HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies ISSN: (Online) 2072-8050, (Print) 0259-9422

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Stephen Bantu : An agent of change in ’s socio-politico-religious landscape

Author: This article examines and analyses Biko’s contribution to the liberation struggle in 1 Ramathate T.H. Dolamo South Africa from the perspective of politics and religion. Through his leading participation Affiliation: in Black Consciousness Movement and Black Theology Project, Biko has not only influenced 1Department of Philosophy, the direction of the liberation agenda, but he has also left a legacy that if the liberated and Practical and Systematic democratic South Africa were to follow, this country would be a much better place for all to Theology, University of live in. In fact, the continent as a whole through its endeavours in the African Union South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa underpinned by the philosophy would go a long way in forging unity among the continent’s nation states. Biko’s legacy covers among other things identity, Corresponding author: human dignity, education, research, health and job creation. This article will have far Ramathate Dolamo, reaching implications for the relations between the democratic state and the church in [email protected] South Africa, more so that there has been such a lack of the church’s prophecy for the past Dates: 25 years. Received: 12 Feb. 2019 Accepted: 22 May 2019 Keywords: Liberation; Black consciousness; Black theology; Self-reliance; Identity; Culture; Published: 29 July 2019 Religion; Human dignity.

How to cite this article: Dolamo, R.T.H., 2019, ‘Stephen Bantu Biko: An Orientation agent of change in South Biko was born in Ginsberg near King William’s Town on 18 December 1946. He died in police Africa’s socio-politico- religious landscape’, custody because of wounds and bruises inflicted upon him on 12 September 1977. He was the 21st HTS Teologiese Studies/ person to die in the hands of the police as the political detainee since the founding of Black Theological Studies 75(4), Conscious Movement (BCM) (Stubbs 1978a:1–2; Wilson 1991:15). His father, Mzingaye, passed a5420. https://doi.org/​ 10.4102/hts.v75i4.5420 away when he was still 4 years old and his mother, Duna Mamcete who was a domestic worker, had to raise Bantu and his siblings all by herself. The family was God-fearing and denomination- Copyright: wise they were Anglicans (Wilson 1991:16–18). © 2019. The Authors. Licensee: AOSIS. This work is licensed under the When Bantu was about 16 years of age, he got arrested for activities related to the Pan Africanist Creative Commons Congress (PAC). Although he was later released from detention, he was nonetheless expelled Attribution License. from his school. This experience seems to have sown seeds of rebellion against authorities and people in power in general. He was admitted at a Roman Catholic School called St Francis College in Mariannhill in KwaZulu-Natal as a student in 1964. Biko was an inquisitive young man with a sharp intellect. Priests and nuns who ran the institution were asked very difficult questions, most of which were difficult for them to address and some very embarrassing for them because they had to do with their sexuality. He asked questions around the nature of the Church, its doctrines, traditions, and so on. For example, why should the church services be conducted in Latin when majority of congregants spoke isiZulu and did not know Latin? As Biko did not get satisfactory answers from those conservative monks and nuns, or as Biko himself says, their answers were either ‘unintelligible’ or ‘unacceptable’ (1978a:155), he befriended two clergymen who were more liberal in terms of theology and politics, namely Aelred Stubbs and David Russel. Other incidents that politically impacted on Biko were the 1960 , the formation of the African National Congress (ANC) and PAC military wings, respectively, the apprehension of Nelson Mandela by the police and the Rivonia Treason Trial. Because of political persecutions and brutalities, many political leaders were either in prison or in exile. Fear was palpable across the country.

After matriculating at St Francis College, Biko went to the University of Natal in Wentworth in Read online: 1966 to study medicine. But while he was there, medicine was not his only preoccupation; politics Scan this QR code with your became also central to his activities. He became a member of the National Union of South African smart phone or mobile device Students (NUSAS). A defining moment politically dawned upon him when he attended NUSAS to read online. Note: The Church in need of Change (agency), sub-edited by Erna Oliver (University of South Africa).

