2.5 and toxics. It of Tricycles which stands as a wonder tool for should strengthen its monitoring grid, deploy air better collection of MSW at door steps. Now quality forecasting modes, must regularly and about 2800 Tricycles are put in use. This has systematically monitor the health indicators. At resulted in reduction of dust bins on road side. the same time implement an air quality index ● Over the last two decades share of bus, system and health advisory for informing people train and bicycle ridership has dropped drastically about ill effects of poor air quality. in the city. The share of personal vehicles trips ● The standards have been made by the

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 130 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) ministry of urban development to provide ingress in land and water resources, depletion for compact, high density, mixed land use and degradation of coastal ecosystems and development near new or existing public natural resources, pollution of resources like transportation infrastructure that includes sewage intrusion, garbage disposal, etc, which housing, employment, entertainment and civic have impacted on the life and livelihoods of functions within walking distance of transit. people in multiple ways. ● Chennai MetroWater is set to receive Rs REFERENCES 4 crore every year from a United Nations body to 1.Ansari Z. A., Sreepada R. A., Dalal S. G., Ingole B. implement environment-friendly projects. The S. & Chatterji A. (2003) Environmental influences financial incentive is for developing renewable on the trawl catches in a bay-estuarine system of energy sources that offset the use of fossil fuels. Goa, west coast of India. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 56, The water agency would be presented ‘carbon 503–15. credits’ for generating electricity from biogas to 2.Carrying Capacity Based Developmental Planning operate its sewage treatment plants in the city. for Thoothukkudi Town. Directorate of Environment, ● The water supply system of the Government of Tamil Nadu. metropolitan area of Chennai is facing 3.Costanza, R., R. D’Arge, R. de Groot, S. Farber, problems due to high groundwater abstraction M. Grasso, B. Hannon, K. Limburg, S. Naeem, R. V. and progressing salt water intrusion. To O’Neill, J. Paruelo, R. G. Raskin, P. Sutton, and M. Van increase groundwater recharge, several check den Belt. 1997. The value of the world’s ecosystem dams have been constructed in this area. A services and nature capital. Nature 387:253-260. supporting analysis and planning tool has been 4.Dr. B. Sengupta ( December 2001 ) Vehicular developed for long-term analysis of managed Pollution Control in India. Technical & Non-Technical aquifer recharge measures. An increase in Measure Policy. groundwater levels was verified, but a reduction 5.Ducci, M. E. (ed.). 1995. Introducción al urbanismo. of the current abstraction rate is necessary Conceptos básicos. México, D.F.: Editorial Trillas. 94 for a sustainable management of the water pp. resources. 6.Eco-City plan for Kancheepuram Town, Directorate ● The declining levels of ground water of Environment, Government of Tamil Nadu. indicates that many of the rain water catchments 7.Economic Appraisal (2003-04, 2004-05) Evaluation are in degraded state and their holding and Applied Research Department, Government of capacities have been reduced considerably Tamil Nadu. due to factors like siltation, encroachments, 8.Gallardo, M. 1997. Cambio Climático Global. Tesis conversion of rain water holding structures for doctoral, Universidad de Concepción, Centro Eula- other uses, etc. It is therefore necessary that Chile, Chile. 27 pp. this dangerous trend of degeneration is halted 9.INEGI (Instituto Nacional de Estadística Geografía e and immediate remedial measures should be Informática). 2000. XII Censo General de Poblacióny undertaken. Vivienda. Tabulados Básicos. Aguascalientes, CONCLUSION Aguascalientes, México: Instituto Nacional de The study has brought out the factors that Estadística Geografía e Informática. draws the importance to maintain a balance 10.Jiménez, S., H. Worbis, M. Cervantes, and J. between the ecology and economy in the Reynoso. 2001. Plan Parcial de Ordenamiento region to ensure sustainable development Ecológico del Puerto Industrial de Altamira, Tamps. and has highlighted the effects and the Informe Técnico Final. Altamira, Tamaulipas, México: pressure of population, dependence of coastal Administración Portuaria Integral de Altamira. 324 communities, sewerage mixing with the river pp. water bodies and how polluted water reaches 11.Palacio, J. L., G.Bocco, A.Velásquez, J. F. Mas, F. the sea. This study emphasizes to identify Takaki, A. Victoria, L. Luna, G. Gómez, J. López, M. the environmental pollution hotspots and Palma, I. Trejo, A. Peralta, J. Prado, A. Rodríguez, R. preparing an environment management plan Mayorga and F. González. 2000. La condición actual that includes rehabilitation and mitigation de los recursos forestales en México: resultados del measures. Urbanisation has its own merits inventario forestal nacional. Boletín del Instituto de and demerits. Urbanization can’t be avoided. Geografía, UNAM 43:183-203. But the negative effect of urbanization can 12.Pethick J. (1984) An Introduction to Coastal be minimised. The Government proposes Geomorphology. E. Arnold, London. to enlist the participation of the Public and 13.Sanjay Rode (2011) Urbanisation and Livelihood Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) in in Coastal India. propagating and installing rainwater-harvesting 14.State of Environment Report (2001) Government structures. The study has suggested the of India. measures to face the problems related to salinity

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30. CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS IMPACTS ON MARINE FISHERIES LIVELIHOOD – A SPECIAL VIEW ON ERIPURAKARAI VILLAGE M.SANTHANARAJ, Assistant Professor of Economics, Raja Serfoji Govt. College (Autonomous)Thanjavur-5. in Pattukkottai Taluk of Thanjavur district in ABSTRACT Tamil Nadu, India. It is situated 14km away from ripurakarai is a large village located in sub-district headquarter Pattukkottai and 61km EPattukkottai Taluk of Thanjavur district, away from district headquarter Thanjavur. As per Tamil Nadu with total 995 families residing. The 2009 stats, Eripurakkarai is the gram panchayat Eripurakarai village has population of 4285 of of Eripurakarai village. The total geographical which 2047 are males while 2238 are females area of village is 829.27 hectares. Eripurakarai as per Population Census 2011. In Eripurakarai has a total population of 4,285 peoples. village population of children with age 0-6 is There are about 995 houses in Eripurakarai 554 which makes up 12.93 % of total population village. Adiramapattinam is nearest town to of village. Average Sex Ratio of Eripurakarai Eripurakarai. There are 105 craft owners in village is 1093 which is higher than Tamil Nadu Eripurakarai. The craft owners comprise of two state average of 996. Child Sex Ratio for the categories viz., mechanized boat owners and Eripurakarai as per census is 1037, higher than country boat owners. Out of 105 craft owners Tamil Nadu average of 943. Eripurakarai village there are 85 mechanized boat owners and 20 has lower literacy rate compared to Tamil Nadu. country boat owners. In Eripurakarai there are In 2011, literacy rate of Eripurakarai village 250 middlemen. The middlemen comprise two was 74.51 % compared to 80.09 % of Tamil categories namely wholesaler and retailer out Nadu. In Eripurakarai Male literacy stands at of 250 middlemen there are 50 wholesalers and 82.59 % while female literacy rate was 67.18. 200 retailers. The socio-economic condition of In Eripurakarai village out of total population, fishermen families in the study area is analyzed in 1548 were engaged in work activities. 95.54 % the project. 50 fishermen are chosen at random of workers describe their work as Marine Work for this study. These socio-economic conditions (Employment or Earning more than 6 Months) of their families are analyzed and focused in this while 4.46 % were involved in Marginal activity study. providing livelihood for less than 6 months. Of INTRODUCTION 1548 workers engaged in Main Work, 12 were According to Census 2011 information the cultivators (owner or co-owner) while 300 were location code or village code of Eripurakarai Agricultural labourers. village is 614701. Eripurakarai village is located The Marine Education Trust has produced a new in Pattukkottai Taluk of Thanjavur district in education pack called Explore the Sea, which Tamil Nadu, India. It is situated 14km away from is a series of resources for young people that sub-district headquarter Pattukkottai and 61km is intended to be very practical and hands-on away from district headquarter Thanjavur. As per while not requiring a great deal of additional 2009 stats, Eripurakkarai is the gram panchayat equipment or materials. It’s not meant to be a of Eripurakarai village. The total geographical course, just ideas that can be mixed, matched area of village is 829.27 hectares. Eripurakarai and adapted depending on what individual has a total population of 4,285 peoples. organization need at the time. Explore the Sea There are about 995 houses in Eripurakarai is a resource pack containing a series of practical village. Adiramapattinam is nearest town to activities to teach young people about the Eripurakarai. There are 105 craft owners in different habitats, marine life and environmental Eripurakarai. The craft owners comprise of two pressures affecting tropical coral reef ecosystems. categories viz., mechanized boat owners and It is arranged in seven topic areas that cover country boat owners. Out of 105 craft owners five particular ecosystems (reefs and lagoons, there are 85 mechanized boat owners and 20 sandy beaches, rocky shores, mangroves and country boat owners. In Eripurakarai there are the open ocean) as well as introducing general 250 middlemen. The middlemen comprise two ecological concepts and highlighting important categories namely wholesaler and retailer out conservation concerns. of 250 middlemen there are 50 wholesalers and According to Census 2011 information the 200 retailers. The socio-economic condition of location code or village code of Eripurakarai fishermen families in the study area is analyzed in village is 614701. Eripurakarai village is located the project. 50 fishermen are chosen at random

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 132 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) for this study. These socio-economic conditions rate was 67.18 %. As per constitution of India of their families are analyzed and focused in and Panchyat Raj Act, Eripurakarai village is this paper. administrated by Sarpanch (Head of Village) The Thanjavur District lies between Bay of who is elected representative of village. Our Bengal in East, Trichy district in the west, website, don’t have information about schools Pudukkottai District and Palk straight in the and hospital in Eripurakarai village. South and Arcot District in the North. WORK PROFILE Thanjavur is the headquarters of the district. Nagapattinam district is one of the fishing Worker Main Marginal Non Worker harbors in Tamil Nadu. (Among total Worker Worker (Among OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY population) (Among (Among total 1.To study whether the mechanized boat workers) workers) population) owners are high in numbers. 2.To examine the educational background of Total 36.1% 34.5% 1.6% 63.9% the fishermen households in the study village. Male 54% 52.7% 1.3% 46% 3.To study the income and expenditure of the Female 19.7% 17.9% 1.9% 80.3% fishermen families in Eripurakarai. In Eripurakarai village out of total population, HYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDY 1548 were engaged in work activities. 95.54 % 1.Number of mechanized boat owners is higher of workers describe their work as Marine Work than the traditional boat owners. (Employment or Earning more than 6 Months) 2.Educational background of the fishermen is while 4.46 % were involved in Marginal activity poor in the study area. providing livelihood for less than 6 months. Of When the Income increases the expenditure 1548 workers engaged in Marine Work, 12 were also increases in the study area. Population of cultivators (owner or co-owner) while 300 were ERIPURAKARAI Agricultural labourers. Total Population - 4,285 ERIPURAKARAI VILLAGE Male Population - 2,047 Female Population - 2,238 Total General Schedule Child CONNECTIVITY OF ERIPURAKARAI Tribe Total 4,285 3,192 1,093 0 Type Status Male 2,047 1,526 521 0 Public Bus Service Available within <5 Female 2,238 1,666 572 0 km distance Private Bus Service Available within < 5 THE PURPOSE OF STUDY km distance The Marine Education Trust has produced a Railway Station Available within 500 new education pack called Explore the Sea, metre distance which is a series of resources for young people that is intended to be very practical and hands- ERIPURAKARAI – POPULATION on while not requiring a great deal of additional equipment or materials. It’s not meant to be a Eripurakarai is a large village located in course, just ideas that can be mixed, matched Pattukkottai Taluk of Thanjavur district, Tamil and adapted depending on what individual Nadu with total 995 families residing. The organization need at the time. Explore the Eripurakarai village has population of 4285 of Sea is a resource pack containing a series which 2047 are males while 2238 are females of practical activities to teach young people as per Population Census 2011. about the different habitats, marine life and In Eripurakarai village population of children environmental pressures affecting tropical coral with age 0-6 is 554 which makes up 12.93 % of reef ecosystems. It is arranged in seven topic total population of village. Average Sex Ratio areas that cover five particular ecosystems of Eripurakarai village is 1093 which is higher (reefs and lagoons, sandy beaches, rocky than Tamil Nadu state average of 996. Child shores, mangroves and the open ocean) as well Sex Ratio for the Eripurakarai as per census is as introducing general ecological concepts and 1037, higher than Tamil Nadu average of 943. highlighting important conservation concerns. Eripurakarai village has lower literacy rate The pack contains Educators’ Notes, which compared to Tamil Nadu. In 2011, literacy rate provide background information about the of Eripurakarai village was 74.51 % compared different subject areas, and Student Sheets, to 80.09 % of Tamil Nadu. In Eripurakarai Male which provide instructions for the activities. literacy stands at 82.59 % while female literacy The activities range from art and science to

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role plays, and are designed to be an ideas base resources is through the creation of a Marine rather than a comprehensive ecology course to Protected Area. follow. They are intended to be flexible – an HUMAN PRESSURE ON ENVIRONMENT activity suggested for one topic can easily be Human pressure on the marine environment adapted for another – and should be appropriate has brought several species to the edge of for formal or informal education settings. extinction. Their numbers have declined mainly as a result of fishing, which either targets the MANAGING THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT animals directly or catches them accidently Managing the marine environment can be a when pursuing different species. Their survival real challenge for politicians, as there are so is also threatened by the loss of their habitats many conflicting arguments about how seas and – the places where they feed and shelter and coasts should be used. The scientific evidence where their young develop. Endangered marine clearly shows that we need to use our oceans species include turtles, whales, sharks and more sustainably: if we don’t try to conserve blue fin tuna. Our oceans, lagoons and shores marine species and habitats now, there will be have always provided a very wide range of little left for the future. In this activity, you will different foods. Some of these foods remain put yourselves in the shoes of people involved very popular, like octopus curry in Mauritius, but in making decisions about marine resource sometimes people forget about the old ways. management. The scenario Lamorelle is a We must be very careful to exploit our resources remote tropical island in the Indian Ocean. It is a sustainably so that they can still be used by small island, 12 miles long and 5 miles wide. The future generations. One way to do this is to use island is mountainous and rocky and is difficult lots of different species for food instead of just to farm. Tobacco, coffee, limes and onions are a few. There have been great changes in recent grown to some extent. The weather is sub- years in the availability of preserved foods, in tropical with occasional cyclones during the refrigeration and in transport. With all these summer. However, water is very short due to changes sometimes old traditional recipes and poor collection and storage facilities. There are ways of using foods collected from the beach or connecting flights to a nearby larger island twice lagoon can be lost. a day and a ship that comes once a fortnight IMPACT ON FISHING COMMUNITIES with essential supplies. The island has many Coastal and fishing populations and countries beautiful beaches which have so far not been dependent on fisheries are particularly developed. Three hotels have been built on the vulnerable to climate change. Low-lying countries island, but room occupancy is low. Since the such as the Maldives and Tuvalu are particularly island was first permanently settled in 1742, the vulnerable and entire communities may become islanders have relied to a large extent on the sea the first climate refugees. Fishing communities and lagoon for their subsistence and livelihood. in Bangladesh are subject not only to sea-level As the population grew during the 18th and rise, but also flooding and increased typhoons. 19th centuries several large fishing operations Fishing communities along the Mekong river established themselves on the island and caught produce over 1 million tons of basa fish annually large quantities of fish that they exported to the and livelihoods and fish production will suffer mainland. Now, many of the stocks have been from saltwater intrusion resulting from rising fished out. The island was once rich in forest, sea level and dams but this was cut down by colonial navies on their While climate change increases the effects of way to the Spice Islands. Lack of vegetation has human activities, the inverse is also applicable. caused a large build up of silt and mud in the Human activities also increase the impact of lagoon. The lagoon has been under increasing climate change. Human activity has been linked pressure recently. Silt has run off into the lagoon to lake nutrition levels, which high levels are and smothered many corals. The lack of fish has correlated to increasing vulnerability to climate led many women to start collecting octopus on change. Lake Annecy, Lake Geneva, and Lake foot, at the same time crushing corals. A new Bourget were subject to experiments related Government has just been elected with a bold to their zooplankton. Lake Geneva and Lake new Chief Commissioner. He is keen to tackle Bourget had relatively high levels of nutrients and decades of poor and inadequate management responded at a significant level towards factors to ensure that fish stocks and the marine related to climate change, such as weather environment can be sustainably managed. He variability. Lake Annecy had the lowest amount is also keen to ensure that there is a better of nutrition levels and responded comparatively economy on the island with more tourists and poorly. Fisheries and aquaculture contribute agriculture. In particular, the Government has significantly to food security and livelihoods. Fish been advised that the best way of managing provides essential nutrition for 3 billion people

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 134 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) and at least 50% of animal protein and minerals diversifying economic activities. Algal biofuels to 400 million people from the poorest also show potential as algae can produce 15- countries. This food security is threatened 300 times more oil per acre than conventional by climate change and the increasing world crops, such as rapeseed, soybeans, or jatropha population. Climate change changes several and marine algae do not require scarce parameters of the fishing population: freshwater. availability, stability, access, and utilization. OVER-FISHING The specific effects of climate change on these Although there is a decline of fisheries due to parameters will vary widely depending on the climate change, a related cause for this decrease characteristics of the area, with some areas is due to over-fishing. Over-fishing exacerbates benefiting from the shift in trends and some the effects of climate change by creating areas being harmed based on the factors of conditions that make a fishing population more exposure, sensitivity, and ability to respond sensitive to environmental changes. Studies to said changes.The lack of oxygen in warmer show that the state of the ocean is causing waters will possibly lead to the extinction of fisheries to collapse, and in areas where aquatic animals Worldwide food security may fisheries have not yet collapsed, the amount of not change significantly, however rural and over-fishing that is done is having a significant poor populations would be disproportionately impact on the industry. Over-fishing is due to and negatively affected based on this criteria, having access to the open sea, it makes it very as they lack the resources and manpower easy for people to over fish, even if it is just for to rapidly change their infrastructure and fun. There is also a high demand for sea food adapt. Over 500 million people in developing by fishermen, as well modern technology that countries depend, directly or indirectly, on has increased the amount of fish caught during fisheries and aquaculture for their livelihoods - each trip. If there was a specific amount of aquaculture is the world’s fastest growing food fish that people were allowed to catch then production system, growing at 7% annually this could very well solve the problem of over and fish products are among the most widely fishing. This type of limit system is in place in a traded foods, with more than 37% (by volume) few countries including New Zealand, Norway, of world production traded internationally. Canada, and the United States. In these ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION countries the limit system has successfully The impacts of climate change can be addressed helped in fishing industries. These types of limit through adaptation and mitigation. The costs systems are called Individual fishing quota. This and benefits of adaptation are essentially local means that the areas where this quota exist, or national, while the costs of mitigation are the government has legal entity over it and in essentially national whereas the benefits are these boundaries they are entitled to utilize global. Some activities generate both mitigation their ocean resources as they wish. and adaptation benefits. Adaptation Several SUGGESTIONS international agencies, including the World Bank There is a conservation issue called ‘shifting and the Food and Agriculture Organization have environmental base lines’. This refers to the programs to help countries and communities situation where each generation thinks that adapt to global warming, for example by what is familiar to it is the natural state of the developing policies to improve the resilience of environment. In failing to take account of the natural resources, through assessments of risk experience of older people, we can miss the big and vulnerability, by increasing awareness of picture and fail to appreciate the seriousness of climate change impacts and strengthening key environmental change. For this activity, you will institutions, such as for weather forecasting and be a fisheries scientist and do some research early warning systems. The World Development to record fishers’ recollections of their catches Report 2010 - Development and Climate in the past compared to those now. Talk to Change, shows that reducing overcapacity in different fishermen (and women). Try to find fishing fleets and rebuilding fish stocks can the oldest fishermen you can, as well as some both improve resilience to climate change younger ones who have just started, and some and increase economic returns from marine in between. Write down the fisherman’s age, capture fisheries by US$50 billion per year, and ask him about his catches. Ask what year while also reducing GHG emissions by fishing he first started fishing, and then ask about the fleets. Consequently, removal of subsidies on type of fish he caught, where he found them, fuel for fishing can have a double benefit by and how big his catches were. Then ask the reducing emissions and overfishing. Investment same questions about the situation now. Make in sustainable aquaculture can buffer water a list of all the different sea foods that you have use in agriculture while producing food and eaten Talk to your parents and grandparents

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about the different sorts of seafood they used to eat. It might help to show them a book and get them to point things out Ask in particular how they used to cook them. CONCLUSION Eripurakkarai is the gram panchayat of Eripurakarai village. The total geographical area of village is 829.27 hectares. Eripurakarai has a total population of 4,285 peoples. There are about 995 houses in Eripurakarai village. Adiramapattinam is nearest town to Eripurakarai. There are 105 craft owners in Eripurakarai. The craft owners comprise of two categories viz., mechanized boat owners and country boat owners. Out of 105 craft owners there are 85 mechanized boat owners and 20 country boat owners. In Eripurakarai there are 250 middlemen. The middlemen comprise two categories namely wholesaler and retailer out of 250 middlemen there are 50 wholesalers and 200 retailers. The socio-economic condition of fishermen families in the study area is analyzed in the project. 50 fishermen are chosen at random for this study. These socio-economic conditions of their families are analyzed and focused in this study. REFERENCES 1.Sarwar G.M.: “Impacts of Sea Level Rise on the Coastal Zone of Bangladesh” – 2013. 2.Doney, S. C.:“The Dangers of Ocean Acidification” - 2006. 3.Cheung, W.W :”Redistribution of Fish Catch by Climate Change. A Summary of a New Scientific Analysis” - 2011 4.Vincent, Warwick : “Climate Impacts on Arctic Freshwater Ecosystems and Fisheries: Background, Rationale and Approach of the Arctic Climate Impact Assessment (ACIA)” - 2017. 5.S. Sreenivasan Rao : “An Overview of the Marine fish marketing in India “ (1982) pp 5-12 6.R. Sathiya Das “Comparative Economic Efficiency of Sail Boats Operating different gears in Tamil Nadu” (1989) Pp 8-16 7.R. Sathiya Das “Production and Marketing Management of Marine : Fisheries in India” (1997) p-1 JOURNALS & REPORTS 8.Krishnarajan V: “Sub-sector analysis-Mechanisation of marine. 9.Shahjahan, K.M”Deep Sea Fishing Policy, A Critique Economic and Political Weekly”(1966) pp-263.

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 136 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) 31. ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS AND ITS IMPACT ON HUMAN HEALTH – A STUDY PROF. Dr. V.N. PARTHIBAN, Ph.D., FCMA, FCS, FIII, FIIMM, C.A.(I),CFA, CPA, LLM, ML,MBA, MBL, MS., Associate Professor and HOD, Department of Commerce, Rama Krishna Mission Vivekananda College (Govt. aided) (Autonomous), Mylapore, Chennai-600 004.

ABSTRACT of the gas leak disaster in Bhopal, Madhya n the name of progress or growth of industries, Pradesh. Earlier, the fair world had witnessed Ithe business community has encouraged the during the world war, the droppings of atom coming up of the various industries using all sorts bombs. Today we have biological and chemical of chemicals mainly causing health problems to weapons that can destroy the whole world in a the human society. If any sensitive person raises fraction of a second. Not only the world gets any question about the health hazards that the destroyed but there will be a great vacuum on science has brought in, the Government responds the earth. Another important problem which the by various legislations, rules and regulations, world faces today is the health problems faced guidelines and claims that these laws and rules by majority of the people due to malnutrition would control and protect the health of the or spurious food stuff or irregular food habits people. In this context, it should be emphasised of the people and mainly due to unauthorised here that every State in India is responsible for manufacturing of dangerous medicines. The assuring and guaranteeing hygienic atmosphere report shows that there has been a steady and provide healthy environment for its citizens. growth of cancer among the people in the Indiscriminate permissions to start polluting world today. It is quite strange that the medical industries, not maintaining properly the scientists have miserably failed to identify the sewerage system, disposal of solid waste, lack causes and cure for cancer. . of facilities for storing the rain waters, disposal The ordinary people attribute this disease to of waste and effluent, improper maintenance the sins committed by them in earlier birth, of rural lanes, bye-lanes and thickly populated subject to earlier birth being in doubt. There urban areas are main reasons for creating is what we call ‘frustration amalgamated’ in health problem among the people. To make the world today, due to the conglomeration of their living free from health hazards and create pollution. The term pollution may be defined a peaceful atmosphere and thereby making our as contamination of the environment in such a living peaceful and pleasurable and not painful way that it creates hazards or potential hazards and dreary. The Government must take it as its to health and wellbeing of living and non- onerous responsibility by plucking into action living. Since the expression “Pollution” is not rather than suggesting and taking without any defined legally, therefore a working definition practicable applicability. Serious steps should is accepted. According to the U.S. President’s be taken, we cannot depend only on the law Science Advisory Commission, “Pollution is the and State. People must come forward to help unfavourable alteration of our surroundings, the Government. Let us unite to make our lives through direct or indirect effects of changes safe and peaceful by keeping our streets clean, in energy patterns, radiation levels, chemical atmosphere unpolluted so that health hazards and physical constitution and abundances of can completely be prevented. organisms.” KEYWORDS: Environment; Health problems; ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDSAND ITS IMPACT Environmental hazards; Atmosphere; In the name of progress or growth of industries, Government the business community has encouraged the INTRODUCTION coming up of the various industries using The enormous growth in population at world all sorts of chemicals mainly causing health level has brought in several problems to the problems to the human society. For instance, Governments of various countries. There was the pesticides used in agriculture something go a time when there was no use for the term into food chain or in water bodies and as such ‘pollution’. The air was pure, the water was results in harmful health hazards. God (if there clear, the farm was green, and the sky was is one) in all His generosity of mind and liberality blue. But all these have changed today. This of sentiment has created a world and the people is mainly due to chemical, biological, physical perfect, clear, healthy and beneficial. But how and environmental pollution. Very recently, our man has repaid the God or nature. At the initial country experienced very serious consequences

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 137 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018 level, we have started questioning the existence dreary. The Government must take it as its of God and we have successfully destroyed onerous responsibility by plucking into action every creation of god namely, the clear blue sky, rather than suggesting and taking without any the green earth, laughing and rippling water, practicable applicability. The people pay property fascinating flowers, extremely beautiful forms tax, corporation tax and so many other related of Nature and we have called it the progress of taxes. Yet no action is being taken particularly human society. If any sensitive person raises in the tackling mosquito menace, unhygienic any question about the health hazards that the water, keeping the city clean free from misuse science has brought in, the Government responds of any park by disgraceand anti-social elements. by various legislations, rules and regulations, One can see every day that most of the parks guidelines and claims that these laws and rules are not properly maintained and some of these would control and protect the health of the parks have become den for anti-social elements people. In this context, it should be emphasised like drunkards, gamblers etc. Serious steps here that every State in India is responsible for should be taken, we cannot depend only on the assuring and guaranteeing hygienic atmosphere law and State. People must come forward to help and provide healthy environment for its citizens. the Government. Let us unite to make our lives Indiscriminate permissions to start polluting safe and peaceful by keeping our streets clean, industries, not maintaining properly the atmosphere unpolluted so that health hazards sewerage system, disposal of solid waste, lack can completely be prevented. of facilities for storing the rain waters, disposal of waste and effluent, improper maintenance REFERENCES of rural lanes, bye-lanes and thickly populated 1.Brij Kishore Sharma, “Introduction to the urban areas are main reasons for creating health Constitution of India”, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. problem among the people. Ltd, New Delhi (2004). 2.Dr. Amod S. Tilak, “Environmental Law” Show LEGAL REGULATIONS IN REGARD TO white Publication Pvt Ltd., Mumbai, (2009). ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS 3.Dr. Sukanta K. Nanda, “Environmental Law”, All over the world concern has been shown to Central Law Publications, Allahabad (2009). combat ever-growing menace of environmental 4.Dr. Tiwari, H.N., “Environmental Law”,Allahabad hazards and the need to protect human health. Agency, Faridabad (2008). The important objective of the environmental 5.Dr. Vinay N. Paranjape, “Environmental Law”, law is to take appropriate steps for the protection Central Law Agency, Allahabad (2013). and improvement of both natural and human 6.Jaswal, P.S. and Nishtha Jaswal, “Environmental environment. It also aims to prevent any Law”, Pioneer Publication, Delhi, (2000). environmental hazards to human being, other 7.Jhingan, M.L., and Chandar K. living creatures, plants and property. Due to the Sharma“Environmental Economics Theory, decline in the environmental quality, an increase Management and Policy”, Vrinda Publications in pollution, loss of vegetal cover and biological (P) Ltd., Delhi, (2008). diversity, excessive concentration of harmful 8.Shyam Divan and Armin Rosencranz, chemicals in the ambient atmosphere and in “Environmental law and policy in India”, Oxford the food chain. Thus, there is a growing risk of University Press, (2001). environmental degradation and accidents, and 9.Tripathi, S.C., “Environmental Law”, Central threats to all the life support system. The existing Law Publications, Delhi, (2008). legislations relating to environmental hazards are not adequate, especially on new chemicals. CONCLUSION It is advised that the civic problems must be given much importance by forming groups in every locality with the citizens in the locality as members of group and suggest to the authorities the ways and reasons of keeping the city, street and State free from any kind of health hazardous and create awareness among the people that they should also involve themselves in these important social activity. To make their living free from health hazards and create a peaceful atmosphere and thereby making our living peaceful and pleasurable and not painful and

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 138 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) 32. IMPACT OF AIR POLLUTION AMONG LABOURS IN CHIDAMBARAM BLOCK Dr.S.INDRADEVI, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Economics, DGGA College for Women, Mayiladuthurai.

ABSTRACT where coal is widely used not only for industrial, ir pollution stems gases and air borne but also for domestic consumption. For instance Aparticles which, in excess, are harmful to in china, more than 70 per cent of total energy human health, buildings and ecosystems. Air consumption relies on direct coal combustion, pollution in developing countries is derived not from which large amounts of pollutants only from stack emission of pollutants from (Suspended particulates, Sulphur dioxide, etc) relatively large industries, where inadequate are emitted under incomplete combustion and pollution control measures exist and pollutants inadequate emission controls. are allowed to escape to atmosphere. The kind STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM of air pollution emitted vary from industry vary The kind of air pollution emitted vary from from industry to another, the concentrations of industry vary from industry to another, the different pollutants in the atmosphere also vary concentrations of different pollutants in the widely from process to process, and from place atmosphere also vary widely from process to to place with different geographic and climatic process, and from place to place with different conditions.. In general, the workplace exposure geographic and climatic conditions. It is difficult levels are much higher than that the general to estimate specific exposure levels of various population, because the emissions are rapidly pollutants from different industries to the diluted and dispersed by the wind. But the general population in developing countries, as exposure duration of the general population is elsewhere. In general, the workplace exposure much longer than that of workers. Air pollution levels are much higher than that the general is the presence of substances in air in sufficient population, because the emissions are rapidly concentration and for sufficient time, so as to be, diluted and dispersed by the wind. But the or threaten to be injurious to human, plant or exposure duration of the general population is animal life, or to property, or which reasonably much longer than that of workers. interferes with the comfortable enjoyment of AIR POLLUTION AND HUMAN HEALTH life and property. Air pollutants arise from both Air pollution occurs when suspending particular manmade and natural processes. Air pollutants matter and noxious gases occur in the the air arise from both manmade and natural processes. .Smoke, ash and dust are major constituents of Air pollution has been considered as the one of (Spm) sulphur and nitrogen based compound types of pollution which causes different disease (S02,N02) and carbon monoxide, carbon in various labourers in Chidambaram Block and dioxide is the main constituent of noxious this leads to increase the expenditure of sample fumes in the air. Among industrial activities respondents on their health care. In this context thermal power stations top list of air polluters the researcher taken this title. due to the high amount of discharge of smokes INTRODUCTION and ash .Chemical and fertilizer plants are also The term “air pollution” is used to describe responsible for letting noxious substances in air substances that are artificially introduced into during production. Air pollution in India the air. Air pollution stems gases and air borne is serious issue with major sources being fuel particles which, in excess, are harmful to human wood and biomass burning, fuel adulteration, health, buildings and ecosystems. Air pollution vehicle emissions and traffic congestion. in developing countries is derived not only from NEED FOR THE STUDY stack emission of pollutants from relatively Air pollution is the presence of substances in large industries, like iron and steel, non-ferrous air in sufficient concentration and for sufficient metals and petroleum products industries, time, so as to be, or threaten to be injurious but also from fugitive emission of pollutants to human, plant or animal life, or to property, from small scale factories, such as cement or which reasonably interferes with the mills, lead refineries, chemical fertilizer and comfortable enjoyment of life and property. pesticide factories and so on, where inadequate Air pollutants arise from both manmade and pollution control measures exist and pollutants natural processes. Air pollutants arise from both are allowed to escape to atmosphere. Since manmade and natural processes. Pollutants industrial activities always involve energy are also defined as primary pollutants resulting generation, the combustion of fuels is a main from combustion of fuels and industrial source of air pollution in developing countries, operations and secondary pollutants, those

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which are produced due to reaction of primary of sulphur; oxide of sulphur causes erosion of pollutants in the atmosphere. The ambient air building materials such as limestone, marble, quality may be defined by the concentration of mortar and deterioration of statues. Nitrous and a set of pollutants which may be present in the Nitric acids formed by the activity of Nitrogen ambient air we breathe in. These pollutants may oxides. Precipitate down in the form of acid be called criteria pollutants. Emission standards rains or may remain i the atmosphere in clouds express the allowable concentrations of a and fogs. Acid rains have an erosive action on contaminant at the point of discharge before any metal surfaces and caused fading of textiles mixing with the surrounding air. and deterioration of fabrics. It also corrodes SOURCE OF AIR POLLUTION building, monuments, bridges, railings, etc. Air pollution enter into the atmosphere by H2S decolorizes silver and lead paints. Ozone various natural and man-made activities Such damages textiles discolours dyes and accelerates as dust storm, volcanic eruptions, industrial dyes as whereas rubber cracking pollution etc. They may be present in any form AIR POLLUTION PREVENTION viz. solid, liquid and gas. Based on the mode Solution efforts on pollution are always abig of generation of pollutants, the sources are problem. This is why prevention interventions are classified as (i) Natural sources pollution are always a better way of controlling air pollution. forest fires, volcanic eruptions, dust storms These prevention methods can be either come and pollen grains (ii) Man-made sources are from government (laws) or by individual actions. domestic, industrial, vehicular pollutions. Government actions Based on the origin of pollutants are classified →→ Governments throughout the world have as (i) Primary pollutants, and (ii) Secondary already taken action against air pollution by pollutants. Tthe chemical composition of introducing green energy. Some government are pollutants. They are classified as (i) Organic and investing in wind energy and solar energy, as well (ii) Inorganic pollutants. as other renewable energy, to minimise burning EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON of fossil fuels which cause heavy air pollution HUMAN BEINGS →→ Governments also are forcing companies Air pollution has many effects on health of to be more responsible with their manufacturing persons of all categories particles including activities, so that even though they still cause nitrates, sulphates, carbon and acid aerosols are pollution, they are a lot controlled. complex group of pollutions. Airborne particles →→ Companies also building more energy vary in size and composition depending on efficient cars which pollute less than before. time and location. Adults exposed to low levels Individual Actions of pollution will experience symptoms such as →→ Encourage your family to use the bus, coughing, soreness in their chests, sore throats train or bike when commuting. If we all do this, and sometimes headaches. they will be fewer cars on road and less fumes. Effects of Air Pollution on Plants →→ Use energy (light, water, boiler, kettle and The response of plants to air pollutants is variable fire woods) wisely. This is because lots of fossil and depends on the individual genotype, age, fuels are burned to generate electricity, and so if stage of growth, proximity and concentration of we can cut down the use; we will also cut down pollutants and duration of them on the slaught. the amount of pollution we create. It affects the opening of stomata photosynthesis, →→ Recycle and re-use things. This will water relations, respiration and enzyme system. minimise the dependence of producing new EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON things. Remember manufacturing industries ANIMALS create a lot of pollution, so if we can re-use The effects of air pollution on domestic animals things like shopping plastic bags clothing, paper are similar to those observed in humans. Chronic and bottles it can help. poisoning results from the ingestion of forage OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY contaminated with atmosphere pollutants. 1.To study the expenditure pattern of Labourers Among the metallic contaminants, arsenic, lead on their health care due to air pollution and molybdenum are important. When the 2.To examine the impact of air pollution of the forage crops contaminated by fluoride containing study population. materials are eaten continuously in live stocks 3.To study the awareness of labours to control symptoms of fluorisis appear. on air pollution EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON 4.To suggest some policy measures to control air MATERIALS pollution in the labours. Air pollution also causes damage to property RESEARCH METHODOLOGY and materials. The pollutants most destructive The present study is carried out in Chidambaram to materials are smoke, girt, and dust and Oxide Town. The study uses the primary data collection

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 140 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) from various labourers (120) such as street vendors, scavengers, stall worker, are selected Table -2 Cost of Health Care and stratified random sample method were Cost of Male Female adopted to identify the sample population. A Health Care well structured questionnaire is used to collect the primary data relating to impact of air Physician pollution on human health. Maximum 500 1500 TECHNIQUES The researcher has used the following Mean 157 302 techniques in his study: Medicine →→ Documentation, Questionnaires, Interviews, Sampling Maximum 2000 1000 Table- 1 Mean 397 408 Classification of the Sample Respondents Minimum 0 100 Affecting Air Pollution Diagnostic Diseases affected by Total Percentage the Air Pollution (n=120) Maximum 3000 500 Cold 58 48.3 Mean 232 94 Respiratory problem 40 33.3 Travel Bronchitis 36 30.0 Maximum 4000 2000 Asthma 60 50.0 Mean 547 413 Source: Computed from the primary data Emphysema 72 60.0 Table-3 Knowledge about Air Pollution-wise Skin disease 83 69.2 Classification of the Sample Respondents Lung or throat 48 40.0 Knowledge Gender Total % cancer about Air Male Female Cold and skin 73 60.8 Pollution Source: computed from the primary data Much high 24 16 40 33.3 Somewhat 18 12 30 25.0 Table – 1 shows that the classification of high respondents affected by disease due to air pollution: Out of 120 respondents highly Somewhat 23 27 32 26.7 affected by the skin disease (69.2%), followed less by cold and skin (60.8%), emphysema (60.0%) Much less - - - 0.0 whereas other diseases affected between 36 per cent to 60 per cent for bronchitis, Total 65 55 120 100.0 respiratory problem, lung or throat cancer, cold, Source: computed from the primary data and asthma respectively. The above Table – 3 shows that 33.3 per cent Table – 2 shows Monthly average expenditure respondents their knowledge is very high, on health care of respondents. The expenditure 25.0 per cent Respondents their knowledge is on Physician the Means Rs. 157, the maximum is somewhat high, 26.7 per cent Respondents the Rs. 500 and the minimum is 0, this is on the side knowledge is somewhat less. of male whereas on the female side the mean is Rs 302, the maximum is Rs. 1500 and the The above Table – 4 shows how the respondents minimum is 0. The expenditure on Medicine, gave the ranking on the source of air pollution. the mean is Rs. 397, the maximum is Rs. 3000 Out of 60 male 48 respondents and out of 60 and the minimum is 0 on the side of male and female 45 respondents give the first rank for the on the side of female the mean is Rs. 408, the sources of pollution is natural impact followed maximum is Rs. 1000 and the minimum is 0. by second rank is tobacco smoking, third rank The expenditure of respondents on Travel, the is motor vehicles, fourth rank is source of mean is Rs.547, the maximum is Rs. 4000 and incomplete combustion of coal and wood and the minimum is 0, this is on the side of male finally give the fifth rank is occurrence ash and and on the side of female the mean is Rs. 413, dust in the study area. the maximum is Rs. 2000 and The minimum is 0.

