A-PDF Merger DEMO : Purchase from www.A-PDF.com to remove the watermark An Introductionto the Studyof MorphologY

Vit Bubenik

fulltext research abstractsofall titles monthlyupdates LINC.OMwebshop 2003(2nd Printing) www.lrncom-eulopa.com' LINCOMEUROPA Publishedby LINCOMGmbH 2003 (2nd printing) 1stprinting: 1999

All correspondenceconcerning LINCOM Coursebooks in Linguisticsshould be addressedto: PREFACE

LINCOMGmbH Freibadstr.3 Thrs introductorytextbook to the studyoflinguislic morphologyis basedon four prcvious D-81543Muenchen vcrsionsof a nranuscriptentitled An IntroductirlttIo thc Sntly oJ Nlorphologt'.They were publishedin a mimeographedform by Mcmorial University of Newlbundland(St. Johr's, Canada)in 1978,1982, 1986 and 1997,and were used at thc third-ycarlevel rn the Deparlment [email protected] of l,inguistics. http://home.t-online.de/home/LINCOM. E U ROpA Its currentversion is designedfor usc as a second-or third-yearuniversity level introductory www. lincom-europa.com textbookto lirrguisticmorphology. Bcfore taking this coursc.students should have previously introductorycourses to the whole disciplincof linguisticsat their first or webshop:lincom.at completedone or two sccondyear at the university. major tuming points in the recenthistory of morphology All rightsreserved, including the rightsof translationinto any Its argumcntationis built aroundthe foreignlanguage. No partof this bookmay be reproducedin any linkedwith Europeanand American scholars such as C. Ilockett, P. I{. Matthews,J. Bybee,W. way withoutthe permissionof the publisher. Dressler,A. Spencer',A. Carstairs-McCarthy,M. Aronoil and others.Its primary data are taken lrom representativeIndo-European (English, Gcnnan, Spanish, Latin, Greek, Russian, Sanskrit), Alro-Asiatic (Flebrew,Arabic, Berber)and sevcralother languages(Turkish, Chinese,Algonkian Printed inE.C. andothers). Printedon chlorine-freepaper The book consistsof ten chaptersexplicating fundamcntal principlcs of morphologyby mcansof (numbered)examples. All chapters(with the exceptiouof the last ouc) arc ccluippcd of increasingdifficulty. Its Die DeutscheBibliothek - CIP Cataloguing-in-publication-Data with a numberof pcrtincntcxcrcises often arrangedin the order contentsare as follows:

A cataloguerecord for this publicationis availablefrom Die l. Introduction DeutscheBibliothek (http://www.ddb.de) 2. Grammaticall-inits (words, morphemes, clitics) 3. Paradigmaticand SyntagmaticRelations 4. Inflectionaland Derivational Morphology 5. InflectionalCategories Associated with NominalElements 6. InflectionalCatcgorics Associated with VerbalElements 7. MorphosyntacticProperlies and thoir Exponents 8. Morpheme and Allomorph 9. DerivationalMorphology (derivation and compounding) 10. TheoreticalModels of Morphology

F'orpedagogical purposes it is necessaryto dealwith subjectmatters in individualchapters asconsisting ofscveral units (indicated by subheadings).Recommended Readings at the endof eachchapter should provide furthcr ammunition to both instructorsand studentsofthis course. AN IN'I'RODI-IC'IION TO 1]]E STUDY O}I MORPHOI OCY