http://www.hts.org.za Open Access Page 2 of 9 Original Research conference held at Rhodes University in 1967. According to believe that a greater force than mortals is responsible for Wilson (1991) quoting Donald Woods, Biko said: creation, maintenance and continuation of life. I am also sufficiently religious to believe that man’s internal insecurity can I realized that for a long time I had been holding onto the whole only be alleviated by an almost enigmatic and supernatural force dogma of non-racialism almost like a religion, feeling that it was to which we ascribe all power, all wisdom and love. (Wilson sacrilegious to question it, and therefore not accommodating the 1991:43) attacks I was getting from other students. I began to feel that there was a lot in the proponents of the non-racial idea, that much as they were adhering to this impressive idea they were in Biko and his friends such as Nyameko Pityana, Mamphela fact subject to their own experience back home. They had this Ramphele and Sabelo Ntwasa decided to visit theological problem, you know, of superiority, and they tended to take us for seminaries in order to conscientise theology students. They granted and wanted us to accept things that were second-class. were regarded as a strategic source because they were going (p. 23) to serve grassroots people in their pews and communities and that black people are very religious, it was an added The use of the English language disadvantaged black advantage. A theology that would address black people in students in that they were unable to follow discussions and their context had to be manufactured at theological make meaningful contributions and the white students seminaries. This theology became known as ‘black theology’ exploited this deficiency. Black students accepted almost (BT) (Duncan 2008:115–140; Motlhabi 2008:3–7; Stubbs everything without question. Black students felt inadequate 1978a:158). BC and BT were therefore propagated almost at and not smart enough to engage their fellow white students. the same time. They should be regarded as sides of the same At that conference, Biko felt that a different kind of mental coin. Biko truly believed that theology students graduating attitude must be created to counteract the white superiority from such seminaries would confront and become or black inferiority mentality prevalent at the time. This honest interlocutors from a BC and BT perspective. For led to an articulation of a philosophy known as black example, in 1968, he challenged UCM delegates at Fort Hare, consciousness (BC) which led, in turn, to an all-black student ‘to adopt the entire university as their responsibility, that is, organization called ‘South African Students Organisation’ he challenged all staff to see the connection between student (SASO). Black people would encompass so-called Bantus, responsibility and social concerns’ (Duncan 2008:132–133). so-called mixed race and Indians or Asians: Because of the fact that Pityana held positions of leadership This new definition had a liberating effect on many, freeing them in both UCM and Anglican Student Fellowship, BT flourished from the categories defined by apartheid, while others were more at Fort Hare than in other universities. Many seminaries extremely dubious of something that sounded as though it such as Federal Theological Seminary (Alice), St Bedes smacked of racism. (Wilson 1991:24–25) (Umtata), St Peters (Hammanskraal) and Lutheran Theological College (Mapumulo) did revise their respective Although it was initially agreed that SASO would not curricula with emphasis put on practical theology, community disaffiliate from NUSAS, the relationship became so polarised outreach as well as church administration and congregational that SASO had to withdraw its membership of NUSAS. work. As Pityana puts it, ‘Biko built his political system on spiritual foundation … spiritual is … concrete, holistic, The term: bringing the fullness of humanity to bear on the material and ‘Non-White’ was only used briefly and ‘black’ was adopted by objective world’ (cf. Duncan 2008:119). the Black Consciousness Movement because, ‘Non-White’ was a negation of being. It still indicated a desire to become white Biko died a martyr according to Stubbs because he fought eventually in the sense that ‘whiteness’ was the norm to which apartheid with single-minded integrity (1978b:214). Du Toit one attached other people who could not be defined in their own (2008:209) likens Biko to Diedrick Bonhoffer, Biko’s associate terms. (Wilson 1991:26) and friend in the BCM and BT project. They immersed themselves in the struggle and soldiered on amidst trials and SASO leadership divided portfolios among themselves. tribulations until 1994 with the inauguration of democracy in Some were given roles in education, development, South Africa. Now that Biko’s life and some activities have performing arts and ‘in political and theological matters Biko been discussed, it is time to focus more on his ideas, thoughts and Pityana led the field’ (Wilson 1991:28–29). By the way, and insights. Biko was not only an Anglican by infant baptism and upbringing, but he also became a member of the University Christian Movement (UCM). He was also ecumenical in a Black consciousness and black way because he attended a Roman Catholic Church high theology school and at the university, he associated with students from What is BC according to Biko? other denominations (Duncan 2008:131). Although Biko was not a Christian in the traditional way of attending church Black Consciousness is an attitude of mind and a way of life, the most positive call to emanate from the black world for a long services regularly and paying church dues, he nonetheless time. Its essence is the realization by the black man of the need to believed firmly in the existence of God when he said: rally with his brothers around the course of their oppression – I have never had problems with this question. I am sufficiently the blackness of their skin – and to operate as a group to rid convinced of the inadequacy of man and the rest of creation to themselves of the shackles that bind them to perpetual servitude.