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Table- 4 Sources of Air Pollution-wise Ranking from the Sample Respondents Source of Male Female Air Ranks Ranks Total Pollution Total 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 Motor 0 10 12 22 16 60 0 16 10 24 10 60 vehicles Occurrence 6 16 12 16 10 60 0 20 17 14 9 60 ash and dust Natural 48 8 4 0 0 60 45 9 3 3 0 60 Impact Source of 6 12 20 16 6 60 9 7 18 10 16 60 incomplete combustion of coal and wood Tobacco 0 14 12 6 28 60 6 8 12 9 25 60 smoking Source: computed from the primary data 4.Bart Ostro et al.,(2008), Air pollution and Health CONCLUSION Effects, Washington D.C: The World Bank Air pollution has been considered as the one of 5.Crocker T.D.W, Schulze,S. Ben-David,and A.V.Kneese, types of pollution which causes different disease (1979), Methods Development for Assessing Air in various labourers in Chidambaram Block and Pollution Control Benefit. Vol.1(Experiment in the this leads to increase the expenditure of sample economics of E air pollution Epidemiology. U.S. EPA respondents on their health care. As shown Grant R80505910. Washington DC,U.S Environmental by the study the most source of air pollution Agency) is motor vehicles and the most of them are 6.Freeman,A.M., (1998),The Benefits of Air and affected by skin diseases in the study area. Water Pollution Control: A Review and Synthesis of Suggestions recent Estimates. Washington D.C, U.S Council on →→ The Municipality should increase the Environmental Quality. health facilities to the labourers in order to take 7.Gopal Bhargava (1992), Pollution and its Control , care of them. New Delhi, Mital Publication. →→ The state government should advise the 8.Lave L.B. and E.P. Seskin (1977), Air pollution and company holders to pollute less through the human health. Baltimore : M.S.A., The John Hopkins awareness programmes and issue the materials.. University Press. →→ The Local authorities should make the 9.Ridcal, R.G(1967), Economic Cost of Air Pollution, control of old vehicle because those vehicles are New York, Praegar. more contributed to air pollution. 10.WHO, (2007b). Indoor Air Pollution and Lower →→ The government should encourage Respiratory Tract Infections in Children. WHO, Health people to use solar energy in their electronics Hazards of the Human Environment. Geneva 2010. goods. 11.Human Development Report 2007/08 in China. →→ The government should increase the 12.http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary number of project against air pollution. 13.http://en. Wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution_in_ india. REFERENCES 14.http://esl.jrc.ec.europa.eu/envind/pf_intro/pf_ 1.Agarwal,S.P.(1993), “Impact of Dust Pollution”, int02.htm India journal of Environmental Protection, 5 ( 334). 2.Antony C. Fisher and Frederick M. Peterson (1976), ”The environment in Economics”. Journal of Economics Literature. Ayres R.V. and kneese A.V. (1969), “Production, 3.Consumption and externalities”, American Economic Review, June PP.282-297

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 142 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) 33. TO DETERMINE THE ACUTE TOXICITY PESTICIDE OF MALATHION AND METABOLIC ACTIVITIES AND RESPIRATORY RESPONSES IN FRESHWATER FISH LABEO ROHITA.

S.NAZERATH NISHA, Ph.D., Research Scholar, P.G and Research and Department of Zoology, V.O.Chidambaram College, Thoothukudi,628008.

B. GEETHA, Associate professor, P.G and Research and Department of Zoology, V.O.Chidambaram College, Thoothukudi,628008, Tamil Nadu,India.

ABSTRACT widespread use of pesticides not only brought he water pollution of aquatic environment adverse influence on agro-ecosystems but also Twith wide array of pesticides has become caused alternation in physiological processes of a menace to the aquatic flora and fauna. The non-target organisms. In many countries large- organophosphorus pesticide malathion has scale mortality of fishes has been recorded due been widely used in agriculture for several to pesticides in water bodies as pollutants. The crops such as paddy, cotton and vegetables toxicity study is essential to find out limit and to control serious insects and mites. These safe concentration of toxicants. Malathion is a chemicals cause severe damage to aquatic non-systemic wide spectrum organophosphate ecosystem especially to fishes. The main aim insecticide. It was one of the organophosphate and objective of present study is to evaluate the insecticides developed in 1950. Malathion impact on protein and glycogen in fingerlings of is used for agricultural and non-agricultural Labeo rohita an economically important Indian purposes. One of the main factors causing major carp. The 96 hrs LC50 value of malathion pollution of the environment is irrational use for L.rohita was 9.0 ml/L. No mortality was of organophophorous insecticides (A1-Haj et observed below the concentration of 7.5 ml/L. al., 2005). It is a major source of environment The changes in biochemical parameters such as poisoning in developing countries (WHO,2003). protein and glycogen are important to indicate Among the organophophorous pesticides the susceptibility of organs system to pollutants malathion is considered relatively safe for by altering their function. In the present use in mammals. However, impurities in investigation the protein and glycogen contents commercial formulations are potent inhibitors of muscles, gills, liver, kidney and brain of of carboxylesterases , allowing dramatic L.rohita were analysed. Fish reared in control increase in malathion formation (Buratti et al., group registered high protein and glycogen 2005). The present work has been carried out contents when compared with malathion to study the lethal concentration of 50% (LC50) treated groups during 24, 48, 72 and 96 hrs of pesticides, preferably malathion on the fresh respectively. The similar results were obtained water fish L. rohita. in the oxygen consumption of L.rohita during MATERIALS AND METHODS 24, 48, 72 and 96 hrs respectively It is concluded FISH ACCLIMATIZATION that malathion concentrations (low and high) is Almost equal sized fish L. rohita were brought very toxic and causes alterations in vital organs from the local fish farm, Tirunelveli district of of fish L. rohita. Tamil Nadu, India, and immediately transported KEYWORDS : water pollution, pesticides, fish, to laboratory. These fishes were observed for INTRODUCTION nay pathological symptoms and then placed The pollution of rivers and streams are caused in 0.1% potassium permanganate (KMnO4) for mainly due to chemical contaminant. It has two minutes so as to avoid any dermal infection. become one of the most critical environmental Then fishes were washed with water and problems. The industrial and agricultural acclimatized to laboratory conditions for three problems throughout the world in general and in weeks during which they were regularly fed with India due to alarming rise in human population. dried pellets of 20% protein diet. The water It also caused tremendous environmental used was clear and unchlorinated. Salinity, contamination. The aquatic environment temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen content is affected by various types of toxicants. and water hardness of water were averaged to Particularly pesticides used in agriculture are 0.25±0.1 ppt, 22.5±0.5˚C, 7.9±0.1, 4.71±0.15ml- one of the major sources of water pollution. The 1 and 179±5.10 mgCaCO3l-1, respectively.

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Active and healthy L.rohita (2.97g:5cm) were each consisting of 10 fishes. Test animals were chosen from acclimation tank, food supply was exposed (in circular plastic trough of 25l capacity) withdrawn 25 hrs prior to experimentation. A to 0, of malathion, mortality was recorded for commercial grade of pesticide malathion (50% every 24 hrs and dead fishes were removed emulsified concentration, EC) was used for when observed, every time noting the number bioassay test. An acute toxicity (LC50) test by of fish deaths at each concentration up to96 static renewal bioassay method was conducted hrs .Triplicates were maintained simultaneously. to determine the toxicity of malathion in The LC50 were determined / estimated with 95% the L.rohita which was exposed to various confidence limit for malathion for 96 hrs by probit concentration of malathion for 96 hrs and the analysis (FINNEY, 1971). The concentration pesticide was procured from the local market at which 50% survival / mortality occurred in at Tuticorin, Tamil Nadu, India. The required malathion treated fishes was taken as quantity of malathion was drawn directly from the median lethal concentration (LC50) for 96 this emulsified concentration using a variable hrs which was 9.0 ml/L. One tenth of the LC50 micropipette. value (9.0 ml/L) was taken for the sub lethal For LC50 calculation, active fish (2.97±1.50g) studies according to S Prague (1973). were chosen and sorted out into seven groups

RESULTS: The 96 hrs LC50 value of malathion for L.rohita was 9.0 ml/L. No mortality was observed below the concentration of 7.5 ml/L. However the concentration of 7.5ml/L and above were observed to be toxic. The upper and lower 95% confidence limits were found to be 1.96 and 1.92, respectively. The value of slope was 1.12. (Table 1). Table 1: Effect of malathion concentrations on per cent mortality in Labeo rohita exposed for 96 hr. Lethal concentration, slope function and 95% confidence limits are expressed in (µl/L) Concentration Dead/ Mortality(%) Lethal concentration(µl/L) Slope 95% confidence limit of malathion tested Slope function(S) function(S) 95% confidence limit 16% 50% 84% Lower Upper 7.5 1/10 10 8.0 2/10 20 8.5 3/10 30 9.0 5/10 50 1.12 9.5 7/10 70 7.8 9.0 9.8 1.92 1.96 10.0 10/10 100

Table 2: Glycogen content in various tissues of Labeo rohita exposed sublethal concentrations of malathion. Experimental Periods Tissue Control 24 48 72 96 Muscles 1.35± 0.21 1.10± 0.01 0.90± 0.06 0.43± 0.09 0.21± 0.87 Gills 0.4±00.32 0.33±0.08 0.29±0.12 0.21± 0.006 0.09±0.48 Liver 0.63±0.19 0.55±0.32 0.43±0.02 0.31±0.12 0.16±0.09 Kidney 0.60±0.14 0.54±1.04 0.43±0.009 0.31±0.23 0.19±0.11 Brain 1.02±0.42 0.98±0.54 0.76±0.06 0.45±1.07 0.28±0.10

Table 3 : Oxygen consumption Labeo rohita exposed sublethal concentrations of malathion Experimental Periods Rate of oxygen consumption Control 24 48 72 96 (mg 2 g-1 hr-1) 0.20±0.02 0.29±0.22 0.47±0.05 0.53±0.04 0.71±0.06

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 144 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) The biochemical changes in both protein and pesticide toxicity induced respiratory distress glycogen against to the pesticides of malathion in fishes. Natarajan (1981) found reduction in experimental fish L.rohita were provided in oxygen consumption in Channa punctatus (Table 2 ). The changes in the biochemical exposed to organophosphate pesticide. constituents in the of the L.rohita exposed to Similarly Boradbury et al., (1986) stated that malathion at different exposure were observed the rate of oxygen consumption decreased in in the present study. The proteins contents Cirrhinus mrigal may be due to internal action were found to be significantly reduced in of pesticide. Variation in oxygen consumption different tissues of malathion exposed fish. is an indicator of stress, which is frequently used Similarly the results obtained showed that to evaluate the changes in metabolism under glycogen contents were found to be significantly environmental deterioration. Similarly Khillare reduced in different tissues of malathion and Wagh (1987) also found that rate of oxygen exposed L.rohita, it indicates may be excess consumption reduced in the fish Barbus stigma pollution which induced toxicity. In the present when exposed to malathion and nuvan. In investigation fish reared in control group addition to Verma and Dalela (1975) observed registered high protein and glycogen contents that reduction of oxygen consumption of fish when compared with malathion treated groups. might be due to perched solids present in the The similar results were obtained in the oxygen effluents which cause mechanical injuries to fish consumption of L.rohita during 24, 48, 72 and and disturb the osmotic regulation. And also 96 hrs respectively(Table 3). several authors reported that the disturbance DISCUSSION in oxidative metabolism leads alternation in During behavioural manifestation, the L.rohita whole oxygen consumption in different species showed normal behavior such as well- of fish exposed to pesticides. coordinated with active movements, static CONCLUSION equilibrium, active swimming, normal gill In conclusion, the present work indicates that movement, free gulping of air at the surface Malathion causes considerable changes in the water, horizontal hanging in the water with intermediary metabolism of the fish L.rohita. natural body color and zero mortality were The cause for these alterations appears to be observed in control group. But in the toxic the result of high energy demands in order to environment fishes exhibited irregular, fishes survive from the stressful condition from the frequently coming to the surface of water, loss toxicants. Hence it may leads to decrease the of equilibrium, erratic and darting swimming glycogen and protein from various tissues of movements, vertical hanging, increased the test fish. opercular movements, rapid gill movement, fading of their body color and excess mucus secretion all over body and restlessness. Finally the fish sank to the bottom with their least opercular movement and died with their mouth open. In the present study during acute toxicity test, the fishes exhibited several abnormal behavioural responses such as erratic and darting swimming movements and loss of equilibrium. They slowly become lethargic, hyperexcited, restless and secreted excess mucus all over their bodies. Opercular movements increased initially in all exposure periods but decreased later steadily in the sub lethal exposure periods. Borah and Yadav (1995) observed that, opercular movements are increased.loss of equilibrium, erratic swimming and jerky movement and mucous secretion all over the body were in Heteropneustes fossils after exposure to rigor and endosulfan pesticides. Santhakuamr and Balaji (2000) also observed this phenomenon in Anabas test studies after exposure to monocrotophos. Fishes are the excellent models for monitoring environmental contamination in aquatic system. Many authors investigated that

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REFERENCES 1.Al-Haj, M., Nasser, A. and Anis A.( 2005), Survey of pesticides used in Qat cultivation in Dhale and Yafe and their adverse effects. J. Nat. Appl. Sci. 9(1): 103- 110 2.WHO (2003), Lindane in drinking water Background document for preparation of WHO Guidelines for drinking water quality – Geneva, World Health organization (WHO/SDE/WSH/03.04.102). 3.Buratti, F. M., Aniello, A. D., Volpe, M., Meneguz, A. and Testai E.( 2005), Malathion bioactivation in the human liver : The contribution of different cytochrome p450 isoforms. DMD. 33: 295-302. 4.Finney, D.J. (1971), Probit analysis. Cambridge Univ Press, Cambridge, 333 pp. 5.SPRAGUE, J. B. (1973), Measurement of pollutant toxicity of fish, utilizing and applying bioassay results. Mars. Res. 4, 3-32. 6.Borah and Yadav (1995), Bioassay and toxicity of two pesticides, Rogar and Endosulfan to the air breathing fish Heteropneustes fossilis with special references to behaviour. Poll. Res., 14(4): 435-438. 7.Santhakumar, M. and Balaji, M.( 2000), Acute toxicity of an organophosphorus insecticide monocrotophos and its effects on behavior of an air- breething fish, Anabas testudineus (Bloch). J. Environ. Biol., 21(2): 121-123. 8.Natarajan,G.M. (1981), Effect of lethal LC 50 /48h concentrations of metasystox on selected oxidative enzymes, tissues respiration and histology of gills of freshwater air breathing fish Channa striatus. Curr. Sci. 50 (22) ; 985-991. 9.Bradbury, S.P., Coats, J.R. and McKim, J.M. (1986), Toxicokinetics of fenvalerate in rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri. Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 5:567-576. 10.Khillare, Y.K. and Wagh, S.B. (1987), Effect of malathion on level of ascorbic acid in fresh water fish, Barbus stigma (Ham). J. Adv. Zool. 7 (2): 105-107 11.Verma, S.R. and Dalela, R.C. (1975), Studies on pollution of kalinadi by industrial wastes near mansurpur. Part II biological index of pollution and biological chanacterstic of the river. Acta. Hydroobiol. 3(25) : 259-274.

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 146 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) 34. A PANORAMIC VIEW ON RURAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION M. MANIMEGALAI, Ph.D Research Scholar, Bishop Heber College (Autonomous), Trichy-17. Dr. S. SEETHALAKSHMI, Assistant Professor, Bishop Heber College (Autonomous), Trichy-17.

ABSTRACT hydrocarbon reserve (0.4% of world’s reserve). nergy consumption is an index of economic India is a net importer of energy. More than Edevelopment energy is essential to ensure 25% of primary energy needs is met through adequate and sustained supply for energy sector imports mainly in form of crude oil and natural of the economy. The rural energy consumption gas. Heavy dependence on non renewable pattern is divided into agricultural operation sources of energy like coal, petroleum, natural domestic activities, living and industry. Rural gas is to meet the demand. During the pre energy consumption influences the standard of reform period, the commercial energy sector living of the people in rural areas. India is the was totally regulated by the government. The largest energy consumer in the world. In India, economic reform and liberalization, in post out of 121crs of populations, 80crs of people 90’s, has opened the doors for private sector living rural areas and affordability are vitally participation in coal, oil, gas and electricity our country keep its pace of development. sector. INTRODUCTION PATTERN OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION The Indian economy is growing steadily and IN RURAL AREAS every Indian is proud of that. This is because There are three main ways to consume energy of the most important resources required to in rural areas are follows: maintain or accelerate this growth in energy. 1. Domestic Consumption Now a days energy is the very basic needs of • Cooking life, insufficiency of energy will bring economic • Lightening stagnation by lowering optimum productivity. 2. Industrial consumption The world’s population has now exceeded 6 • Micro small and medium enterprises billion people. More than half of the world’s • Big industry population lives in rural areas and vast majority 3. Agricultural consumption of these, some 2.8 billion people countries. SOURCES OF ENERGY IN RURAL INDIA There are rural areas in developing countries. 1. Firewood There people without access to adequate, Firewood gathered from forested commons affordable and convenient sources. is an important source of domestic energy in Lack of access of affordable energy is an rural areas of many poor counties. It has been important factor contributing to the relatively estimated that more than 2.4 billion people rely poor quality of life in rural areas of developing directly on traditional biomass fuels for their countries. The potential market of are the cooking and heating, and in poor countries rural poor are characterized by a high demand biomass use represents over half of residential for purposes such as lighting, cooking, space energy consumption. heating in the domestic sector; water lifting 2. Electricity and transportation in agriculture; and small Electricity the flow of electrical power is a medium enterprises. secondary energy source generated by the ENERGY CONSUMPTION - INDIAN conversion of primary sources of energy like SCENARIO fossil, nuclear, wind or solar. The energy sector holds the key in accelerating 3. LPG the economic growth of India. But the LPG is used worldwide cooking and heating, development of Indian energy sector has seen especially in areas without connection to constrained by capital, technology, environment piped natural gas. It is a clan fuel. The largest and security issues. Future economic growth rural energy access survey of India which was crucially depends on the long term availability conducted last year by the council on Energy, of sources that are affordable, accessible and Environment and Water(CEEW) and the environment friendly. India ranks sixth in the Department of Political Science at Columbia world in total energy consumption, accounts University, shows that as many as 95 per cent for global energy consumption. India is rich in of LPG deprived households cite their inability coal and renewable energy sources (solar, wind, to pay as a barrier to their adopting LPG. Thus, hydro and bio-energy sources) but it has very less the scheme is well targeted to pay as a barrier

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to their adopting LPG. Thus, the scheme is well 5.Biogas based distributed power generation targeted to pay as a barrier to their adopting high programme upfront cost, which has limited the transition 6.Village Energy Security Programme towards LPG use in poorer households. while the 7.Remote village Electrified Programme move is appreciable, other challenges that limit 8.Fuel Wood Programme the use of this clean in India must be resolved RURAL ENERGY DEVELOPMENT IN simultaneously. INDIA 4. Kerosene Rural Development purse has never figured in Kerosene, a liquid, does not as a consequence the stated Energy Policy. Rural electrification burn as cleanly as gaseous fuels. it nonetheless is mainly perceived in the context of energy is considerably cleaner than the biomass used requirements to meet the irrigation needs of in traditional stoves. One of kerosene’s main agriculture as part of the overall food security advantages is that it is far easier to transport and policy. Therefore, rural irrigation PRIORITY distribute than gaseous fuels and, unlike LPG, was to provide assistance for transmitting can purchased in any quantity. For households energy to agricultural pump sets to increase with cash constrains, are more expensive than the productivity of land. House electrification wood stoves. came as a secondary or incidental issue. The NEED FOR RURAL ENERGY POLICY whole definition of rural energy in the past was India is the most populous in the world and to provide on connection to a village which was has extreme ecological diversity. 70 per cent primarily used to electrify agricultural pump sets. of the population in India, close to700 million, The Government of India changed the definition still lives in the rural areas. Meeting their of village electrification recently to state that a energy requirements in a sustainable manner village is considered as electrified if it provides continues to be a major challenge for the electrification recently to state that village is country. All most 75 per cent of the total rural considered as electrified if it provides electricity/ energy consumption is in domestic sector. For power to all the habitations in the village. They meeting their cooking energy requirements, consider the village as electrified if at least 10 to villagers depend predominantly on biomass 20 percent of the inhabitants in the villages are fuels like wood, animal dung and agricultural provided with energy for lighting. residues, often burnt inefficient traditional cook STRATEGIES AND TECHNOLOGIES stoves. The main fuel for lighting in the rural USED IN RURAL AREAS households is kerosene and electricity. Irrigation The Fourth Industrial Revolution heralds an is mainly thorough electrical and diesel pump exponential pace of technological change, sets, while the industries and the transport build on the digital revolution to combine sectors rely primarily on animal to some extent technologies, spawn new ones, and transform on commercial sources of energy like diesel and systems, industries, countries-even society itself. electricity. For developing countries, advances in computing RURAL ENERGY PROGRAMMES power, connectivity, artificial intelligence, 1.National Programme on improved Chulhas biotechnology and GIS, and newer, more capable 2.National project on biogas development technologies hold tremendous promise. 3.Community, institutional and Night Soil based Inclusive agriculture, rural growth and structural biogas Programme transformation from agriculture to high- 4.Rural Energy entrepreneurship and institutional productivity manufacturing and other economic Development(REEID) sectors can be accelerated, as technological 5.Women and Renewable Energy Development change transforms individuals’ lives and enables (WRED) developing countries to progress at speeds and 6.Biomass Production, conversion and utilisation on scales previously inconceivable. To realize Programme the positive outcomes of this new industrial 7.Biomass gasification Programme revolution, public policymaking must bridge 8.Animal Energy Programme the already widening gap between skilled and 9.Integrated Rural energy Programme unskilled labour. The case of India is salient CURRENT ENERGY PROGRAMMES because, unlike its East and Southeast Asian 1.National biogas and manure management neighbors’, rabid economic growth has not Programme been inclusive enough to reduce the numbers 2.Solar thermal applications in rural areas of Indians living in poverty. India contains the 3.Solar Photovoltaic Programme for rural areas largest number of poor people in the world(270 4.Biomass Gasified Programme for power million) according to the World Bank. Generation for meeting unmet demand in The Government of India is confronting these electrified villages challenges. As more young men are migrating

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 148 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) from rural poverty to urban areas to seek Websites employment, they are contributing to a rapid 4.www.fao.org feminization of agriculture. In 2016 India’s 5.www.nistads.res.in Prime Minister Narendra Modi introduced a 6.www.mnes.nic.in new national policy to double farmers’ incomes 7.www.shodhaganga.inflibnet.ac.in by 2022. It targeted poverty reduction, food 8.www.thehindu.com security reduction and climate change. It is 9.https://energy.gov/science-innovation/electric- hurting agriculture with rising temperatures, power increasingly frequent floods and droughts, and a greater incidence of pests and CHARACTERISTICS OF ENERGY IN RURAL INDIA • Energy can be stored • Energy can be transferred • Energy can be transported • Energy can be preserved • Energy can be transformed • Energy can be degraded ENERGY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Energy economists have opined that energy consumption is an index of economic development. In overall economic development of a nation, energy is essential to ensure adequate and sustained supply for the economy. Efficient infrastructure is a pre- requisite for mobilizing economic development. Modern economists such as Schurr, Baly and Jorgen stated that energy is the fifth factor of production in addition to land, labour, capital and organization. Suggestion • Government should talk steps to introduce solar energy system in rural areas. • Energy awareness should be created among the rural people. • Subsidies should be given to use bio- mass and bio gas energy. CONCLUSION In this modern world energy is an important source for Agriculture, Industry and Service sector. And also it will improve the standard of living of the people. Rural energy consumption in India increasing year by year. At the same time, the energy from non- renewable sources showing a declining trend. To rise the quality of life of the people in rural areas and to protect the future generation, consumption of renewable sources of energy should be increased creation of energy from solar, wind, hydro and bio-mass energy will be motivated. REFERENCES 1.Marimuthu A, “Energy, Environment and Agriculture Development in India”, Third Concept, Vol.21, No. 243, May 2007, Pp 41-44 2.Krishnakumar G, “Make in India a Competitive reality an Energy perspective”, Energy Manager, Vol.07, No.03, July-Sep 2014, Pp 37-40 3.Bharti Chhibber, “Energy Resources in South Asia”, Third Concept, Vol.21, No.248, October 2007, Pp 7-8

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 149 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018 35. ENVIRONMENTAL ACCOUNTING AND MANAGEMENT

Dr. C.SIVAKKOLUNDU, Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, Thiruvalluvar University, Serkkadu, Vellore, Tamil Nadu – 632 115.

INTRODUCTION benefits as input to conventional management here is a worldwide debate on the issue of accounting. The main stimulus is growing Tenvironmental management, stemming from evidence that focus on environmental related a flow of evidence about ecological degradation factors can enhance the profitability and caused by economic development. Now, due financial position of a business. Environmental to cost pressures, customer awareness, supply accounting is used to assess full environmental chain relations and activities of environmental costs associated with activities and/or products. campaigners encourage the companies to go for Environmental performance of organizations’ environmental initiatives. The society particularly in more measurable manner. The key areas from developed countries highly concern about for monitoring are aggregated emission to air, the impacts on the quality of their life due to water effluent discharge, soil contamination and the pollution of air, land and water. To evaluate boundary noise level. the applicability of the proposed five stages framework for Environmental Management A TOOL OF EVALUATE ENVIRONMENT System. In the past, environmental accounting systems PROBLEMS OF ENVIRONMENTAL were used as a tool to evaluate and disclose ACCOUNTING environmental impact reduction effects to In the context of environmental disclosure in environmental conservation costs. However, company’s annual report, it has been noticed in fact now the EMS in business has evolved, and reported that there are: interest has grown in developing a better • Lack of awareness and understanding understanding of environmental related financial on the nature and extent of the adoption of costs and benefits as an input to conventional environmental management system practices management accounting. For example, the and organization’s environmental accounting internal costs associated with air emission to function. the environment are often not identified within • Lack of understanding and commitment conventional management practices. As a result, of companies for the needs in the environmental cost savings relating to environmental pressures disclosure frequently remain hidden. So need to establish OBJECTIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL and adopt the environmental accounting. ACCOUNTING • To determine and assess the effect of DECISION MAKING PROCESS environmental accounting on the improvement Most companies had recognized the superiority of environmental and overall organization’s in principle of pollution prevention at source over performance. end-of-pipe solution, and were seeking to prevent • To determine the extent of environmental pollution by integrating EMS into their complex disclosure as a part of social responsibility. environmental decision-making processes, which • To determine the effectiveness of eventually lead to sustainable management. This environmental cost accounting system for tool to internally measure and evaluate the profit environmental audits and performance obtained from business activities It is necessary improvements. to measure and identify the environmental cost FORMS OF BUSINESS ACTIVITY impact such as air emission, waste disposal, waste This study focuses on the use of environmental water. The organizations also need to measures accounting system to monitor the baseline and evaluates environmental conservation costs parameters in the environmental management paid by product line and process, whether the system as an effective tool to monitor and evaluate costs work toward advancing social effects and organization’s commitment to environmentally corporate profits, and whether the environmental sustainable forms of business activity. impact of business activities as a whole suits the ENVIRONMENTAL ACCOUNTING organization’s business size which leads to the SYSTEM establishment of a framework for environmental As environmental management in business accounting. has evolved over time, interest has grown in developing a better understanding of environmental-related financial costs and

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 150 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) LACK OF ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS waste or emission during their life cycle. Sixty eight percent of companies surveyed • Technologies that uses less power and claimed that their activities had no significant produce less waste which subsequently will impact toward environment, and therefore decrease the expensive “end-of-the-pipe” there is no need for any disclosures. Further, clean-up operations (Banerjee, 2001) many companies believed that environmental • Substitute materials that can reduce issues claimed that environmental impacts are waste or indirect effect unknown. • Modify operating processes to reduce LACK OF PERCEIVED BENEFIT wastes A large number of non disclosing companies did • Develop continual waste and energy not believe that investment in environmental minimizing program initiative offered them either opportunity • Develop method to reuse or recycle for cost saving or improved support from waste rather than sent for disposal (recovery). shareholders. Only half existing reporting Us companies indicating that disclosure would be • Conservation – minimize depletion regular practices in their annual report further of natural resources by establishing effective underline this belief. control measures or prevention measures LACK OF GOVERNMENT PRESSURE • Use the recycled material One of the most prominent factors that are LIMITATION OF RESEARCH able to drive companies for environmental In past, many researchers have identified the disclosure is the government. The government difficulties or limitations in establishing good enforcement for mandatory environmental environmental accounting are; difficult in reporting is very important. The government forecasting future environmental related cost, is ranked above the influence of business type of the likelihood action or effort need associations and was seen to be more important to be taken, and failure to see the benefit the resource or shareholders and investors of environmental accounting to companies. pressure. Strong instruction and enforcement is The amount of resource allocation in term of needed to overcome resistance and perceptions manpower, money and others by organizations that environmental reporting is an unnecessary towards environmental initiatives needs further cost burden. investigation. In the area of environmental ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT auditing, the depth of audit conducted either Environmental auditing is a generic term, which by external or internal auditors in determining encompasses a wide range of management the relationship between EMS and the activities, including environmental compliance environmental accounting need for further audit, environmental risk assessments, and research. environmental review (Rezaee and Elam, 2000). CONCLUSION In ISO 14001, environmental audit defined The relationship between the organization as “the systematic, documented verification and the environment is receiving increasing process of objectively obtaining and evaluating attention. Currently, debate on global climatic audit evidence to determine the reliability of change and biodiversity is becoming more an assertion with regards to environmental commonplace in corporate world, together aspects of activities, events and conditions as to with concern over water, air and soil pollution. how they measure established criteria, and the Although the sustainability of economical communicating such result to the client” (cited development is a shared responsibility of in Taylor et al., 2001). According to Taylor et al. organization, government and consumers, but (2001), the best EMS auditor is the auditor with the organizations can play vital role in slowing an accounting background. The total estimated down the environmental degradation. It is damage caused to the natural environment possible because an organization has financial in one day according to the Germany Federal resources, technological knowledge and Environmental Agency (Letmathe and Doost, institutional capability and long-term vision 2000) is given by: to find environmental solutions. Thus, the • The destruction of 55,000 hectares of programs or activities for keeping pollution tropical forest; under control, zero waste or design for • The reduction of arable land by 20,000 environment such as product life cycle analysis hectares; (LCA), total quality environmental management • The extinction of 100 to 200 species; and others. In this way, the organization can lead • Emission of 60 million tons of carbon to an improvement in overall environmental dioxide into the atmosphere performance, customers’ satisfaction and PREVENTION STRATEGIES company performance. • Design products, which generate less ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 151 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018

REFERENCES 1.ACCA Malaysia (2002) “The state of corporate environmental reporting in Malaysia” (URL: www. accaglobal.com/sustainability). 2.Analoui, F. and Karami, A. (2002), “How chief executives’ perception of the environment impacts on company performance”, Journal of Management Development, Vol. 21 No. 4, pp. 290-305. 3.Banarjee, S.B. (2001), “Corporate environmental strategies and actions”, Management Decision, Vol. 39 No. 1, pp. 36-44. 4.Karatzas, K., Moussiopoulos, N. and Papadopoulos, A. (2001), “Web-based tools for environmental management”, Environmental Management and Health, Vol. 12 No. 4, pp. 356-363. 5.Myers, N. (1998), “Emergent issues of environmental economics – what we should be analyzing closely but haven’s thought much about”, International Journal of Social Economics, Vol. 25 No. 6/7/8, pp. 1271-1278. 6.Pernilla, G. (2000), “Costs of environmental errors (CEE)”, Greener Management International, Issue 31. 7.Perry, M. and Sheng, T.T. (1999), “An overview of trends related to environmental reporting in Singapore”, Environmental Management and Health, Vol. 10 No. 5, pp. 310-320. 8.Pun, K.F., Hui, I.K., Lau, H.C.W., Law, H.W. and Lewis, W.G. (2002), “Development of an EMS planning framework for environmental management practices”, International Journal of Quality and Reliability Management, Vol. 19 No. 6, pp. 688-709.

