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Genes, Race, and History JONATHAN MARKS

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FOUNDATIONS OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR An Aldine de Gruyter Series of Texts and Monographs SERIES EDITORS Sarah Blaffer Hrdy, University of California, Davis Monique Borgerhoff Mulder, University of California, Davis Richard D. Alexander, The Biology of Moral Systems Laura L. Betzig, Despotism and Differential Reproduction: A Darwinian View of History Russell L. Ciochon and John G. Fleagle (Eds.), Primate Evolution and Human Origins Martin Daly and Margo Wilson, Homicide Irensus Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Human Ethology Richard J. Gelles and Jane B. Lancaster (Eds,), Child Abuse and Neglect: Biosocial Dimensions Kathleen R. Gibson and Anne C. Petersen (Eds.), Brain Maturation and Cognitive Development: Comparative and Cross-Cultural Perspectives Barry S, Hewlett (Ed.), Father-Child Relations: Cultural and Biosocial Contexts Warren G. Kinzey (Ed.), New World Primates: Ecology, Evolution and Behavior Kim Hill and A. Magdalena Hurtado: Ache Life History: The Ecology and Demography of a Foraging People Jane B. Lancaster, Jeanne Altmann, Alice S. Rossi, and Lonnie R. Sherrod (Eds.), Parenting Across the Life Span: Biosocial Dimensions Jane B. Lancaster and Beatrix A. Hamburg (Eds.), School Age Pregnancy and Parenthood: Biosocial Dimensions Jonathan Marks, Human Biodiversity: Genes, Race, and History Richard B. Potts, Early Hominid Activities at Olduvai Eric Alden Smith, Inujjuamiut Foraging Strategies Eric Alden Smith and Bruce Winterhalder (Eds.), Evolutionary Ecology and Human Behavior Patricia Stuart-Macadam and Katherine Dettwyler, Breastfeeding: A Bioaftural Perspective Patricia Stuart-Macadam and Susan Kent (Eds.), Diet, Demography, and Disease: Changing Perspectives on Anemia Wenda R. Trevathan, Human Birth: An Evolutionary Perspective James W. Wood, Dynamics of Human Reproduction: Biology, Biometry, Demography HulMAN BIODIVERS~ Genes, Race, and History JONATHAN MARKS ALDINE DE GRUYTER New York About the Author Jonathan Marks is Visiting Associate Professorof Anthropology, at the University of California, Berkeley. He earned his M.S. in genetics, and M.A. and Ph.D. in anthropology at theUniversity of Arizona,and has conducted postdoctoral research in genetics at the University of California at Davis. Dr. Mark's work on "molecular anthropology" has been widely published in professional journals. Copyright 0 1995 Walter de Gruyter, Inc., New York All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmit- ted in anyform or by any means, electronicor mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storageor retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. ALDINE DE GRUYIER A division of Walter de Gruyter, Inc. 200 Saw Mill River Road Hawthorne, New York 10532 This publication is printed on aad free paper @ Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Marks, Jonathan (Jonathan M.) Human biodiversity :genes, race, and history / Jonathan Marks. p. cm.-(Foundations of human behavior) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-202-02032-0 (cloth :alk. paper).-ISBN 0-202-02033-9 (pbk. :alk. paper) 1. Physicalanthropology. 2. Human populationgenetics. 3. Biologicaldiversity. 4. Molecular genetics.I. Etle. 11, Series. GN62.8.M37 1994 573-4~20 9419450 CIP Manufactured in the United States of America l0987654 For my parents This Page Intentionally Left Blank Contents Acknowledgments xiii 1 THEHIERARCHY 1 Introduction 1 Pattern and Process 3 The Pattern: Linnaeus 6 The Opposition: Buffon 7 The Process: Lamarck 10 The Synthesis: Darwin 11 The Place of Humans in Nature 12 Anchoring the Emergence of Humans 18 The Great Chain in Cultural Evolution 18 Emergence of the Modem Culture Theory 19 a Changewithout Progress: The Biological and Social History of the Human Species 22 2 PROCESSES AND PATTERNS IN THE EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY OF OUR SPECIES 25 Narrative as a Scientific Medium 25 Adaptation Stories 26 Disturbing the Conservative Natureof Heredity 28 Reproduction of Organisms: Meiosis 29 Reproduction of Populations: The Gene Po01 32 Microevolutionary Processes 33 Macroevolutionary Processes 37 Evolutionary Narratives 38 Human Macroevolution 40 Linking Data into Histories 42 Patterns in the Evolutionof Species and Culture 44 viii Contents 3 PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY AS THE STUDY OF HUMAN VARIATION 49 Notes 60 4 THE HISTORY OF BIOLOGY AND THE BIOLOGY OF HISTORY 63 History asInborn Propensities: Arthur de Gobineau 64 History., Biology, andthe Theory of Progress 66 Social Selection: Biological Progress as Social Progress 68 Survival of the Fittest: Parallel Progressive Processes 69 Competition of a Different Sort: Progress in History without Biology 70 Divorce of Race and Culture: Progress as an Illusion 71 The Culture Concept Nudges Out the Race Concept 73 5 THEEUGENICS MOVEMENT 77 A Simple Plan for Making Life Better 77 Mendelism in Eugenics 80 American Eugenics: The Perilof the Huddled Masses 81 Eugenics: Science and Pseudoscience 86 Eugenics in National Socialist Germany 88 Why Eugenics Failed 89 Lessons for Our Time 92 6 RACIAL AND RACIST ANTHROPOLOGY 99 Racism and Eugenics 99 Human Diversity 101 Racist Studies 102 Racial Studies 104 What do Differences among Human Groups Represent? 