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It is based on a self-examination which has ultimately led them Other influences include the Ethiopian Movement, ANC and to believe that by seeking to run away from themselves and PAC (Pityana in Du Toit 2008:7). For Khoapa (Du Toit 2008): emulate the white man, they are insulting the intelligence of … the oppressed the meaning of the struggle against whoever created them black. (Stubbs 1978a:92) dehumanization is located in the great humanistic and historical task of liberating both themselves and their oppressors. The The backdrop against Biko’s definition of BC is the arrival of object of the struggle is to create an order that dehumanizes no white people in South Africa in 1652. It was the beginning of one. (p. 75) the woes of the black people in that slavery, colonialism and apartheid were introduced in the continent (Marsh 2013:207– Biko (1978:73–79) discusses in depth the genesis of the fear 208). ‘Colonialism and conquest brought about immense that gripped the nation referred above. changes in the African societies of Southern Africa, impacting radically on their economies, cultures, thoughts and ways Indigenous people were dealt with harshly when they held of life’ (Odendaal 2012:9). Odendaal (2012:3) says that, on to their land, livestock, and so on, and in some instances, ‘indigenous people had been subjugated, enslaved, deprived they were killed. Colonialists used any means to hang on to of their land and freedom, even in places exterminated, all in power. People were charged under vicious laws enabled by the name of Western civilization and progress’. The Land Acts the Terrorism Act. Biko (1978:75) went so far as to equate of 1913 and 1936 ensured that black people were stripped of apartheid to Nazism. 87% of their land (Changuion & Steenkamp 2012:130–139, 163–175) and racism was formally legislated for in 1948 in Arrests and torture were effected on a daily basis and as he the form of apartheid when the National Party ascended says: to power (2012:86–200). Homelands were created with , , and being given No average black man can ever at any moment be absolutely sure that he is not breaking a law. There are so many laws ‘independence’ by the apartheid government (2012:214–232, governing the lives and behaviour of black people that sometimes 232–250). Indians and so-called mixed race were incorporated one feels that police only need to page at random through their into the central parliament in an arrangement called statute book to be able to get a law under which to charge a (2012:252–253). victim. (Biko 1978:75)

The tense situation in South Africa became worse as the White people also lived in fear that black people would revolt National Party became vicious in implementing its apartheid against them and all the signs were there that black people policy. The ANC and PAC were banned in 1960 after the would not submit to state-sponsored violence against them. Sharpeville massacre and they went underground and They called it ‘swart gevaar’ or black danger. Having formed and Poqo, respectively. exorcised the demon of fear and having a programme of Thousands of students went into exile following the 1976 action in place, BC proponents decided to spread BC students uprising against apartheid, while others were philosophy especially among students from high school to imprisoned either on Robben Island or in the mainland. tertiary institutions and the SASO was born. There was fear in the hearts of many people and the population became paralysed (cf. Brotz 1977; Davenport SASO was launched at the University of the North, now 1987; Lodge 1983; Motsoko 1984). This ‘pathological fear’ as University of Limpopo, in July 1969 and Biko was elected as Pityana (2008:5) called it had to be dealt with first on the its first president. SASO would offer black students a forum psychological level before the physical shackles of oppression from where to discuss problems unique to them. It was felt can be removed. that NUSAS and UCM did not discuss material issues affecting them but only those pertinent to white survival There were influences beyond South Africa that also helped (Biko 1978a:67; Seleoane 2008:33–34; Sono 1993:31). For Sono Biko and others to formulate the BC philosophy, for BC is not (63), SASO is the soul of liberation! really a new phenomenon on the global map. These advocates of BC were avid readers and they followed very attentively Briefly, the aims and objectives of SASO were as follows: political developments in Africa and beyond. For example, Sono (1993:95) tells us that Biko read in 1 weekend the 460 1. The needs and aspirations of black students need to be pages of ‘Autobiography of Malcom X’. They read extensively crystallised. For example, why did apartheid state on the American Black Power ideology, Kwame Ture (aka decided to establish ethnic universities in 1959? Stockley Carmichael, Charles Hamilton, Franz Fanon, Martin 2. Programmes were designed through which those Luther King Jnr and Paul Freire including Elijah Muhammad. aspirations would be embarked upon. For example, This period was also marked by many colonised countries in students were encouraged to spend their vacations in Africa getting their independence. South Africa would follow communities to do community work. much later in 1994. 3. Contacts and interactions had to be increased among black universities because it was the intention of the They received inspiration from those political leaders of government of the day not only to separate black and liberated Africa such as Kwame Nkrumah, Julius Nyerere white students but also to separate black students along and Leopold Senghor by reading their works (Sono 1993:37). ethnic groupings.