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 152 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) 36. WATER POLLUTION IN INDIA: AN OVERVIEW S.KAVITHA, Ph.D Research Scholar, Department of Economics, Thiruvalluvar University, Serkkadu, Vellore-632 115. E-mail: skavitha. [email protected].

Dr.C.DHANDAPANI, Professor & Head, Department of Economics, Thiruvalluvar University, Serkkadu, Vellore-632 115.

ABSTRACT polluted storm water is a major contributor ost ancient civilizations grew along the to degradation of our water ways. When Mbanks of rivers. Even today, millions of something is added to environment that makes people all over the world live on the banks of it unclean or unsafe it is called pollution. Water rivers and depend on them for their survival. pollution occurs when the water becomes over All of us have seen a river large or small either loaded with too much of one thing and the flowing through our town or somewhere else. aquatic organisms cannot keep up with their Rivers are nothing more than surface water cleaning responsibilities. Some organisms may flowing down from a higher altitude to a lower die and others grow too fast. There are many altitude due to the pull of gravity. One river types and sources of water pollution (such might have its source in a glacier another in a as sewage pollution) that can pollute surface spring or a lake. Rivers carry dissolved minerals water of ground water. organic compounds, small grains of sand gravel OBJECTIVES OF WATER POLLUTION and other material as they flow downstream. Rivers begin as small streams which grow →→ Distinguish between point and non wider as smaller streams and rivers join them point sources of pollution. along their course across the land. Eventually →→ Identify the wages in which human they flow into seas or oceans. Unfortunately waste water can cause water pollution. most of the world’s major rivers are heavily →→ Evaluate the different technologies that polluted. The pollution of environment is humans have developed for treating waste the gift of the Industrial revolution prior to water. this the agrarian cultures created significant →→ Identify the major types of heavy metals environment deforestation and overgrazing. and other substances that pose serious hazards The Environmental degradation is a byproduct to humans and the environment. of modern civilization. Water Pollution is a →→ Discuss the impact of oil spills and how major global problem which requires on going such spills can be remediated. evaluation and revision of water resource →→ Identify contaminants that are non policy at all levels. It has been suggested that chemical pollutants. water pollution is the leading worldwide cause →→ Explain the connections among of deaths and diseases and that it accounts for industrialization affluence and water pollution the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily. legislation. An estimated 580 people in India die of water pollution related illness every day. METHODOLOGY INTRODUCTION The study is mainly descriptive in nature. Water pollution is a major global problem Secondary data are used for the purpose of the which requires ongoing evaluation and revision study. The data was collected from websites, of water resource policy at all levels. It has been various articles and journals. suggested that water pollution is the leading TYPES OF WATER POLLUTION worldwide cause of deaths and diseases and Water pollution any physical or chemical that it accounts for the deaths of more than change in water that adversely affects the 14,000 people daily. An estimated 580 people health of humans and other organisms. in India die of water pollution related illness • Sewage every day. Water pollution is the contamination • Disease causing agents of water bodies such as rivers, lakes, oceans • Sediment pollution and groundwater. This occurs when pollutants • Inorganic plant and algal nutrients are discharged directly or indirectly into water • Organic compounds bodies without adequate treatment to remove • Inorganic chemicals harmful compounds. Humans are the cause of • Radioactive substances and most of the pollution in our water ways and • Thermal pollution

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MAIN CAUSES OF WATER POLLUTION can be safely released into the environment to IN INDIA reduce the amount and toxin city of waste, it is passed through a number of chambers and Water pollution is caused due to several chemical processes in water treatment plant. reasons. Here are the few major causes of water pollution. GENTRIFICATION Conversion of nitrates in gas is called 1. Sewage and Waste Water Gentrification. It is an ecological approach Sewage garbage and liquid waste of households, to prevent locating of nitrates in soil. It stops agricultural lands and factories are discharged ground water from getting contaminated. into takes and rivers. These wastes contain harmful chemicals and toxins which make the OZONE WASTE WATER TREATMENT water poisonous for aquatic animals and plants. Ozone waste water treatment method is 2. Dumping becoming very popular in this method; the Dumping of solid wastes and litters in water pollutants in water are broken done by an bodies causes huge problems. Litters include ozone generator. Ozone oxidizes bacteria, glass, plastic, aluminum, Styrofoam, etc., molds organic material and other pollutants in different things take different amount of time water. to degrade in water. They affect aquatic plants SEPTIC TANKS and animals. Septic tanks are used to treat sewage at the 3. Industrial Waste place of location instead of treating in any Industrial waste contains pollutants like plant or sewage system. This system is used asbestos, lead, mercury and petro chemicals at the individual building level. The sewage is which are extremely harmful to both people separated into solid and liquid components and environment industrial waste is discharged and treated separately. into lakes and rivers by using fresh water EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION making the water contaminated. The water pollution is very harmful to 4. Oil Pollution humans, animals and water life. The effects Sea water gets polluted due to oil spilled from can be catastrophic depending on the kind of ships and tankers while travelling. The spilled chemicals, concentrations of the pollutants oil does not dissolve in water and forms a thick and where there are polluted. The effects of sludge polluting the water. water pollution are varied and depend on what 5. Acid Rain chemicals are dumped and in which locations. Acid rain is pollution of water caused by air Many water bodies near urban areas cities and pollution. When the acidic particles caused by towns are highly polluted. This is the result air pollution in the atmosphere mix with water of both garbage dumped by individuals and vapor, it results in acid rain. dangerous chemicals legally or illegally dumped 6. Global Warming by manufacturing industries, health centers, Due to global warming there is an increase schools and market places. in water temperature. This increase in DEATH OF WATER ANIMALS temperature results in death of aquatic plants The main problem caused by water pollution and animals. This also results in bleaching of is that it kills organisms that depend on these coral reefs in water. water bodies. Dead fish, crabs, birds and sea 7. Eutrophication gulls, dolphins and many other animals often Eutrophication is an increased level of nutrients wind up on beaches killed by pollutants in their in water bodies. This results in bloom of algae habitat living environment. in water. It also depletes the oxygen in water, which negatively affects fish and other aquatic DISRUPTION OF FOOD-CHIN animal population. Pollution disrupts that natural food chain as TREATING POLLUTED WATER well. Pollutants such as lead and cadmium are It is very important to prevent the pollution of eaten by tiny animals. Later these animals are water bodies and remove existing contaminants consumed by fish and shellfish and the food or reducing the concentration of these chain continues to be disrupted at all higher contaminants so as to make it fit for desired levels. use following are some of the ways of treating DISEASES polluted water. Eventually, humans are affected by this process INDUSTRIAL TREATMENT as well. People can get diseases such as hepatitis The raw sewage is needed to be treated by eating seafood that has been poisoned. In correctly in a water treatment plant before it many poor nations, there is always outbreak of

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 154 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) cholera and diseases as a result of poor drinking chemicals, motor oil or other automotive fluids water treatment from contaminated water. into the sanitary sewer or storm sewer systems. Both of them end at the river. DESTRUCTION OF ECOSYSTEMS →→ If you home has a sump pump or cellar The interaction of living things in a place drain make certain it does not drain into the depending on each other for life can be severely sanitary sewer system. changed or destroyed by water pollution. Many areas are now being affected by careless human CONCLUSION pollution and this pollution is coming back to Water pollution has the capabilities to disrupt hurt humans in many ways. life on our planet to a great extent. Congress has passed laws to try to combat water SIGNS OF WATER POLLUTION pollution thus acknowledging the fact that water pollution is indeed, a serious issue. But →→ Bad taste of drinking water. the government alone cannot solve the entire →→ Offensive odors from Lakes Rivers and problem. We must become familiar with our ocean beaches. local water resources and learn about ways for →→ Unchecked growth of aquatic weeds in disposing harmful household wastes so they water bodies. do not end up in sewage treatment plants that →→ Decrease in number of fish in fresh cannot handle them or landfills not designed to water, river water, sea water. receive hazardous materials. →→ Oil and grease floating on water surfaces. We must determine whether additional →→ These disturb the normal uses of nutrients are needed before fertilizers are water for public water supply.; Recreation and applied and look for alternatives where aesthetics, Fish other aquatic life and wild life, fertilizers might run off into surface waters. We Agriculture, Industry. have to preserve existing trees and plant new trees and shrubs to help prevent soil erosion PREVENTION OF WATER POLLUTION and promote infiltration of water into the soil. Around our houses, we must keep litter, pet →→ Do not pour fat from cooking or any waste, leaves and grass clippings out of gutters other type of fat, oil or grease down the sink. and storm drains. Keep a fat jar under the sink to collect the fat and discard in the solid waste when full. REFERENCES →→ Do not dispose of household chemicals 1.data.govin or cleaning agents down the sink or toilet. 2.India environment portal knowledge for change. Simsbury has a hazardous waste collection day 3.Ministry of Drinking water and sanitation usually from 8:00 am to 1:00 pm at Henry James 4.Tamil Nadu pollution control board school Connecticut resource recovery authority 5.The Hindu, June 09, 2011.” Water Pollution” lists all collection dates. 6.World health organization →→ Do not flush pills, liquid or powder 7.www.environmental pollution. in medications or drugs down the toilet. For 8.www.india water portal.org recommendations on proper disposal for all 9.Your article library.com types of medical wastes. →→ Avoid using a garbage disposal keep solid wastes solid. Make a compost pile from vegetable scraps. →→ Install a water efficient toilet. In the meantime, put a brick or ½ gal container in the standard toilet tank to reduce water use per flush. →→ Run the dishwasher or clothes washer only when you have a full load. This conserves electricity and water. →→ Use the minimum amount of detergent and or bleach when you are washing clothes or dishes use only phosphate free soaps and detergents. →→ Minimize the use of pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers. Do not dispose of these

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 155 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018 37. IMPACTS OF URBANIZATION ON ENVIRONMENT Dr. C. SIVAKKOLUNDU, Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, Thiruvalluvar University, Serkkadu, Vellore – 632 115.

SUJATHA, M. Phil., Research Scholar, Department of Economics, Thiruvalluvar University, Serkkadu, Vellore-632 115.

ABSTRACT social-economic-cultural system. rbanization refers to general increase IMPACTS ON THE ATMOSPHERE AND Uin population and the amount of CLIMATE industrialization of a settlement. It includes The Creation of Heat Island increase in the number and extent of cities. It Materials like concrete, asphalt, bricks etc symbolizes the movement of people from rural absorb and reflect energy differently than to urban areas. Urbanization happens because vegetation and soil. Cities remain warm in the of the increase in the extent and density of night when the countryside has already cooled. urban areas. Due to uncontrolled urbanization Changes in Air Quality in India, environmental degradation has been Human activities release a wide range of occurring very rapidly and causing many emissions into the environment including problems like land insecurity, worsening water carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, ozone, sulfur quality, excessive air pollution, noise and oxides, nitrogen oxides, lead, and many other the problems of waste disposal. This paper pollutants. emphasizes on the effect of urbanization on POLLUTION environmental components mainly climate, Pollutants are often dispersed across cities or biosphere, land and water resources. A case concentrated in industrial areas or waste sites. study of urbanization in India and metropolitan Lead- based paint used on roads and highways cities have been carried out leading to conclude and on buildings is one such example of a widely on the existing causes of damage to the dispersed pollutant that found its way into soil. environment due to urbanization and preventive IMPACTS ON THE HYDROSPHERE AND measures to keep a check on them. Although it WATER RESOURCES is impossible to restrict urbanization it has to be Flow of Water into Streams ensured that urbanization proceeds in the right Natural vegetation and undisturbed soil are path causing minimum impact on environment. replaced with concrete, asphalt, brick, and INTRODUCTION other impermeable surfaces. This means that, Urbanization is a process that leads to the when it rains, water is less likely to be absorbed growth of cities due to industrialization and into the ground and, instead, flows directly into economic development, and that leads to river channels. urban- specific changes in specialization, labor Flow of Water through Streams division and human behaviors. The population Higher, faster peak flows change streams is growing at the rate of about 17 million channels that have evolved over centuries under annually which means a staggering 45,000 natural conditions. Flooding can be a major births per day and 31 births per minutes. If problem as cities grow and stream channels the current trend continues, by the year 2050, attempt to keep up with these changes. India would have 1620 million populations. Degraded Water Quality Due to uncontrolled urbanization in India, The water quality has degraded with time due to environmental degradation has been occurring urbanization that ultimately leads to increased very rapidly and causing many problems like sedimentation there by also increasing the shortages of housing, worsening water quality, pollutant in run-off. excessive air pollution, noise, dust and heat, IMPACTS ON THE BIOSPHERE and the problems of disposal of solid wastes Modification of Habitats and hazardous wastes. The fertilizers that spread across lawns find its IMPACTS OF URBANIZATION way into water channels where it promotes The most emerging issues are climate changes, the growth of plants at the expense of fish. freshwater scarcity, deforestation, and fresh The waste dumped into streams lowers oxygen water pollution and population growth. levels during its decay and cause the die-off of These problems are very complex and their plants and animals. interactions are hard to define. It is very Destruction of Habitats important to examine problems trough the There is also complete eradication of habitats as

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 156 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) an outcome of urbanization and native species • Rural-Urban Distribution Tamil Nadu are pushed out of cities. Series 34, Director of Census Operations Tamil Creation of New Habitats Nadu, Government of India. Due to better New habitats are also created for some native access to health care, educational and social and non-native species. Cities also create service facilities, infant mortality is less in cities. habitats for some species considered pests, CONCLUSION such as pigeons, sparrows, rats, mice, flies and The percentage of poor people is growing in mosquitoes. Urbanization has, for example, many countries. Due to such a low income the eliminated many bat colonies in caves, but has main goal for the people is to get their daily provided sites such as bridges for these species meal, water and accommodation. For these to nest. people the environmental problems are not GROWTH IN MOTOR VEHICLES IN in the front line. Because of this the solving INDIA AND IN METROPOLITAN CITIES of environmental problems in developing Within 10 years from 1990 to 2000 there countries are not easy. The rapid growth rate the has been almost a three-fold increase in the country was ranked much lower as compared number motor vehicles in India. On an average to other developing nations of South East Asia. 10% increase has been found in each year, The major factors that affected urbanization which is a serious concern for air pollution. were increase in population, migration from THE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF rural areas. However with the urban growth URBANIZATION issues related to development also emerged. • The urban heat island has become a There has been increase in slums, reduction growing concern and is increasing over the in civic amenities, increase in property prices, years. The urban heat island is formed when increase in prices of other essentials and non industrial and urban areas are developed and essential commodities. heat becomes more abundant. In rural areas, a REFERENCES large part of the incoming solar energy is used 1.“Urbanization” National Library of Medicine. to evaporate water from vegetation and soil. Retrieved 5 November 2014. • Global warming, air pollution, water 2.Borowiecki, Karol J. (2013) Geographic Clustering scarcity and pollution and loss of forest cover, and Productivity: An Instrumental Variable agricultural land and depletion of wildlife as a Approach for Classical Composers, Journal of Urban result of urban sprawl, pose serious threats to Economics, 73(1): 94–110 the environment. 3.“World Economic and Social Survey 2013” World • Urban areas suffer from serious Economic and Social Affairs. July 2013. problems of environmental pollution. There are 4.Behrman, J. and Deloli 1995. An Empirical high levels of air pollution and noise pollution Exploration for South-Central India. Economic due to industries and automobiles. Water is Development and Cultural Change 43(3): 585–601. also polluted due to industrial wastewater 5.De Haan, A. 1997. Rural-Urban Migration and discharge. Solid waste generation in urban Poverty: The Case of India. IDS Bulletin 28(2): 35– areas is very high, and its proper disposal is a 47. major problem. 6.Annual Report 2010–11 Bharat Nirman through • Proper sewerage facilities are often Rural Development, Ministry of Rural Development, lacking in urban areas. In the crowded slums, Government of India. the human waste is just deposited in gutters 7.Census of India 2011 Provisional Population or vacant spaces, which become a breeding Totals, Paper 2, Volume 1 of 2011. ground for pathogenic bacteria spreading salmonella and hepatitis infections. In most of the cities heavy rainfall totally upsets the sewerage system. • Cities are warmer than villages. Due to lot of heat released by various types of human activities in cities, which get retained by built structures and then slowly released into the atmosphere there is creation of urban heat island. This problem can be partially tackled by growing green belts of trees. • Urbanization also provides several benefits when there is a well-planned city with proper transportation and residential facilities, reducing pollution problems.

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38.GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS IMPACT ON INDIAN PRODUCTS: A STUDY ON PATANJALI AYURVED LIMITED

Dr. SUNDARI SURESH, Professor, ITM Business School, SIPCOT IT Park College, Chennai.

Dr.C. VIJAI, Assistant Professor, Department of Commerce, Sriram Arts and Science College, Permalpattu, Tiruvallur District, Tamil Nadu.

ABSTRACT NRI couple; who are associated with the UK decade ago Patanjali Ayurveda came with Trust of Patanjali. Patanjali’s proactive moves A an influential dialogue “no chemicals & in innovation have been crucial for its growth; swadeshi alternative”. In a very few months, the report says and cautions that the other Patanjali has become a prime household consumer companies will need to speed up name. Today, Patanjali Ayurveda Limited is as innovations, particularly in the Herbal and one of the main players in the Indian FMCG Ayurvedic space to counter competition. (Fast Moving Consumer Goods) company, OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY and blindly trusted by the people across the • To know why consumers prefer Patanjali country. Patanjali has now become the most products prestigious brand in India and has a turnover • To study the increasing growth of profit of more than 2,000 crore in a very short span of of Patanjali products. time. Patanjali Ayurveda is offering the entire • To know the source of consumer range of FMCG products such as food, grocery, preference nutrition, hair care, skin care and dental care at • To know the products customers are much competitive price than the other brands expecting from Patanjali available in the market. The research “A Study • To study the future prospectus of of Brand Strategy and the Demand Inclination Patanjali products. of the Patanjali Products in India” will provide the information of sales, marketing and the RESEARCH METHODS branding strategy of the Patanjali products. This paper depends on secondary data where We will discuss the factor responsible for the sources have been utilized to gather data about growth of Patanjali Ayurvedic Limited and the “Patanjali‟ brands. Diaries, articles, research future projects by Patanjali Ayurvedic Limited. reports and government records were explored KEYWORDS: Environment, Eco-friendly, Global to get the knowledge of the past intercessions. climate change, FMCG, Marketing Strategies, Web references have additionally been PatanjaliAyurved. accomplished for accomplishing the reason and goals of the review. Data has been sourced from INTRODUCTION different books, exchange diaries, government Baba Ramdev established the Patanjali Ayurved distributions and web. What’s more, research Limited in 2006 along with Acharya Balkrishna is expressive in nature. with the objective of establishing science of Ayurveda in accordance and coordinating with OVERVIEW OF PATANJALI AYUURVED the latest technology and ancient wisdom. LIMITED Patanjali Ayurved is perhaps the fastest growing Overview fast-moving-consumer goods firm in India with PatanjaliAyurved Limited is an Indian FMCG Annual revenue at more than Rs.2,000 crore. Company headquartered at Haridwar, It is reported to have said that it expects to Uttarakhand. The Company was established on take the revenue to a whopping Rs10, 000 13th January, 2006 with Acharya Balkrishna as crore. The company sources products directly its majority state holder as well as managing from farmers and cuts on middlemen to boost Director with 92% stake, the rest being with an profits. It is to be noted that Baba Ramdev does NRI family from UK. not hold any stake in Patanjali Ayurveda Ltd. His partner Acharya Balakrishna is believed to own Product Portfolio 92%. The balance 8% stake is held by Sarwan It is involved in manufacturing as well as and Sunita Poddar, a Scotland-based distribution of products ranging from food,

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 158 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) beverages to cosmetics and fabric care. Since its retail outlets as of May 2016. Patanjali also inception in 2006 the company has made rapid sells its products online and is planning to advances in expanding its reach across many open outlets at railway stations and airports. segments and currently operates a plethora of Patanjali Ayurveda has tied up with Pittie brands. Its many products include. Group and Kishore Biyani’s Future Group on Production 9 October 2015 As per the tie-up with Future Patanjali Food and Herbal Park at Haridwar Group, all the consumer products of Patanjali is the main production facility operated by will be available for the direct sale in Future PatanjaliAyurved. The company plans to Group outlets. Patanjali Ayurveda products are establish further units in India and in Nepal. also available in modern trade stores including In 2016, the Patanjali Food and Herbal Park Reliance retail, Hyper city and Star Bazaar was given a full-time security cover of 35 apart from online channels PatanjaliAyurved, armed Central Industrial Security Force (CISF) co-founded by yoga guru Ramdev, is targeting commandos. The park will be the eighth Rs.10,000-crore revenue in 2016-17, after sales private institute in India to be guarded by CISF grew 150 per cent in the previous financial paramilitary forces. Baba Ramdev is himself a year to Rs.5,000 crore. PatanjaliAyurved has “Z” category protected of central paramilitary also started its FMCG expansion in form of forces dealership and distributorship channels across the country and expects wider growth in Products overseas distribution as well. Patanjali Ayurved produces products in the categories of personal care and food. The SUCCESS STORY OF PATANJALI – HOW company manufactures 444 products including PATANJALI AYURVEDA LTD. ACHIEVED 45 types of cosmetic products and 30 types THE MAGIC NUMBERS OF TURNOVER of food products. According to Patanjali, all Yoga guru Ramdev posed yoga as a cure of the products manufactured by Patanjali are many health challenges, he started teaching made from Ayurveda and natural components yoga to Indian audience through TV channels Patanjali has also launched beauty and baby Sanskar, Astha etc., and it takes few years when products. PatanjaliAyurvedic manufacturing you can see his influence in majority of the division has over 300 medicines for treating a people and With the Word of mouth publicity range of ailments and body conditions, from boosting the reach due to these benefits. Many common cold to chronic paralysis. people started claiming that they had been cured using Babaji‟s Yogic methods. Although Patanjali launched instant noodles on 15 Patanjali have an excellent gear up but, if they November 2015. Food Safety and Standards want to compete with the brands like P&G Authority of India slapped a notice on the and Hindustan Unilever, they need to establish company as neither Patanjali nor Aayush, themselves with a unique positioning. which are the two brand names under which Patanjali got licenses, have got any approval for manufacturing instant noodles. In 2016, Patanjali has announced to enter the textile manufacturing centre. The company is reported to manufacture not only traditional clothes such as Kurta and Payjama but also popular western clothes such as jeans. On November 5, 2016, Patanjali announced that it will set up a new manufacturing plant Patanjali Herbal and Mega Food Park in Balipara, Assam by investing ₹1,200 crore (US$180 million) with the manufacturing capacity of 1,000,000 tonnes (2.2×109 lb) of goods per year. The new plant will be the largest facility of Patanjali in India and will be operational by March 2017. Patanjali already has around 50 manufacturing units across. Fig. 1 – Revenue break-up since 2011 to 2015- Sales & Distribution 16 in Crore ( Image Source: Internet –Livemint. Patanjali Ayurved sells through nearly 4,700 com)

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FUNCTIONAL STRUCTURE OF PATANJALI says Ramdev.” Profiting from patients is against AYURVED LTD. the philosophy of Ayurveda, so we aim at Swami Ramdev’s medicines are manufactured minimum profit from our health products. PAL in branches well equipped with modern input costs are low because we source directly equipment’s mostly in Haridwar and other from farmers, avoiding middlemen places, certified by the international standards GMP, GLP & ISO 9001. Swami Ramdev also has a 1) Competitive pricing botanical garden near Patanjali YogPeeth where 2) Purity of raw materials used the herbs and medicinal plants are grown. Here 3) Innovation. research is carried out on rare herbs and they 4) Minimum Profit are grown here by putting in great efforts. Under Swami Ramdev’s guidance an industrial The reason for Patanjali’s success is the thrift unit is also established called Patanjali Ayurved in practices. “Our profit margins are miniscule Limited which produces pure and high quality because the main aim is NOT to make profit,” minerals and plants products through scientific says Ramdev.” Profiting from patients is against methods. Swami Ramdevji and Acharya the philosophy of Ayurveda, so we aim at Balkrishna ji have tried to combine the ancient minimum profit from our health products. PAL knowledge with ultramodern technology. input costs are low because we source directly Swami Ramdev is working towards the goal from farmers, avoiding middlemen “Most of establishing the ayurvedic products at par companies have administrative costs of around with the international standards and to make 10% of their revenue, but in our case it is just it known across the world. To encourage 2%.” the use of Ayurvedic medicine and amongst The 3 principles vital for growth: Swami Ramdev’s revolutionary thoughts, one The organization conducts its business on the is that the farmers of India should adopt the following 3 main principles: cultivation of medicinal herbs and plants along with fruits and vegetables. (1) Providing world‐class products to consumers PATANJALI AYURVED Ltd. is a company that (making sure the company does not add any functions like all other companies under the preservatives or uses natural preservatives as regulations of the company law affairs, yet is far as possible). constantly striving for nation building more than the profit accumulation. (2) Producing products in the most cost‐ Bases of Structure of PAL effective manner so that the products are Superior Quality and Fair Price: this is one of priced very reasonably. the objects of PAL to provide better quality in very affordable prices. (3) Whatever profits the company earns are ploughed back into business so that it can invest A holistic approach: A holistic approach to the same for launch of new products, cost improvement in the quality of life of all beings, effectiveness or further capacity expansion. world over, is the purpose behind PAL. FUTURE PROSPECTUS OF PATANJALI Fertilizers: Getting rid the food PAL consume of the pollutants in the form of poisonous Rural Push: pesticides and chemical fertilizers that PAL Rural market accounts for over 70% of India’s farmers use, is a goal that we strive to achieve 1.21 billion population but contributes only by providing people the eatables that are 9% in the FMCG Industry. Thus increasing cultivated in organic and natural manures and distribution and support infrastructure in rural pest repellents. areas is a key area where the it needs to focus. Basic Principles of product development at Increment in Research and Development: Patanjali Ayurveda Ltd. FMCG brands would need to concentrate 1) Competitive pricing on R&D and advancement as a method for 2) Purity of raw materials used development. In this period of extraordinary 3) Innovation. rivalry, organizations that keep on doing great 4) Minimum Profit would be the ones that have a culture that elevates utilizing client bits of knowledge to The reason for Patanjali’s success is the thrift make either the up and coming era of items or in practices. “Our profit margins are miniscule now and again, new item classes. Along these because the main aim is NOT to make profit,” lines Patanjali would need to contribute a great

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 160 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) deal of capital and exertion into huge innovative positioning of Patanjali Ayurved ltd.” . Pune work of more up to date item classifications. research 8.discovery, 1(3), 1-6. Focus on Exports: 9.Suresh K.(2006). Green Marketing-, ICFAI Patanjali has to a great extent centered to take University Press, ISBN: 81-314-0380-7 3. into account the residential market. Trades 10.Gopal R.K & Singh Brijesh (2016). in this manner stay to be a low division of Demystifying the brand Patanjali - a case on the aggregate deals. It is in this way basic to growth strategies ofPatanjali Ayurved ltd. PES concentrate on sending out items utilizing Business Review Volume 11, Issue 1. Indian operations as sourcing center for the 11.Aaker, D. (1992). Strategic market same. management (3 ed.). Canada: John Wiley & Sons, IncAaker, LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 12.Duclos, L. K., Lummus, R. R. and Vokurka, As the research have done through the R. J. (2003) A conceptualmodel of supply chain secondary data where research, data, facts, flexibility. Industrial Management and Data information have already provided either on Systems 103(6), 446–456. books, reports, news papers, websites etc. 13.Kotler, P. K. Lane, K. A. and Zha, Mithileshwar. Facts and figures are not directly gathered from (2008).Marketing Management (Twelfth the company so that information or data may Edition), Pearson Education Ltd .PgNo:142 vary from the real facts. And time constrain has 14.Mintzberg, H. &Lampel, J. (1999). Reflecting prohibited from going deep into the subject on the Strategy Process. Sloan Management due to time constraints study is restricted to Review, Spring 1999 pp. 21-30. limited places/cities only. 15.Morewedge, C. K., Holtzman, L., &Epley, CONCLUSION N. (2007). Unfixed resources: perceived costs, On the bases of the findings of the study it can be consumption, and the accessible account concluded that Patanjali products have gained effect. Journal of Consumer Research, 34(4), significant place in the market and captured 459–467). quite a huge lot of consumers within a short 16.http://patanjaliayurveda.com/en/ period of time. Patanjali Ayurvedic Kendra company-profile http://www.natureandherbs. Private Limited has started in Pantnagar with co.uk/shop/patanjali/?p=all 26 products of medicinal, food and cosmetic 17.http://patanjaliayurveda.com/en/products category. Shortage of products on Patanjali 18.www.google.com Ayurvedic Kendra was the major limitation 19.www.wikipedia.com reported by the consumers. Consumers suggested that Patanjali should provide detail information about their products. The delivery system should be improved coupled with regular delivery of products. The need for more and clear advertisement along with promotional camp supported with medical advice to consumers was felt in order to improve consumer acceptability. REFERENCES 1.Rani, S., & Shukla, C. (2012). Trend of patanjali products: an ayurvedic magic wand for healthy 2.living. Paripex - Indian journal of research, 1(9), 93-94. 3.Ali, M. I., & Yadav, M. (2015). A study of consumer perception of herbal products in Bhopal. 4.International Journal Of Management Studies, 2(1), 69-80. 5.Khanna, R. (2015). Customer perception towards brand: a study on ‘Patanjali’. Global journal of 6.management and business research: e marketing , 15(9), 41-45. 7.Shinde, D. T., &Gharat, S. J. (2017). “product

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 161 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018 39. RELEVANCE OF ANCIENT INDIAN METHODS OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION IN THE PRESENT DAY SCENARIO

Dr.B.SHYAMALA, Associate Professor, Department Of Economics, Ethiraj College For Women, Chennai. SHWETHA.S.S Research Scholar, Department Of Economics, Ethiraj College For Women, Chennai.

ABSTRACT it a grove of trees to catch rainfall and protect “The greatest shortcoming of human race is the banks from erosion. The lake and its grove our inability to understand the exponential would store rainfall to irrigate surrounding function” fields and also to provide drinking water to the -Albert.A.Bartlett local community. In recent times, the neglect In a bid to achieve the twin goals of boosting of these simple techniques for gathering and economic growth and ending extreme protecting clean water has led to serious water poverty, nations have exploited the existing shortage crisis. These are just few among many resources without understanding the true cost traditions followed by our forefathers. The of its depletion. They are confronted with a objective of this paper is to study the traditional resource scarcity crisis as they are unable to techniques of environmental protection satisfy the unlimited wants of human beings that were followed in ancient India and to with the limited resources. Resources have provide suggestions to government entities, been used, abused and misused over and NGO’s and International organizations for above their rate of replenishment. At this embracing those techniques for a sustainable juncture, it becomes imperative for nations future. It is high time to seek lessons from the to understand the concept of “Sustainable spiritual heritage of our country as they offer Development”. Sustainable development a unique set of moral values and customs that refers to development that meets the needs of serves as a guide in nurturing the relationship the present generation without compromising between man and nature, thereby, leading to a the ability of future generations to meet sustainable future. their own needs. The questions for nations is not “whether” to embrace sustainable INTRODUCTION development but “how” to embrace it. The The aim of every nation is to achieve the twin answer lies in an older school of thought. goals of maximizing economic growth and In ancient India, the inhabitants of the river minimizing poverty.In the process, countries Indus(Hindus)followed certain practices that have caused irreparable damage to the were environment friendly with or without environment by over exploiting the existing their knowledge. They embraced nature as an resources without understanding the true cost integral part of their life. Hindus have long had of its depletion. Now, they are confronted by a palpable and organic connection with nature. various issues such as pollution, water crisis, In this paper, “Hinduism” is considered as “a way energy crisis and environmental degradation of life” that was practiced by our forefathers and to name a few. A lot of expenditure has not merely as a religion. Ancient Indian texts been incurred towards R&D by governments like Vedas, Puranas and Upanishads clearly and international organizations in a bid to describe the eco-friendly attitude of Hindus. find solutions for a sustainable future. What Plants and trees are valued so highly in Hindu countries have failed to realize is the abundance sacred texts that their destruction is connected of knowledge contained in its own spiritual with doomsday scenario. For the same reason, and cultural heritage. This is particularly true almost every temple in South India dedicated in the case of oriental countries. India has to Lord Shiva or Vishnu, or to a manifestation a great source of information pertaining to of the goddess, has a “sthalavriksha”, a special environmental protection in its sacred books tree regarded as sacred to that area. The like Vedas, Upanishads and Puranas. These sthalavriksha symbolizes all trees and reminds traditional views hold good even in the 21st pilgrims that all trees are worthy of respect. century. This paper attempts to study the role Similarly, in older days, people revered rivers, of Hinduism in protecting the environment for mountains, forests and animals. For example, a sustainable future. Also, Hinduism is viewed many villages had a sacred lake, and around purely as a way of life and not as a religion.