106 Performance and Ability 109 Race as a Social Construct 110 The Linnaean and Buffonian Frameworks 113 Contents ix 7 PAmRNS OF VARIATION IN HUMAN POPULATIONS 117 The Phenotype in Racial Studies 117 Developmental Plasticity: TheSkull in Racial Studies 120 Genetics and the Human Races 125 Blood Group Allele Frequenciesin Populations 130 Genetics of the Human Species 133 8 HUMANMOLECULAR AND MICROEVOLUTIONARY GENETICS 137 Genes and Proteins 137' The Genome 139 Hemoglobin 142 Genome Structure and Evolutionin the Globin Genes 143 The Comparison of Genetic Regions 144 Hemoglobin Variation in the Human Species 146 Thalassemia 147 Genetic Screening 148 Modern Eugenics 150 Hereditarianism 151 9 HUMAN DIVERSITY IN THE LIGHT OF MODERN GENETICS 157 Differences among the "Three Races" 158 The Social Natureof Geographical Categories 161 Patterns of Genetic Differentiation 165 Mitochondrial Eve 169 Patterns of Genetic Diversity 172 The Geneticsof Individuality 173 The Human Genome Project 174 Who Is Related to Whom? 176 X Contents l0 THE ADAPTIVE NATURE OF HUMAN VARIATION 183 Patterns of Gene Flow 185 Adaptation 187 Genetic Adaptation 191 Human Variation as Phenotype Adaptation 193 Nutritional Variation 195 Uniquenesses of Human Adaptation 196 Cultural Selection 198 Culture as a Social Marker 199 l1 HEALTHAND HUMAN POPULATIONS 203 Demographic Transitions 204 Demography versus Eugenics 204 Economics and Biology 204 The Cultural Natureof Disease 209 Ethnic Diseases 211 Culture and Biology: AIDS 213 Culture as TechnologicalFix 215 12 HUMAN TRAITS: HERITAGE OR HABITUS? 219 Aesop and Darwin 220 Sex and the Single Fruitfly 224 Rape as Heritage or Habitus 226 Proximate and Ultimate Cause inBiology 228 The Asphalt Jungle 231 Human Behavior as Heritage 232 13 GENETICS AND THE EVOLUTION OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR 237 On the Number of Michael Jordans in the Known Universe 237 Comparing Groupsof People 238 Where Are the Great Jewish Boxers? 240 How do we Establish the Genetic Base of a Behavior? 243 The Geneticsof Deviance 244 Contents xi The Hereditarian Jumble 246 The Genetic Basis of Sexual Deviance 250 Genetic Behavior: Here Today, Gone Tomorrow 253 Platonism and the Search for Human Nature 255 Was Hammerstein Wrong? 258 Race, Xenophobia, and Lessons of History 260 14 CONCLUSIONS 265 Appendix: DNA Structure and Function 279 Index 314 This Page Intentionally Left Blank Acknowledgments My sincerest gratitude goes to Sarah Blaffer Hrdy for suggesting and encouraging this project, and for her ever-insightful comments on drafts atvarious stages. George Hersey also read and offered his valuable advice on the manuscript hmtop to bottom. For discussionof, comments on, and/or help with various partsof the manuscript, I thank Amos Deinard, Rebecca Fisher, Alan Goodman,Jim Moore, Deanna Petrochilos, Alison Richard, Vincent Sarich, Michael Sea- man, Mark Stoneking, Karen Strier, and Alan Swedlund. Special thanks alsoto my editor at Aldine, Richard Koffler; and to the peoplewho saw the book through its productionphase, especially Arlene Perazzini. I wish to thank the copyright holders for permission to use the fob lowing illustrations, which I adapted for use in this book Historical Library,Cushing-Whitney Medical Library, YaleUniversity, for the Tulpius and Tyson "Orang-Outangs" (both chapter 1); Sterling Memor- ial Library, Yale University, for the portraitsof Buffon and Linnaeus, and the University Museum, Universityof Pennsylvania, for the photograph of Carleton Coon by Reuben Goldberg (both chapter 3); the Bettmann Archivefor the photograph of FranzBoas (chapter 4); theNational Academy of Sciences for the photographof Charles Davenport from Bio- graphica2 Memoirs, Volume 25, copyright 1948 (chapter 5); the Peabody Museum of Archaeologyand Ethnology, Harvard University, for the photograph of Earnest Hooton (chapter 6); Mrs. Prue Napier and the Napier estate for the adaptationof the drawing of the human and chim- panzee hands by John Napier, first published in 1980 (chapter 10); and Harvard University Press for the adaptationof one of the ant legs drawn by Sarah Landry for Insect Societies by Edward 0. Wilson, copyright 1971, and Scient@ American for the adaptation of the anatomical draw- ing of a human leg by Enid Kotschnig from "The Antiquity of Human Walking" by John Napier, April 1967, copyright 1967 (together in chap- ter 12). I would also like
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