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4. Solid identity among all black universities had to be BCM. Pro-Frelimo rallies of 1974 and followed in 1976 by the fostered around their blackness. They are a majority as student uprisings demonstrated to the regime that BC was a black students and were therefore a formidable force to potent and strong force to reckon with. People such as Biko reckon with. were either in detention or under house arrest. SASO and 5. Black students were encouraged to act as pressure groups BPC were banned in October 1977 with thousands of students on their respective campuses. This call was made at the and BC leaders incarcerated or going into exile. Some time when black campuses did not have credible Student newspapers which were aligned to BC were also banned. Representative Councils. 6. Awareness on socio-political issues in South Africa had to Another wave of fear engulfed the country but the struggle be raised among all and sundry. Where do we come from was not abandoned. Organisations such as the Azanian as black students, where are we and where do we want to People’s Organisation (AZAPO), the National Union of go? (Biko 1978d:3–7) Mineworkers (NUM) and the United Democratic Front (UDF) continued with the struggle until apartheid was Corroborating this presentation Biko (1978d) said: vanquished in 1994. Lauding the role that BCM played, We have a responsibility not only to ourselves but also to the Buthelezi (in Pityana 1991) had this to say: society from which we spring. No one else will ever take the The BCM can be said to have prepared the way for the bolder challenge up until we, of our own accord, accept the inevitable moves of the 1970s and 1980s, which culminated in the events of fact that ultimately the leadership of the non-white peoples in the 1990s. The impact of BCM goes beyond particular this country rests with us. (p. 7) organisations. The psychological liberation brought about by the BC Philosophy enabled blacks particularly the young to Although SASO to many seemed to have been racially overcome their fear of the repressive system they were up inclined: against. (p. 129) … Yet what SASO has done is simply to take stock of the present Regarding matters religious, Biko was of the firm belief that scene in the country and to realise that not unless the non-white religion is fundamental to human beings and therefore students decide to lift themselves from the doldrums will they ever hope to get out of them. (p. 5) should be made readily available to everyone. Religion will definitely be with us forever because where there is no Biko denied vehemently when he was accused of being religion, one will be developed (Stubbs 1978a:55, cf. Duncan anti-white. SASO was not to be understood as conforming to in Du Toit 2008:127). Religion forms people’s moral conscience the policy of separate development either. Actually, Biko and it offers solutions where science is unable to do so. demonstrated that SASO or any other exclusively black For that reason, professional theologians should stop organization would not last (1978c:11–12). monopolising religion and regarding themselves as the only category of Christians who know all the truths about God Yet, we have to admit, according to Biko (1978c:12), that our and have all the answers. Turning to BT in particular, it has society is not normal. White people will continue to dominate already been indicated that it was regarded as a spiritual everything especially positions of leadership and will counterpart of BC because the same people who formulated continue to perpetuate the status quo and preoccupy and articulated BC are the same as those who proposed and themselves with problems affecting white society. Black articulated BT. Theology is God’s word to a particular people are tired of being in the periphery of power and being situation and its motif is liberation. BC laid bare the left out of decision-making processes in South Africa. oppressive and exploitative situation in which black people According to Biko (1978c): found themselves in South Africa and the question was, of course, where was God in the situation, if indeed we are all, … [T]he black student community has at last lost faith with their black and white created in God’s image and likeness. It was white counterparts and is now withdrawing from the open high time that God addressed them relevantly and BT was society … They want to do things for themselves and all by born. Biko (in Stubbs 1978a) defined BT as follows: themselves. (p. 15) Black Theology … is a situational interpretation of Christianity. It After the formation of SASO, the BC leadership discussed the seeks to relate the present day black man to God within the given fate of graduates who left institutions of higher learning to go context of the black man’s moral obligation from avoiding and work and interact with society. These former students wronging false authorities by not losing his Reference Book, not to stealing food when hungry and not cheating police when he is were mature and would be good ambassadors of the caught, to being committed to eradicating all course for suffering philosophy. To this end, a decision was taken to establish a as represented in the death of children from starvation, outbreaks political organisation and the Black People’s Convention of epidemics in poor areas, or the existence of thuggery and (BPC) was launched in December 1971 with Biko as its vandalism in townships. In other words, it shifts the emphasis honorary president. By that time, the apartheid regime had from petty sins to major sins in a society, thereby ceasing to teach realised that SASO was not conforming to the policy of the people to ‘suffer peacefully’. (p. 59) separate development as they had initially thought, but was a revolutionary organisation that wanted to topple it. The The Bible indicates that God’s message is addressed to government was already hitting hard on the leadership of people’s histories and situations and should be adapted in

http://www.hts.org.za Open Access Page 5 of 9 Original Research line with the aspirations and hopes of the people if it is to be Biko was concerned that Christianity continued to be relevant. In other words, the gospel must be contextual if it preached in a way that does not address the context in which has to be salvific and liberating. Black theology is therefore black people found themselves in the country but instead, not a new theology but rather a re-evaluation of the same the ‘ministers are still too busy with moral trivialities … gospel message contained in the Bible. Biko takes issue with While they [blacks] sing in a chorus of “mea culpa” they are the so-called ‘pie-in-the-sky’ theology because it is ideological joined by white groups who sing a different version-“tua and it is open to abuse by those in power against the culpa”’ (1978:30). For Biko, the Bible message has to be powerless and the poor. God’s message of salvation is not redefined if the Bible is to become a travelling companion only meant to prepare candidates for heaven, but it is also and sustenance for the black people on their journey to meant to liberate people from the physical shackles here and democracy (1978:31). now. According to Biko (in Stubbs 1978a), BT: … seeks to relate God and Christ once more to the black man and Taking a swipe at the missionaries, Biko argues that they are his daily problems. It wants to describe Christ as a fighting