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 162 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) OBJECTIVE OF THE PAPER great epics and Puranas, the Hindu respect for flora expanded further. Trees were considered The two main objectives of this paper are as as being animate and it is still popularly follows: believed that every tree has a Vriksa-devata, a)To study the traditional techniques of or ‘tree deity’, who is worshipped with prayers environmental protection that were followed and offerings of water, flowers, sweets, and in ancient India. encircled by sacred threads. Also, for Hindus, b)To provide suggestions to government the planting of a tree is still a religious duty. entities, NGO’s and International organizations The Hindu worship of trees and plants has for embracing ancient techniques of been based partly on utility, but mostly on environmental protection for a sustainable religious duty and mythology. Hindu ancestors future. considered it their duty to save trees and in order to do that they attached to every tree a ANCIENT METHODS OF ENVIRONMENTAL religious sanctity. PROTECTION In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna compares the India possesses a great-diversified ecosystem world to a single banyan tree with unlimited containing forests, wetlands, islands, estuaries, branches in which all the species of animals, parks, landscapes, oceans and a rich blend humans and demigods wander. Indian of natural surroundings. Many customary or consciousness is full of trees and forests. If you community practices were evolved by our look, for example, in Greek literature, you will ancestors to protect the environment. This is find only a few descriptions of trees and forests, very evident from our Hindu culture.Hindu whereas Indian literature such as Ramayana religion’s reverence for the sea, soil, forests, and Mahabharata is full of such descriptions, rivers, mountains, plants, birds, and animals as if the people were always under a tree. The stems from its broader view of divinity. Hindus bond between Indian people and trees is very believe that all things and beings in the world are strong. various manifestations of the Ultimate Reality Hindu tradition describes three basic categories (Brahman), and nothing exists apart from it. of forest. One is “Shrivan”, the forest which The whole emphasis of Hindu scriptures is that provides prosperity. Then there is “Tapovan”, human beings cannot separate themselves where one can contemplate as the sages did from nature. and seek truth. The third is “Mahavana” the Several decades ago, Hindu sages realized that great natural forest where all species of life preservation of environment was necessary find shelter. Each of these categories must be for survival of mankind. To create awareness preserved. among common people for preservation of the Forests and groves were considered sacred, environment, the rishis taught that earth has and flowering trees received special reverence. the same relationship with man as a mother Just as various animals were associated with with her child. In the Vedic literature, the earth gods and goddesses, different trees and plants is addressed as Mother Earth and personified were also associated in the Hindu pantheon. as the goddess “Bhumi”, or “Prithvi”. Five The Mahabharata says that ‘even if there is thousand years later, the world experts only one tree full of flowers and fruits in the addressed earth as “Mother Earth” for the first village, that place becomes worthy of worship time at the “Global Conference” in 1992 in “Rio and respect.’ de Janeiro”. Hindus see divinity in all living creatures. There are numerous messages contained in Animal deities therefore, occupy an important Hindu scriptures for the protection of our place in Hindu dharma. Animals, for example, environment and the maintenance of ecological are very common as a form of transportation balance. The following are a few examples of for various Gods and Goddesses. Each divinity some of these timeless teachings to tackle is associated with a particular animal or bird, the issues of deforestation, climate change, and this lends a special dimension to the animal pollution and environmental degradation. kingdom. Since time immemorial, forests have been As the sheep is to Christianity, the cow is to an integral part of the livelihood of mankind. Hinduism. Lord Krishna was a cowherd, and The early inhabitants of India were well aware the bull is depicted as the vehicle of Lord Shiva. of the numerous benefits that forests could Today the cow has almost become a symbol of provide. As early as in the time of Rigveda, tree Hinduism. In India, the cow is believed to be a worship was quite popular and universal. The symbol of the earth because it gives so much tree symbolized the various attributes of God yet asks nothing in return. to the Rigvedic seers. During the period of the

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Lord Krishna Says in the Bhagvad Gita (9.26) new palace, he sent his soldiers to the Bishnois Patrampushpampahalamtoyam area where trees were in abundance. Villagers Yomeybhaktyaprayachchatitadanambhaktyup protested, and when soldiers did not pay ahrumtamasna attention to their protests, the Bishnois, led by a (If I accept a flower, fruit or water or whatever woman, hugged the trees to protect them with is offered with devotion) their bodies. As soldiers kept on killing villagers, Apart from attaching religious significance to more and more of the Bishnois came forward plants and trees, Hindus also revered them for to honour the religious injunction of their Guru their medicinal properties. MaharajJambaji. This massacre continued until All plants and flowers have medicinal value 363 persons were killed defending trees. When in the Hindu system of medicine (ayurveda) the king heard about this human sacrifice, he brought by “Dhanvantari” - The father of stopped the operation, and gave the Bishnois Ancient Indian Medicine System during state protection for their belief. Today, the Samudramathana (churning of oceans). Bishnois community continues to protect For example, the Tulsi plant has great medical trees and animals with the same fervour. significance. It is used to prevent and cure many Their community is the best example of a true illnesses and ailments like cold, headaches, Hindu-based ritual defense of the environment stomach disorders, inflammation, heart in India, and their sacrifices became the diseases and malaria. inspiration for the Chipko movement of 1973. The story of Lord Krishna has it that when Krishna was weighed in gold, not even all the HINDUISM AND SUSTAINABLE ornaments of Satyabhama could outweigh DEVELOPMENT him. But a single tulsi leaf placed by Rukmani The abuse and exploitation of nature for on the pan tilted the scale. In the Hindu stories, immediate gain is unethical and unjust. No tulsi is very dear to Lord Vishnu. culture has remained immune from human Hindus oppose killing for several reasons. Belief irreverence towards nature. Hinduism in in karma and reincarnation are strong forces at particular is against environmental degradation. work in the Hindu mind. What we have done to They have laid emphasis on the importance others will be done to us, if not in this life then of protecting the environment for future in another. The Hindu is thoroughly convinced generations. For instance, the caste system that violence which he commits will return to which has been a subject of debate for decades him by a cosmic process that is unerring. For was instituted for the sake of managing the the same reason, many Hindus adhere to a resources efficiently. The society was divided strict vegetarian diet also. They believe that any into different classes and each class specialized harm caused to any living being will backfire on a particular profession. This is similar to the on them since they believe in the “Doctrine of concept of division of labour and this ensured karma”. Two thousand years ago, South India’s that the resources were put to proper use. saint Tiruvalluvar said it so simply, “All suffering There was no fear of encroachment from other recoils on the wrongdoer himself. Therefore, classes when people were employed with a those who desire not to suffer refrain from particular job profile. . When we look at it from causing others pain.” a different perspective, it throws light on the ILLUSTARTIONS OF ANCIENT TRADITIONS concept of sustainable development where FOLLOWED IN INDIA people judiciously used the resources by In India, there is a small community called keeping aside enough for future generations. “Bishnois” in Rajasthan. They practice a As Mahatma Gandhi cited, “nature had enough religion of environmental conservation. Their for everybody’s need but not for everybody’s religion is an offshoot of Hinduism and was greed.” The budding issue in today’s world is founded by “Guru MaharajJambaji” during the the poor belief system in our ancient customs Marwar era. When he was young he witnessed and traditions. In a country like India, it is how, during a severe drought, people cut down definitely easier for people to follow these trees to feed animals but when the drought practices provided they are incorporated as a continued, nothing was left to feed the animals, part of their ritual. The Hindu religion teaches so they died. Jambaji thought that if trees are a renunciation of worldly goods, and preaches protected, animal life could be sustained, and against materialism and consumerism. Such his community would survive. He gave 29 teachings could act as a great source of strength injunctions and principles, among them being a for Hindu societies in their struggle to achieve ban on the cutting of any green tree and killing sustainable development. of any animal or bird. About 300 years later, when the King of Jodhpur wanted to build a

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 164 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) SUGGESTIONS FOR EMBRACING 3.https://www.talesbytrees.com/a-brief-guide-to- TRADITIONAL METHODS OF the-sacred-trees-of-india/ ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION 4.http://www.bishnoism.com/uploadPDF/ As former President of India Dr.A.P.J.AbdulKalam DwivediHinduEcol.pdf said, “The future of India lies in the hands of 5.Bhagavad Gita chapter 9 verse 26 the youth”. =>Governments should implement environmental courses for children that are culture and value based right at the school level. Lessons from Western countries should be kept at a minimum. =>Students should be encouraged to plant saplings in the school and college premises as a part of their curriculum. =>Good aspects from every religion regarding protection of environment should be taken as an input in framing environmental policies. These are just few suggestions that are specifically targeted towards youngsters as they are capable of bringing a change in the society. CONCLUSION It is clear that the need of the hour is a revival of respect for ancient cultural values. This revival need not turn into fundamentalism but could definitely be based on the relevant concepts enshrined in our ancient Indian texts. The message should be to adorn atraditionalist approach by incorporating spiritual guidance into the various socio-economic interactions without causing any harm to secularism. “Satyagraha for conservation” could very well be a rallying point for the awakened spirit of Hinduism. I believe that by incorporating traditional values in to rituals, we can evoke a kind of awareness in people that is different from scientific or technological reasoning. Hinduism helps make human beings aware that there are limits to their control over animate and inanimate world and that their arrogance and manipulative power over nature can backfire. Religion instills the recognition that human life cannot be measured by material possessions and that the ends of life go beyond conspicuous consumption. Secular institutions, national governments, and international organizations should acknowledge the role of cultural values in environmental education. There are definitely several disagreements among world religions but a mixture of key ideas from each of them pertaining to conservation could definitely lead to a new global environmental ethic.

REFERENCES 1.http://www.sanskritimagazine.com/indian- religions/hinduism/nature-worship/ 2.http://www.hinduwisdom.info/Nature_ Worship6.htm

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 165 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018 40. IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGES ON TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA

Dr.S.SENDIL KUMAR, Assistant Professor, P.G and Research Department of Economics, Voorhees College, Vellore.

Mr.ANANTHA BABU.V, Ph.D. Research Scholar, P.G and Research Department of Economics, Voorhees College, Vellore. ABSTRACT co tourism, also known as ecological tourism, INTRODUCTION Eis travel to natural areas to appreciate The quality of the environment, both natural the cultural and natural history of the and man-made, is essential to tourism. environment, while not disturbing the integrity However, the relationship of tourism with of the ecosystem and creating economic the environment is complex. It involves many opportunities that make conservation and activities that can have adverse environmental protection of natural resources advantageous effects. Many of these impacts are linked with to local people. Ecotourism also minimizes the construction of general infrastructure such wastage and the environmental impact as roads and airports, and of tourism facilities, through sensitized tourists. Tourists look for an including resorts, hotels, restaurants, shops, ecologically clean, non-polluted and unharmed golf courses and marinas. The negative impacts natural environment to make their trip or of tourism development can gradually destroy vacation, so tourist activities take place mostly environmental resources on which it depends. in ecologically clean territories. The existence of On the other hand, tourism has the potential any ecological problem in a territory – pollution to create beneficial effects on the environment with hard waste materials, water pollution, by contributing to environmental protection high soil acidity, disrupted and annihilated and conservation. It is a way to raise awareness vegetation, noise pollution, existence of of environmental values and it can serve as a noxious emissions in the air etc. affect tourism tool to finance protection of natural areas and development in it in a most negative way. increase their economic importance Negative Existence of ecological problems is one of the impacts from tourism occurs when the level of strongest restricting factors for modern tourism visitor use is greater than the environment’s development and so they are an important ability to cope with this use within acceptable criterion for assessing tourism potential. Some limits of change. Uncontrolled conventional of the tourists evince keen interest in nature. tourism poses potential threats to many natural There is abundant natural wealth in Tamil areas around the world. It can put enormous Nadu viz. hill stations, waterfalls, forests, bird pressure on an area and lead to impacts sanctuaries, beaches, etc. A separate Eco- such as soil erosion, increased pollution, Tourism Wing is being set up by Tamil Nadu discharges into the sea, natural habitat loss, Tourism by posting an officer from the Forest increased pressure on endangered species and Department. The vision is to make Tamil Nadu heightened vulnerability to forest fires. It often a world renowned destination specializing in puts a strain on water resources, and it can sustainable tourism through focused efforts force local populations to compete for the use on creating synergy among all stakeholders, of critical resources. encouraging capacity building and public- private partnerships with revenue generating OBJECTIVES strategies. This paper aims to fulfill the following purposes; This research paper focuses on an impact of Tourism on climatic changes in Tamilnadu. The →→ To see the positive and negative impact researcher is an analysis the role of climate of tourism on environment. changes in tourism development through the →→ To identify the improvement in secondary data from the various published Environmental Management and Planning. sources. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY KEYWORDS: climate changes and Tourism development. The study has been conducted mainly on the basis of literature survey and secondary

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 166 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) information. Various seminar papers and conduct a study for a period of one year for summary of discussion in those seminars, collection of Tourism Statistics. taskforce reports of research organization, TOURISM AND ITS IMPACT ON journals and some periodicals on environmental ENVIRONMENT impacts of tourism have been surveyed for the Like most of the human activities, tourism purpose of the study. Some environmental also has positive and negative impact on analyst and expertise person has also been the society and environment as a whole. For interviewed for the purpose of accumulating the purpose of the research, it is important facts and information. to assess and examine both the positive TOURISM IN TAMILNADU and negative impacts in a neutral way. The Tamil Nadu, formerly known as Madras quality of the environment, both natural and State, is located in the south eastern side of man-made, is essential to tourism. However, Indian peninsula with Kanyakumari as the tourism’s relationship with the environment southernmost tip of the land. This tip isthe is complex. Many of these impacts are linked meeting point of Bay of Bengal, Indian Ocean with the construction of general infrastructure and Arabian Sea. Tamil Nadu has a long eastern such as roads and airports, and of tourism coastline dotted with enchanting beaches with facilities, including resorts, hotels, restaurants, Bay of Bengal in the east. Arabian Sea and shops, golf courses and marinas. The negative the states of Kerala and Karnataka form the impacts of tourism development can gradually boundary in the west. The state is bounded destroy the environmental resources on which in the north by the states of Karnataka and it depends. On the other hand, tourism has Andhra Pradesh The state language is Tamil and the potential to create beneficial effects on the the main religions in the state are Hinduism, environment by contributing to environmental Christianity, Islam and Jainism. With forested protection and conservation. It is a way to raise slopes of the majestic hills of the Western awareness of environmental values and it can Ghats, profuse incense of the towering serve as a tool to finance protection of natural temples and gourami, vibrant festivals of music areas and increase their economic importance. and dance, shimmering silk fabrics of brilliant POSITIVE IMPACT OF TOURISM colors, and an endless array of silver lined a. Generating Income and Employment: beaches, Tamil Nadu also boasts of being the land of Dravidian culture and tradition. Tamil Tourism in India has emerged as an instrument Nadu is the eleventh largest state in India by of income and employment generation, area and the seventh most populous state. It poverty alleviation and sustainable human is the second largest state economy in India as development. It contributes 6.23% to of 2012. The state ranked among the top five the National GDP and 8.78% of the total states in India in Human Development Index as employment in India. Almost 20 million people of 2006. Tamil Nadu is also the most urbanized are now working in the India’s tourism industry. state in India. The state has the highest number of business enterprises and stands second in b. Source of Foreign Exchange Earnings: total employment in India, compared to the population share of about 6%. Tourism is an important source of foreign exchange earnings in India. This has favorable Tamil Nadu has a long tradition of venerable impact on the balance of payment of the country. culture. Tamil Nadu is known for its rich tradition The tourism industry in India generated about of literature, music and dance which continue US$100 billion in 2008 and that is expected to to flourish today. Unique cultural features increase to US $ 275.5 billion by 2018 at a 9.4% like Bharatanatyam (dance), Tanjore painting, annual growth rate179. and Tamil architecture were developed and continue to be practiced in Tamil Nadu. Pongal, c. Preservation of National Heritage and also called as Tamizhar Thirunaal (festival Environment: of Tamils) or Makara Sankranti elsewhere in India, a four-day harvest festival is one of the Tourism helps preserve several places which are most widely celebrated festivals throughout of historical importance by declaring them as Tamil Nadu. Keeping this in mind the Market heritage sites. For instance, the Taj Mahal180, Research Division of Ministry of Tourism, the Qutab Minar181, Ajanta182 and Ellora183 Government of India has awarded Nielsen India temples, etc, would have been decayed and Pvt. Ltd. (Formerly ACNielsen ORG-MARG), one destroyed had it not been for the efforts taken of the largest market research and consultancy by Tourism Department to preserve them. organizations in this part of the continent, to Likewise, tourism also helps in conserving the

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natural habitats of many endangered species. chemicals, even architecture/visual pollution. d. Developing Infrastructure: a. Depletion of Local Resources:

Tourism tends to encourage the development Tourism can create pressure on local recourses of multiple-use infrastructure that benefits like energy, food, and transport of these the host community, including various means resources exacerbates the physical impacts of transports, health care facilities, and sports associated with their exploitation. Because of centers, in addition to the hotels and high- the seasonal character of the industry, many end restaurants thatcater to foreign visitors. destinations have ten times more inhabitants The development of infrastructure has in turn in the high season. A high demand is placed induced the development of other directly upon these recourses to meet the high productive activities. expectorations tourists often have proper heating, hot water, etc. e. Promoting Peace and Stability:

Honey and Gilpin (2009) suggests that the b. Land degradation: tourism industry can also help promote peace and stability in developing country like India by Important land recourses include minerals, providing jobs, generating income, diversifying fossil fuels, fertile soil, forests, wetland and the economy, protecting the environment, and wildlife. Increases construction of tourism and promoting cross-cultural awareness. However, recreational facilities has increased the pressure key challenges like adoption of regulatory on these recourses and scenic landscapes. frameworks, mechanisms to reduce crime and Direct impact on natural recourses, both corruption, etc, must be addressed if peace- renewable and nonrenewable, in the provision enhancing benefits from this industry are to be of tourist facilities is caused by the use of land realized. for accommodation and other infrastructure provision, and the use of building materials. f. Improved Environmental management and Planning: c. Water Pollution:

Sound environmental management of tourism Water especially, is one of the most critical facilities and especially hotels can increase the natural resources. The tourism industry benefits to natural environment. By planning generally overuses water resources for hotels, early for tourism development, damaging and swimming fools, golf courses and personal use expensive mistakes can be prevented, avoiding of water by tourists. This can result in water the gradual deterioration of environmental shortages and degradation of water supplies, assets significant to tourism. The development as well as generating a greater volume of of tourism has moved the Indian Government wastewater. In dryer regions like Rajasthan, the towards this direction leading to improved issue of water scarcity is particular concern. If environmental management. a proper sewage disposal system has not been installed for hotels, resorts and other tourist g. Creating Environmental Awareness: facilities, there may be pollution of ground water from the sewage, or if a sewage outfall Tourism has the potential to increase public has been construed into a nearby river, lake or appreciation of the environment and to spread coastal seawater and the sewage has not been awareness of environmental problems when it adequately treated, the effluent will pollute brings people into closer contact with nature and that water area. the environment. This confrontation heightens awareness of the value of nature among This situation is common in beach resort areas the community and lead to environmentally where the hotels construct an outfall into the conscious behavior and activities to preserve adjacent water area, which can also be used the environment. for swimming by tourists or for fishing by locals. Recreational and tourist transportation NEGATIVE IMPACT ON ENVIRONMENT: motor boats in surface water result in pollution in river, lakes and sea water due to spilling oil Tourism can cause the same forms of pollution and gas and cleaning their bilge in water. This is as any other industry are emissions, noise, solid usually common in enclosed harbor and places waste and littering, releasing of sewage, oil and where natural water circulation is slow. Water

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 168 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) resources are a prime attraction for tourism be due to poorly- designed hotels and other and recreational developments, and thus facility buildings, which are not compatible suffer impacts. Water pollution is a result of with local architectural style or not well waste water generated by tourist facilities and integrated into the natural environment. Other runoff, and occurs on inland lakes and streams reasons can be poor maintenance of buildings as well as in the marine environment. Much of and landscaping obstruction of scenic views by this is non-point pollution such as septic tank development use of large and ugly advertising seepage, lawn fertilizer, road oil and runoff signs. Littering of landscape also results in from disturbed soil. visual pollution. d. Air Pollution: g. Aesthetic Pollution:

Tourism is generally considered a “smokeless Often tourism fails to integrate its structures industry”. However, it can also result in air with the natural features and indigenous pollution by tourist vehicles in a particular architectural of the destination. Large, area, especially at major attraction sites, that dominating resorts of disparate design can are accessible only by road. This is due to look out of place in any natural environment improperly maintained exhaust systems of and may clash with the indigenous structural the vehicles. In addition, pollution in the form design. A lack of land-use planning and building of dust and dirt in the air may be generated regulations in many destinations has facilitated from open, if the tourism development is not sprawling developments along coastlines, properly planned, developed and landscaped valleys and scenic routes. The sprawl includes or is in an interim State of construction. tourism facilities themselves and supporting Transport by Air, road, and rail is continuously infrastructure such as roads, employee housing, increasing in response to the rising to the parking, service areas, and waste disposal. rising number of tourists activities in India. Transport emissions and emissions from energy h. Waste Disposal Problems: production and use are linked to acid rain, global warming and photochemical pollution. The most common problem in tourism areas is Air pollution from tourists’ transportation has the littering of debris on the landscape. This is impacts on the global level, especially from due to large number of people using the area carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions related to of picnicking. Improper disposal of solid waste transportation energy use. In addition, it can from hotel restaurants, and resorts generate contribute to severe local air pollution. Some both litter and environmental health problems of these impacts are quite specific to tourist from vermin, disease and pollution. It can also activities where the sites are in remote areas lead to the degradation of tourist sites. In areas like Ajanta and Ellora temples. For example, with high concentrations of tourist’s activities tour buses often leave their motors running for and appealing natural attractions, waste hours while the tourists go out for an excursion disposal is a serious problem and improper because they want to return to a comfortably disposal can be a major despoiler of the air-conditioned bus. natural environment-rivers, scenic areas, and roadsides. In mountain areas of the Himalayas e. Noise Pollution: and Darjeeling their garbage, oxygen cylinders Noise generated by a concentration of tourist’s and even camping equipment. Such practices road and certain types of tourist attractions degrade the environment particularly in such as amusement parks or car/motorcycle remote areas because they have few garbage race tracks may reach uncomfortable and collection or disposal irritating levels for nearby residents and other facilities. tourists. Such loud noise can often result in ear damage and psychological stress. Noise i. Sewage: pollution from airplanes, cars, and buses, as well as recreational vehicles is an ever-growing Construction of hotels, recreation and other problem of modern life. In addition to causing facilities often leads to increased sewage annoyance, stress, and even hearing loss for pollution. Wastewater has polluted seas humans, it causes distress to wildlife, especially and lakes surrounding tourist attractions, in sensitive areas. damaging the flora and fauna. Sewage runoff causes serious damage to coral reefs because f. Visual Pollution: it stimulates the growth of algae, which It may result from several sources. These can cover the filter feeding corals, hindering their

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ability to survive. Changes in salinity and Arrival of Migratory Birds - the phenomenon siltation can threaten the health of humans of migratory birds flying thousands of miles in and animals. Examples of such pollution can winter to reach a far away lake and then to start be seen in the coastal States of Goa, Kerala, their back journey after three months or so is Maharashtra, TamilNadu, etc. Nearly all impact mind bogging. However, one thing is certain studies have been concerned with natural that these birds go to the particular lakes or semi-natural areas, with very little work because they find the environment friendly focused on urban settings. Additionally, most and peaceful and food supply abundant. research has been reactionary and centered on the negative impacts that tourism has on l. Solid waste and littering: natural resources after the damage has taken place. Thus, it is difficult to document the In areas with high concentrations of tourist process of environmental change resulting activities and appealing natural attractions, from tourism activity. Tourism is often blamed waste disposal is a serious problem and to an unreasonable degree for resource improper disposal can be a major despoiler of degradation. While tourism does at times result the natural environment - rivers, scenic areas, in negative environmental impacts, there are and roadsides. For example, cruise ships in the also environmental benefits associated with Caribbean are estimated to produce more than tourism, including fostering appreciation for 70,000 tons of waste each year. Today some the environment. cruise lines are actively working to reduce waste-related impacts. Solid waste and littering j. Destruction and Alteration of Ecosystem: can degrade the physical appearance of the water and shoreline and cause the death of An ecosystem is a geographic area including marine animals the entire living organism (people, plants, animals, and microorganisms) their physical IMPROVED ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT surroundings such as soil as soil, water, and AND PLANNING air) and the natural cycles that sustain them. Sound environmental management of tourism Attractive landscape sites, such as sandy beaches facilities and especially hotels can increase in Goa, Maharashtra, Kerala, TamilNadu, lakes, benefits to natural areas. But this requires riversides, and mountaintops and slops, are careful planning for controlled development, often transitional Zones, characterized by based on analysis of the environmental species-rich ecosystems. The threats to and resources of the area. Planning helps to make pressures on these ecosystems are often severe choices between conflicting uses, or to find because such places are very attractive to both ways to make them compatible. By planning tourists and developers. Examples may be early for tourism development, damaging and cited from Krushedei Island near Rameswaram. expensive mistakes can be prevented, avoiding What was once called paradise for marine the gradual deterioration of environmental biologists has been abandoned due to massive assets significant to tourism. Cleaner destruction of coral and other marine life. production techniques can be important tools for planning and operating tourism facilities Another area of concern, which emerged at in a way that minimizes their environmental jaisalmer, is regarding the deterioration of impacts. For example, green building the desert ecology due to increased tourist (using energy-efficient and non-polluting activities in the desert. Moreover, habitat construction materials, sewage systems and can be degraded by tourism leisure activities. energy sources) is an increasingly important For example, wildlife viewing can bring about way for the tourism industry to decrease its stress for the animals and alter their natural impact on the environment. And because behavior when tourists come too close. waste treatment and disposal are often major, Safaris and wildlife watching activities have long-term environmental problems in the a degrading effect on habituate as they often tourism industry, pollution prevention and are accompanied by the noise and commotion waste minimization techniques are especially created by tourists. important for the tourism industry (UNEP, 1995, 1997, 1998; WTO, 1995). k. Adverse effects of excessive tourism on wetlands: Environmental Awareness Rising Excessive tourism affects wetlands in a variety Tourism has the potential to increase public of ways. Here are some of them. Reduced appreciation of the environment and to spread

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 170 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) awareness of environmental problems when it org/tourism). brings people into closer contact with nature and the environment. This confrontation may Regulatory Measures heighten awareness of the value of nature and lead to environmentally conscious behavior Regulatory measures help offset negative and activities to preserve the environment. impacts; for instance, controls on the number If it is to be sustainable in the long run, of tourist activities and movement of visitors tourism must incorporate the principles within protected areas can limit impacts on the and practices of sustainable consumption. ecosystem and help maintain the integrity and Sustainable consumption includes building vitality of the site. Such limits can also reduce consumer demand for products that have been the negative impacts on resources. Limits made using cleaner production techniques, should be established after an in-depth analysis and for services including tourism services of the maximum sustainable visitor capacity. that are provided in a way that minimizes This strategy is being used in the Galapagos environmental impacts. The tourism industry Islands, where the number of ships allowed to can play a key role in providing environmental cruise in this remote archipelago is limited, and information and raising awareness among only designated islands can be visited; ensuring tourists of the environmental consequences visitors have little impact on the sensitive of their actions. Tourists and tourism-related environment and animal habitats (UNEP, 1998; businesses consume an enormous quantity of UNEP, 1997; www.unipie.org/tourism). goods and services; moving them toward using those that are produced and provided in an CONCLUSION environmentally sustainable way could have Tourism industry in India is growing and it has an enormous positive impact on the planet’s vast potential for generating employment and environment (UNEP, 1992). earning large amount of foreign exchange besides giving a fillip to the country’s overall Protection and Preservation economic and social development. However, much more remains to be done. Eco-tourism Tourism can significantly contribute to needs to be promoted so that tourism in India environmental protection, conservation helps in preserving and sustaining the diversity and restoration of biological diversity and of the India’s natural and cultural environments. sustainable use of natural resources. Because Tourism in India should be developed in such of their attractiveness, pristine sites and natural a way that it accommodates and entertains areas are identified as valuable and the need to visitors in a way that is minimally intrusive or keep the attraction alive can lead to creation destructive to the environment and sustains of national parks and wildlife parks. In Hawaii, & supports the native cultures in the locations new laws and regulations have been enacted it is operating in. Moreover, since tourism is to preserve the Hawaiian rainforest and to a multi-dimensional activity, and basically a protect native species. The coral reefs around service industry, it would be necessary that all the islands and the marine life that depend on wings of the Central and State governments, them for survival are also protected. Hawaii private sector and voluntary organizations now has become an international center become active partners in the Endeavour to for research on ecological systems and the attain sustainable growth in tourism if India promotion and preservation of the islands’ is to become a world player in the tourism tourism industry was the main motivation for industry. these actions. Tourism has had a positive effect on wildlife preservation and protection efforts, notably in Africa but also in South America, Asia, Australia, and the South Pacific. Numerous animal and plant species have already become extinct or may become extinct soon. Many countries have therefore established wildlife reserves and enacted strict laws protecting the animals that draw nature-loving tourists. As a result of these measures, several endangered species have begun to thrive again (IUCN, 1996; UNEP and WTO, 1992; WWF, 1992; www. unepie.

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REFERENCES 1.Hall M.C. (2001), “Trends in Ocean And Coastal Tourism: The End of The Last Frontier?” Ocean &Coastal Management, 44, pp. 601-618. 2.UNEP (1995), Environmental Codes of Conduct for Tourism. 3.UNEP (1997), Environmental Good Practice in Hotels, Case Studies (jointly with IHRA). 4. UNEP (1998), How the Hotel and Tourism Can Protect the Ozone Layer. 5.UNEP (1992), Tourism Focus, quarterly bulletin included in the Industry and Environment review and issue of the Industry and Environment review on Sustainable Tourism. 6.World Tourism Organization (WTO) (1995), A Practical Guide to the Development and Use of Indicators of Sustainable Tourism. 7.World Tourism Organization (WTO) (1997), Directory of Multilateral and Bilateral Sources of Financing for Tourism Development. 8.World Tourism Organization (WTO) (1998), Guide for Local Planner Authorities in Developing Sustainable Tourism. 9.World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) (1997), Agenda 21 for the Travel and Tourism Industry (jointlywww1.nature.nps.gov/pubs.

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 172 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) 41. IMPACT OF TANNERIES WASTE DISPOSAL ON ENVIRONMENT WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO VELLORE DISTRICT TAMIL NADU Mr. K. THOUFEEQ AHMED, Assistant Professor of Commerce (Corporate Secretaryship), Mazharul Uloom College, Ambur, Vellore District. (Ph.D Research Scholar, Jamal Mohammed College Tiruchirapalli – 620020) Cell : +91 97914 15512 E-Mail: [email protected].

ABSTRACT of 13% production comprising of 16 billion he Leather Industries occupies a place pairs are made in India. Tof prominence in the Indian economy in Ambur, Vaniyambadi and Ranipet are view of its massive potential for employment, important industrial areas of Vellore District. growth and export. There has been increasing Many tannery industries have been developed emphasis on its planned development aimed in these areas. The industries expanded at optimum utilization available raw material frequently when ever orders increased for maximizing the returns particularly from from the overseas. The Vellore district was exports. This paper aims at understanding selected because of its long history of widely the impact of tanneries waste disposal on known discharge of chromium based tanning environment. From the very beginning of effluents. About approx 400 tons of solid waste industrialization in India, tanning industries have is generated per day during peak season and been playing a significant role in the country’s approx 125 tons during off-peak season from economy. Due to its importance as a labor the tanneries in Vellore district. Vellore district based export oriented industry the full flourish is situated mainly beside of Palar River. The of this industrial sector is essential. But due present study aims at investigating the impacts to the absence of proper waste management, of tannery waste disposal on water, and its using inferior technologies, lack of facilities impact on environment. for treating industrial wastes; the tanning STRUCTURE OF TANNERIES industries especially located in Vellore district The Tanneries is spread in different segments are aggravating environmental problems day like, by day. The discharging and dumping of wastes →→ Raw to Wet Blue Tanning near the water bodies without treatment At this process most of the hazardous chemicals makes it almost look like an area which is lying were used for converting the raw skin to wet under the blanket of pollution. It is an emerging blue like huge percentage of chrome and problem not only for the environment but also sulphite, sodium sulphite, ammonium bi as the social context of the country. This study carbonate etc. focuses on the tanneries located in Vellore →→ Wet Blue to Crust Conversion Process District to assess the present situation arising At this Process oftenly the Syntan and Oil from such activities and proposed several products were used for converting the raw skin mitigation measures. to wet blue like Chrome Syntan, dye leveling, KEYWORDS: Tanneries, Water Pollution, Air melamine Syntan, Sperm based oil, fish oil, Pollution, Environment, Mitigation Measures lecithin oils etc INTRODUCTION →→ Crust to Finished Leather Over the years the Indian Leather Industry At this stage mostly liquid chemicals were has undergone drastic change from being a used which is most dangerous as a results it is mere exporter of raw materials in the early saviour effect on human health. 60’s and 70’s to an exporter of finished, value- OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY added leather products. The main reason • To describe present scenario of the behind this good transformation is the several existing surrounding environment. policy initiatives taken by the Government of • To promote environmental awareness India. Indian leather industry currently is one of population. among the top 8 industries for export revenue REVIEWS ON LEATHER INDUSTRIES generation in India, holding 10% of the global There has been an increasing emphasis on raw material, and 2% of the global trade. India its planned development, aimed at optimum has become biggest livestock producer in the utilization of available raw materials for world with the capacity of 1.8 billion sq. Feet of maximizing the returns, particularly from leather production annually. Global footwear exports. India ranks first among major livestock

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holding countries in the world and thus has a 20084 ). rich endowment of raw materials in terms of REVIEWS ON ENVIRONMENT the cattle population. Information is provided According to Imamul Huq (1998), various on the micro structure of the Indian leather chemicals are used during the soaking, tanning industry. The modernization of leather and post tanning processing of hides and skins. industry and set up of new unit for footwear, The main chemicals used include sodium components and leather products results in sulphite and basic chromium sulphate including terms of productivity, rightsizing of capacity, non-ionic wetting agents, bactericides, soda ash, cost-cutting, and design-development will give CaO, ammonium sulphide, ammonium chloride way to further development to this industry. and enzymes. Others are sodium bisulphate, (Center for Management Research (CMR) sodium chlorite, NaCl, H2SO4, formic acid, 20053 ). sodium formate, sodium bicarbonate, vegetable Apart from the quality of raw material, the tannins, syntans, resins, polyurethane, dyes, fat process of its conversion into leather and later emulsions, pigments, binders, waxes, lacquers of the design, product development and process and formaldehyde. Various types of processes of manufacture of leather products play a key and finishing solvents and auxiliaries are used, role in adding value to leather industry (The as well. Indo-Italian Chamber of Commerce & Industry PROFILE OF STUDY AREA:

The Most Popular Leather Industries In and Around Vellore District COMPANY YEAR FOUNDER PLANT EMPLOYMENT Farida Groups 1957 Haji Mecca Abdul 12 7000+ Majid Sahib KH Group 1982 Khizar Hussain 4 7000 NMZ 1972 N M Zackriah 5 1800 TAW 1949 T. Abdul Wahid 3 3400 Florence 1979 Aqueel Ahmed 10 4000+

TANNERIES WASTAGE IMPACT ON trimmings, wet shaving, buffing, raw materials ENVIRONMENT packing etc. gaseous emissions were observed In the tanning process many chemicals such as by the researcher but no one respondents. Chromium oxide, ammonium sulfate, formic It is observed that the quality of water acid, sulfuric acid, sodium chloride etc are used deteriorates significantly after the discharge which causes solid and liquid wastes. In the of industrial effluents into the river. Chrome processing of raw hide and skin the sulphuric tanning is the most common type of tanning acid and salt are used and then it was treated where maximum amount of chromium is with the solutions of chromium salts. In the used. The tannery is used different chemicals tannery chromium, HCl, Sulphuric acid, Formic in tanning process. In a tanneries more than acid, Caustic soda, Caustic potash, Soda ash, 50 types of chemicals are used. At the end Sodium arsenate, Arsenic sulphite etc is used of leather processing those chemicals are for different tanning process such as soaking, washed. After washing these chemicals it turn liming, deliming, tanning etc. At the end of into different colors. The waste comes out the every process the chemicals are washed by tannery and runs through the drain and goes water which causes liquid waste. The major into the river and nearby ponds. The waste solid wastes generated by the tanneries are contain high amount of chemicals and for this dusted curing salt, wet trimmings, dry reason the wastes are of many colors. So it

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 174 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) showed that the maximum type of waste color Contaminated with Tannery waste. The Proceedings is black. The blackish color tannery waste which of a workshop, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, discharged from the tannery. In the survey Coimbatore, India, P. 5. it was found that large number of chemical is 3.Effect of discharge of industrial effluents onthe absorbed by leather others turn to the waste. quality of river Brahmani at Rourkela. Indian J. Pollution of environment is one of the most Environ. prot., 19: 52-55. horrible ecological crisis to which we are 4.(United Nations Industrial Development subjected today. About 55% of the tannery Organization). 2005. Cost of Tanned Waste industries have been built in unplanned way Treatment. 15th Session of the Leather and Leather at the congested places. These unplanned Products Industry Panel. Leon. Mexicom, 17-18. tanneries caused environmental pollution very 5.Center for Management Research (CMR) 20053. much. It was showed that the most harmful 6.The Indo-Italian Chamber of Commerce & Industry environmental effect was bad smell to the 20084. surrounding areas which caused environmental 7.Karthigarani R, Elangovan V (2014) Solid waste pollution. management in Sivagangai district: an alternative Huge amounts of chemicals flow off the tannery approach, solid waste management: issues and floor, into open gutters in those areas streets, challenges. Sivam Publication, Tamil Nadu, India, pp which are the mainly associated with Palar 88–106. River. Most of the workers in the tanneries of 8.Sathewaran P (2014) Service satisfaction in solid Vellore District were suffer from gastrointestinal, waste management, pp 144–151. dermatological, and other diseases. The 9.Blacksmith Institute’s World´s Worst Pollution presence of arsenic in the ground water Problems Report 2010 , Top Six Toxic Threats : Six increasing scarcity of fresh drinking water which pollutants that jeopardize the health of tens of causes skin lesion, kidney, liver complication, millions of people, pp. 39. cancer etc and most of the employees suffer 10.T. T. Shen, Industrial Pollution Prevention , 2nd ed. from skin diseases. The tannery labors did not Springer,1999, pp 40. wear any gloves, apron and special shoes rather 11.R. Jenkins, J. Barton, and J. Hesselberg. ―7. than they work in bare feet. The tannery wastes The Global Tanning Industry: a Commodity Chain were disposed in unplanned way. These wastes Approach,‖ Environmental Regulation in the New covered the surrounding area which creates Global Economy: the impact on industry and foul smelling and the foul smelling environment competitiveness: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2004, pp. damaged human health. 157–172. CONCLUSION 12.Huq, S. M., ―Critical Environmental Issues From this study, the researcher comes to the Relating to Tanning Industries in Bangladesh. In: conclusion that The most environmental effect Naidu et al. (eds), Towards Better Management was bad smell to the surrounding area, and the of Soils Contaminated with Tannery waste, ‖ in scarcity of fresh water. Different types of health Proceedings of a workshop held at the Tamil Nadu problems occurred in the study area according Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India, 31 to observation. A large number of common January to 4 February, 1998. public had low environmental pollution 13.www.google.com awareness where some of the general public 14.www.wikipedia.com had no knowledge in environmental pollution. 15.www.shodeganga.com In the study it is demonstrated that mostly all the stages of tannery processing, individually and collectively impacts negatively to the environment. Results revealed that tanning industry wastes poses serious environmental impact on air, water and soil pollution, human disease Finally, it could be said that adequate preventive measures should be taken in tannery industrial activities with a view to ensuring safe, sound and healthy environment for greater benefit. REFERENCES 1.Environmental Impact Assessment of Tanneries: A case study of Hazaribagh. Bangladesh Journal of environmental impact, 3: 152-156. 2.Critical Environmental Issues Relating to Tanning Industries Towards Better Management of Soils ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 175 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018

42. FUNDAMENTALS OF POWER GENERATION Dr. SUNDARA M. KAVIDASS, Thermal Power Generation Expert, Managing Director, SP Energy Tek (Alliance Partner With McHale, USA), Newton circle, West Grove PA 19390, USA.