During my twenty yearsof introducingthe subjectof linguisticmorphology to third-year studcntsoflinguistics, languages, psychology, anthropology,sociology and othertlisciplines of Humaniticsand social sciences I benefittedenormously from variouscomments and suggestions madeon the intermediateversions of present CON'I'EN1'S the tcxtbook by my colleaguesand students.At lhis point I want to acknowledge adviceof andmany helpfulcomments by the following scholars: Dr' A. Barton6k(university of Bmo), Dr. A. Erhart (tJniversityof Bmo), Dr. J. Irewson (Memorial university of Newfoundland), Preface Dr. B. Joseph(State University of ohio), Dr. Stanislav Segert(lJniversity of califomia at Los Angeles),Dr. K. strunk (Universityof Munrch),Dr. H. Paddock(Memorial Preliminaries University ofNewfoundland),Dr. H. Petersmann(University of Heidelberg), Dr. 1,.Zgusta (University of lilinois). Many of my studentsduring g0's Chapter1: lntroduction I the and 90's nrade a numbcr of observatronsanci suggestlonson the sfylc ofthe I .1 l,anguageand its Units I four previousversions, the clarity oftheir expos6and the level of difficulty of someof the 1.2 [Jnitsand Rules 3 exercises:Julie Brittain, Audrey Dawe, Barbarao'Dea, Kathy Francis, Margot French, Bemard 1.3 l,anguageand its SymbolicAspect A Kavanagh, Angela Kotsopoulos, Dorothy Liberakis, christa Lietz, SnezanaMilovanovich, 1.4 lconic'I'endencyof l.anguagc 5 SarahRose, Donna Starks,Margot Stuart,and others.Many thanks for focusing 10 my attentionon the studentpoint of view in composrngthis textbook. tsXEITCISES And finally, I am grateful to threegraduate students u,ho formattedthe foufth edition ( 1997) of the manuscript:Hcnry Chapter2: GrammaticalUnits t2 Muzale,Natasha squires and valeri Vassiliev.My specialthanks arc due to my researchassistant 2.1 TheWord 12 LawrenceGreening who hasbeen invorved in editing,final text formatting,indexing andDefinition t2 andpreparing a camera-rcadycopy fbr publicationby Lincom Europa. 2.1.1Identification 2.1.2 Phonological,Grammatical and Lexical Words l3 St.John's, Aprit of theWord 14 1999 Vit Bubenik 2.1.3Internal Cohesion 15 Departmcntof Linguistics 2.1.4 Phonological C-orrelations 'l 16 MemorialUniversity of Newloundland 2.2 he Morphcrnc 2.2.1 Idcntificationand Dcfinition l6 2.2.2 Segrnentabilityof Words t7 2.2.3 Allomorphs t9 2.3 Analysisinto Roots,Stems and Affixes 21 2.4 Clitics 2.5 BasicApproaches to Morphology a1 2.5.1 ltem andArrangement Model 1r' 2.5.2 Word andParadigm Model 25 2.5.3ltcm andProcess Model 21 EXERCISBS 29

Chapter 3: Paradigmaticand SyntagmaticRelatiotts 35 -1.I Thc Notionof Distribution 35 3.2 Paradigmaticsand Syntagmattcs 31 3.3 Markedness 4t) EXERCISES 46 -1

AN INTRODUC'I'ION 1'O THF] S]IJDY OI, MORPIIOLO(iY CON'IENTS

Chapter 4: Inflectional and Derivational Morphology 52 Chapter9: DerivationalMorphology 166 4. I The Scopeof lnflectionand Derivation 52 9.1 Theoryof WortlFormllion r66 4.2 SomeUniversal Tcndcncies of Inflectionand Derivation 54 9.2 Derivationversus Compounding 168 4.3 Analysisof Inflections 57 9.3.1Prefixation 170 EXERCISES 65 9.3.2Suffixation 113 9.4 Compounding 115 Chapter 5: Inflectional CategoriesAssociated with Nominal Elements 70 9.4.I CoordinatcCompounds 116 5.1 PrimaryNominal Categorres 70 9.4.2 DeterminativeC'ompounds 178 5.l. I Nounsaud Adjccrives 70 9.4.3 PosscssiveCompounds t't9 5.1.2 Pronouns 73 9.4.4 SyntacticCompounds 180 5.2 SecondaryNominal Categories 79 9.5 Noun Derivationin Arabic t8l 5.2.1Cender 79 EXERCISES 186 5.2.2Number 85 'f 5.2.3Case 88 Chapter l0: heoreticalModels of Morphology 188 5.2.4Aligrunent 95 10.I Morphologyand Fomral Syntax 188 EXERCISES 98 10.2Morphology and Gencrativc Phonology l9r 10.3 Morphologyin FunctionalGramn-rar 194 Chapter 6: Inflectional CategoriesAssociated with Verbal Elements 106 I 0.4 NaturalMorphology 197 6.1 Verb asa PrimaryGrammatical Category 106 10.4.I Universals 191 'I'ypology 6.2 Quasi-NominalOategories of the Verb: Infinitive andparticiple t07 l0.zl.2 198 6.3 SccondaryGrammatical Categories Associated with VerbalElements llt I 0.4.3Systcm-Dependence 199 6.3.1Person and Deixis ill I 0.4-4 ParadigmaticStructure 199 6.3.2Tense 115 10.4.5Morphological and PhonologicalNaturalncss 200 6.3.3Aspect ll6 6.3.4Mood 120 Referencesand SelectBibliography 203 6.3.5Voice t25 EXERCISES 130 Index of Languages 208