God, no better than other white people in their paternalistic not as a passive God who allows a lie to rest unchallenged. It attitude. They have also made themselves perpetual grapples with existential problems and does not claim to be a guardians and tutors of their black converts and they never theology of absolutes. It seeks to bring back God to the black bothered to relate sin to structural injustices. Biko did man and to the truth and reality of his situation. (p. 94) acknowledge though the good work performed by the missionaries such as building schools, colleges and hospitals BT is black, not only in terms of skin pigmentation but also in (1978f:56). Missionary education was so good that the terms of those who suffer in South Africa and everywhere Nationalist Party stopped it in 1953 when the Bantu Education else in the world, the majority of which happens to be black. Act was passed. The Church in general is guilty of condemning Black theory also makes a clarion call to all the black people people for immoral acts without relating those moral lapses to become agents of their own liberation, if they ever hope to come out of the physical and mental ghettoes and doldrums to socio-political conditions in which they find themselves. in which they have been thrown by those in power. BT in For example, how does one simply condemn adultery or South Africa was also influenced by theological developments fornication in the mines without relating that to the migratory in the US. A leading African American theologian, Cone labour system where men were allowed to visit their families (1978) almost at the same time as black people in South Africa only once a year for just 2 weeks? asked Biko (1978f.:57). were speaking of BT, was also canvassing black theologians and lobbying black churches to embrace a new methodology Biko, concluding his presentation he gave in May 1972 in of doing theology from the black perspective. In as much as Natal at a conference of black ministers of religion, put it BT in South Africa relied on BC philosophy for doing bluntly to the religious leaders when he said, ‘… God is not theology, BT in the US depended on the analysis performed in a habit of coming down from heaven to solve people’s by the Black Power and the Black Panther Movements problems on earth’ (1978f.:60). In other words, as humans we (Pityana in Motlhabi 1972:41, Motlhabi in Motlhabi 1972a:55, have been made cocreators with God and in that manner, we Duncan in Du Toit 2008:116, Cone in Motlhabi 1972a:28). have to become agents of change in transforming this world. Many South Africans went to study BT in Europe and the US In the light of what BC and BT stood for and in particular the from the 1960s to the 1990s. Collaborative conferences were teachings and actions of Biko, are there some lessons that the also convened both nationally and internationally as black democratic South Africa can learn? The next section looks at people globally were trying to understand their common some of Biko’s ideas and thoughts that could assist us in plight and their position in the world. South Africa today. There are those who believe that BC and BT as well as Biko are no longer relevant but there are others Biko challenged theology students and pastors to embrace who believe that there is a great deal that we could be offered spiritually the aims and objectives of BC. Biko (in Stubbs by Biko as we nurture our nascent democracy. 1978a:8–16) noted that black students in multiracial organisations were always voiceless (1978a:8–16). He was Biko’s legacy and contribution particularly worried that even in organisations where black students were in the majority of 70% and above, leadership While it should be admitted that Biko’s challenges are not positions were occupied by white students (Sono 1993:29). very similar to those we are facing today, we should at the For example, the Church in South Africa is 90% black but its same time admit that there are principles and values leadership is predominately in white hands (1978a:57). He including his insights that could be leveraged today to assist laments the spiritual poverty in which black people find us in nation building. The following are the few that we themselves and indicates that ‘material want is bad enough believe can only be ignored at our peril. but coupled with spiritual poverty it kills’ (Biko in Stubbs 1978a:14). Black people have been prepared for a subordinate (1) Black and African identity: White people, that is, role in South Africa. They have been convinced that they are colonialists, traders and missionaries when invading the inferior and have inherent inabilities and were mentally African continent and lands elsewhere, made sure that the retarded. This is the extent to which black people have been conquered peoples were emptied of their identities. They dehumanised (Biko in Stubbs 1978a:28). called them all sorts of names such as savages, uncivilised

http://www.hts.org.za Open Access Page 6 of 9 Original Research and pagans. As Odendaal (2012:3) puts it, during the five extensive and intensive discussions among them that a centuries of global colonisation: correct title should have been We Write What We Like. Effort Indigenous people had been subjugated, enslaved, deprived of was taken to avoid a leadership cult even when Biko was their land and freedom, even in places exterminated, all in the accepted as the visionary and luminary leader of BC and BT name of Western civilization and progress. This process of (Stubbs 1978b:158). Consensus politics defined management coercion, justified by ideologies of racism and often explained in of the BC organisations: religious terms, continued in institutional forms in colonial There grew into being a particular style of leadership which territories and became part of the fabric of life under colonization. recognized and enormous advantage of widespread consultation (cf. Mzimela 1983:192) to win over a proposal but the creation of an atmosphere where individual opinions were considered and taken seriously. They The theory of evolution, eugenics and racism with the were valued equally. (Sono 1993:27) benefits of better communication, weaponry and advanced medical capabilities made colonialism easier according to Although Biko was not willing to found a political party Marsh (2013:239). The 19th century reinforced the ideas of the other than SASO, he yielded to the formation of BPC, the inferiority of the conquered and superiority of the conquerors. reason being that postgraduate students in the work place Science was used to justify racism and the Anglo-Saxons