INTRODUCTION supplied by the combination of electric voltage he objective of this fundamentals of power and current. The higher the voltage and the Tgeneration article is to create an awareness current, the more electrical energy is made of various method of power generation to available. students. This paper aims to highlight proven Before getting into the different types of power technologies that are being used worldwide. generation, it is important to understand about ENERGY CAN EXIST IN VARIOUS FORMS the two different types of Energy resources – Radiation energy: The radiation from the sun Renewable and Non-Renewable. contains energy, and so does the radiation from RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES a light or a fire. More solar energy is available Renewable energies generate power using when the radiation is more intense and when it natural sources that can be replaced over is collected over a larger area. Light is the visible a relatively long time frame. Examples of part of radiation. renewable energies include solar, wind, hydro, Chemical energy: Wood and oil contain energy geothermal and biomass. in a chemical form. The same is true for all other Advantages: Because renewable energies are materials that can burn. The larger the content not burned like fossil fuels, they do not release of chemical energy, the larger the heating value pollutants into the atmosphere and provide (calorific value) of the material is and, of course, a cleaner, healthier environment. Sources of the more material we have. Also, animate renewable energy are found everywhere in the energy (delivered by bodies of human beings world and are not fully utilized. and animals) is, in essence, chemical energy. Disadvantages: Initial costs for setting up Furthermore, batteries contain chemical energy. renewable energy plants are often quite high and Potential energy: This is the energy possessed require careful planning and implementation. by an object because of its position relative to Building dams, for example, for hydroelectric other objects. For example, the energy of water power requires high initial capital and relocating stored in a reservoir at a certain height. The villages is a major challenges. Renewable water has the potential to fall, and therefore energies like solar and wind require large tracts contains a certain amount of energy. More of land to produce energy quantities competitive potential energy is available when there is more with fossil fuel burning. Renewable sources of water and when it is at a higher height. energy generation are also affected by weather, Kinetic energy: This is the energy an object reducing their availability. For example, wind possesses due to its movement, as in wind or in turbines only rotate it there is enough wind at a water stream. The faster the stream flows and a given speed. the more water it has, the more energy it can NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES deliver. Similarly, more wind energy is available Non-renewable energies come from resources at higher windspeeds, and more of it can be that are not replaced or are replaced only tapped by bigger windmill rotors. very slowly by natural processes. The primary Thermal energy or heat: This is the energy that sources for nonrenewable energies in the world is generated and measured by heat. Heat in are fossil fuels -- coal, gas and oil. Nuclear energy turn is indicated by temperature. The higher the is also considered nonrenewable because there temperature, the more energy is present in the is a limited availability of thorium or uranium in form of heat. the Earth’s crust. Mechanical energy or rotational energy: Also Advantages:Fossil fuels are the world’s called shaft power, this is the energy of a rotating traditional energy sources and electrical power shaft. The amount of energy available depends plants, vehicles and various industrial plants are on the flywheel of the shaft, i.e. on the power built around using them. Many nonrenewable which makes the shaft rotate. energies are more reliable than most renewables Electrical energy:This is the energy made and are not subject to weather conditions. They available in the form of electricity or electric provide continuous 24 x7 dependent energy. power. A dynamo (generator) and a battery can Disadvantages:Fossil fuels are in a limited deliver electrical energy. Electrical energy is supply and one day it will be depleted. Processes

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 176 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) releases harmful greenhouse gases into the to rotate a rotor which has oppositely charge atmosphere, primarily CO2. Nuclear power magnets and is surrounded by copper wire plants do not release CO2, but pose other risks loops. Electromagnetic induction is created such as potential radiation leaks and waste by the rotor spinning around the inside of the storage problems. The costs for building new core, generating electricity. nuclear power plants have also risen sharply After the steam passes through the steam making them less economical than other types turbine, the steam is condensed in a condenser of power. and recycled to where it was heated (Boiler). TYPES OF POWER GENERATION This cycle is known as a Rankine cycle (see The traditional proven forms of power below). generation that are being utilized today are Chemical Energy (Coal,Oil &Gas)- -Heat Energy listed below: (Steam Generator)-Mechanical Energy (Steam →→ Thermal power generation turbine)---Electrical Energy (Generator) →→ Nuclear Power generation The electricity generated is transmitted for →→ Hydro Power generation long distances via high voltage transmission →→ Solar Power generation lines. The transmission lines branch of into →→ Wind power generation sub-stations where the voltages are stepped down via transformers and fed via low voltage transmission lines to consumers.

Figure -1 India Installed Power Thermal Power Generation Figure - 2 A Typical Thermal Power Plant A thermal power station is a power station A typical thermal power plant picture can be in which heat energy isconverted to electric seen in Figure - 2.The overall power plant cycle power. High pressure water is heated by a efficiency ranges from 35-48%. The capital cost boiler and turned to steam. The boiler uses of the thermal power plant is Rs 4-6 Crores/ Coal, Oil or Gas as fuel to heat the water. During MW. India’s thermal power installed capacity is combustion in the boiler or steam generator, 66% (218,960 MW) as shown in Figure - 1. This the heat is exothermicallyreleased and high is partly due to the abundance of coal/lignite pressure water absorbs the heat and converts in India. Some of the gaseous by products of into high pressure steam. The boiler efficiency burning coal/lignite are Carbon dioxide (CO2), is typically 85-90%. Sulphur dioxide (SO2) and Nitrogen dioxide The high pressure steam is used to spin a steam (NO2). Technologies have been put in place turbine. Thesteam turbine is a mechanical at Thermal Power plants to minimize if not device that extracts thermal energy from high eliminate the release of these gases into the pressuresteam and converts it tomechanical atmosphere. work on a rotating output shaft. The efficiency of CO2 is one of the greenhouse gases that protect the steam turbine is 50-55%. The steam turbine the earth by keeping it warmer than normal. is coupled to an Electrical generator, which But, a continuous increase in the amount of converts mechanical energy obtained from the greenhouse gases would lead to an increase steam turbine into electricity. The generator in the earth’s surface temperature, leading to uses the turning motion of the turbine shaft global warming and climate change. This huge

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concern has slowly started to shift the tide from heat as opposed to coal/oil/gas in Thermal generating electricity from Thermal Power power. Nuclear energy originates from the plants to other renewable means (Hydro, Solar splitting of enriched uranium atoms – a process and Wind). called fission(refer to Figure-3). NUCLEAR POWER GENERATION Nuclear poweruses nuclear energy to generate

Figure -3 Nuclear Fission – Using Enriched Uranium

Figure - 4 A Typical Nuclear Power Plant is considered to be reliable. However, because The nuclear reactor vessel is the heart of the of the excessive safety requirements, the Nuclear power station (refer to Figure-4). In capital costs to build a Nuclear power plant are its central part, the reactor core is heated up very high (Rs. 15-20 Crores/MW). by controlled nuclear fission with uranium Availability of enriched uranium is limited in rods. With this heat, a coolant (typically heavy India, safe nuclear waste disposal is a major water) is heated as it is pumped through the challenge and concerns about safety continue reactor. The heavy water absorbs the heat from to make Nuclear power a less popular choice. the reactor and is converted to high pressure HYDRO POWER GENERATION steam. Similar to a Thermal power plant, the Hydropower is a form of renewable energy. high pressure steam is used to spin a turbine Water stored in a damfalls by gravity through generator, which in turn produces electricity. a tube called penstock and is used to spin Nuclear power installed capacity in India is water turbines located below the dam (refer about 2% (6,780 MW). Becausenuclear power to Figure-5). The potential energy of standing plants do not burn fuel, they do not produce water is converted to kinetic energy by moving any greenhouse gas emissions. Nuclear power it, then converted to mechanical energy by

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 178 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) spinning a turbine.The turbine is coupled to a generator, which produces electricity.

Figure -5 Hydropower Generating Plant When light energy from the sun or photons Hydropower does not use any fuel andis strike the solar cell, electrons are knocked environmentally clean. Because of its loose from the atoms in the semiconductor predictable power output and quick startup material. These electrons are captured in the times, Hydropower is typically used for catering form of electric current by electrical conductors peak electricity demand. attached to the positive and negative side of the Due to the vast land area required, the capital solar cell. The electricity generated from a solar cost is Rs 8-10 Crores / MW. The generating cost cell is Direct Current (DC). Since most appliances is about 1/4th of thermal power. Rehabilitation used in homes and businesses are powered by of surrounding landis a major issue. The dam is Alternating current (AC), an inverter is used to monsoon dependent and seasonally affected. convert DC to AC (referFigure-7). Hydropower installed capacity in India is about 14% (44,963 MW) SOLAR POWER GENERATION Solar power is the conversion of energy from sunlight into electricity using Photovoltaic (PV) cells. PV cells or Solar cells work by a phenomenon called Photoelectric effect. PV cells use a semiconductor (material that partially acts as a conductor and an insulator). The semiconductor material is specially treated to form an electric field i.e. positive on one side and negative on the other (refer Figure-6 Photovoltaic Cell)

Figure -7 Solar Power Generation Solar energy can be used to produce electricity in areas without access to the energy grid, to distill water in regions with limited clean water supplies and to power satellites in space. Some advantages of Solar energy are reduced electricity generating costs because of no fuel cost, can be utilized for diverse applications (power homes or buildings, hot water), low maintenance cost and virtually no greenhouse gases emissions. Solar energy is also available

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in abundance. the wind is converted to mechanical energy Disadvantages are require larger land area (4-5 and used to rotate the blades and shaft rotor. Acres/MW), only available during day time, The mechanical energy of the shaft is converted power generation is poor during winter / cloudy into electric energy by using a generator. period and relatively higher capital cost (Rs 6.0 There are two different types of wind turbines to 7.0 Crores / MW). Currently,solar power can – Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine, where the be generated 30-33%percent per annum. blades rotate on a horizontal axis and Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (commonly used), where WIND POWER GENERATION the blades rotate on the vertical axis. Wind Power is the conversion of Wind energy Thegearbox is typically used in a wind turbine to into electricity. The energy in the wind turns increase rotational speed from a lowerspeedto two or three propeller-like blades in a windmill a higher speed. A common ratio is about 90:1, or wind turbine. The blades are connected with a rate of 16.7 rpm input from the rotor to to a central shaft. The shaft is connected to a 1,500 rpm output for the generator.The output gearbox, which in turn is coupled to a generator of a wind turbine depends on the turbine’s size that produces electricity. The kinetic energy of and the wind’s speed through the rotor.

Figure 7 – Wind Turbine Cross Section and disadvantages of the same.The author’s Wind energyis a clean fuel source and doesn’t intention is to provide an overview of the above pollute the air like power plants that rely on to help the reader to better understand and combustion of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil or learn the fundamentals of power generation. natural gasWind is available free of cost and The author is taking an opportunity to thank require small land area. Mr. R. Madhan, Manager, Stock Equipment, An average onshore wind turbine has a USA for supporting this paper. capacity of 2.5–3 MW.The capital cost is REFERENCES slightly higher than thermal power plants but 1.Large-Scale Solar Power System Design much lower than a solar power plant. A typical (GreenSource Books): An Engineering Guide for capital cost ranges between Rs. 7 - 8 Crores Grid-Connected Solar Power Generation (Mcgraw- / MW, depending up on the type of turbine, hill’s Greensource Series) technology, size and location. The total wind 2.Solar Electricity Handbook - 2015 Edition: A installed capacity in Tamil Nadu is 7633 MW simple, practical guide to solar-Michael Boxwell. (Highest installed capacity) with about a 15% 3.Photovoltaic Systems Engineering, Third capacity utilization factor. EditionRoger A. Messenger. Some of the disadvantages of Wind turbinesare 4. Advanced Photovoltaic System Design (The Art higher noise and larger land area required to and Science of Photovoltaics) 1st Edition install them.Wind turbinesare also considered by John R. Balfour. a potential threat to wildlife such as birds and bats. CONCLUSION It is essential that students understand the different types of energies and fundamentals of power generation including the advantages

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 180 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) 43. TACKLING FORMIDABLE INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION BY SOPHISTICATED AND ECO- FRIENDLY TECHNOLOGY

ABOOBACKER SADIQ E, Graduate student at department of political science, Calicut University, [email protected].

ABSTRACT present are climate change, deforestation, land he contemporary environmental awareness contamination and extinction of species of flora Thas emerged primarily from the concerns in and fauna, etc. Many of these are formidable the late 19th century about protection of the aftermaths of industrial revolution, the rapid countryside in Europe and the wilderness in the development of industry that occurred in United States and also from the health-issues Britain in the late 18th and 19th centuries, ensuing the pollution during historic industrial brought about by the introduction of machinery. revolution, took place in Britain in the 18th Subsequently, profit-making attitude of man century. Its profound aftermaths such as climate excessively exacerbated and aggravated the change, urbanization, pollution and over- limited natural resources. No one doubts that mining, etc. are challenging even the human the intimidating Environmental challenges are existence, although there are certain benefits. serious threats to even the human existence. It is no exaggeration to say that pollution will The history of scientific awareness on be a biggest cause of premature death since the environmental dates back to 1960s or even estimations conclude that by 2050 there will be before, which was then followed by an intense about 3.6 million deaths a year, most of them in socio-political awakening. Hence, Environmental China and India (OECD report). Although world degradation and climate change have been an leaders’ perpetual attention and solidarity on important cornerstone of the global policies this topic, for instance the Paris agreement on since a nation’s environment is not its own but 30 November 2015 on climate change, are more is shared with its neighbors and the rest of the commendable, it has fallen by the wayside. world. Recent UN Climate Change Conference In this research-initiative my paper would in Bonna, Germany on November and former illustrate the use of sophisticated and eco-friendly Paris convocation on climate change in 2015 are technology to tackle the formidable challenges historic watershed in the 21stcentury. of industrial pollution. As the industrial activities Out of these, climate change is a global are essential for an economy, citizens’ well-being environmental problem which has been and maintenance of employment, its complete catching intense political attention both at elimination is practically beyond the bounds of domestic and international levels. The united possibility. Hence, one of the key methods for Nation Framework Convention on Climate getting rid of these challenges in the advanced Change(UNFCCC) defines ‘climate change’ as a world can be attained through the technological change of climate which is attributed directly development. or indirectly to human activity that alters the My study focuses on industrial pollution and the composition of the global atmosphere and use of advanced technologies, introduced as which is in addition to natural climate variability new industrial process or modification of existing observed over comparable time periods. As one for reducing the impacts of the production increase in carbon dioxide concentration in on environment, such as accumulation of the atmosphere is the prime cause of climate wastes, air pollution, water pollution and noise change, reduction in emission of this gas pollution, etc. and its sequestration from atmosphere are the prime requirements for reducing climate KEYWORDS: premature death, urbanization, change driven threats. sophisticated technology and modification, At present, industrial pollution constitutes major portion of causes of environmental degradation INTRODUCTION in general and climate change in particular. As It is virtually a truism that for several centuries, industrial activities have played decisive role the environment has provided fit habitation in advancement of human civilization, there for human being and numerous organisms in is absolutely no doubt that the feasibility of the face of considerable challenges. But, the environmental protection will be hardly ever last few decades the environment has been accomplished without industrial process. Hence, perpetually enduring excruciating pain by the there is no alternative but to fortify ramparts of insatiable appetites of humans. The major sustainable development. A set of sustainable global ecological crises confronting the planet at goals released by the United Nations in 2015 as

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as a successor to the Millennium Developing countries have failed in fulfilling their duties. Goals Officially known as ‘Transforming our The following timeline reflects on the history of World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Carbon dioxide emissions: Development’, are hearty commendable. INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION AND In this advanced world, as everything is more CLIMATE CHANGE IN INDIA: INSIDIOUS convenient and accessible due to advances LINKAGE in technology across almost all sectors, clean In this climate and pollution challenged world, and eco-friendly technologies are better public health is at serious risk from the preventive mechanism. Many countries ominous trends in toxic industrial pollutants made remarkable progress in recent decades and warming gases. industrial pollutants are in virtually all industrial sectors in terms of under scientific scrutiny not only for what ecological efficiency of production processes by they do to our body and health, but also how sophisticated technologies. they enhance climate impacts and associated health risks. Science does not allow us to keep INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION: A BRIEF the local public health impacts of industrial HISTORY pollution and the global warming impacts While the Industrial Revolution meant that of green house gases in silos anymore. The more goods could be produced for human emerging science has given us more reasons consumption, it also meant that more to be worried about industrial pollution. pollution would be emitted into the sky and This demands an integrated framework for more natural resources would have to be mitigation to minimize public health risk. exploited in the production process. Although The speed with which industrial pollution is pollution of major proportions has been a growing across India is alarming. Close to half problem since the centuries preceding the of cities are reeling under severe particulate middle ages, it is worth noting that after pollution while newer pollutants like nitrogen World War II, the type of pollution involved oxides, ozone and- air toxics are worsening changed significantly with introduction of the public health challenge. As many as nuclear weapons. 95 per cent of Indians across the country In February 1950, a discussion on problems breathe air quality that is worse than the of nuclear energy was held, where Einstein WHO’s recommended standards. The worrying said that the idea of national security through trend is the proliferation of new hot spots every nuclear weapons was “a dangerous illusion.” year. Smaller and more obscure cities are He also said that “radioactive poisoning of amongst the most polluted in the country. the atmosphere and hence annihilation of Some mega cities that have initiated some any life on earth has been brought within pollution control action in the recent years, the range of technical possibilities.” The only have witnessed either stabilization or some way out of the situation, Einstein said, is “a lessening of the high levels. But several cities supra-national judicial and executive body” like Delhi, even after the initial stabilization and “a declaration of nations to collaborate are finding it difficult to sustain their air loyally in the realization of such a restricted quality gains and are in the pincer grip of world government.” In 1952, with the break serious multi-pollutant crisis. It is worrying out of ‘The Great Smog’, which had caused that even after decades of air quality 6,000 deaths within a year due to respiratory management, particulate air pollution has diseases, the Clean Air Acts of 1956 and 1968 remained among the top 10 killers globally were formulated. The smog was formed due with disproportionately high health impacts to burning of coal in production processes. in the developing world. The recent global The awareness regarding the situation went burden of disease (GBD) estimates shows that on increasing around the 1970’s, but the in India alone, more than 627,000 people problem by then had taken a dangerous die prematurely and 18 million healthy life shape. Along with progress in production years are lost every year due to ill health sectors and industry, the temperature of the connected especially with the tiny particles. earth has also been increasing. But faulty There are now myriad studies across the process designs and the greed for more world and also in India to prove that outdoor production despite the environmental hazard urban air pollution is a serious environmental are still going on. Some countries have risk factor that causes or aggravates acute formulated laws and regulations regarding and chronic diseases. Also, given the latency the production process in order to ensure period of toxic risk, Indian cities are likely clean and safe environment, but when to see more cancers due to increase in it comes to implementation most of the environmental health risk. This makes a strong

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 182 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) case for control of air pollution. Health criteria of industrial activities. Industries release into need to be built into the air pollution control the atmosphere a variety of greenhouse gases policies more clearly. including carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane Polluted air has also compromised the (CH4). These gases absorb thermal radiation health of our future generations in cities from the sun thereby increasing the general like Delhi. Considerable evidence has temperature of the earth, leading to global come from the epidemiological study on warming. It has several severe effects on children in Delhi carried out by CPCB and human health and the environment. Rise in Chittaranjan National Cancer Institute in water levels, melting of glaciers, extinction Kolkata and published in 2012. This study of polar species, tsunamis, flooding, and had covered 11,628 school-going children hurricanes are some of the dire effects of from 36 schools in different parts of Delhi global warming. Furthermore, global warming and in different seasons. Every third child has threatened human survival and presented had reduced lung function. There is a marked health risks such as the increased incidences increase in the number of bio-markers like of diseases like cholera, plague, malaria, Lyme alveolar macrophages (the first line of disease and so on. cellular defense against inhaled pollutants) Water Pollution: Pollutants discharged from in the sputum of children. This shows greater the industries have widespread implications, exposure to particulate pollution. Sputum Air and one of the unpleasant effects is on water Pollution and Climate Impacts: Demystifying bodies. Industries demand lots of water for Link of children in Delhi contains four times efficient production such as cooling, cleaning, more iron-laden macrophages than those and treatment and as such, the water drawn from cleaner environs, indicating pulmonary from the water sources is never the same after haemorrhage. The study found the level of use. Inappropriate contamination of used water these bio markers higher in children from and the discharge of different waste water into areas with high particulate levels. water sources often result in water pollution. Studies are dominated by the focus on In most cases, the water is contaminated with respiratory symptoms. But in the recent years, dangerous chemicals, radioactive materials, they have begun to include more diverse health heavy metals or organic sludge. For this end points – cardiac cases, cancer, mutagenic reason, dumping of the wastewater directly effects, etc. Though this investigation in India into waterways or oceans negatively impacts is still very nascent, global studies have on marine life, humans, and the environment made more robust linkages with a wide range on various aspects. of health endpoints – diabetes, stroke, hyper Air Pollution:Based on the increased counts of tension, effects on brain, effects on foetus factories and manufacturing processes, both etc. Given the fact that endpoint of all toxic large and small scale, gaseous emissions have risk is cancer, all environmental risk factors continued to compound. This makes industrial should be minimized. This is particularly pollution one of main Causes of air pollution. serious in India that reports overall over The emissions from different industries 700,000 new cancer cases and National Cancer contain gaseous contaminants such as sulfur, Control Programme (NCCP) forecast that by carbon dioxide (CO2), oxides of nitrogen, 2026, more than 1.4 million people will be methane, and so on. These gases, when too falling in the grip of the disease. NCCP has much in the atmosphere, frequently results in listed greater exposure to environmental several illnesses and environmental hazards. carcinogens as one of the most important Formation of acid rains, the presence of smog, reasons. The mitigation strategy must reduce and heightened incidences of respiratory environmental risk from all factors – and air disorders among humans are some of the pollution is an important factor. Numerous implications of air pollution. studies in the West assessed the causes Soil Pollution:Soil pollution occurs when the soil such as genetic susceptibility, environment loses its fertility and structure owing to diverse factors and lifestyle. This trend in public natural and artificial phenomenon. Disposal health risk is expected to get worse if the of industrial wastes into landfills is among pollution trends remain business as usual the artificial aspects contributing towards soil and the global warming impacts get further pollution. Industrial wastes have in them varied enhanced. amounts of toxic materials and chemicals such TERRIBLE EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION that when deposited in landfills, it accumulates Global Warming: Global warming is among the in the top soil thereby depreciating the most serious outcome of industrial pollution, fertility and biological activity of the soil due witnessed on the account of the steady rise to soil poisoning. Such implications eventually

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contribute to ecological imbalances thus degradation is proper method to protect creating problems in crop productivity. Apart environment. However, in this advanced world, from that, the chemicals and toxic materials in clean technologies can play decisive role in poisoned soils accumulate in plants grown in reducing industrial pollution. Many countries such areas causing health problems to those have introduced eco-friendly technologies in who consume such crops. industrial process. The following technologies Effect on Human Health: The world Health are from different countries: Organization (WHO) revealed that outdoor Semiconductor industry: innovation moves air pollution accounts for about 2% of all lung ahead: and heart diseases. WHO also underscores, About 30% of the operations involved in around 5% of all lung cancers and 1% of all manufacturing semiconductors consist of chest infections are implications outdoor air cleaning silicon wafers by means of large pollution. In brief, these statistics indicate just quantities of aggressive chemical solutions how industrial air pollution depreciates human such as sulphuric acid. This is harmful to the health. For instance, one of the worst industrial environment, to which must be added the high disasters of all times that took place in Bhopal, costs involved, in particular because of the India, in 1984 claimed the lives of more than considerable quantities of de-ionized water 8,000 people and the effects were still being (DI) needed. One of the main applications felt more than two decades later. This means, of the process is photoresist stripping. The industrial air pollution may not manifest Interuniversity Microelectronics Center (IMEC), immediately but takes several years. a Flemish association which has become Industrial toxic and chemical wastes that are one of the world’s leading independent disposed into water bodies or landfills are microelectronics research centers, has also responsible for cancers and human cell developed an original alternative to photoresist poisoning. For instance, exposure to inorganic strip-ping in partnership with a private German arsenic causes tumors to form. Above all, company of the Texas Instruments group. industrial pollutants are responsible for The new technique combines the use of ozone thousands of illnesses and premature deaths (O3) with a DI boundary layer controlled across the globe. process at the wafer surface. Its superiority Wildlife Extinction: The tendency of industrial over the conventional O3/DI technique is due and manufacturing processes that constantly to a stronger concentration of reactive ozone demands production resources and repeated near the surface. The IMEC process avoids the exploitation of raw materials has cumulatively use of sulphuric acid and reduces de-ionized led to the destruction of forests and the water consumption by 90%. For a medium- natural habitats that support wildlife. Acts sized company, this is tantamount to savings of such as mining, deforestation, and utilization 2 200 litres of sulphuric acid and 500 000 litres of water resources for industrial production of DI water a week. The possible integration of have destroyed natural habitats and forced the requisite hardware in existing equipment, organisms to move further into the wild, moreover, limits the investment required. exposing them to predators and intolerable The process has initially been incorporated living conditions. Consequently, some wildlife in IMEC’s semi-industrial production line species have faced extinction while several before moving on to full-scale integrated others remain highly endangered. Industrial circuit production units of Texas Instruments wastes, in Freising (Germany). The many changes Chemicals, emissions, or accidental leaks, made to the conventional system include the fires, oil spills and so on, have also been installation of an ozone generator. Because of prime contributors to wildlife extinction. the safety problem of releasing a large quantity Furthermore, these environmentally damaging of this gas into the air, initial experiments were materials take several years to clean-up thereby carried out with an ozone-destroying catalyst compounding the effects. For example, the BP conversion system, which has in the meantime oil accidental spill in 2012 claimed thousands been replaced by a thermal system operating of marine life, and some of them were among at 90% efficiency. Experimenting with such the rarest species on earth. Even after some systems under conditions of high steam time had passed, marine animals continued to concentrations in the exhaust circuit has been die. a “first” in this domain. Moreover, a secured ECO-FRIENDLY TECHNOLOGY AS A ozone detector ensures protection of workers. PREVANTIVE MECHANISM Ecology and margarine: they are compatible: There is absolutely no doubt that injecting Manufacturing margarine normally generates the awareness on impacts of environmental considerable amounts of polluting waste.

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 184 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) Refining fats by means of sodium hydroxide a partnership with other local companies and leads to the formation of sodium soap which with the Associazione Impresa Politecnico, has to be eliminated by rinsing and through which is specialized in management of new treatment with chlorohydric acid. This leads technology. Digital printing on fabric had been to large quantities of highly polluting waste regarded as applicable only to small samples water which has to be purified. The hardening and had not moved beyond the experimental of oil sand fats through hydrogenation involves stage. With this LIFE project, the aim was to hydrogen emission into the air. Emulsifiers and work out an innovative technique which could other chemical additives complete this brief ensure regular production in a varied range of overview. fabrics, responding to the growing interest in Lasem Alimentación1used to apply these the textile sector among computer equipment processes themselves until they decided to manufacturers and software producers. After switch to sustainable growth and to develop taking stock of the activities, costs and resources a line of eco-logical products. They received of the three companies, benchmarking digital LIFE funding for their project to produce ink jet printing techniques and trials with the ecological margarine manufactured with raw model chosen (ENCAD/SOPHIS), the next step materials which were likewise ecological, using was to improve performance. For instance, the only clean technology without any chemical use of a spectrophotometer makes it possible treatment and without generating any solid or to determine parameters on the basis of a fabric liquid waste or pollutant emission. sample submitted by a customer and then print Fats are refined in a physical process under in the same colors, with savings in time, dye vacuum at high temperature. After mixing, and energy. The results are highly illustrative: natural coloring and flavoring agents are added dye savings because of a 100% reduction in and the mixture is emulsified with water. The excess dyestuff, 60% reduction of waste water, emulsion is then subjected to crystallization 80% savings of thermal energy and 30% savings and crystal maturation and stabilization, of electricity, 60% noise reduction and 60% followed by plasticization (high-pressure reduction of production space required, and an cooling). Hydrogenation and a number of other overall reduction of costs. In addition to these stages are eliminated. The new equipment benefits for the environment, there has been a used wards off risks of contamination and major improvement in working conditions, with facilitates cleaning. positive socio-economic effects. A challenge for The raw materials used are coconut fat from the future is to ensure continuity of this activity coconut palms abundantly growing in the wild and success in marketing the products. in the Philippines. One difficulty is to secure Manufacture of diodes: less molybdenum a regular supply of a product from untreated along the Danube: At its ultramodern trees, extracted without solvents. Another Vöcklabruck site, one of the major production raw material is sunflower oil which is available units in terms of volume and quality, the Vishay in Spain where the plants are cultivated Semiconductor Austria Company, which forms without chemical treatment. In spite of the part of the VishayIntertechnology Inc. group, higher cost of the raw materials, the process manufactures about 200 million diodes a consumes less energy and obviates the need year. The diodes are used as fast rectifiers in for high expenditure on water purification a wide range of applications in the electronics and sludge treatment. It benefits from sound industry, e.g. in switching circuits, fluorescent opportunities on a market which is increasingly tubes, computers, monitors and TV sets and as open to ecological products. Highly innovative, electronic components in cars. this LIFE project also applies strategic planning Production of the diodes involves the use of which may be of interest to other agrifood sintered molybdenum (Mo) pins. Before being producers and other industrial sectors. used in the production process, the oxide film Cleaner digital printing in the textile industry: has to be removed from these pins. In the past, In the Italian province of Como, printing on they had to be etched with nitric, sulphuric silk is a centuries-old tradition. However, it has and hydrochloric acid for this purpose and inevitably had an impact on the environment, then rinsed with water. The result was a with large quantities of waste coloring agents very high concentration of Mo in the waste and rinsing water, high energy consumption for water discharged into the Vöckla River which drying, and noise. The LIFE Tie print project arose eventually flowed into the Danube. from the idea of combining this tradition and Both because of its desire to protect the modern digital printing techniques to reduce environment and on account of new these drawbacks and the costs involved. For this environmental legislation in Austria, Vishay purpose, an SME, Stamperia di Lipomo, formed has with LIFE funding developed a project

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based on the industrial application of an worst results more as they already faced. In entirely new technology to remove the oxide this advanced world, it is revealed that as film through a mechanical process, barrel everything is more convenient and accessible polishing, which acts through friction. A new due to advances in technology across almost all soldering technique to assemble components sectors, clean and eco-friendly technologies are has been introduced and a new soldering better preventive mechanism. Many countries oven with a high precision control system has made remarkable progress in recent decades been installed. The result of the LIFE project in virtually all industrial sectors in terms of has been a drastic reduction of molybdenum ecological efficiency of production processes in waste water: 0.6 mg/l instead of 18 mg/l by sophisticated technologies. It is offers better at full production capacity. The residual rate environmental world that the dissemination of is due to the fact that a brief leeching stage is clean technologies among countries and the still necessary in producing the pins. In addition launching of new technologies by world wing. to this remarkable result, which also benefits REFERENCES other countries along the Danube, there have 1.Summers,max. eco-friendly it solutions that been substantial reductions in costs: lower cost minimize environmental damege and save natural of waste water treatment, less acid used and resources.Magora.Retrieved fewer diode rejects. The new process is easily 2.Pollution Prevention .Ryan Dupont,Kumar transferable, and a second diode production Ganesan,Louis Theodore. CRC Press line has been established at another Vishay 3.Air pollution control engineering. Neol de nevers production site, in Gyöngyös (Hungary). 4.John Tarantino. “Environmental Issues”. The Environmental Blog. Archived from the original on Steel goes green - A cleaner steel industry 2012-01-11. Retrieved 2011-12-10. thanks to electrodialysis: The AvestaPolarit 5.State of the Environment, Issue: Air Quality steel plant of Nyby/ Torshälla is difficult to find (Australian Government website page) surrounded by nature and located some 100 6.European commission website kilometers west of Stockholm, not far from the 7.Air pollution control technology hand book, karl B attractive town of Eskilstuna which is renowned Schnelle,jr Russell F Dunn,mary ellen ternes CRC for its old forges. This comes as a surprise in press particular to people who believe that steel 8.LIFE and the directive on integrated pollution production is inevitably associated with smoky prevension and control industrial areas. But this is Sweden, a country 9.Laboratory, Oak Ridge National. “Top 20 Emitting with vast spaces where great care is taken to Countries by Total Fossil-Fuel CO2 Emissions for ensure that factories fit in with the landscape 2009”. Cdiac.ornl.gov. Retrieved 1 December 2017. and the environment. At Nyby/ Torshälla, high 10.Beychok, Milton R. (1967). Aqueous Wastes from trees surround the site, largely screening off Petroleum and Petrochemical Plants (1st ed.). John the steel works. The Nyby plant is specialized in Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-07189-7. LCCN 67019834. cold rolling of flat stainless steel products. The 11.Silent Spring, R Carlson, 1962 blast furnaces and hot rolling mills are installed 12.“Pollution Archived 2009-10-21 at the Wayback at Avesta, 120 km to the north. Steel coils are Machine.”. Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia transported by train or lorry from Avesta to 2009. Nyby where they are cold rolled into high-grade 13.“Solid Waste – The Ultimate Guide” Ppsthane. stainless steel. Every week the plant produces com. Retrieved 1 December 2017. 3 500 tonnes of stainless steel, 70% of which is 14.“Revolutionary CO2 maps zoom in on greenhouse exported. It is used for plating high-speed trains, gas sources. Purdue University. April 7, 2008. cladding buildings and telephone booths and 15.“Waste Watcher” (PDF). Retrieved 2010-08-26. to manufacture food equipment in accordance with European standards. CONCLUSION The objective of the paper was to present the views on industrial pollution and its prevention by technologies have been widely accepted in the world. On any contentious issue, it is impossible to have 100% acceptance. No doubt, there are differing views on these dual issues. Each differing view has to be evaluated on its own merits. It appears that polluted environment is global issue and world community would bear

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 186 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) 44. IMPACT ON AIR POLLUTION ON HUMAN HEALTH K. SURESH, Ph.D (FT) Research Scholar PG & Research Department of Economics Pachiayappa’s College for men Kanchipuram.