Chapter 7: Morphosyntactic Propertiesand their Exponents 139 SubjectIndex 212 7.I Cumulativeversus Agglutinative Exponcncc 139 7.2 Fuscd,Extended and OverlappingExponence 142 EXERCISES 146

Chapter8: Morphemeand Allomorph 148 8.1 TheAltemation ol'Allomorphs 148 8.2 Morphologicalvs. PhonologicalConditioning of Allomorphs r50 8.3 TurkishVowel l{armony 152 8.4 Morphonology 159 EXERCISES t64 PRt'I,IMINARIES i l Phrasestructure rules l

PRELIMINARIES

DF,EPST'RUI]1-LJRE l Motphology in this book will be clefinedas that subdiscipline of linguistics whose sub-;ectmalrer I is (i) g|ammatical units (morphemes 'l'hc anti lexemes) and (ii) gramnatical categories. latter are traditionally dividcd into primarl'grammatical .parts categories (i.c., of speech, such as nouns, 'liansfbrmalional verbs, pronoutls, rules ad.iectivcs,advcrbs) and secondary grammatical categories (such as nomi'al I catcgories ofgender, nurnber and casc, and verbal categories ofperson, number, tense, mood, Il aspectand voice). Morphemes are traditionally defincd as the smallcst nreaninglul clemcnls ir.r a language. Morphologicaland In thc sevcntics the transfotmational-generativc vielr'' of morphology as a scclion of sy^tax SURI.'ACESTRUCTURT] phonologicalrules with its emphasis on rclational aspccts of language led 1o a neglect of the sludy of grammalrcal I units and categories qua forms. Howcvsr, it should be matle clear that all the above mentioncd I grarrnlatical units and categorics can be studicd most lcgitimately in thrcc manners: morpho- Iogical (or'formal'), functional, and syntactic (or'positional'). Any attempts to disrcgard fbrnral i aspects oflanguage by overemphasizing fru-rctionalor syntactic aspects are dctrirnental. lnspection of various introductory books on linguistics will reveal anolher aspect ol lhe currcnt neglect of morphology. Fig' 0'l An earlier Translormational Model o{-language I Givcn the fact that the Iinglish morphological syslem is rather I poor compared with that o1, say, Spanish or I-atin, these books concentrate on the phonenric I aspect of morphology (phonological the segmentation ofrvords docs trot presL'rltal)y nrajor problcrns, conditioning of allomorphs). Of course, it is important t' languages.In these languages relationship. discusssuclrfactsastheallomorphyofthc3'dSgPrcs/s/-/z/-/az/ inEnglish (inhen,alk,ktves since the morphemes and sememes are mostly in one-to-one d'id not makc andpouches); this, howcver, should not dctract our attcntion It should be mentioned that the earlier Transformational Nf odel of language I lrom the nrorphological aspeotsol' the categoriesofperson provision formal study of primary and secondary grammatical categories. Thesc and t]unrber in Spanish,which display six dilferenr inllectional tbrnts lor any for the l three persons and two for granted and the emphasis was laid on the stucly of translirrmational numbers (amo, amus, anm, ernatnos, antais, runrui). Thus for Spanish, our cntitics wcrc takcn task will only as a'surlacc syntaclic inlbrntation', as shown tn be to account for accentual shift (dnto - amamos) in terms of morphological catcgories processes.Morphology was thus viewcd such as stcm and thematic vowel (and phonological categories such as penultimate svllable). Figure 0.1. Fltflhennore, w,ith de-emphasison the transfon.nationalcompouent the placc was made for it is necessaryto considcr any linguistic struotureas possesslng1wo aspects,nilnely In the eighties, syntagmatic and paradigmatic. approachesto morphology. Linguists returned to a more traditiorlal concept of It is the latter aspect rvhich was completely grammar, but which ncvcrtheless is a propcr tlomain of morphology. morphology as a study whose In studiesalong theselines, .1.Bybee's Morphology (1985) the following chapterswe will spend a lot of time on analyzing aml constmctilrg paradrgmatic (morphology proper). Among the earl'ier sets for the above mentioned o{'lieeing the morphological theorizrng from genetio and areal biases (her gramrnatical units and categories. This approach to morphology is h:s the lasting merit knorvn as the \\/ord morphology are based on a sample o1-fifly languages). In the and Paradigm Modcl (cfl l{ockett 1954, Robins 1959) and thrs model is hypothcscs about inflcctional especially gained promincnce under the titlc of Natural suitable ftrr the analysis of inflectional languages vvhich are morphologically eighties anothef approach to morphology comphoated of the title Natural Phonology (Hooper's ,4n Intrcluctir.ttl to NdturLIl in that they do not always display a one-to-one relationship bctween nrorpheme and Morphofogy in imitation semcnlc (polysemy It was developed in Gemrany and Austria by W. Dressler and his and polymorphy). The olher morpheme-based approach, known as ltem and Generative Grammat',1976). of their articles entitled I'eilmotifs in Nuturul Arrangement Model, is suitable to the analysis ol' agglutinating and polysynthetic co,workcrs, and is available in the collection tr[orpfutlogv (1987). Dressler operateswith severalexplanatory principles (universals, typology' viii AN INTRODIICTION'I'O illlr St.UDy oF MORPHOLOGY PRBI,IMINARIIJS