would find a home in which they would deal with black were put at the top of the ladder of civilisation and darker people’s plight in society in general. This is a stark example races were put closer to animals (Motlhabi 1972a:2; Murove of what collective leadership entails, that is, even if you are a 2009:20). Odendaal (2012) quotes 1863 Edinburgh Review: leader, you accept a decision of the majority. When it was There is no vast difference between the intelligence of a Bosjeman discussed as to which organisations to approach and to (Bushman) and that of an orang-utan, and the difference is far interact with, Biko (in Stubbs 1978a:80–86) argued strenuously greater between Descartes or Homer and the Hottentot than against entering into dialogue with homeland leaders. between the stupid Hottentot and the ape. (p. 6) Politically, are a fraud. leaders are confusing the masses as if something earth shattering was Winston Churchill is quoted as having said that the Sudanese about to happen. ‘These tribal cocoons called “homelands” Mahdist ‘trash’ and referred to Indians as ‘beastly people are nothing else but sophisticated concentration camps where with a beastly religion’ (Odendaal 2012:7). The strategy was black people are allowed to ‘suffer peacefully’ (1978a:86). In therefore to wipe the slate clean and create a tabula rasa in the this instance, Biko won the argument and when Temba Sono minds and hearts of the colonised on which to write a new as a president of SASO insisted on collaborating with culture and new religion. That is why for Biko, it was crucial homeland leaders, he was expelled from the organisation for black people to be liberated first mentally and spiritually. with immediate effect (Sono 1993:97). The disparities in material conditions between black and white people led to different aspirations because black people Although Biko was against the use of violence to overthrow want to attain what they have been denied all along and the apartheid state, he was keen to discuss the future of South white people want to hang on to their life of privilege that Africa with other organisations such as the ANC, PAC and they have enjoyed since 1652. While black people have New Unity Movement (NEUM) even though he knew that attained political emancipation and are ruling the country, pacifism might take years to achieve liberation (Sono about 80% of the economy of the country is still in white 1993:106). BPC did not want to become a political party as hands. The land issue is still a burning one: how should it be already alluded, but simply an internal organisation that distributed? The ‘rainbow-ism’ mentality should not be used would keep the home fires burning until the exiled and to sweep South Africa’s problems of poverty, unemployment imprisoned leadership had returned. The BPC when being and inequality that affect mostly black people under the launched in June 1972 put this statement across that it was carpet. Legislation for and methodologies of nation building not replacing other liberation movements. It was not even in should be performed with a bias towards the black majority competition with them. It was geared at becoming a unifying who have been pushed to the margins of the South African force to create a national consciousness. In fact, the leadership economy by apartheid. in exile and on Robben Island was recognised as true and authentic leadership. To raise this national consciousness, (2) Biko’s leadership style: He believed that decisions should BPC under Black Communalism organised meetings between be taken by leadership as a collective and: 1974 and 1975 (Ramphele in Pityana 1991:222; Wilson in His leadership qualities were such that he never reviled his foes Pityana 1991:55, 64). According to Sono (1993:101), Biko and opponents, only their principles. He refused to descend to would have taken part at the Convention for a Democratic the level of vilifying his opponents or foes on a personal level. South Africa (CODESA) negotiation table had he lived, and (Sono 1993:93) this was the decision taken by Azanian People’s Organisation (AZAPO) on CODESA. Biko ‘strongly believed that South He cultivated a culture of discursive thinking for he honestly Africa’s future could only be bargained for, negotiated for, by believed in arriving at decisions that have been thoroughly blacks who would have assumed a pivotal role in shaping debated. Pityana (in Du Toit 2008:4) indicates that many of the agenda on the table’. BCM (Azania) was strongly opposed the essays in were so much a product of to negotiations with the minority white regime and explicitly

http://www.hts.org.za Open Access Page 7 of 9 Original Research excluded white people from participation in creating Azania unforgivable was denominationalism (Duncan 2008:122; (new South Africa), while Biko believed that white people Stubbs 1978b209). Which of these denominations interpret had a constructive role to play. BCM (A) called for the Christianity correctly? They compete with one other and dictatorship of the black proletariat and insisted that power even fight among themselves about doctrines and trivialities had to be transferred to the black majority without that have nothing to do with liberation. Biko says that in his: negotiations. For AZAPO, this position was nothing but … view the truth is in my ability to incorporate my vertical a pipe dream. Negotiations were necessary as long as relationship with God into the horizontal relationships with my majority rule was the end game. AZAPO wanted the fellow men; in my ability to pursue my ultimate purpose on economy to be socialised as opposed to free market economy earth which is to do good. (Stubbs 1978b:210) (Sono 1993:117). His criticism of the state as not being ordained by God, so Biko was a leader who wanted unity of the black people not was the Church. For him, the Church was no different from only within the BCM family but also across all liberation other earthly institutions and social clubs. He therefore had a movements. I believe that Biko should be turning in his grave democratic right to withdraw from the Church if it did not when he sees splinter groups such as AZAPO, BCM(A) and meet his expectations any longer without fear of eternal Socialist Party of Azania (SOPA) claiming to embody his condemnation. Biko was quoted to have said, ‘I can reject all ideals being at each other throats. Unifying all political churches and still be Godly’ (Stubbs 1978:210). All what he parties for the purpose of freedom for all, black and white was interested in was the revolutionary message of the was necessary