Dr.N.PALANIRAJ Associate Professor & Head PG & Research Department of Economics Pachiayappa’s College for men Kanchipuram.

INTRODUCTION outdoor air by a range of gasses and solids that mong the most pressing of today’s modify its natural characteristics. Key health Aenvironmental issues is the pollution of air. harmful pollutants include particulate matter, Air is the breath of life, yet there many kinds carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O3), blackcarbon of air pollution contributing to problems that (BC), sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides (NOx). range from human health issues to climate Air pollution is often not visible to the naked change. Air pollution can be defined as the eye as the sizes of the pollutants are smaller presence of toxic chemicals or compounds in than the human eye can detect. The fact that the air, at levels that pose a health risk. In an you cannot see the air pollution does not mean even broader sense, air pollution means the that it does not exist. They can become visible presence of chemicals or compounds in the in some situations for example in the form of air which usually not present and which lower sooty smoke from the open burning of crop the quality of the air or cause detrimental residues or other waste, as well as from burning changes to the quality of life. Air pollution wood, coal, petrol and diesel fuels for cooking is the leading environmental cause of death and heating, transport or power production. worldwide according to the state of global air CAUSES OF AIR POLLUTION 2017, a new first annual report and interactive Anything people do that involves burning things, website launched today. The report also finds using household or industrial chemicals or that 92% of the world’s population lives in areas producing large amounts of dust the potential with unhealthy air. All told, long-term exposure to cause air pollution. Step back a century or to fine particulate matter the most significant two and the cause of most air pollution was element of air pollution contributed to 4.2 easy to identify; filthy factories, powering the million premature deaths and to a loss of 103 Industrial Revolution. Today, tighter air pollution million healthy years of life in 2015, making air laws, greater environmental awareness, and pollution the 5th highest cause of death among determined campaigns mounted by local all health risks, including smoking, diet, and communities make it far harder though by no high blood pressure. means impossible for factories to pollute in The analysis found that China and India post industrial nations such as the United States together were responsible for over half of the and Britain. The biggest culprit today is traffic, total global attributable deaths, the study also though power plants and factories continue to finds that increasing exposure and a growing make an important contribution. Before we and aging population have meant that India start laying the blame for air pollutions let’s now rivals China for among the highest air remember one very important thing most of us pollution health burdens in the world, with drive cars, use electricity and buy goods made both countries facing some 1.1 million early in factories. If we’re pointing fingers, ultimately deaths from air pollution in 2015. we’re going to have to point them at ourselves. Air pollution is probably one of the most serious Now let’s look a bit closely at the three key environmental problems confronting our sources of air pollution civilization today. Most often, it is caused by • Traffic human activities such as transportation, mining, • Smog construction, industrial work, agriculture, • Power plants smelting, etc. However, natural processes such • Industrial plants and factories as volcanic eruptions and wildfires may also AIR POLLUTION IN INDIA pollute the air, but their occurrence is rare and Many major Indian cities, including Mumbai, they usually have a local effect, unlike human Pune and Kolkata, grapple with air pollution. activities that are ubiquitous causes of air However, India’s air pollution crisis is largely due pollution and contribute to the global pollution to the noxious, winter air quality in Delhi and of the air every single day. some cities in north and central India. In 2016, AIR POLLUTION IN WHO the World Health Organization put 10 Indian Air pollution is the contamination of indoor or cities on the list of the world’s most polluted.

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 187 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018 In 2016, severe air pollution has disrupted in other states like Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and everyday life, especially during the winter. In Maharashtra are also increasing. However, the 2015 air pollution (PM2.5) levels increased in country is yet to come to the full understanding a rapid manner overtaking even China. Even that air pollution is a national problem and to win though pollution levels are increasing across the fight against it, we need to act as a country the country, the emphasis so far has been on and across city or even regional boundaries. Delhi. There has been a growing realization that India’s air pollution has become a public health the majority of Delhi’s pollution is coming from and economic crisis. outside its borders and that pollution levels Total Registered Motor Vehicles in India (State-Wise) As on 31st March, 2002-2012 (In thousands) State and Union Territory 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Andhra Pradesh 5,002 5,720 6,458 7,218 6,367 7,208 8,059 8,923 10,189 12,424 Arunachal Pradesh 21 * 21* 22* 22*22* 22* 22* 22* 22* 145 151 Assam 657 727 815 914 1,021 1,116 1,235 1,384 1,582 1,807 Bihar 1,121 751 1,352 1,432 1,577 1,739 1,960 2,357 2,673 3,113 Chhatisgarh 1,076 1,216 1,375 1,541 1,734 1,935 2,115 2,436 2,766 3,104 Goa 397 436 482 529 579 624 674 727 790 866 Gujarat 6,508 7,087 7,817 8,622 9,497 10,289 10,999 11,873 12,993 14,414 Haryana 2,279 2,548 2,854 3,087 3,528 3,973 4,425 4,792 5,377 5,978 Himachal Pradesh 269 289 301 334 342 371 494 538 622 737 Jammu & Kashmir 399 439 478 524 570 620 668 739 927 917 Jharkhand 1,101 1,217 1,357 1,505 1,686 1,850 2,038 2,767 3,113 3,158 Karnataka 3,738 3,977 5,436 6,220 5,486 6,217 6,953 9,044 9,930 10,910 Kerala 2,552 2,792 3,122 3,559 3,957 4,430 4,860 5,398 6,072 6,893 Madhya Pradesh 3,459 3,804 4,188 4,609 5,047 5,523 6,011 6,591 7,356 8,144 Maharashtra 8,134 8,969 9,936 10,966 12,171 13,335 14,451 15,768 17,434 19,432 Manipur 97 106 114 124 133 147 147 194 207 125 Meghalaya 73 73 92 104 117 128 142 158 176 198 Mizoram 37 42 47 52 61 66 70 80 93 102 Nagaland 162 172 172 184 210 226 240 254 273 291 Orisea 1,359 1,525 1,715 1,932 2,148 2,370 2,607 2,932 3,338 3,759 Punjab 3,308 3,529 3,876 4,035 4,294 4,573 4,832 5,274 5,274 6,263 Rajasthan 3,487 3,834 4,261 4,754 5,336 5,902 6,490 7,166 7,986 8,985 Sikkim 15 17 20 22 25 26 29 34 39 43 Tamil Nadu 8,005 8,575 9,257 10,054 10,981 11,930 12,891 14,062 15,638 17,412 Tripura 66 76 73 106 120 131 144 160 188 204 Uttara Khand 457 516 573 643 643 731 787 831 997 1,244 Uttar Pradesh 5,928 6,460 7,344 7,989 9,086 9,826 10,779 11,988 13,287 15,445 West Bengal 2,366 2,548 2,681 2,872 3,198 2,762 3,044 2,747 3,261 3,861 A&N Islands 28 + 28+ 37 41 48 53 60 62 69 77 Chandigarh 562 586 617 647 678 712 747 949 1,008 1,058 D&N Haveli 31 35 40 45 51 58 63 69 76 85 Daman&Diu 44 48 51 55 62 68 70 72 78 85 Delhi 3,971 4,237 4,187 4,487 5,492 5,899 6,302 6,747 7,228 7,350 Lakshadweep 5 5 5 6 7 7 7 8 9 10 Puducherry 293 313 347 384 432 484 538 599 673 755 Grand Total 67,007 72,718 81,502 89,618 96,707 105,353 114,951 127,746 141,866 159,491

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 188 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) There are increasing numbers of people who not only in Delhi or the National Capital Region. die prematurely every year with the increasing The report also tries to identify major sources of pollution levels. Deaths due to air pollution are pollution in parts of the country based on past only a fraction less than the number of deaths research. As a way ahead for the country, our caused by tobacco usage. Global Burden of long term goals to solve the air pollution crisis Disease (GBD), a comprehensive regional can be universal, while short term solutions are and global research program including 500 to be decided based on the levels of pollution researchers representing over 300 institutions prevailing in the region. and 50 countries, has estimated that 3283 Indians died per day due to outdoor air pollution VEHICLES POLLUTION in India in 2015, making the potential number The major car pollutants are carbon monoxide, of deaths due to outdoor air pollution in India hydrocarbons, nitrous oxides, carbon dioxide, in 2015 to 11.98 lakh. On the economic front, and particulates. Most car pollutants come from loss of productivity and the forced closures of the exhaust but brake pads, tires, oil, grease, schools and industries have already started anti-freeze, hydraulic fluids, and cleaning agents impacting our economy. also contribute pollutants to the environment. The World Bank estimates that India loses Ozone- Produced by chemical reactions among around 3% of its GDP due to air pollution. This pollutants, released mainly by motor vehicles makes air pollution one of the biggest issues to (nitrogen oxides and volatile hydrocarbons). fight if we are to protect peoples’ lives, public Environmental impacts- A strong oxidant gas health and our economy. Air pollution is a that damages animal respiratory systems, plant complex issue, requiring an array of solutions. leaf cells, reducing photosynthesis. Human There are many sources that contribute to health concerns- A respiratory irritant causing pollution across the country. Depending on damage to the lungs, reducing lung capacity and region and climatic conditions, the contribution aggravation respiratory problems, especially in of particular sources will also differ. However, the elderly, the very young and the asthmatic. what is very clear is that irrespective of where An average of 80 ppm (parts per million) for you live, burning of fossil fuels (coal & oil) any 8 hour period. It is important to note that contributes majorly to air pollution levels across the current guidelines have been found to be regions. inadequate in protecting human health and are The purpose of this report is to show that air in the process of being revised. pollution is a national problem and it needs to be addressed equally across the country and The total number of registered motor vehicles in India was 210023289 as on 31.3.2015. There were 7 states having more than 1000000 registered motor vehicles. States Registered Vehicles Share Maharashtra 25562175 12.17% Tamil Nadu 22518669 10.72% Uttar Pradesh 21635531 10.3% Gujarat 18720561 8.91% Karnataka 14784961 7.04% Rajasthan 12378929 5.89% Madhya Pradesh 11141127 5.3% Source: road transport year book IMPACT ON AIR POLLUTION IN HUMAN pollution is responsible for 5% of the total HEALTH disease burden and outdoor air pollution for The Centre for Science and Environment 6%. “Lack if social support, changing diets and report, “Body Burden: Lifestyle Diseases”, economic instability are the main triggers of estimated that India had 22.2 million chronic mental disorders. Increased intake of sugar COPD patients and around 35 million chronic too has been linked to mental illness, making it asthma patients in 2016. Air pollution causes imperative to find ways of reducing intake. An 30 % premature deaths in the country, a report increase of PM 2.5 in the environment by 4.34 released on Monday by the Centre for Science microgram/cubic metre can increase the risk of and Environment (CES) has revealed. Alzheimer’s”, the report says. A state level disease burden report released last week had found that household air ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 189 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018

Number of registered motor vehicles across India from 2001 to 2015 (per 1000 population)

Source: www.data.gov.in Growth of Vehicles in Tamil Nadu Year Transport Vehicles Non-Transport Total Vehicles 2001 4,21,365 47,40,717 51,62,082 2002 4,32,106 52,25,991 56,58,097 2003 4,57448 57,51,589 62,09,037 2004 4,72,172 62,80,301 67,52,473 2005 4,93,926 74,03,744 74,03,744 2006 5,81,106 82,21,730 82,21,730 2007 6,08,325 91,03,620 91,03,620 2008 7,06,869 1,00,69,010 1,00,69,010 2009 7,84,714 1,10,40,369 1,10,40,369 2017 1234360 22610704 23845064 Source: Govt. of Tamil Nadu State Transport Authority Motor vehicles emit toxic and carcinogenic complex as there are many different sources compounds that are known to cause cancer in and their individual effects vary from one to humans. Hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides the other. It is not only the ambient air quality contribute to smog, which damages lung in the cities but also the indoor air quality in tissues and aggravates respiratory disease. the rural and the urban areas that are causing Smog can also inhibit plant growth and damage concern. In fact in the developing world the crops and forests. Motor vehicle pollution also highest air pollution exposures occur in the contributes to the formation of acid rain and indoor environment. Air pollutants that are global warming. inhaled have serious impact on human health Air pollution accounts for about 6% of deaths affecting the lungs and the respiratory system; each year in Austria, France and Switzerland, they are also taken up by the blood and according to a study published in the Lancet pumped all round the body. These pollutants medical journal. The study found that half of are also deposited on soil, plants and in the the those deaths can be attributed to pollution water, further contributing to human exposure. from vehicles. The researchers also calculated As you read on you can learn about health that the health cost of vehicle pollution in impacts of specific air pollutants. the three countries totaled 1.7% of the gross Highlights domestic product. • A report by CSE stated that air pollution The effect of air pollution on health are very is responsible for 30% of premature deaths

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 190 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) • More than 1.73 million new cancer annually. Improvements to cooking stoves cases likely to be recorded each year by 2020, would also decrease demand for firewood and air pollution, tobacco, alcohol and diet change reduce deforestation in the developing world. are primary triggers, said the report. Similarly, improved brick kilns that are used in • The report established that unless parts of Latin America and Asia use 50% of the environmental risk factors are acknowledged fuel used by traditional kilns. and dealt with, India will not be able to curb If air pollution levels in heavy traffic areas were Non-Communicable Diseases. reduced, the incidence of asthma and other • CSE in its report mentioned that 52% respiratory diseases would be significantly of them below the age of 70 and over 61% of reduced. While it is generally accepted that all deaths in India attributed to lifestyle or non- efforts to reduce air pollution will prevent communicable diseases (NCDs) instance Body further environmental changes, they will not Burden, as per the latest nation’s health report reverse existing warming. Interestingly, an released here by CSE. increasing number of studies show that in • CSE report also mentioned that every individuals with low anti-oxidant levels, dietary 12th Indian is a diabetic. “India ranks second supplements could be used as a promising in the list of countries with highest diabetes approach to reducing susceptibility to air patients,” the report quoted. pollution, and providing an alternative strategy • As per the findings of World Health for neutralizing the effects of pollutants on Organization (WHO) there are four major risk health. factors for NCDs, instance- alcohol, tobacco, poor diet intake and lack of physical activity. REFERENCES • The WHO also said that by investing 1.World Health Organization India update of WHO just US $1-3 per person per year, countries SEARO sheets9 Nov 201.. can dramatically reduce illness and death from 2.Vijayalaxmi kinhal, ecologist type of air pollution. NCDs. 3.Air pocalypse assessment of air pollution in Indian • Though the WHO has identified the cities, the hindu explains from india to JFK. major risk factors for NCDs, it is still coy in 4.Environmental pollution centers.org/air/. calling out the real enemy foods that are high 5.Explainthatstuff.com/air-pollution-introduction. in salt, sugar, fat and low in nutrition. It wants html. to play it as safe as possible so that it does not 6.Uvm.edu/-empact/air/cars.php3. have to confront the real players and demand 7.Center for science and environment report. a restraint on their products, not through 8.The pioneer – epaper 17 Jan 2018. voluntary action but through government 9.Open government data platform india blog. policies that restrict and restrain and put a 10.CSE report – Times of India. premium on nutrition, not 11.www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/ CONCLUSION PIIS0140-6736(16)31679-8/fulltext. Air pollution currently affects the health 12.Edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/air/health.htm. of millions of people. We have presented 13.www.uvm.edu/-empact/air/cars.php3 evidence on the effects of pollutants on 14.www.businessinsider.com/events?ir=c patients with limitations in their respiratory 15.www.siamindia.com/statistics. capacities. For example, O3 and PM may trigger aspx?mpgid=8&pgidtrail=9. asthma symptoms or lead to premature death, particularly in elderly individuals with pre- existing respiratory or cardiovascular disease. In addition, pollutants enhance the release of allergenic pollen grains, which results in an increased prevalence of pollen-induced asthma. Thus, the case for action to reduce air pollution is overwhelming and this action can take many forms. Some of these include urban planning, technological developments (e.g. the design of new vehicles that produce less pollution), and at the government level, the introduction of new laws. It has been estimated that reducing both black carbon and O3 levels would prevent over 3 million premature deaths and increase crop yields by around 50 million tones

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 191 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018 45. EFFECT OF ALLOXAN MIXED DIET ON BLOOD PARAMETERS AND ITS MANAGEMENT BY SILKWORM PUPAE MEAL DIET IN COMMON CARP S.RADHA, Ph.D Research Scholar, V.O.Chidambaram College, Tuticorin. Dr.B.GEETHA, Dept of Zoology, V.O.Chidambaram College, Tuticorin. ABSTRACT Diabetes”) in animals, with characteristics his paper presents a brief overview on the similar to type 1 diabetes in humans. Alloxan Tentry of alloxan into foods and its fatal link is one of the usual substances which is a toxic to blood parameter in carp. The management glucose analogue. It is stable in dry form, but is of silkworm pupae meal diet induced Alloxan easily oxidized and selectively destroys insulin- blood parameter in carp. Five series of producing cells in the solution in the presence experiments were conducted to investigate the of air. Oxidation is accelerated by pancreas induced alloxan on blood parameter studied when administered to rodents and many other In the 8th series of experiments, utilization of heat, light, alkalis and traces of copper and Silkworm pupae meal diets on the reduction iron. This causes an insulin-dependent acid is of alloxan toxicity on blood parameter, were a molecule composed of six carbon atoms, six estimated. The increase in the levels of alloxan diabetes mellitus (called “Alloxan Diabetes”) in decreases the Hb and RBC level where as these oxygen atoms and eight hydrogen atoms, WBC, Esr and Ht increases during the exposure all linked animals, with characteristics similar to period. Then treatment with silkworm pupae type I diabetes in together by chemical bonds meal diet there an opposite trend was obtained. (Ankur Rohilla,shahjad ali.,2012 and Federiuk The administration of silkworm pupae meal et al,2004). might be beneficial for the restoration of India has more than 40 million diabetic hematological parameters, in the present study individuals which represents nearly 20% of total have revealed that incorporate silkworm pupae diabetes population worldwide. DM affects meal diet reduced the blood nonfunctional approximately 4% of the population worldwide plasma enzymes and liver function parameters and is expected to increase by 5.4% in 2025. in Alloxan induced hyperglycemia in common A number of currently existing anti-diabetic carp. On the other hand Alloxan-induced agents have number of unfavorable effects diabetes could increase the liver enzyme levels. on the body. Therefore, regulation of diabetes The increase in these enzymes may occur due without any side effects is still a difficult task to peroxidation reactions, arising from Alloxan for health care researchers. Consequently, biotransformation during diabetes and these the exploration for more successful and safer reactions may inflict oxidative injury to cellular hypoglycemic agents with lesser side effects has components. Our data shows that the silkworm unremitting to be a momentous area of study. is a good edible resource of natural Silkworm Much diabetes related metabolic alterations are pupae meal diet with hypoglycemic activity reported. Therefore, hematological parameters which retards the ill effect of alloxan induced could be an important tool in the assessment of hyperglycemia. deleterious effect of drugs as well as medicinal KEYWORDS: Silkworm pupae meal, Alloxan, plants Still though anti-diabetic action of crude Hb, RBC, WBC, Ht, etc. extracts and purified bio- active components of INTRODUCTION many plants are identified, investigated related Maida or refine wheat flour is the “heart” of to the curative activity of medicinal plants the ingredients in making of the multivarious with reference to the diabetes linked altered baked goods globally. It is also used to the fish metabolic functions are very scanty. Diabetic pellet feed using as binding materials.. Alloxan models have provided considerable insight into is an oxygenated pyrimidine derivative which is physiological and biochemical derangement present as alloxan hydrate in aqueous solution. of the diabetic state (Dixit PK, Mittal S., 2013) Alloxan was discovered by von Liebig and Various hematological parameters and the Wohler in 1828 and has been regarded as one of immune system were also reported to be the oldest named organic compounds that exist. altered due to DM (Mansi k, Lahham J. 2008) In diabetes, this causes the level of glucose in Anemia is also caused in diabetic patients due the blood to be too high. This causes an insulin- to the hemolysis of red blood cells (RBCs). dependent diabetes mellitus (called “Alloxan

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Moreover, we revealed common features experiments were conducted to investigate the between mammals and silkworm in the induced alloxan on 0.01,0.1,1,10/1000g blood pharmacokinetics of antibiotics and toxic parameters in common carp. In next four series compounds (Hamamoto et al., 2009). These of experiments, utilization of Silkworm pupae findings suggested us that evaluation of meal diets on the reduction of alloxan toxicity therapeutic activities of drugs based on on blood parameter. pharmacokinetics using silkworms would RESULTS AND DISCUSSION be possible. In this paper, we introduce our Fish exposed to alloxan elicited the time and recent findings on the application in the drug concentrations dependent and significant discovery by use of hyporglycemic silkworm (ANOVA : P<0.05) decrease in RBC count In a long history of sericulture, mulberry during the exposure period (Table 1). The leaves have been used for rearing silkworms. RBC count of Common carp on days 0, 20, 40, Nutrients contained in the mulberry leaves and 60 exposed to the highest level of alloxan are absorbed from silkworm intestine to was 2.62, 1.69, 1.53, 1.38, and 1.18 × 106 hemolymph and are transferred into the mm-3 respectively (Table 1). The correlation various organs like in mammalian animals. coefficient was calculated for RBC count and Silkworms have the organs such as intestine, fat exposure period to all the tested concentrations body, and malpighian tubule, which function and it was found to be negative and significant for exclusion of exogenously administrated (P < 0.05). However, the trend was reversed in chemicals. Moreover, silkworms can maintain WBC count 32.41, 34.43, 31.35, 38.43, 46.35 glycogen as absorbed carbohydrates in the and ESR 3.85, 4.57, 5.27, 6.46, and 6.27 value fat body and the muscle (Stake et al., 2000). of common carp exposed to alloxan levels (Fig. Therefore, the systems for uptake of sugars 1). Exposure of Common carp to alloxan also and the storage mechanism show common resulted a time and concentrations dependent features in silkworms and mammalian animals (P < 0.05) decrease in Hb 5.25, 4.79, 4.72, 4.21, including humans. 3.74 content, calculated oxygen carrying of MATERIALS AND METHODS blood 5.57, 5.98, 5.90, 5.27, 4.68 and Ht 18.36, The blood parameter were studied by Routine 15.27, 13.75, 13.24, 12.26 values. They also clinical methods-Wintrobe.(1978) Five series oF exerted a significant and negative between the

3

2.5

RBC 2

1.5

1

0.5

0 D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D1 D2 D3 D4

Exposure period

WBC 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D1 D2 D3 D4 Exposure period

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D1 D2 D3 D4

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exposure period and concentrations of alloxan (Table 1; Fig.1). Two-way ANOVA test revealed that, alloxan levels hold significant(P < 0.05) effect on RBC count, Hb content, ESR and Ht values while WBC count hold significant at alloxan levels and exposure period (Table1). TABLE 1: Effects of silkworm pupae meal diets on blood parameters in alloxan exposed common carp, as a function of time. Each value is the mean (X ̅ ±SD) of three estimations.

RBC Rearing Exposure Period Treatment Period D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D1 D2 D3 D4 0 1.80 ± 0.09 1.80 ± 0.09 1.80 ± 0.09 1.80 ± 0.12 1.80 ± 0.22 1.69 ± 0.18 1.53 ± 0.34 1.38 ± 0.18 1.21 ± 0.09 20 2.15 ± 0.08 1.85 ± 0.04 1.72 ± 0.04 1.65 ± 0.16 1.58 ± 0.29 1.73 ± 0.16 1.86 ± 0.32 1.54 ± 0.17 1.35 ± 0.18 40 2.35 ± 0.14 1.76 ± 0.14 1.64 ± 0.08 1.54 ± 0.17 1.45 ± 0.14 1.95 ± 0.17 2.11 ± 0.18 1.77 ± 0.14 1.56 ± 0.16 60 2.62 ± 0.24 1.69 ± 0.18 1.53 ± 0.24 1.38 ± 0.18 1.18 ± 0.19 2.07 ± 0.14 2.16 ± 0.21 2.24 ± 0.12 2.63 ± 0.17 WBC 0 23.01 ± 0.53 23.01 ± 0.53 23.01 ± 0.53 23.01 ± 0.53 23.01 ± 0.53 32.43 ± 0.32 31.35 ± 0.28 38.43 ± 0.19 36.35 ± 0.65 20 25.48 ± 0.23 24.46 ±0.29 26.38 ± 0.17 28.32 ± 0.27 29.33 ± 0.65 31.54 ± 0.41 28.84 ± 0.24 27.56 ± 0.21 32.69 ± 0.36 40 28.51 ± 0.81 29.27 ± 0.52 31.43 ± 0.20 29.56 ± 0.72 37.65 ± 0.50 29.16 ± 0.31 27.93 ± 0.31 26.85 ± 0.42 28.92 ± 0.51 60 32.41 ± 0.29 32.43 ± 0.32 31.35 ± 0.78 38.43 ± 0.39 36.35 ± 0.85 29.85 ± 0.21 25.07 ± 0.34 24.14 ± 0.31 22.35 ± 0.75 HB 0 4.67 ± 0.15 4.67 ± 0.15 4.67 ± 0.15 4.67 ± 0.15 4.67 ± 0.15 4.79 ± 0.27 4.72 ± 0.22 4.21 ± 0.25 3.74 ± 0.13 20 4.77 ± 0.25 4.36 ± 0.21 4.59 ± 0.22 3.69 ± 0.64 3.78 ± 0.26 4.92 ± 0.24 4.87 ± 0.31 3.45 ± 0.15 3.95 ± 0.32 40 4.91 ± 0.23 4.58 ± 0.24 4.84 ± 0.19 4.34 ± 0.15 4.36 ± 0.15 4.51 ± 0.15 4.64 ± 0.19 3.50 ± 0.32 3.04 ± 0.13 60 5.25 ± 0.22 4.79 ± 0.17 4.72 ± 0.12 4.21 ± 0.05 3.74 ± 0.13 5.77 ± 0.03 4.71 ± 0.32 3.54 ± 0.18 3.13 ± 0.29

O2 0 5.83 ± 0.21 5.83 ± 0.21 5.83 ± 0.21 5.83 ± 0.21 5.83 ± 0.21 7.31 ± 0.16 6.68 ± 0.29 5.51 ± 0.46 4.21 ± 0.52 20 5.95 ± 0.11 5.45 ± 0.13 5.73 ± 0.04 4.61 ± 0.12 4.73 ± 0.16 6.54 ± 0.31 6.94 ± 0.02 6.81 ± 0.74 6.27 ± 0.71 40 5.13 ± 0.13 5.73 ± 0.26 5.05 ± 0.11 5.43 ± 0.25 5.45 ± 0.24 7.72 ± 0.42 7.14 ± 0.11 7.54 ± 0.41 7.14 ± 0.68 60 5.57 ± 0.49 5.98 ± 0.18 5.90 ± 0.29 5.27 ± 0.46 4.68 ± 0.22 7.97 ± 0.88 7.14 ± 0.59 7.52 ± 0.81 7.26 ± 0.61 ESR 0 2.53 ± 0.21 2.53 ± 0.21 2.53 ± 0.21 2.53 ± 0.21 2.53 ± 0.21 4.57 ± 0.12 5.27 ± 0.21 6.46 ± 0.24 6.27 ± 0.52 20 2.77 ± 0.39 2.97 ± 0.18 3.83 ± 0.33 3.96 ± 0.16 3.76 ± 0.16 3.65 ± 0.21 4.45 ± 0.32 5.58 ± 0.29 4.95 ± 0.41 40 3.29 ± 0.25 3.88 ± 0.24 4.56 ± 0.54 4.55 ± 0.54 4.36 ± 0.24 3.93 ± 0.25 3.68 ± 0.18 3.85 ± 0.38 5.95 ± 0.34 60 3.85 ± 0.54 4.57 ± 1.22 5.27 ± 1.25 6.46 ± 1.24 6.27 ± 1.32 2.15 ± 0.34 2.86 ± 0.31 3.36 ± 0.41 4.46 ± 0.52 HT 0 15.80 ± 1.53 15.80 ± 1.53 15.80 ± 1.53 15.80 ± 1.53 15.80 ± 1.53 15.27 ± 0.11 13.75 ± 0.16 13.24 ± 0.29 12.26 ± 0.51 20 16.22 ± 0.25 15.82 ± 0.56 15.45 ± 0.17 14.83 ± 0.27 14.33 ± 0.32 16.27 ± 0.22 14.26 ± 0.31 13.26 ± 0.31 13.15 ± 0.39 40 17.24 ± 0.36 15.77 ± 0.52 14.27 ± 1.22 14.19 ± 0.82 14.08 ± 0.34 16.44 ± 0.52 14.73 ± 0.22 14.66 ± 0.41 14.24 ± 0.24 60 18.36 ± 0.14 15.27 ± 0.11 13.75 ± 2.16 13.24 ± 0.39 12.26 ± 0.51 16.83 ± 0.28 15.26 ± 0.27 14.73 ± 0.52 13.85 ± 0.54 Results of present study shows the levels of the to control MCH, MCHC which was found to be heamatological changes in Common carp fed decreased in diabetic subject. with different levels of alloxan incorporated The mean cell hemoglobin level is a significant diet. The results are as presented in Table1. index for folic acid and or Vit B12 need The primary reasons for assessing the RBC (Ganong.,1999) The resulting significant is to check anemia and to evaluate normal reduction in RBC levels and HCT levels in the erythropoiesis. Hemoglobin level indicates the treatment groups of ethyl acetate fraction amount of intracellular iron, while hematocrit, and ethanol extract with significant increases representing the volume of RBC in blood in their MCV and MCH levels when compared helps to determine the degree of anemia or with the diabetic control group may be due polycythaemia. WBC was found to be increased to hematotoxic effects associated with toxic in diabetic subject due to pathophysiological substances on bone marrow depression caused conditions including autolysis caused by some by damage to multiple classes of hematopoietic hydrolytic enzymes released by plasma under cells and a variety of hematopoietic functions stress. SP strengthened hemopoetic system (Synder and Hadli, 1996). Reactive O2 species by supplying various constituent thus helps generated during alloxan metabolism is CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 194 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) implicated in red cell damage (Rao et al.,2003), study have revealed that incorporate silkworm diabetic rats forms glycosylated hemoglobin pupae meal diet reduced blood nonfunctional hence, decreased total hemoglobin (Sheela plasma enzymes and liver function parameters and Augusti, 1992). There was no change in the in Alloxan induced hyperglycemia in Common red cell indices of the diabetic rats treated with carp. On the other hand Alloxan-induced butanol, methanol, glibenclamide, n-hexane. diabetes could increase the liver enzyme levels. This result was similar to that reported by The increase in these enzymes may occur due some researchers (Mohammed et al., 2009; to peroxidation reactions, arising from Alloxan Edet et al., 2011). This was consistent with the biotransformation during diabetes and these report (Ajagbonna et al., 1999) on the ability of reactions may inflict oxidative injury to cellular medicinal compounds or drugs in altering the components. Our data shows that the silkworm normal range of hematological parameters. is a good edible resource of natural Silkworm Alloxan monohydrate is known to induce pupae meal diet with hypoglycemic activity. diabetes by partial destruction of pancreatic beta cells of islet of langerhan. REFERENCES This results in depletion of insulin levels and 1.Ankur Rohilla and Shahjad Ali, Alloxan Induced hyperglycemia leading to DM. The alloxan- Diabetes: Mechanisms and Effects, International treated mice, therefore, appear to represent Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical and a good laboratory model for DM. There is Biomedical Sciences ISSN: 2229-3701, Vol. 3 possibility for the survival of a few beta-cells (2).,2012. and this has been proved by several workers 2.Chouhan S. Flora SJS. Effects of fluoride on who observed antihyperglycemic activity with the tissue oxidative stress and apoptosis in rats: oral hypoglycemic agents like glibenclamide, biochemical assays supported by IR spectroscopy tolbutamide etc. in alloxan-induced diabetic data. Toxicology. 2008; 254(1): 61-67. mice (Sheeja et al,1993,Subramanian et 3.Dixit PK, Mittal S. A comprehensive review on anti- al, 1996.) Similarly, significant decrease in diabetic agents of herbal origin. Int J Pharm Pharm the haemoglobin content and packed cell Sci.5(2): 29-32. 2013 volume were also observed in mice due to 4.Ganong, W.F.. A Review of Medical Physiology. pathophysiological condition when treated with 19th Edn., Appleton and Lange, Stanford, USA., heavy metals tartrazine, food colours chemical ISBN-13: 978-0838582527, pp: 187-241, 1999. dye, sodium benzoateand fluorid]. These 5.Hamamoto H, Tonoike A, Narushima K, Horie R, chemicals also caused elevation in blood glucose Sekimizu K. Silkworm as a model animal to evaluate levels. (Chouhan S. Flora .,2008) investigation drug candidate toxicity and metabolism. Comp was to evaluate the efficiency of the aqueous Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol. 149:334- leaves extract of S. cumini on alloxan-induced 339.2009 metabolic changes diabetic rats. Decreased Hb 6.Koening RJ, Peterson CM, Jones RL, Saudek content was observed in diabetic rates might C,Lehrman M, Cerami A et al. Correlation of glucose be due to increased formation of glycosylated regulation and hemoglobin AIc in diabetes mellitus. Hb. Generally total hemoglobin levels is much New Eng J Med 295:417.,1976. below the normal levels in diabetic subject 7.Federiuk IF, Casey HM, Quinn MJ, Wood MD, by (Chandaliam.,2002) and HbA1c levels has Ward WK. Induction of type 1 diabetes mellitus been reported to be increased in patients with in laboratory rats by use of alloxan; route of diabetes mellitus. Alloxan-induced diabetic mice administration,pitfalls, and insulin treatment. showed significantly reduced blood levels when Comprehensive Med ;54:252-7,2004. compared to the normal control group. Alloxan 8.Kim, Y.G.,, Lee M.G. Pharmacokinetics and is a well known chemical has been reported pharmacodynamies of streptozotocin. Biopharm to suppress the immune system by destroying Drug Dispos, 26:371-378.2005. certain cells and organs in the body as was 9.Mansi k, Lahham J. Effects of Artemisia sieberi observed in this present study. The alteration besser on heart rate and some hematological values of these parameters could be attributed to in normal and alloxan-induced diabetic rats. J. Basic change in the number of leucocytes which may Appl. Sci. (4)2:57-62. 2008 account for poor defensive mechanisms against 10.Maqsood ahmed, Fatima Zaman, Tanveer infection, thus may have consequential effects Sharif & Muhammed Zabta CCh. Antidiabetic on the immune system and phagocytic activity and Hypolipidemic Effects of Aqueous methanolic of the animals. Extracct of Acaccia Nilotica Pods in Alloxan Inducced CONCLUSION Diabetic Rabbits. Vol.35 No.1.2008. The administration of silkworm pupae meal might be beneficial for the restoration of biochemical and hematological parameters, in the present

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 195 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018 46. A STUDY OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE GENERATION ON URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES K.HEMANATH,Ph.D,Research Scholar(Full- Time) in Economics, Pachaiyappa’s College, Chennai 600 030.E-Mail: hemanth_mail25@yahoo. co.in; Mob- 09884532929

Dr. M.SIVARAJAN, Associate Professor of Economics, Pachaiyappa’s College, Chennai 600 030.E- mail: [email protected] ; Mobile : 094447 65373.

