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Metallurgy Lane: the History of Alloy Steels

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Metallurgy Lane: the History of Alloy Steels aug amp features_am&p master template new QX6.qxt 7/23/2014 9:48 AM Page 28 The History of Alloy Steels: Part II Throughout metal making history, nothing has exceeded the technical importance, scientific complexity, and human curiosity involved in the hardening of steel. Metallurgy Lane, fter the bustling 1890s, with its exciting and searchers, they were of immediate interest to Zay authored by productive discoveries around steel metal- Jeffries, Marcus Grossman, and Edgar Bain. ASM life member Alography in England, France, Germany, Rus- Charles R. Simcoe, sia, Japan, and the United States, a period of quiet Austenite, martensite, bainite is a yearlong series consolidation occurred in the early 20th century. Edgar Bain was among the earliest Americans dedicated to the early By then, most metals pioneers had either joined or to apply x-ray diffraction to the study of metals. He history of the U.S. metals established metallurgy departments or metallo- showed that steel heated to the hardening temper- and materials industries graphic sections within existing mining or chemi- ature—austenite, named after Sir William Chan- along with key cal engineering departments at universities dler Roberts-Austen—had a face centered cubic milestones and throughout the industrial world. Henry Marion (fcc) crystal structure, whereas ferrite and quench- developments. Howe, America’s earliest metals researcher, joined hardened steel—martensite, named after Adolf Columbia University, New York, in 1897 to become Martens—were body centered cubic (bcc). The its first fulltime professor of metallurgy. By 1905, next major scientific advancement in hardened he had a new laboratory and staff of five, including steel was the discovery through precision x-ray dif- William Campbell of Great Britain, who had come fraction by William Fink and Edward Campbell to America to study under Howe and then re- that martensite was not a simple bcc structure like mained to serve a lifetime career teaching metal- iron, but a distorted tetragonal crystal structure. Fi- lography to students. nally, after 35 years of studying martensite, a ra- Increased use of heat-treated alloy steel during tionale was discovered for its great hardness. and after World War I lead to the development of Unlike iron, which contains no carbon or pearlite, a variety of different alloys with emphases on spe- martensite features carbon trapped within its crys- cial compositions that provide superior properties. tal structure on an atomic scale. No two manufacturing companies seemed to use In the late 1920s, Edgar Bain and E.S. Daven- the same alloy steel for the same application. It was port of the U.S. Steel Corp. Research Laboratory at qualitative rather than quantitative, and a lot of ex- Kearny, N.J., published their world renowned pensive alloy elements were wasted as well. A paper, “Transformation of Austenite at Constant greater understanding of alloys in steel was desper- Subcritical Temperatures.” As part of their ground- ately needed to sort out the transformation of breaking research, Bain and Davenport quenched a austenite to martensite. series of thin samples from the hardening temper- The first published research that questioned ature to a transformation temperature and held longstanding ideas about steel transformation was them at this temperature for various times before a paper by well-known French metallurgist Albert water quenching to martensite. By using metallog- Portevin and his co-author M. Garvin, in 1919. raphy and thermal expansion measurements, they They showed for the first time that transformation were able to follow the formation process of the to hard martensite did not occur until the steel new product from the beginning, through the reac- being quenched had cooled to temperatures well tion period, and onto the end. They plotted indi- below those where pearlite (layers of iron and iron vidual transformation curves of percent carbide) formed. In 1922, W.R. Chapin, an Ameri- transformed as a function of time at each transfor- can production metallurgist, showed that a carbon mation temperature. tool steel could be quenched to 570°F and still be At last, the sequence of events occurring at de- austenitic. He further demonstrated that with slow creasing temperatures could be observed, accu- cooling below 570°F, steel could be studied as it rately described, and quantitatively measured as gradually transforms to martensite with falling the austenite transformed to a variety of structures temperatures. Chapin’s observations were the most depending on the transformation temperature. significant on martensite formation at the