system-dependency,paradigmatic structure andnaturalness). Thc relationshipbetween expressron RtsCOMMENDEDREADINGS andmeaning (Saussure's srgz tfant and signife) remainsthe main concem. In additron,Dressler cmphasizesthe role of linguistictypes Mass.: asmediating between nnivcrsal principles and language- Aronolf, Mark. 1993.Morphology by ltself. Stemsand InflexionalClasses. Cambridge, parttcularbehavior (universal principles ofnaturalness vs. system-dependcntnaturalness). one MIT Press. ofthe centralconocms is the natureand organization ofinflectional classes (thc .conlugations, Bauer,[,aurie. lgSS.lntrotlucingLinguistic Morphology.Edinburgh: Edinburgh [Jniversity Press. and 'declensions' ramiliarfrom the traditionardescriptions ofmany ranguages). Bybee, Joan 1985. Morphologltl 1 Sntlv- of the Relation Between Meaning und L'onn' Theinfluence ofthesc ideas changed thestudy offormal syntaxwhich in theeighties avoided Amsterdam:Benjantins. the treatmentof purely morphological phenomenaand focusedinstcad on the so-calletlinterf-ace Carstairs-McCarthy,Andrew. 1992.Current Morphology. [-ondon: Routlcdge' questionssuch as the rerationbetween 1987.Leitntotifs in morphorogyand syntax or that bctwcen morphorogy and Dresslcr,wolfgang lJ., w. Mayerthaler,o, Panagl& w. U. wurzel, eds. phonology.To follow this changcofmind onenray consult Jensen (1990), Spcncer (r99r), Natu rul M orp ho I ogy. Amslerdam: Benjamins. carstairs-Mccarthy(1992), Aronoff (r993). Aronoffs pragmatictitre, Morphorogy by ltserf, Flockett,Charles F. 1954."Two modelsof grammaticaldescription". Il/ord 10.210-231'. marksthc completetum-about in the York: Academtc attitudeof GenerativeGrammar towards morphology in that Ilooper,Joan B- 1976.An lntroductionto NuturalGenerative Phonology New the latter is now considerednot merery as an appendageof syntaxand phonology;rather the Press. author insists that linguistic theory must allow a separateand autonomousmorphological Jensen,J. 1990.Morphology. Amsterdam: Benjamins. component. Matthcws, Peter I{. 1974. Ivttorphotogr-'.An Introduction to the \'heoty oJ ll/ord-'ltructure Thereader ofthis manual might be surprisedby the wealthofdata included.Thrs has been Carnbridgc:Clambridge [Iniversity Press. doneon purpose,since I share Bybee'sconviction (1985) thal morphologicaluniversals cannot Robins. Robert H. 1959. "ln detbnseof WP". Transrtclionsof the Philological Sotietv be fruitfully investigatedunless we are willing to examineparallel areas of the grammarsol. 57.t 16 r44. tndividuallanguages. Morphology,ofcourse, represents the biggcstchallenge to universalists, Spencer,Anclrew. 1991.Morphotogical Theory:An Introdur:lionto Ilord Stntcturein Generative hypothesessince it is precisely herewhere languagesdiffer most.Thus an importantaspect ol any Gr ammar. Oxford:Blackwell. coursern morphologyshould be a practical and theoreticalexperience of analyzingphelorncna which arc foreign to English. previous knowledgeof the ranguagesto be discussedis not presupposed, but the ar.rthorhopes that this coursewill fosrerinterest in their sturly. Given the recent history ofmorphology, it is no surpriscthat thcre arc only a few textbooks rntroducinglinguistic morphology. The studiesquotcd above are not suitablcfor a secondor a third year universitycourse. Among earlierstudies Matthews' Morphology ( I 974) has the merit of having been uniquein pursuingword-based morphology independently of the generatrve concemsof thc sevcnties. More recently,Bauer (1988) attempted a synthesisin the light of the irflue.ce of NaturalMorphorogy on the field. Bauer'smonograph provides both the generar backgroundto a number of morphologicalstudies and variousdetails of severaltheoretical approaches. Neither Matthews(1974) nor Bauer (1988) containany cxerciscswhich are essentialto funherprogress in this field. CIIAPTER ONE TNTRODUCIION