ABSTRACT 91% land filling, the study estimates that the ndia is growing and so are the mountains of waste generated by 2001 would have occupied Iwaste its cities and villages are producing. The 240 sq.km or an area half the size of Mumbai; composition of waste is also witnessing a major waste generated by 2011 would have occupied shift as the use of plastics and paper grow with 380 sq.km or about 220,000 football fields or the rise of the middle class and a consumerist 90% of Chennai, the fourth biggest Indian city culture. Urbanization and population growth area-wise; waste generated by 2021 would are solely responsible for high increasing rate need 590 sq.km which is greater than the of solid waste. With the increase of urban area of Hyderabad (583 sq.km), the largest population and the rising needs of various Indian city, area-wise. 2014 report of the goods and services as a result of higher level Planning Commission Committee chaired by K of consumption pattern, there has been a rapid Kasturirangan found that 62 million tonnes of increase in the generation of municipal solid MSW was produced per year, which is based waste by households, industries, institutions and on an average of 0.45 kg per capita per day for commercial establishments. The decomposition India’s urban population. According to a latest of waste into constituent chemicals is a common CPCB report, in 2016, India produced some 52 source of local environmental pollution. This million tonnes of waste each year, or roughly problem is especially acute in developing 0.144 million tonnes per day, of which roughly nations. Very few existing landfills in the world’s 23 per cent is processed taken to landfills or poorest countries would meet environmental disposed of using other technologies. Since standards accepted in industrialized nations, then, data on generation of solid waste is and with limited budgets there are likely to be calculated by multiplying the urban population few sites rigorously evaluated prior to use in the by the amount of waste generated per future. The problem is again compounded by capita per day. This makes estimates of solid the issues associated with rapid urbanization. waste generated in the country pretty much A major environmental concern is gas release a guesstimate which, in turn, confounds by decomposing garbage. Methane is a by- management. However, what the estimates do product of the anaerobic respiration of bacteria, demonstrate is the fact that bigger and richer and these bacteria thrive in landfills with high cities produce more waste than poorer cities. amounts of moisture. Methane concentrations This is not only due to their larger population, can reach up to 50% of the composition of landfill but also because their residents are more gas at maximum anaerobic decomposition. affluent and bigger generators of waste. A second problem with these gasses is their Waste-to-Energy Research and Technology contribution to the enhanced greenhouse gas Council (WTERT) the Chennai city generates effect and climate change. In this paper, an about 0.71kg of garbage per capita everyday attempt analyze the urban growth, generation - the highest in the country. Kolkata is second of municipal solid waste and its impact on with 0.66kg per day followed by Delhi and environmental challenges. Hyderabad with 0.65kg. INTRODUCTION URBANIZATION AND SOLID WASTE Population growth and rapid urbanization GENERATION IN INDIA means bigger and denser cities and increased About 31.2% population is now living in urban MSW generation in each city. Increase in MSW areas. Over 377 million urban people are living will have significant impacts in terms of land in 7,935 towns/cities. India is a vast country required for disposing the waste as it gets more divided into 29 States and 7 Union Territories difficult to site landfills. Farther the landfill (UTs). There are three mega cities—Greater gets from the point of waste generation (city), Mumbai, Delhi, and Kolkata—having population greater will be the waste transportation cost. of more than 10 million, 53 cities have more Based on a business as usual (BAU) scenario of than 1 million population, and 415 cities having

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 196 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) population 100,000 or more. The consequences many environmental problems such as flood, of burgeoning population in urban centers are erosion, solid waste materials, global warming, more noticeable in developing countries as desertification/drought and pollutions. It compared to the developed countries. The is observed that municipal solid waste in population of urban India was 377 million Kano that are put into enormous piles often (Census of India, 2011a)1, which accounts decompose to emit methane a “greenhouse for 31% of the total population. Global case gas” that is more potent than carbon dioxide. histories reveal that when a country’s urban This methane contributes to global warming population extends beyond 25% of the overall which could result into climate change as a population (as in the present case), the pace result of destruction of ozone layer (Sharma, of urbanization accelerates (Kumar & Gaikwad, 2010)5. Direct exposure can lead to diseases 2004)2. The population residing in urban through chemical exposure as the release of regions increased from 18 to 31.2% from 1961 chemical waste into the environment leads to to 2011 respectively (Census of India, 2011b)3. chemical poisoning. Co-disposal of industrial Planning Commission Report (2014)4 reveals waste with municipal waste can expose that 377 million people residing in urban area people to chemical and radioactive hazards. generate 62 million tons of MSW per annum Open dumpsites are a major problem to the currently and it is projected that by 2031 these environment especially to the air that we urban centers will generate 165 million tons of inhale. waste annually and by 2050 it could reach 436 Solid waste pollutants serve as an external force million tons. About 23.5 × 107 cubic meter of affecting the physico-chemical characteristics landfill space is required and in terms of area of soil ultimately contributing towards the it would be 1,175 hectare of land per year. The poor production of vegetation (Papageorgiou, area required from 2031 to 2050 would be 2006)7. The pollutants, in the first place, hinder 43,000 hectares for landfills piled in 20 meter the normal metabolism of plants which is an height. These projections are based on 0.45 invisible injury and owing to which the visible kg/capita/day waste generation. injury appears in the aftermath. It is depriving SOURCES OF MUNICIPAL SOLID our ecosystem of the natural balance and bear WASTE GENERATION result beyond any repair. Assessment of soil Municipal waste is generally defined as waste pollution becomes difficult when contaminants collected by municipalities and other local belong to different sources and their products authorities. However, this definition varies from are variably distributed (Partha et al., 2011)8. country to country. There are primarily two Chemical properties of soil serve as main reason types of solid waste – (i) Municipal Solid Waste of vegetation changes (Neave et al., 1994)9. (MSW) and (ii) Industrial waste. Municipal In plants accumulation of chemical elements solid waste is commonly known as trash or depends not only on their absolute content in garbage, it consists of : Food Waste ; Garden a soil but also on the level of fertility, acidic– (Yard) and Park Waste; Paper and Cardboard; alkaline and oxidative-reductive conditions and Wood; Textiles; Nappies (Disposable diapers); on the presence of organic matter (Subbiah Rubber and Leather; Plastics; Metal ; Glass and Asija, 1976)10. The disturbances of higher (and Pottery); Other (e.g., Ash, Dirt, Dust, Soil, intensity sometimes endanger the survival Electronic waste). Industrial waste is mainly of some species and yield to low richness. In found in the same waste types as in MSW. this regard, developing countries are even Most of the MSWs are hazardous in nature. deeper into the chaos as having poor financial Hazardous waste is a waste that is dangerous resources to upgrade their disposal facilities or potentially harmful to both health and the and turned out to be more vulnerable to the environment. Hazardous wastes can be liquids, hazards of dumping for their environment solids, gases, sludges, discarded commercial (Hazra and Goel, 2009) products (e.g., cleaning fluids or pesticides), or Over the last many years, heavy metals the by-products of manufacturing processes. have considerably damaged the soil quality REVIEW OF LITERATURE and fertility in consequence of increased One notable environmental problem that environmental pollution from industrial, has bedeviled the nation since the 1970s agricultural and municipal sources. Metals is municipal solid waste. MSW affects the cause physiological disorders in soils as environment in different parts of the globe. In absorption through root system consequently Nigeria the oil boom of the 1970s had resulted retards plant growth and deprives it of into increase in the volume of individual, vigour. Waste carries different metals which commercial and industrial activities in towns are then transferred to plants by different and cities of the country. These gave birth to ways. Depending on the tendency of the

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contaminants they end up either in water held TPY) generates the second highest amount of in the soil or leached to the underground water. waste. Contaminants like Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn can MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE IN TAMILNADU alter the soil chemistry and have an impact on In Tamilnadu there are 14 Municipal the organisms and plants depending on the soil Corporations -Chennai, Coimbatore ,Madurai, for nutrition .Diversity of vegetation is directly Tiruchirappalli, Salem, Tirunelveli, Thoothukudi, influenced by soil characteristics. Many studies Tiruppur, Erode ,Vellore, Thanjavur , Dindigul show evidence of seriousness of hazards caused and 152- Municipalities. Waste-to-Energy by open waste dumping ultimately affecting Research and Technology Council (WTERT) the the plant life on the planet leading towards an city generates about 0.71kg of garbage per irreversible erosion trend unless the present capita everyday — the highest in the country. land use pattern is checked (Phil-Eze, 2010)12. Kolkata is second with 0.66kg per day followed A study examined the environmental and by Delhi and Hyderabad with 0.65kg. About health impacts of households living around 500g of waste per capita is generated by 70% and away (far away) from the Granville Brook of the country’s urban population. Kolkata dumpsite in Freetown, Sierra Leone, revealed generates 12,060 tonnes of waste daily, that both nearby residents and far away followed by Mumbai (11,645 tonnes) and Delhi residents suffered from related diseases due (11,558 tonnes). In Chennai, which generates to the location of the dumpsite closer to their 6,404 tonnes of waste daily, the garbage settlements. It was discovered that residents generated by an average household includes less than fifty meters from the dumpsite are 25% recyclable waste, 60% organic waste and most affected by the dumpsite. Hence, they 10% hazardous waste. At least 30% of garbage were victims of malaria, chest pains, diarrhea, goes into drains, while many vacant plots and cholera, irritation of the skin, nose and eyes. pavements have become unofficial dump This state of health of respondents in this study yards. The city, with about 730 hospitals, also can be linked to pollution from the dumpsite. It generates an average of 9,898kg of biomedical was also noted that the extent of air and water waste a day (Time of India:2014). pollution is worse in the raining season asa PER CAPITA MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE result of offensive and disease carrying odor, GENERATED IN INDIA as well as ground water pollution. In the dry Cities in Western India were found to be season, the smoke from the incineration of the generating the least amount of waste per dumpsite is an important source of air pollution person, only 440 grams/day, followed by East for people living far away from the dumpsite. India (500 g/day), North India (520 g/day), and They therefore complained about chest pains South India. Southern Indian cities generate 560 (Foday Pinka Sankoh, Xiangbin Yan, Quangyen grams/day, the maximum waste generation per Tran: 2013). person. States with minimum and maximum QUANTITY OF MUNICIPAL SOLID per capita waste generation rates among WASTE GENERATED IN INDIA bigger states, each person in Gujarat generates Generation of MSW has an obvious relation 395 g/day; followed by Orissa (400 g/day) and to the population of the area or city, due to Madhya Pradesh (400 grams/day). Among which bigger cities generate more waste. The states generating large amounts of MSW per metropolitan area of Kolkata generates the person are Tamil Nadu (630 g/day), Jammu & largest amount of MSW (11,520 TPD or 4.2 Kashmir (600 g/day) and Andhra Pradesh (570 million TPY) among Indian cities. Among the g/day). Among Union Territories, Andaman four geographical regions in India, Northern and Nicobar Islands generate the highest (870 India generates the highest amount of MSW grams/day) per capita, while Lakshadweep (40,500 TPD or 14.8 million TPY), 30% of all Islands (340 grams/day) generates the least per MSW generated in India; and Eastern India capita. Per capita waste generation in Delhi, the (23,500 TPD or 8.6 million TPY) generates the biggest Union Territory is 650 g/day. A total of least, only 17% of MSW generated in India. 366 cities and towns represent 70% of India’s Among states, Maharashtra (22,200 TPD or urban population and provide a fair estimation 8.1 million TPY), West Bengal (15,500 TPD or of the average per capita waste generation 5.7 million TPY), Uttar Pradesh (13,000 TPD or in Urban India (0.5 kg/day). The average per 4.75 million TPY), Tamil Nadu (12,000 TPD or capita waste generation in India is 370 grams/ 4.3 million TPY) Andhra Pradesh (11,500 TPD or day as compared to 2,200 grams in Denmark, 4.15 million TPY) generate the highest amount 2,000 grams in US and 700 grams in China. of MSW. Among Union Territories, Delhi A 2012 study by Columbia University on solid (11,500 TPD or 4.2 million TPY) generates the waste management in India analysed the highest and Chandigarh (486 TPD or 177,400 per capita waste generation in the context

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 198 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) of the growth in the population of India. The (India): natural and anthropogenic implications., J. study also did per capita MSW estimations, Environ. Res. Manage., 2 (2) (2011), pp. 027-034 extrapolated till 2041 when it would be around 9. Neave et al., (1994), The relationships between 0.74 kg per person per day. As per a 2015 paper vegetation patterns and environment on the south in International Journal for Research in Applied coast of New South Wales, J. For. Ecol. Manage., 72 Science and Engineering Technology (IJRASET) (1994), pp. 71-80 on quantification of solid waste,5 per capita 10. Subbiah, G.L. Asija (1976) ,A rapid procedure waste generation is approximately 500 g per for estimation of available nitrogen in soils, Curr. person per day. CSE surveyed different kinds of Sci., 25 (1976), pp. 259-260 cities in the year 2014–15 across the country 11. Hazra and Goel, (2009), Solid waste management to understand the status of waste generation in Kolkata, India: practices and challenges, Waste in the country. It found that on an average, the Manag., 29 (2009), pp. 470-478 generation of waste is 350–600 g per capita per 12.Phil-Eze, P.O(2010),Variability of soil properties day. related to vegetation cover in a tropical rainforest CONCLUSION landscape, J. Geog. Reg. Plan., 3 (7), pp. 177-184 With increase in the urban population and the 13. Foday Pinka Sankoh, Xiangbin Yan, Quangyen rising demand for food and other essentials, Tran(2013), Environmental and Health Impact of there has been a rise in the amount of waste Solid Waste Disposal in Developing Cities: A Case being generated daily by each household, Study of Granville Brook Dumpsite, Freetown, Sierra industries, construction and other sources. Leone, Journal of Environmental Protection, 4, Pp. Waste that is not properly managed, especially 669-370. excreta and other liquid and solid waste 14. Time of India( 2014), Chennai’s per capita waste from households and the community, are at 0.7kg highest in country, TNN, Jan 2, 2014. a serious health hazard and environmental damages. Waste dump yards also cause to serious consequences on water pollution pose to environmental treats. To avoid, the government takes serious measures in terms of proper collection and disposal of waste and adopt waste management techniques to save the earth. REFERENCES 1.Census. (2011a). Provisional population totals, India. Retrieved from http://censusindia. gov.in/2011-prov-results/ datafiles/india/ povpoputotalpresentation2011.pdf 2. Kumar, S., & Gaikwad, S. A. (2004). Municipal solid waste management in Indian urban centres: An approach for betterment. In K. R. Gupta (Ed.), Urban development debates in the new millennium, New Delhi, Pp. 100–111. 3. Census. (2011b). Registrar general of India. Retrieved from http://censusindia.gov.in/ 4. Planning Commission Report. (2014). Reports of the task force on waste to energy (Vol-I) (in the context of Integrated MSW management) 5. Sharma, B.K. (2010). Environmental Chemistry. GOEL Publishing House, Meerut. Pp w1-w8. 6.E. Marshal, “Analytical Study to Evaluate Associations between Dumpsites and Birth Effects,” ATSDR CO.LTD, Atlanta, 1995. 7.Papageorgiou (2006), Public community partnerships for waste collection in three Indian cities, an exercise in world making – best student essays of 2005–06, Inst. Soc. Studies, 24, pp. 104- 117. 8.Partha,N.N.Murthya,P.Saxena (2011),Assessment of heavy metal contamination in soil around hazardous waste disposal sites in Hyderabad city

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 199 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018 47. ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS OF URBAN SOLID WASTE AND NEED FOR VALORIZATION OF WASTE Dr.S JAMEELA, Associate Professor, Department of Political Science and Director, Centre for Women’s Studies, JBAS, Chennai.

ABSTRACT of managing resources, including human “Source reduction is, on the face of it, perhaps resources, is uphill because a delicate balance the most appealing is to always to be maintained. India is one of of all the possible approaches to solid-waste the fastest growing economy and is moving management” steadily to achieve a GDP of 10% in a decade - William Rathje and Cullen Murphy or so. The growth of the country and its Waste poses a threat to public health and emergence as a world power has also resulted environment and hence it should be properly in high expectations of the people in terms collected and disposed. Managing municipal of quality of life. However, the fact remains solid waste is a pervasive problem for any urban that this change has forced migration of rural area and the Singara Chennai is no exception to people to urban areas in search of better it. Admitting that it is one of the best managed livelihood and hence life. The negative side city, but still problem of dealing with solid waste of this migration, from rural to urban areas, is generated in the ever expanding Chennai city is the stress on urban infrastructure (like water, an uphill task. The materialistic world has been electricity, roads etc.) on one hand and adverse sustaining, so to say, by transforming natural impact on environment on the other. One of resources into garbage. This is an unnatural the recent estimates puts that only 70% of the behavior because mother nature does not solid waste generated by urban population is throw stuff away – dead trees, birds, beetles collected and that in terms of quantum works and for that any natural material including out to a whopping 62 million tonnes per year human being are pretty quickly recycled by the with about 10% of this being plastic waste and earth system. Our perception of waste as an another 12% other hazardous waste. unwanted material with no intrinsic value has Our resources which include water, energetic to change because of the fact that the waste resources, agricultural land, fish stock, minerals generated is a resource with transformed and forest to name some, are limited. Also material. Hence, to extract value from this inefficient use of these resources will in the science, technology and attitudinal changes longer run have impacts like deforestation, are the need of the hour for converting the desertification ( soil erosion), pollution of ever increasing waste into wealth. water soil and air, loss of biodiversity, reduction For a long time our economy has been linear of natural capital which will lead to conflicts but there is a positive shift to the circular in the society on one hand and migration of economy which has changed the way we people on the other. Hence, all the discussions look at the urban solid waste which no longer in this paper is on the premise, which is the remains a waste but is a resource now. The well known and accepted reality of life, that paper deals with the environmental and health the natural resources are limited and some implications of the urban solid waste and of them are close to finish. Also that we are its impact on society if a timely intervention consuming these natural resources fast and to make it a part of circular economy is not that the time has come to use them efficiently attempted seriously. The paper brings out the because so far we are using them inefficiently. economic, social and environmental benefits Another dark reality is that we are producing of treating solid waste as a resource. too much waste and only a very small portion INTRODUCTION of waste produced go back to the economic Every Indian is proud that the country is cycle. It is the last part, that recycling is very on the path of rapid progress. The rapid meagre, which is to change and that change development and industrialization is forcing has to come fast. Valorization of the waste is an unprecedented change in the social and the way forward and we all must try our best economic fabric of the country and has its for the social and economic benefit of the own impact on the environment in which we society on one hand and protection of the live. With a population of about 1.3 billion ( environment on the other. almost 18% of world population) and with a Swatchh Bharath (Clean India) is a recent share of only 5% of the world’s area the task initiative of Government of India, where in CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 200 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) the awareness and corrective measures are Lehmann, 2013). Cities have for a long time been being encouraged and in some cases made ‘swallowed’ in garbage as dump sites mushroom mandatory. Tamilnadu, as expected performs in all corners, blocking drainages, contaminating better in comparison to other parts of the water sources, causing disease among the country. When we analyse the scenario for population and impairing the aesthetic value of metro cities, Chennai stands out in managing the landscape (Wright & Boorse, 2011). solid waste. It is heartening to note that Chennai URBAN SOLID WASTE COMPOSITION has approximately 465 Hectare of landfill area, India has different geographic and climatic which is almost double of the other three metros regions (tropical wet, tropical dry, subtropical viz Delhi, Mumbai and Kolkata put together. humid climate, and mountain climate) and four The difficulty with the landfill is that these are seasons (winter, summer, rainy, and autumn) and to be located outside the city which increases accordingly residents living in these zones have the cost of transportation as the cities expand. different consumption and waste generation Rapid growth of city means frequent relocation pattern. However, till date, no concrete steps of landfill areas and that will mean more cost had been taken to analyze regional and towards the transportation. This economic geographical-specific waste generation patterns burden is what makes the work of corporation for these urban towns and researchers have unenviable. to rely on the limited data available based on Different times and different urban areas have the study conducted by various agencies ( tried out various techniques and so far it is central, state, NGO etc.) (Rajkumar Joshi and believed that source segregation is the best Sirajuddin Ahmed, 2016) Solid waste is anything way to deal with it. Releasing this, solid waste that is not a liquid and which is thrown away management rules 2016 have made segregation because it is not wanted. Urban solid waste mandatory for every waste generator but is Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), commonly unfortunately, its implementation is very poor. known as garbage is a waste type consisting of As of now most of the garbage of urban India everyday items that are discarded by the public remains untreated. One research group predicts after their use. Major sources of solid wastes that if India continues to dump untreated in urban areas include residential sources, garbage at its current rate, then it will need commercial sources, institutional sources, a landfill of size 66,000 hectares which is 10 open area, industrial sources, health facilities metres high and can hold 20 yrs worth of waste. ( hospital etc), construction and demolition, Municipal solid waste management (MSWM), agriculture sources, electronic and electrical a critical element towards sustainable waste ( e- wastes).Among these residential metropolitan development, comprises wastes contributes little over 50% and segregation, storage, collection, relocation, commercial waste another 25 %. Another way carry-age, processing, and disposal of solid of looking at the urban solid waste can be by waste to minimize its adverse impact on classifying it as biodegradable solid waste, i.e. environment. Unmanaged MSW becomes a the waste which can be broken down into their factor for propagation of innumerable ailments constituent elements by bacteria and other (Kumar et al., 2009). High population growth micro organisms and non biodegradable solid rates, rapidly varying waste characterization waste where in bacteria cannot decompose this and generation patterns, growing urbanization waste. Yet another way of classifying them may and industrialization in developing countries be hazardous and non hazardous wastes. (Troschinetz & Mihelcic, 2009) are the important LINEAR AND CIRCULAR ECONOMY reasons for paying attention towards MSWM as There could be three ways economy can work. more area is required to accommodate waste First, the linear economy in which raw materials (Idris, Inane, & Hassan, 2004). are used to make a product and after its use any This paper deals with analyzing the present waste is thrown away. Second, reuse economy, scenario and suggesting ways to deal with the in which the material is recycled and reused. solid waste generated in the country. The paper Third, in which a new raw material needed is makes a case of implementing valorization of obtained sustainably so that natural and human solid waste as a management strategy for better environment is not damaged. Hence, a circular social, economic and environment impact. economy is an alternative to a traditional linear Municipal solid waste is one form of the economy in which we keep resources in use manifestation of unsustainable consumption of for as long as possible, extract the maximum natural resources by humankind which has led value from them while in use. Hence, a to, and continues to lead to, the depletion of circular economy is an economic system where natural capital and environmental degradation products and services are traded in closed loops (Berg, et al., 2013; Taylor, 2000; Zaman & or cycles. This ensures long life, optimal reuse,

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refurbishment, remanufacturing and recycling India this is most of often than not taken as the of products and materials. According to Winkler only option to treat the waste. This has to be (2011, p. 244) “studies show that the share of changed and that can happen more suitably reused or recycled materials can be increased by adopting the model of circular economy. up to 80% by closing process chains (instead of We should work on integrated sustainable 1% with unclosed process chains).” waste management which could be a physical A circular economy preserves the value added system and its technological components, in products for as long as possible and virtually sustainability aspects (social, institutional, eliminates waste. It retains the resources within political, financial, economic, environmental the economy when a product has reached the and technical) and various groups of stake end of its life, so that they remain in productive holders involved Wilson, et al., 2012. use and create further value. It may involve A schematic presentation of this model is (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/circular‐ presented in the figure below economy/index_en.htm) : • Increasing the time of products to deliver their service before coming to the end of their useful life (durability); • Reducing the use of materials that are hazardous or difficult to recycle (substitution); • Creating markets for recycled materials (standards, public procurement); • Designing products that are easier to repair, upgrade, remanufacture of recycle (eco‐ design); • Incentivising waste reduction and high‐ quality separation by consumers; • Incentivising separation and collection systems that minimise the costs of recycling and reuse; • Facilitating industrial clusters that exchange by‐products to prevent them from becoming wastes (industrial symbiosis); • Encouraging wider consumer choice through renting or leasing instead of owning products (new business models)” Integrated Sustainable Waste Management Model (after Anschutz et al.,2001) Burnley, et al. (2015) and Cucchiella, et al. This system once adopted will ensure waste (2014) argue that using waste to generate value chain based circular economy approach, energy in waste to energy plants, where systems which is expected to be sustainable while to sort or reclaim materials from waste do not fulfilling aspirations of the society in terms exist, was environmentally and economically of economic and environmental outcomes. A sustainable than sending the waste to a landfill. resource value chain may include should be Circular economy will also ensure that there is redesigned from present no burning of waste at landfill area which often Producer- Wholesaler- Retailer- consumer/ leads to environmental and pollution related waste generator- waste disposer (generally the problems in the nearby urban settlements. municipal corporations Every metro city faces these problems at regular to interval of time and with circular economy as Producer- Wholesaler- Retailer- consumer/ a solution the practice of burning of landfill waste generator- Collector- aggregator- waste will become a thing of past as there will processor – Producer be value to the waste. In this manner the cycle will start from Producer Waste management hierarchy arranges and end with Producer making it a Circular Reduce- lowering the amount of waste Process/ System. produced, Reuse- using material repeatedly, Recycle- using materials to make new products, VALORIZATION OF URBAN SOLID Recovery- recovering energy from waste and WASTE lastly landfill- safe disposal of waste to landfill World population is growing and to ensure in order of decreasing priority. This means that there is enough food, water and prosperity for landfill to be the last alternative however, in everyone, there is a need to switch from linear

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 202 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) to circular economy. One of the examples of converted in to heat, power and finally bio circular economy and valorisation of waste fertilizer. is from food waste. Reducing food waste has b.Extraction / Processing: processing enormous potential for reducing the resources of food waste to get Collagen, Chitosan, we use to produce, manage, transform, Protein Hydrolysate, Bioactive peptides, distribute, store and cook the food we eat. Cosmoceuticals, Insecticides, enzymes, World over food has been identified as a key fertilizers, soil nutrients etc. sector where resource efficiency should be The food waste valorization could be seen improved and called for ambitious action to as one of the examples and similar systems/ tackle food waste. Circular economy plays a processes are being developed for wastes from vital role in managing food waste and is the other streams. We should work on enlightening best example of it. fellow citizens on the importance of valorization of waste. VALORIZATION OF FOOD WASTE It is heartening to note that in response to Ever increasing world population means Government of India policy on start up, there is increasing demand for food production and good response for valorisation of waste. Some processing industry associated with it and of the notable start-ups which use waste as a consequently the generation of a large amount resource (raw material) are: of food waste. This fact opens a plethora of opportunities for effective waste management Vermigold: Vermigold is an on-site organic waste and measure for proper treatment, reuse recycling Systems Company which combines or disposal of waste. Food is store house of advanced vermiculture biotechnology with complex carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and cutting edge engineering to enable end users lipids and so is the food waste. These could be to Recycle organic waste in a trouble free and raw material for various processes and which eco friendly manner. can be used for valorization of food. Food Eco-wise: Headquartered at Noida, India. supply food chain can be analyzed and the Ecowise waste management provides waste generated could be used for production comprehensive waste management services of biofuels, enzymes, bioactive compounds, to a variety of establishments including biodegradable plastics and nano particles to residential, commercial and industrial entities. name a few. Synergy Waste Management (P) Ltd. :It is one Let us consider the valorization of food waste of the leading service providers for Bio-Medical by analyzing the food supply chain of the food waste management in India. They are generally waste. This supply chain can be divided into operators of Common Bio-medical waste two major groups (i) Plant derived food waste treatment facilities, part of urban infrastructure and (ii) animal derived food waste. in India. 1. PLANT DERIVED FOOD WASTE: Timarpur-Okhla Waste Management Pvt a. Extraction / Processing: we can Ltd. : Timarpur-Okhla Municipal Solid waste use the technology for extraction of Lipids, management project is the first commercial Hemicellulose, Bioactive compounds/ waste-to-energy facility in India that aims to nutraceuticals, Pectin, Starch, Phytochemicals, convert one-third of the Delhi garbage into the Phenols, Biodiesel, Activated carbon. All these much needed electricity, enough to serving 6 can then be used as raw materials for various lakh homes. The project is CDM is registered applications. with United Nations Framework Convention on b. Incineration: converting the food waste Climate Change for earning Carbon Credits. in to Fly Ash and then to Hydrogels for various Attero, Electronics Asset Management applications. Company: Attero aims to increase value for all c. Pretreatment and Hydrolysis: under electronic inventories, right from end of life this, the od waste is converted to sugars which electronics to surplus and seconds electronics, is then fermented and finally used as raw while ensuring a safer and more secure future material for conversion to Bioethonol, Butanol, for the planet. It is mainly concerned with Enzymes, Bioydrogen, Bioplastics etc. E-waste mining. d. Anerobic Digestion: this is a process Antony Waste Handling Cell Pvt. Ltd. : Antony in which using bacteria the food waste is waste handling cell, is one of the leading players converted in to heat, power and finally bio in the field of Solid waste management services fertilizer. in the country. It has features as Engineered 2. ANIMAL DERIVED FOOD WASTE: Sanitary land filling., Refuse Transfer stations, a. Anerobic Digestion: this is a process etc. in which using bacteria the food waste is

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UPL Environmental Engineers Ltd. : Shivalik Reviews, Volume 33, p. 719–728. Solid Waste Management Ltd. : this startup is 5.Idris, A., Inane, B., & Hassan, M. N. (2004). providing services forTreatment, Storage and Overview of waste disposal and landfills/dumps Disposal Facilities, Multiple effect evaporator, in Asian countries. Material Cycles and Waste Empty used drums, Environmental monitoring Management, 16, 104–110. and laboratory analytical services, Waste 6.Kumar, S., Bhattacharyya, J., Vaidya, A., oil/used oil, Paint Sludge, e-waste and CFL, Chakrabarti, T., Devotta, S. & Akolkar, A. 2009. Used lead acid batteries and Waste water Assessment of the status of municipal solid waste management consultancy. management in metro cities, state capitals, class I Greenobin : It is a Gurgaon based startup cities, and class II towns in India: An insight. Waste that is focussed on collecting paper waste and Management, 29, 883-895. market the same to paper recycling plants for 7.Rajkumar Joshi1 and Sirajuddin Ahmed1Status further use. and challenges of municipal solid waste GreenPowerSystems: It is a waste management management in India: A review- Joshi & Ahmed, technology firm. GPS custom builds units for an Cogent Environmental Science (2016), 2: 1139434 un-segregated waste ecosystem. The inaugural 8.Taylor, D. C., 2000. Policy incentives to minimize products, BioOrja and Biowaste Shredder, are generation of municipal solid waste. Waste arguably the first waste-to-energy solution for Management & Research, Volume 18, pp. 406-419. urban India. 9.Troschinetz, A. M., & Mihelcic, J. R. (2009). Let’s Recycle: It is an initiative of NEPRA Sustainable recycling of municipal solid waste Resource management Pvt. Ltd., a social in developing countries. WasteManagement, enterprise that operates in segment of Dry 29, 915–923. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. Waste Management and Recycling, where wasman.2008.04.016 it collects Dry Waste from Waste generators 10.Wilson, D. C. et al., 2012. Comparative analysis and segregates the recyclables and sends to of solid waste management in 20 cities. Waste authorized recyclers. Management & Research, 30(3), pp. 237-254. CONCLUSION 11.Winkler, H., 2011. Closed-loop production Waste valorisation is an attractive approach of systems—A sustainable supply chain approach. CIRP increasing popularity which can offer a range of Journal of Manufacturing Science and Technology, potentially useful alternatives for dealing with Volume 4, p. 243–246. residues other than disposed or land filling. 12.Wright, R. T. & Boorse, D. F., 2011. Environmental Valorising waste components could infact lead Science: Toward a Sustainable Future. 11th ed. to numerous possibilities for the production Boston: B. Cummings, Cop. of valuable chemicals, fuels and products that 13.Zaman, A. U. & Lehmann, S., 2013. The zero society currently does not appreciate.Basic waste index: a performance measurement tool for valorisation strategies including composting, waste management systems in a ‘zero waste city’. recycling and burning(for energy recovery) are Journal of Cleaner Production, Volume 50, pp. 123- largely accepted practises worldwide which 132. however are able to recover or convert waste into useful products.Advanced valorisation strategies based on green chemical technologies are more appealing from both the practical, economic and sustainability view points in that these can diversify the generation of multiple products from a single feedstock. REFERENCES 1.Anschütz, J., van de Klundert, A. & Scheinberg, A., 2001. Integrated Sustainable Waste Management - the Concept, Gouda: WASTE. 2.Berg, L. R., Hager, M. C. & Hassenzahl, D. M., 2013. Visualizing Environmental Science. 4th ed. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 3.Burnley, S., Coleman, T. & Peirce, A., 2015. Factors influencing the life cycle burdens of the recovery of energy from residual municipal waste. Waste Management , Volume 39, p. 295–304. 4.Cucchiella, F., D’Adamo, I. & Gastaldi, M., 2014. Sustainable management of waste-to-energy facilities. Renewable and Sustainable Energy

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 204 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) 48. EXTERNALITY OF WATER POLLUTION AND ITS IMPACT ON HUMAN HEALTH Dr.SURESH.B, Assistant Professor of Economics, J.K.K. Nataraja College of Arts& Science (Govt. Aided),Komarapalayam-638 183, MAIL: [email protected] CELL:9600614208.