for according to Biko, ‘In time we shall be in historical Jesus (Sono 1993:90). Roman Catholic Church’s a position to bestow upon South Africa the greatest gift teachings on the infallibility of the Pope, ex cathedra possible – a more humane face’ Sono 1993:89). statements, extra ecclesiam nulla salus pronouncements, put the Church above criticism and that could not be accepted. In as much as Biko widely read politics, he also had time Even St Paul was not spared because he accused him of to read theology and he was not happy about matters having contaminated the whole theology with his pertaining to the practice of religion. He raised, for example, conservative teachings on church and state relations (Stubbs issues around the ‘enculturation of the gospel’ and the 1978b:211). For Duncan (in Du Toit 2008:122), Biko’s attitude ‘indigenisation of the Church’. The former refers to the gospel towards the Church helped him to obey God rather than being stripped of the wrappings and trappings of the Western humans. Biko did not believe in the divinity of Christ but in culture and taking on African culture and all its aspects and the historical Jesus of Nazareth. He therefore rejected the the latter refers to the leadership of the Church in Africa doctrine of the Virgin Birth including Christ Resurrection being reflective of the demographics of the continent. He from the dead. Biko said if we were to follow this line of believed that the institutionalisation and bureaucratisation of argument, ‘It is either we are worshipping an illegitimate the Church was not only unnecessary but it was also child as our God or we are elevating a normal human being complicating things for the ordinary congregants. into the status of God’s son’ (Stubbs 1978b:211). The revolutionary Jesus is the one that appeals to Biko. Church leadership spent too much time on administrative functions and financials that there was hardly any time left (3) Education and research: For Biko, education and research for the core business of the Church which is the preaching of were important instruments by which black people would the gospel of Jesus Christ whose central message is liberation rediscover their identity and restore their pride and dignity. (Stubbs 1978b:210). According to Biko, ministers do not Under his leadership, much was performed in terms of address black aspirations, because they, ‘are still too busy rewriting and reinterpreting African history, redefining with moral trivialities’ (Stubbs 1978a:31). Biko is here backed African culture and appreciating African religion more by the Scripture text that says: (cf. Biko 1978:40–47, 54–60, 87–89; Buthelezi 1991:111–129; It is not right for us to neglect the preaching of God’s word in Seleoane 2008:15–56). Black consciousness was conceptualised order to handle finances. So then, brothers, choose seven men and developed by students and a perception was created that among you … and we will put them in charge of this matter. We BCM was for academics and intellectuals. Biko was so ourselves, then, will give our full time to prayer and the work of passionate about education that one does not believe that the preaching. (Ac 6:2–4) slogan, ‘liberation first and education later’ originated with Biko. What one can submit without hesitation is that Biko’s He complained about the monopoly of theology by stance could have been that of education for liberation rather professional theologians and pastors. Through this practice, than liberation without education. Many advocates of BC they became the repositories of God`s truth and interpreters and BT were well educated with qualifications from world- of heavenly mysteries. It baffled him that Latin until fairly class universities abroad. Many of the 1976 students who recently was used in the Roman Catholic Church services, sought political refuge abroad took the option of pursuing particularly black priests ‘… could not understand how the studies rather than joining Umkhonto we Sizwe or Poqo. dignity of the liturgy could be so heavily prostituted by the Here at home, some students subjected themselves to Bantu substitution of Latin with Zulu … Somehow Latin seemed Education system, inferior though it was. Biko’s expulsion a holier medium’ (Stubbs 1978:176). What for Biko was from the University of Natal (Wentworth) did not discourage

http://www.hts.org.za Open Access Page 8 of 9 Original Research him from pursuing his studies; he registered with the black pride. Literacy advocacy, adult education, employment University of South Africa for a law degree. opportunities, skills training, health promotion, and so on, were sponsored by Black Community Projects (Ramphele Biko initiated a culture of research. He complained that 1991:154–178; Sono 1993:70). Ramphele regards these black people had become objects of research and the community projects as ‘tools of empowerment and symbols abiding mentality was that they were victims of racism of hope’ (1991:154). As Buthelezi (in Motlhabi 1972a) puts it: deserving therefore of pity. Paternalism was the order of Our ultimate ethical responsibility is not only to serve man by the day so much so that BC and BT advocates ‘… were removing the symptoms of alienation from the wholeness of life, determined to transform research and publication by and but to equip them with the tools which will enable them to stand about black South Africans’ (Ramphele in Pityana 1991:161). on their own feet. (p. 129) It was in 1972 when Biko launched Black Review and the aim was to counteract the negativity displayed out there by Quite a number of projects were started across the country. the South African Institute of Race Relations (SAIRR) as The New Farm Settlement Project was founded in 1969–1971 well as newspapers such as Post and World that black in Durban. The Dududu Project was established at the Natal people were to be pitied. These publications projected South Coast; The Winterveld Project in Pretoria; The black people as ‘… a people without any achievements, a Zanempilo Community Health Centre, Solempilo, founded community of failures who were noted for murder, rape, near Adam’s Mission; and The Zimele Trust Fund and theft, and family disorganization’ (Ramphele in Pityana Ithuseng Clinic in Lenyenye near Tzaneen. 