l.l Language and its Units Fluman language is a particular kind of sign systenr which bridges two areas of the nonlinguisticuniverse: non-linguistic real (ol inraginccl)world, i.e. the things \,'e talk about, oll thc onc side, and physical speech souncisproduced by hunran specch organs, on the other. Put differently, languagc is a mechanism that connects meaning with sout-tcl. Various linguistic schools diffcr in the number oflanguage levels (subsystcnts) they posit. Even rhe number of units assignedby various linguistic schools to each linguistic level is f'arfi'om being agreedupon. Since the pulposc ofthis book is not to argue lbr any parttcular linguistic school. we ivill sinrply enutrreratear-rd brieliy charactcrizc thc col)ccltts which app.'ar rtl most I1uropcan and Anrerioan writings. Most linguists, no malter of what persuasion, rccognize thc followir-rg units: distinctive l'eatures, (allo)phgnes, phonemes, morphophonemes, (allo)morphs, morphemes, lexemes (words), (allo)semes and sememes. l'he first three may be callcd phonological units; nrorphs, morphemcs and lcxcrnes may bc called gramrnatical unils; sememes represent 'semological' or cotrirnonly scmalrllc unlts'

( l ) Language Levels (Subsystems) Units (i) phonology distinctive features,phones, phonetrres (ii) rnorphology morphs' motphemes (iii) lcxicology lcxcnres (iv) semantics('scmology') scnlemcs