ABSTRACT access to drinking water in India has increased ater is one of the natural resources over the past decade, the tremendous adverse Wwhich is essential to sustain life. Water impact of unsafe water on health continues. It pollution is any chemicals, physical or biological is estimated that about 21% of communicable that changes the quality of water and has diseases in India is water related. A majority of harmful effects on any living organism that inland rivers which are the sources of drinking uses it. When humans drink polluted water, water in urban India are also contaminated. it often has serious affects on their health. While the shift in usage from surface water The objective of the study is 1) to evaluate the to groundwater has undoubtedly controlled nature of the ground water in study area, 2) microbiological problems in rural India. The to study the Socio-economic characteristics of same has however, led to newer problems the respondents, 3) to examine the awareness of fluorosis and arsenicosis. Excess iron is an of the respondents about the water pollution, endemic water quality problem in many parts and to find out the methods to control the ill of eastern India. Hardness is mainly caused effects of water pollution on human health. by the presence of carbonate, bicarbonate, The present study was conducted to assess the choloride and sulphate salts of calcium and ill effects of water pollution on human health in magnesium in water. Iron is found in parts Erumapalayam village in Salem District. Salem of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Coastal is the fifth largest city in Tamil Nadu State. Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. A sample of 50 respondents was selected through simple random sampling techniques. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND OF THE The data was collected through well structured STUDY interviewing schedule. The collected data was Environmental pollution is an ‘externality’ in analyzed by using descriptive and inferential welfare economics. An externality is present statistics. The physical and chemical analysis whenever individual A’s utility and production conducted the water sample, it is found that relationships include real (i.e. non-monetary) the appearance of samples is slight-brownish variables, whose values are chosen by others color and they have objectionable odour and (persons, corporations, governments) without taste, Turbidity of the samples is found to be not particular attention to the effects on A’s in the range of permissible limit, I.e., 36 mg/L. welfare. An externality can be either beneficial As per the standard of Central Public Health (positive) or harmful (negative). Examples of Engineering Environmental Organization beneficial externalities are, a neighbour’s rose (CPHEEO) water sample is physically and garden entering as a real variable in the utility chemically not potable due to appearance of functions of others living in the neighbourhood, odour and TDS, ALK, TH, FE, NO3 and C1 value and services of a lighthouse entering as a real exceeds the maximum permissible limits. variable in the production function of shipping companies. Negative externalities include noise KEYWORDS: Pollution, Human Health, Awareness pollution by aircrafts using an airport, which INTRODUCTION enters as a real variable in the utility functions Water pollution is any chemicals, physical or of persons living in the neighbourhood, and biological that changes the quality of water and the pollution of a river, which enters as a real has harmful effects on any living organism that variable in the production function of water- uses it. When humans drink polluted water, it supply undertakings drawing from the river or often has serious affects on their health. Water agriculture. With this background, the present pollution can also make water unsuited for the study has also been undertaken to assess the desired use. A little negligence on the part of impact of polluted water on the health status civic bodies can result in the spread of many of the Erumapalayam village in Salem District. diseases. Access to safe drinking water remains OBJECTIVES an urgent necessity, as 30% of urban and 90% 1.To study the Socio-economic characteristics of rural households still depend completely of the respondents on untreated surface or groundwater. While 2.To examine the awareness of the respondents

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about the water pollution are unfit for drinking purpose. The appearance 3.To find out the methods to control the ill of samples is slight-brownish colour and they effects of water pollution on human health. have objectionable odour and taste, Turbidity of the sample is found to be not in the range METHODOLOGY of permissible limit i.e., 36mg/lit. Turbidity in The present study was conducted to assess the water is caused by suspended matter such as ill effects of water pollution on human health in clay, silts, finely divided organic and inorganic Erumapalayam village in Salem District. Salem matter, soluble coloured organic compounds is the fifth largest city in Tamil Nadu State. and plankton and other microscopic organisms. A sample of 50 respondents was selected As per the standard of Central Public Health through simple random sampling techniques. Engineering Environmental Organization The data was collected through well structured (CPHEEO) water sample is Physically and interviewing schedule. The collected data was chemically not potable due to appearance analyzed by using descriptive and inferential of odour and TDS, ALK, TH, Fe, No3 and C1 statistics. value exceeds the maximum permissible limits. The Total Dissolved Solids, PH, Electrical RESULT AND DISCUSSION Conductivity, Chloride. Total Hardness, Nitrates (No3) and Fluoride contents are higher than the PHYSICAL CHARACTERIZATION maximum limits. The following table 1 shows From the study area physical and chemical the physical and chemical characteristics of analysis conducted the water sample, it is found ground water quality at Erumapalayam village that ground water sample which are taken in Salem. within ½ km from the solid waste dumping site Table: 1 Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Ground Water in Salem

Parameters Acceptable Limit Rejection Results of the Sample Physical Examination (A) (B) Appearance - - Sli.brownish Colour (Pt.CoScale) 5 25 - Odour Unobjectionable - Objectionable Odour Turbidity NT units 2.5 10 36 Total Dissolved Solids mg/ 500 2000 4283 lit Electrical Conductivity - - 6140 micromho/cm Chemical Examination PH 7.0-8.5 6.5-9.2 `6.91 Iron (Fe) 0.1 1.0 2.8 Total Alkalinity - 600 2.8 Total Hardness as CaCo3 200 600 964 Nitrate as No3 46 100 2240 Chloride as C1 200 1000 155 Fluoride as F 1.0 1.5 1.0 Sulphate as SO4 200 400 110 (A) CPHEEO (Central Public Health Engineering Environmental Organization) Standards- Acceptable Limit (B) CPHEEO Standards- Cause of rejection when exceed Result of Chemical Examination are expressed in mg/lit Acceptable limit fro Mg can go upto 125 mg/lit with and allowance of 1 mg per 25 mg so4 The analysis of water samples reveals that the dumping site are affected and the ground water quality of ground water in the solid waste from these nearer sites are not fit for human

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 206 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) consumption. Distribution of the respondents with regard to their age, education and income has been given table 2. Majority of the respondents (50%) said that the main reason of water pollution was solid waste dumping and bad sewage system. Majority (50%) respondents were not satisfied with the quality of water that they drink. Table: 2 Distribution of the respondents with regard to their Age, Education and Income

Age (in years) Frequency Percentage Below- 20 4 8 31-40 6 12 41-50 11 22 51-60 22 44 61-Above 7 14 Education of Respondents Illiterate 10 20 Primary 16 32 High School 17 34 HSC 4 8 Degree 3 6 Monthly income of the Respondents Less than-2000 9 12 2001-3000 6 12 3001-4000 2 4 4001-5000 7 14 5001-6000 7 14 6001-7000 11 22 7001-Above 8 16 Total 50 100 Source: Primary Data Majority of the respondents (74%) replied that some members of their family suffered from any disease due to polluted water and (26%) said that none of their family member suffered from any disease due to polluted water. Distribution of the respondents according to the type of disease they suffered due to polluted water is given in table 3. Table: 3 Distribution of the respondents according to the type of disease ( Source : Primary Data) Type of Diseases Frequency Percentage No disease 13 26 Diarrhoea 3 6 Cholera 2 4 Hepatitis 10 20 Typhoid 4 8 Skin disease 3 6 Common Cold 13 26 Viral Fever 2 4 Total 50 100

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Table: 4 Association between Education of the respondents and their awareness about Water Pollution (Hypothesis 1: Higher will be the education, higher will be the awareness about water pollution) Education Level Awarness about Water Pollution NO YES Total Illiterate 6(12%) 4(8) 10(20%) Primary 4(8%) 12(24%) 16(32%) Secondary 1(2%) 16(32%) 17(34%) HSC 0 4(8%) 4(8%) Degree 0 3(6%) 3(6%) Total 11(22%) 39(78%) 50(100%) Source: Primary Data X2=15.680 d.f.=1 Significance=.000 *= Significance The Chi-Square value shows a significant association between education of the respondents and their awareness about water pollution. Chi-Square=15.680with 1 degree of freedom and it is statistically significant. It means highly educated respondents had more awareness about water pollution. So the hypothesis “higher will be the education, higher will be the awareness” is accepted. Table: 5 Association between income of the respondents and their awareness about Water pollution (Hypothesis 2: Higher will be the income, higher will be the awareness about water pollution)

Income (Rs.) Awarness about Water Pollution NO YES Total Below-2000 7(14%) 2(4%) 9(18%) 2001-3000 1(2%) 3(6%) 4(8%) 3001-4000 2(4%) 1(2%) 5(10%) 4001-5000 1(2%) 5(10%) 6(12%) 5001-6000 0 8(16%) 8(16%) 6001-7000 0 10(20%) 10(20%) 7001-Above 0 10(20%) 10(20%) Total 11(22%) 39(78%) 50(100%) Source: Primary Data X2=15.680 d.f.=1 and leaders should be involved to seek greater Significance=.000 *= Significance public participation in seminars and workshops The Chi-Square value shows a significant about awareness of water pollution in rural association between income of the respondents areas. The programmes on T.V. and radio and their awareness about water pollution. should be presented in easy languages so that Chi-Square=15.680 with 1 degree of freedom illiterate persons may also get awareness about and it is statistically significant. It means higher water pollution. income respondents had more awareness about water pollution. So the hypothesis “higher will be the income, higher will be the awareness” is accepted. CONCLUSION The water pollution should be included in the national curriculum for creating awareness about the benefits of body water and all effects of poor quality water on human health. Mass media can play vital role to create awareness among the public about the problem of water pollution. Social workers, local government

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 208 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) REFERENCES 1.Mukhi, H.R. and R.S Srivastava, An introduction to social sciences. Satya Prakashan Incorporating: Tech. India Publications 16/7698, 6th ed. New Market, New Rohta Road, New Delhi, India, 1987. 2.Srikanth, R. (2009) Challenges of sustainable water quality management in rural India, Current Science, Vol.97, No.3, 10 August 2009, P.p317-325. 3.Rakesh Kumar, Singh, R.D. and Sharma, K.D., Water resources in India. Current Science, 2005, 89, P.p 794-881. 4.Brandon, C. And Homman, K., The cost of inaction: Valuing the economy-wide cost of environment Division, World Bank 7, October memo, 1995. 5.Bhardwaj, R. M., Water quality monitoring in India. IWG-ENV, International Conference on Water Statistics, Vienna, June 2005, P.p 20-22. 6.Smedley, P.L., Groundwater quality problems in costal Orissa, India, British Geological Survey Technical Report, WD/91/48R, 1991, P. 33. 7.Rajiv Gandi Drinking Water Mission, Guidelines for the National Rural Drinking Water Quality Monitoring and Surveillance Programme, 2006. 8.Naheed Akhtar et.al, Impact of Water Pollution on Human Health in Faisalabad City, Journal of Agriculture and Social Sciences, 1813-2235/2005/ P.p 43-44. 9.K. Govindarajalu, Industrial Effluent and Health Status- A Case Study of Noyyal River Basin, Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Environment and Health, Chennai, India, December, 2003.

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 209 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018 49. EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON DISTRIBUTION, FRESHWATER RESOURCES AND THE ECONOMY - A THEORITICAL ASSESSMENT

Dr. G. YOGANANDHAM, Associate Professor, Department of Economics,Thiruvalluvar University, Serkadu, Vellore, Tamil Nadu.

ABSTRACT though the issue remains intensely debated. limate Change reveals the multi dimensional CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS IMPACT ON Cspheres of economic impact on the DISTRIBUTION developing economy. The inherent nature Climate change impacts can be measured as an of economic forecasting involves significant economic cost. This is particularly well-suited to degrees of uncertainty, estimates of the results market impacts, that is impacts that are linked of global warming have varied widely. to market transactions and directly affect Gross However, climate change impacts can be Domestic Product. Monetary measures of non- measured as an economic cost. This is market impacts, like impacts on human health particularly well-suited to market impacts, that and ecosystems, are more difficult to calculate. is impacts that are linked to market transactions Other difficulties with impact estimates are, and directly affect Gross Domestic Product. • Knowledge gaps: Calculating Monetary measures of non-market impacts, distributional impacts requires detailed like impacts on human health and ecosystems, geographical knowledge, but these are a major are more difficult to calculate. Therefore source of uncertainty in climate models. protecting the forests, wildlife, climate, natural • Vulnerability: Compared with wealth and the environment are now a matter developed countries, there is a limited of life and death for this world. Talented, understanding of the potential market sector imaginative and committed young professional impacts of climate change in developing are needed more than ever to create a future countries. where people can live in harmony with nature. • Adaptation:The future level of adaptive Show that professionals are concerned and capacity in human and natural systems to contribute their share to safe guard the climate climate change will affect how society will be and environment. Hence, the main objective of impacted by climate change. Assessments this research paper is to study the theoretical may under- or overestimate adaptive capacity, aspects of the effects of climate change on leading to under- or overestimates of positive humans, industry, economy and society. or negative impacts. • Socioeconomic trends: Future KEYWORDS: Climate and Environment, predictions of development affect estimates Economic Impact, Economic Forecasting, Stern of future climate change impacts, and in some Review, Developing Economy, Uncertainty and instances, different estimates of development Climate Models, Agricultural Market Sector. trends lead to a reversal from a predicted INTRODUCTION positive, to a predicted negative impact. Climate Change reveals the multi dimensional • Climate change would increase income spheres of economic impact on the developing inequalities between and within countries. economy. The inherent nature of economic • A small increase in global mean forecasting involves significant degrees of temperature would result in net negative uncertainty, estimates of the results of global market sector impacts in many developing warming have varied widely. Several Studies, countries and net positive market sector such as that of the Stern Review presented impacts in many developed countries. to the British Government, have predicted With high confidence, it was predicted that reductions by numerous percent of world with a medium to high level of warming, gross domestic product due to climate related negative impacts would be exacerbated, and costs such as dealing with increased extreme net positive impacts would start to decline and weather events and stresses to low-lying eventually turn negative. areas due to sea level rises. Other studies by NON-MARKET IMPACTS independent economists looking at the effects The climate change would likely result in of climate change have found more ambiguous pronounced non-market impacts. Most of results around the range of net-neutral changes impacts were predicted to be negative. The when all aspects of the issue are evaluated, literature assessment suggested that climate

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 210 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) change would cause substantial negative health that greater concern over the distribution of impacts in developing countries. Smith noted impacts lead to more severe predictions of that few of the studies they reviewed had aggregate impacts. adequately accounted for adaptation. Based Pearce (2003) argued that where there are on the literature assessment, the studies that monetary costs of avoiding impacts, it is not had included health impacts, those impacts possible to avoid monetary valuation of those contributed substantially to the total costs of impacts. climate change. Hope (2005), Analysed that uncertainty over CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS IMPACT climate sensitivity affects economic estimates ON FRESHWATER RESOURCES of climate change impacts. The uncertainty In this sector, costs and benefits of climate over the climate sensitivity was the most change may take several forms, including important factor in determining the social cost monetary costs and benefits, and ecosystem of carbon an economic measure of climate and human impacts, like loss of aquatic species change impacts. and household flooding. These costs had been Channing Arndt, Adam Schlosser, Kenneth estimated in monetary terms. In respect to the Strzepek, James Thurlow (2014), evaluates water supply, they predicted that costs would the potential implications of climate change very likely exceed benefits. Predicted costs for overall growth and development prospects included the potential need for infrastructure in Malawi. We combine climate, biophysical investments to protect against floods and and economic models to develop a structural droughts. analysis focused on three primary impact CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS AGGREGATE channels: agriculture, road infrastructure and IMPACTS hydropower generation. We account explicitly Aggregating impacts adds up the total impact for the uncertainty in climate forecasts by of climate change across sectors and/or exploiting the best available information on regions. In producing aggregate impacts, there the likely distribution of climate outcomes. are a number of difficulties, such as predicting Samuel Fankhauser and Nicholas Stern (2016), the ability of societies to adapt climate change, Climate change is not the only environmental and estimating how future economic and social problem we face, nor is it the only threat development will progress. It is also necessary to global prosperity. But climate change is to make subjective value judgements over the unique in its magnitude and the vast risks importance of impacts occurring in different it poses. It is a potent threat multiplier for economic sectors, in different regions, and at other urgent concerns, such as habitat loss, different times. disease and global security and puts at risk The aggregate impacts of climate change. the development achievements of the past With medium confidence, a small increase in decades. If unchecked, climate change could global average temperature would result in fundamentally redraw the map of the planet, an aggregate market sector impact of plus or and where and how humans and other species minus a few percent of world GDP. A small to can live. medium global average temperature increase, Channing Arndt, Finn Tarp (2017), Aid and aid some studies predicted small net positive institutions constitute an important element market impacts. Most studies they assessed of the global response to interlinked global predicted net damages beyond a medium developmental and environmental challenges. temperature increase, with further damages As such, these institutions are now being drawn for greater temperature rises. into new arenas beyond the traditional focus The non-market impacts of climate change on improving the livelihoods of poor people in would be negative. decided that studies might low-income countries. have understated the true costs of climate change, like by not correctly estimating the METHODOLOGY impact of extreme weather events. It was The methodology adopted for the study is thought possible that some of the positive purely depends on secondary theoretical impacts of climate change had been overlooked, information obtained from various sources and that adaptive capacity had possibly been like published and unpublished reports in underestimated. India and the World. The secondary sources REVIEW OF LITERATURE of information were further processed and Goklany (1995) concluded that promoting free consolidated suitably for the purpose of trade through the removal of international analysis. Finally, keeping the objective of the trade barriers could enhance adaptive capacity research paper in mind, the paper was written and contribute to economic growth. in lucid language and easy understanding. Fankhauser et al. (1997) and Azar (1999) found ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 211 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018

ECONOMIC EFFECT OF CLIMATE • Welfare criteria: Aggregate analysis CHANGE is particularly sensitive to the weighting of Losses accelerate with greater warming, and impacts occurring in different regions and at estimates diverge. The new estimates have different times. slightly widened the uncertainty about the • Uncertainty: Usually assessed through economic impacts of climate. Welfare impacts sensitivity analysis, but can also be viewed as a have been estimated with different methods, hedging problem. ranging from expert elicitation to econometric studies and simulation models. Different ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES studies include different aspects of the impacts OF CLIMATE CHANGE of climate change, but no estimate is complete; Smith et al., (2001) revealed that there are most experts speculate that excluded impacts a number of benefits of using aggregated are on balance negative. Estimates across assessments to measure climate change the studies reflect different assumptions impacts. They allow impacts to be directly about inter-sectoral, inter-regional, and inter- compared between different regions and temporal interactions, about adaptation, times. Impacts can be compared with other and about the monetary values of impacts. environmental problems and also with the Aggregate estimates of costs mask significant costs of avoiding those impacts. A problem of differences in impacts across sectors, regions, aggregated analyses is that they often reduce countries, and populations. Relative to their different types of impacts into a small number income, economic impacts are higher for of indicators. It can be argued that some poorer people. impacts are not well-suited to this, like the MARGINAL IMPACTS monetization of mortality and loss of species The Social Cost of Carbon (SCC) is an aggregate diversity. measure of the impacts of climate change. It is RELATIVE IMPACTS defined as the incremental or marginal social The effects of climate change can be compared cost of emitting one more tonne of carbon to other effects on human society and as carbon dioxide into the atmosphere at any the environment. Future socio-economic point in time. Different GHGs have different development may strongly affect climate social costs. For example, due to their greater change impacts. For example, projections of physical capacity to trap infrared radiation, have the number of people at risk of hunger vary a considerably higher social cost per tonne of significantly according to assumptions over emission than carbon dioxide. Another physical future socio-economic development. property that affects the social cost is the Some ecosystems are likely to be especially atmospheric lifetime of the GHG. affected by climate change. In the long-term, SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS climate change may become the major driver Sensitivity analysis allows assumptions to be for biodiversity loss globally. changed in aggregate analysis, the results of The socio-economic impacts of climate change the aggregate analysis are, are likely to be greatest in communities that face • Shape of the damage function: This other stresses. For example, poor communities relates impacts to the change in atmospheric are vulnerable to extreme weather events, and Green House Gas (GHG) concentrations. There are likely to be especially affected by climate is little information on what the correct shape change. In general, however, other changes like linear or cubic of this function is. Compared like demographic and technological are likely with a linear function, a cubic function shows to have a greater effect on human society than relatively small damages for small increases climate change. On the other hand, major in temperature, but more sharply increasing non-marginal impacts could occur with abrupt damages at greater temperatures. changes in natural and social systems. • Rate of climate change: This is believed Another consideration is how vulnerability to to be an important determinant of impacts, climate change varies with scale. At local scales, often because it affects the time available for extreme weather events can have a significant adaptation. impact, especially in vulnerable locations. • Discount rate and time horizon: Models Another potentially significant impact is the used in aggregate studies suggest that the most long-term effect of sea-level rise on low-lying severe impacts of climate change will occur in coastal areas. the future. Estimated impacts are therefore CLIMATE INDUCED CONFLICTS AND sensitive to the time horizon and the discount CLIMATE INDUCED MIGRATION rate the value assigned to consumption in the The Stern Review’s figures tend to be at future versus consumption today. the upper end of the scale compared to

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 212 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) other estimates currently circulating, even Environment and Climate Change, Review of its quantitative estimates fail to include the Development Economics, Volume 21, Issue 2, May economic upheavals that would arise as a 2017. consequence of climate-induced conflicts or might be triggered by climate-induced migration. Several analysts have emphasized the importance of catastrophic risks because of climate change. Due to climate change, significant impairment of the global economy is a distinct possibility. CONCLUSION Overall, the adaptation costs for climate change, including for developing countries. They have similar-sized estimates and have been influential in discussions on this issue. However, this issues have a number of deficiencies which need to be transparent and addressed more systematically in the future. In some parts of the world low levels of investment have led to a current adaptation deficit, and this deficit will need to be made good by full funding of development, without which the funding for adaptation will be insufficient. Residual damages also need to be evaluated and reported because not all damages can be avoided due to technical and economic constraints. There is an urgent need for more detailed assessments of these costs, including case studies of costs of adaptation in specific places and sectors. REFERENCES 1.Indur M. Goklany (1995), “Is Climate Change the Defining Challenge of Our Age”, Energy & Environment Volume 20 No. 3. 2.Frankhauser (1997) and Azar (1999), “Vulnerability to Climate Change and Reasons for Concern: A Synthesis”, Working Group II: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, UNEP report of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, United Kingdom. 3.David Pearce (2003), “The Social Cost Of Carbon And Its Policy Implications”, Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Vol 19, No.3, August 2003. 4.Chris Hope (2005), “Assessing the costs of adaptation to climate change”, A review of the UNFCCC and other recent estimates, Grantham Institute of climate change, London. 5.Channing Arndt, Adam Schlosser, Kenneth Strzepek, James Thurlow (2014), Climate Change and Economic Growth Prospects for Malawi: An Uncertainty Approach, Journal of African Economies, Volume 23, Issue suppl_2, 1 August 2014. 6.Samuel Fankhauser and Nicholas Stern (2016), Climate change, development, poverty and economics, Centre for Climate Change, Economics and Policy, Working Paper No. 284. 7.Channing Arndt, Finn Tarp (2017), Aid,

ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 213 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018 50. ECONOMIC VALUATION OF HOSPITAL WASTE MANAGEMENT Dr. N.YASOTHA, Head & Associate Professor, Department of Economics, Salem Sowdeswari College, Salem-10

ABSTRACT increasing due to continuously degrading io- Medical Wastes have become one environment. However, hospitals themselves Bof the most widespread and important generate large quantities of Bio-Medical environmental and public health issues and Waste which is a complex mixture containing present day concern throughout the globe infectious, chemical, pharmaceutical and and as such, the problem has been recognized radioactive wastes that can pose health and as one of the important issues towards safety hazards due to its infective and toxic abatement of pollution in the country along characteristics. As a result there is a growing with the rest of the world. The main thrust of concern among public and civic bodies about the present study is to evaluate the willingness storage, treatment, transportation and to pay with specific reference to solid waste ultimate disposal of BMW (WHO, 1999) (A. management in Hospitals. The study has Pruss, et al., 1999). analyzed three hospitals in the Chennai area, All producers of waste are legally and financially in Tamil Nadu. The main method of disposal responsible for the safe and environmentally of hazardous wastes is through incineration sound disposal of the waste they produce and this has been studied with regard to the as per the polluter pays principles. This Government and Private Sectors through the principle also attempts to assign liability to selected hospitals, by way of life expectancy of the party that causes the damage. The costs equipment probable use per day/per kg, cost of of separate collection, appropriate packaging operation per day/kg and ultimately the WTP and on-site handling are internal to the by those availing of these facilities have all establishment. The cost of off-site transport, been carefully researched. treatment, and final, disposal is external and paid to the contractors who provide the KEY WORDS: Hospital Waste, Contingent service. The cost of contraction, operation and Valuation Method, Willingness to Pay. maintenance of system for managing health- care waste can represent significant part of INTRODUCTION the overall budget of a hospital or health-care Bio- Medical Wastes have become one of the establishment (A.Pruss et al., 1999). However most widespread and important environmental several hospitals are generally small or medium and public health issues and present day sized and cannot afford to install expensive concern through out the globe and as such, treatment plants due to various economic the problem has been recognized as one of constraints. the important issues towards abatement of Bio-Medical Wastes Management has been pollution in the country along with the rest of a neglected subject in India. Recently, the the world. government of India (GOI) has promulgated Hospital Waste Management is and important the Bio-Medical Waste (Management and subject that needs urgent attention. It is Handling) Rule in July 1998. As per the GOI appropriate to consider an incremental Rules, Bio-Medical Wastes have been classified approach realizing that an improvement is into 10 categories (Ministry of Environment of great value even if resources do not allow Forests Notification 1998). achievement of highest standards immediately Most importance is medical waste to be ( S.Chandrashekarshetty, 2001). managed in an environmentally sound manner. There are many examples and ample Environmentally sound management of the evidences that improper and unscientific medical waste requires proper understanding disposal of hospital and bio-medical wastes of risks associated with the disposal of such can cause serious damage to health and wastes, and methods of proper segregation, environmental. Protection of health and storage, handling treatment and disposal. environment is a challenging problem of this Collection, transportation and final disposal county. Environmental pollution is detrimental of large volumes of wastes require a high to human health as people and environment level of management and technical expertise. are interconnected (David. W. Pearce, 1993). There is also a rising public awareness about Hospitals and dispensaries are rapidly the need for an environmentally acceptable

CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 214 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ISSN 2474 -5146 (Online) management of solid wastes. The final disposal immediate monetary needs. Thus this WTP of solid wastes can be carried out by several reflects individuals’ preferences for the good methods incineration, composting, land filling in question. So economic valuation in the and recycling certain hazardous wastes such environment context is about ‘measuring of as hospital wastes which of course, should be preferences’ of people for an environmental positively incinerated (P.R. White, et al., 1995). good or bad. The resulting valuations are in money terms because of the way, in which STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM preference revaluation is sought i.e., by asking In recent years the mismanagement of hospital what people are willing to pay or by inferring waste has become critical in urban areas. In their WTP through other means. Moreover addition to transmission of communicable the use of money as the measuring rod diseases such as gastro-enteric infections, permits the comparison i.e., required between respirator infections through air, water, ‘Environmental Values’ and ‘Developmental direct human contact with the blood and Values’. It can be used to derive values for infectious body fluids could be responsible for almost any environmental changes and the transmission of hepatitis B and C and AIDS in pestering needs. the metropolitan cities (P. Rushbrook, 1999). The waste generated in these institutions The Contingent Valuation method is a widely essentially comprises solid and liquid waste used economic valuation method especially estimated to be 80-85% of the waste generated in the area of non-market valuation of in the hospitals and are not hazardous, environmental services and damages (Mitchell while the rest is hazardous or likely to cause and Carson, 1989; Cummings et al., 1986). Its infections (Lakshmi Raghupathy, 1998). The application includes estimation of non-use waste generated in ay hospital will be in the values. (Walsh et al., 1984; Brookshire et al., range of 1 to 4.5 kg per bed per day (R.Murali, 1983), non-market use values (Choe et al., 1999). The wastes generated from hospital 1996; Loom is and du Vair 19993; Altaf et al., and medical health institutions are a major 1992; Whittington et., 1990; Coursey et al., source of environmental and public health 1987; Grenley et al., 1981; Schulze et al., 1981; problems thus requiring safe handling and Randall et al., 1974) or both (e.g. Niklitschet secure disposal. and Leon 1996; Desvousges et al., 1993) of environmental damages. SCOPE OF THE STUDY The main thrust of the present study is to The study is an attempt to have a close look at evaluate the willingness to pay with specific the hospital waste management and also the reference to solid waste management in need to protect the environment. It is broadly Hospitals. The study has analyzed three based on people’s participation and promotion hospitals in the Chennai area, in Tamil Nadu, of Chennai Hospital Waste Management India and has interviews 300 respondents, Systems. This study also attempts ‘Valuing 100 from each area, of Government General the Environment” to measure the individual’s Hospital (GH) Park Town, Govt. Kasthuriba preference for environmental improvement Gandhi Hospital, Triplicane and Malar Hospital, and hospital waste management for the future. Adyar. These hospitals contain a total number The study also suggests a constructive view of 2029, 700 and 250 beds repectively. The on social choices in the context of economic study has revealed that both GH and Malar development Hospital have installed incinerators with cost effect of Rs. 1.24/kg/day and Rs. 13.6/kg/day MATERIALS AND METHODS respectively. The Malar Hospital seems to have The methodology used in this study has been installed an incinerator of 15 kg/h capacity the survey method through an interview for cost of Rs. 15 lakhs The main method schedule which has been pilot tested and of disposal of hazardous wastes is through administered to 300 respondents selected incineration and this has been studied with through random stratified method of sampling regard to the Government and Private Sectors i.e. 100 respondents have been stratified as through the selected hospitals, by way of life patients in owed out staff including nurses, expectancy of equipment probable use per doctors, attendees, and relatives and who day/per kg, cost of operation per day/kg and those living in and around the surrounding ultimately the WTP by those availing of these locality all have been included for testing. facilities have all been carefully researched. The economic value of hospital waste . management is measured by the summation RESULTS AND ANALYSIS of many individuals willingness to pay for The study has shown that there is willingness environmental preservation or bargains for to pay up to Rs. 250/- starting from Rs. 50/- i.e. ASIAN MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS COMMERCE ASSOCIATION( AMECA) 215 AMECA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, IRBE VOLUME 2, SPECIAL NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2018

a range of Rs. 200/- the mode rests with the Rs. containing mercury where alternatives are 100/- category. Those interviewed in a majority available. were willing to pay 228 persons (76%) for 5.Consider the entire issue of medical waste infrastructure facility and their improvements. disposal in the overall public health perspective. Years ago, the practice in hospitals was to A total new integrated approach is required. collect a certain amount towards bed charge/ 6.Look into the possibilities of better product room rent, which would include the nursing purchasing and substituting the hazardous service charges. But at present the hospitals are materials that are currently used. levying separate nursing charges etc. Hence a 7.Assume greater responsibility for decreasing comprehensive policy on what amount should environmental toxicants principally dioxin be charged for each of the facilities offered and mercury components and exposure form should be formulated. This could be done medical sources. through committees especially constituted 8.Waste containers must be secured to deny for this purpose, having economic and cost access to unauthorized individuals, and must be accounting experts as also lawyers, doctors and marked with warning signals in local language. other professionals, and should include at least 9.Sharps must be contained in secure, leak a coupe of members of the general public. This proof, rigid puncture resistant containers. democratic approach to problem solving would Hypodermic needles and syringes must be go a long way in eradicating the various skills separated and stored to prevent reuse. that seem to besiege official planning especially 10.All disposable bags must be conspicuously with regard to hospital waste management. labeled “Infectious Wastes” or “Biohazard” CONCLUSION with the international symbol. The study has shown immense scope for innovation and improvement. There are REFERENCES ancillary topics such as liquid and other waste 1.Dr. S. Chandrasekarshetty – “Environmental which need to be studied with regard to WTP. Pollution” (International News Magazine) “Safe There are other organizations such as hotels, air, Management of Health Care Waste, March 2001. rail and bus terminals, cinema halls and other Vol.No. I P.No.7. places where the public congregate and where 2.David w. Pearce – Valuing the AEnvironment: pact wastes generated. The economic valuation of practice, future prospect” proceedings of the first these areas provides further scope for research. Annual International Conference on Environmentally WTP itself could be further researched form Sustainable Development. The world Bank, the angles of toll/tax/service charge/donations Washington D.C.Sep – Oct 30, 1993. with tax exemptions. All experience is an arch, 3.A. Pruse, E. Giroult and P. Rushbrook, “Safe where through gleams the untraveled world, Management of waste from Health care actitivities”, whose margin fates for ever and ever as one WHO, Geneva, 1999 .No.36. moves on. 4.P.V.Nath, “Bio Medical Waste Management and In conclusion the following points are stated as handling through integrated COMMON TOTAL possible guidelines for hospitals to bear in mind MOBILE MEDICAL WASTE TREATEMNT FACILITY – for future action. CTMWTF., Chennai,1999. 5.Environmental Legislation updated issue 08, 1.The government authorities have to assume Development in Environmental revolutions in India, more responsibilities for regulating waste July-Sep 2000. generated form health facilities. In addition to 6.P.R. White et al. “Integrated Solid Waste formulating guidelines and rules and regulation Management A LIFE CYCLE INVENTORY, Blackie the focus should be on enforcing the guidelines. Academy and Professional 1995 P.No. 11-12. 2.The health care facilities should increase 7.Sivsaraman & Mini Hari “A compendium comiled the cooperation with professional medical by first conference of Exnora International, associations and MoEF, CPCB municipalities “Environmental issues and the common man”, 6-7, for the development and implementation of July 1996. P.No.21-27. environmentally responsible standards for 8.Dr. LakshmiRaghupathy, “Medical Waste medical waste treatment and disposal. Management and Approach”, Industrial Safety 3.Encouraging recycling efforts leading to the Chronicle, Oct-Dec 1998, P.No.69. segregation of infections and hazardous waste 9)Dr.Murali, “Hospital Waste Disposal in Tamil form the conventional waste streams with the Nadu Government Hospital” proceedings of goal of reducing the amount of medical waste Southern Regional Conference, Feb 10-12, that need to be incinerated. 1999, Chennai P.No.29. 4.Encourage the phasing out and elimination of medical supplies made of PVC plastics or

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