1991:162). BC and BT activists needed to embark on reflective and reflexive research ‘… which would take It is a pity that only very few of those projects survived the seriously the problems of the black community, their political storms. It was difficult to source funds under survival strategies, as well as their efforts to transform apartheid for politically motivated projects. In fact, with their life circumstances’ (Pityana 1991:162). Welile Nhlapo the adoption of the Affected Organisations Bill of 1974, all and Tomeka Mafole worked closely with Biko as his BC organisations and affiliated ones could not receive research assistants when he worked on Black Review. Two funding from abroad. Even under democracy, it is difficult more publications were launched by Biko, called Black to raise funds because many sponsors directed their Viewpoint in 1972 and Black Perspectives in 1973 respectively. donations to the government and as a result, many non- BT and BC collaborated on other research projects such as governmental organisations were closed. The philosophy Special Project for Christian Action in Society (SPROCAS) and of Biko on self-reliance came in handy. Jesus has warned us Pro Veritate. Father Smangaliso Mkhatshwa headed a BT that the poor will be with us always (Jn 12:8), thus preparing research project called the Black Renaissance Convention us for a lifelong battle against poverty, unemployment and (BRC) which held its conference in Maseru, Lesotho, in inequality. 1975 (Motlhabi 2008:168–170). A journal called, Black Theology in South Africa, was launched and BT as such was integrated into a theological organisation called, Institute Concluding remarks for Contextual Theology. This move broadened considerably If we adhere to some of Biko’s core values and basic the scope of BT because issues then included gender justice, principles, we can take South Africa to a higher level. Firstly, class, landlessness and environmental justice. Two we need as South Africans to move from the apartheid important publications followed, namely The Unquestionable mentality of regarding ourselves as white versus black and Right to be Free published in 1986 and Hammering Swords become one nation comprising black and white people. into Ploughshares also published in 1986, both edited by Secondly, we need to reposition ourselves through the Itumeleng Mosala and Buti Tlhagale. More conferences renaissance philosophy as Africans in Africa. Thirdly, were held under the auspices of an organisation called, education and research need to be prioritised together with Community of Black and African Theologians (COMBAT). health and economic growth through supporting small business. Moreover, for all of these deliverables to happen, (4) Development projects: It became clear to Biko that corruption must be ruthlessly dealt with. Even during liberation would not be achieved overnight and therefore apartheid Biko discouraged violence and he would be self-help projects would be necessary. But not only that. Biko appalled by state violence and mob violence in a democratic wanted to inculcate culture of self-reliance because begging South Africa. Of course, there are issues that are bedevilling makes people to lose their dignity and humanity. (Biko us today that Biko and his contemporaries did not address 1978a:38). As Ramphele (1991) says: then but which we should firmly put at the top of our The dual onslaught of political impotence, induced by state agenda as well such as gender justice, land and repression, and economic dependency, resulting from poverty environmental justice. Such issues could still be addressed and welfarism, wrought havoc on the self-image of black South through using Biko’s core values and principles as well as Africans, who lost self-confidence as a people. (p. 156) those found in the Bible. Women need to be liberated from patriarchy, restoration of land to its owners would restore As a result of this realisation, Biko and SASO decided African dignity and mismanagement of God’s creation to embark on community projects that would restore would hit the poor the hardest.

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Biko, S.B., 1978i, ‘We blacks’, in A. Stubbs (ed.), I write what I like, pp. 27–30, The Acknowledgement Bowerdean Press, London. Competing interest Brotz, H., 1977, The , Oxford University Press, London. Buthelezi, M., 1972, ‘The theological meaning of true humanity’, in M. Motlhabi (ed.), The author declares that no competing interest exists. Essays on black theology, pp. 71–80, University Christian Movement, . Buthelezi, S., 1991, ‘The emergence of black consciousness’, in B. Pityana & M. Ramphele (eds.), Bounds of possibility: The legacy of and black consciousness, pp. 111–129, David Philip, . Author contributions Changuion, L. & Steenkamp, B., 2012, Disputed land: The historical development of I declare that I am the sole author of this research article. the South African land issue, pp. 1652–2011, Protea Book House, Pretoria. Cone, J., 1978, ‘Black theology and black liberation’, in M. Motlhabi (ed.), Essays on black theology, pp. 28–36, University Christian Movement, Johannesburg. Funding Davenport, T.R.H., 1987, South Africa: A modern history, MacMillan Press, London. Du Toit, C.W., 2008, ‘Black consciousness as an expression of radical responsibility: This research received no specific grant from any funding Biko an African Bonhoeffer’, in C.W. Du Toit (ed.), The legacy of Stephen Bantu Biko: Theological challenges, pp. 209–238, Unisa Press, Pretoria. agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Duncan, G., 2008, ‘Steve Biko’s religious consciousness and thought and its influence on theological education with special reference to Federal Theological Seminary of Southern Africa’, in C.W. Du Toit (ed.), The legacy of Stephen Bantu Biko: Data availability statement Theological challenges, pp. 115–140, Unisa Press, Pretoria. Khoapa, B., 2008, ‘African diaspora: Intellectual influences on Steve Biko’, in C.W. du Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data Toit (ed.), The legacy of Stephen Bantu Biko: Theological challenges, pp. 73–87, University Christian Movement, Johannesburg. were created or analysed in this study. Lodge, T., 1983, Black politics in South Africa since 1945, Ravan Press, Johannesburg. Marsh, R., 2013, Understanding Africa and the events that shaped its destiny, LAPA Publishers, Pretoria. Disclaimer Motlhabi, M., 1972a, ‘Black theology: A personal opinion’, in M. Motlhabi (ed.), Essays on black theology, pp. 53–59, University Christian Movement, Johannesburg. The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of Motlhabi, M., 1972b, ‘Foreword’, in M. Motlhabi (ed.), Essays on black theology, pp. 2, the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or University Christian Movement, Johannesburg. position of any affiliated agency of the authors. 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