time and Data resulting from plotting the beginning and end should have ended confusion about how it formed. of the transformation is called a time-temperature- However, although these two early studies did not transformation (TTT) diagram, and many of these change the thinking of many established metals re- have been determined for numerous steels in 28 ADVANCED MATERIALS & PROCESSES • AUGUST 2014 aug amp features_am&p master template new QX6.qxt 7/23/2014 9:48 AM Page 29 Sir William Chandler Roberts-Austen, of austenite fame. Courtesy of blackheathvillage archive.com. the years since Bain and Davenport’s original work. Bain’s studies showed that austenite transformed to ferrite and/or coarse pearlite at temperatures of Transformation of austenite to lower temperature phases 1200°-1300°F, and a finer pearlite at temperatures of at a constant temperature. The time-temperature- 900°-1100°F. At lower temperatures, a unique struc- transformation (TTT) diagram shows the beginning and ture formed that was not previously known. Later, end of transformation as a function of the log of time, for 4140 Cr-Mo steel. Diagrams courtesy of Bain’s colleagues at U.S. Steel Corp. honored him by ASM International. calling this new structure bainite. The term was offi- cially adopted and Edgar C. Bain, perhaps America’s most outstanding metallurgist, is the only native Adolf Martens, whose name has become part of everyday metallo- namesake of the graphic nomenclature. steel structure martensite. Courtesy of Hardenability testing breakthrough www.bam.de. The next breakthrough came when Walter P. Jominy and A.L. Boegehold at the Buick Motor Divi- sion of General Motors developed a test for measur- ing the hardenability of any particular steel or heat of steel. Hardenability does not refer to the degree of hardness, but rather to the depth of the maximum hardness in a quenched bar. This test consists of heat- ing a 1-in.-diameter by 3-in.-long bar of alloy steel to the heat treating temperature, inserting it into a fix- ture, and directing a stream of water onto one end of Hardness in Rockwell C as a function of distance in Henry Marion the hot bar until the entire sample is cooled from the 1/16-in. increments from the quenched end of the test Howe, America’s hardening temperature. sample, for 4140 Cr-Mo steel. earliest metals researcher and Two flats are then ground on opposite sides of the tional Emergency Steels, was designed to minimize Columbia bar. One side is placed on the anvil of a hardness test- alloy content for maximum hardenability. These new University’s first ing machine and a series of hardness readings are steels took their place among all the previous alloys, fulltime metallurgy each of which could be used with an understanding professor. Courtesy taken every sixteenth of an inch starting on the oppo- of columbia.edu. site flat side, at 1/16th of an inch from the quenched of just where and when it was needed. end. These hardness readings are then plotted as a In all of metal making, nothing has exceeded the function of the distance from the quenched end. The technical importance, scientific complexity, and human resulting plot is known as the end quench hardenabil- curiosity involved in the hardening of steel. To convey ity curve and serves as permanent identification of a the magnitude of the available strength properties in given composition for a given set of heat treating hardened alloy steel, a comparison to structural steel is variables. Alloy steels are sold based on hardenability useful: Common structural steel has a yield strength of as well as composition, and the Jominy hardenability roughly 40,000 psi in cross section, compared to test is performed hundreds of times per day in steel 150,000 to 200,000 psi for alloy steel (along with ductil- mills and manufacturing plants around the world to ity and toughness), to as high as 250,000 to 300,000 psi American ensure proper heat treat performance. for special applications, and even higher for tools, bear- metallurgist Edgar ings, and other severe uses. Hardened alloy steel is a C. Bain, whom bainite is named Alloy steels for every situation metal of enormous versatility—nature’s bountiful gift after. Courtesy of At this point in history, the knowledge and tools to mankind for the technological age, and all of this at Library of Congress. were finally available to make a science of alloy steel a reasonable economic cost. heat treatment. This detailed knowledge came just in For more information: time to tailor the use of critical alloying elements to Charles R. Simcoe can be reached at [email protected]. World War II. A new series of alloy steels, called Na- For more metallurgical history, visit metals-history.blogspot.com. ADVANCED MATERIALS & PROCESSES • AUGUST 2014 29.
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