The phoneme h3-sbeen defined as a faniily (class) ofsounds in a given langttagcthat functtort as one an{ to which the speakersreact as one sound. The nrembers ofthis class are (allo)phones, which occur in mutually exclusive phonetic enviromnenls, and which shat'ca1 leasl orrc phorrctic l'eaturc.Phonetic l'eaturesare building blocks ofphones (e.g., igl is a 'bundle' ofclosurc, velarity and voice). 1'wo phones are said to be in sontrast if they occupy analogous slots in two differcnt morphemes or lexemes, i.e., if they occur in paradigrnatic distribution, such as./ine vs. r'irle, On the other hand, this opposition docs not necessarilyhold on thc morphophonemic level, e.g., kttiJb vs. knive-s.Here the allomorphs /najfl - /najv/ bclong to the samc tnotphctne {naj lJ and the samc r,vajn} lexeme kntfe whereas /fajil and lt'ajn/ are two diffcrcnt morphcrncs {tajn} and and trvo held togcther by morpho- different lexentes fne and vine. Tht-ts allornorphs arc not only phonemes, implemented by phonemes, but thcy arc also linkcd 1o tltc samc scnrarttic ttnit: d sememc. Morphemes are the urriversalunits of granmratical analysis aud they are established on AN INI'RODTJCTION TO 1'HE S'I'TJDYOF MORPIIOLOGY INTITODUCI'tON

a semanticand distributional basis. For instance, MORPI,I,bMBI Sl-.Mlrlv{til go a'd,u,en (f areusually grouped together into one morpheme{go} becauseboth mean "go", and distributionallythey behavern exactlyrhc sameway as sreep andsrep-(t). However, SBMEIvltt VIORPIIIIMIi there is no regularmorphophonemic tie betweenthe formcr pair whereasthere is one in the latter casein the senscthat thcrc aremore exiunplesof the altemation/i/ - /t/ as in weep andwep-(t); consequently,rgor and/wen/ should not berongto the MOITPHEME2 SlrMlllvlli? samemorpheme {go}.Herc we witnessthat two differentmorphemes {go} a'd {wen} can representthe sa're sernanticunit. This fairly weil-known phenomenon,neglected by earlier ['ig. l.l Polymorphy and polysetny theoreticaltreatments of morphology, is calred suppretion or porymorphy. The opposite phenomenonis calledporysemy. Thcscphcnomena arc shownin Figurc 1.1. For instance,in English the morpheme (: /s/ - {s} /z/ - /cz/) reprcsentsthe 3.dpcrs Sg of verbs,and rhe M-S possessivcand plural on nouns. In Arabic the same discontinuous morpheme /var may '<: represerrtthe singularin kitab"book" andpl ural :>' in kilab..dogs"(singula r kalb). In otherwords, morphologyand senranticsare indcpendcnt oleach othereven ifthey werecolrapsed in many I'ig. f .2 Morphcrne and semetnc in llngurstlc slgn rntroductorytextbooks to linguistics. what is of particularintcrest in the studyof morphologyis thenature o1'the link-up between morpheme since I'rubctzkoy's and andsemerne in thc linguisticsign; it may be one to- The

relationshipis of a complementarynature, i.e., it is (ioncepl mislcadingand detrimentalto try to order themhiera'chically, or to over-inflate eitherthe entitatlve component (unit) or process (rule) component in linguisticdescriptions The study of phonoracticrules (constraints o' phonorogical Word sequences) ts a domainofphonology; thc studyofsyntactic rules (lexotactics or rules distribution goveming of wordsin sentences)is a clomainof syrtax. ln morphologywe will be dealingwith morphotactics' rures of word formation. Derivationar morphorogy (

1.3 Language and its Symbolic Aspect we may start this sectionby examiningonc of thc many problem-riddendelinitions of I'ig. 1.3 Serniotictriangle languagc(Wardhaugh 1972:3):

which holds between words (as units of linguistic rneaning) and things (i.e-. A language The rclatiolship is a systemot'arbitrary vocal svmbolsused lor humancommunicatron. their rcferents) is the relationship of reference. Linguistically, words can be viervcd as fbrms signilying concepts, extralinguistically (i.e., referentially) as linguistic signs rofcrritrg to' or In vicw of our discussionabove it is prcferabrcto view ranguagcas a .system (sub)systcrns' or: naming, cxtralinguistic things. (with 'levers'such as phonorogy, .r.he molphology,lexology, scmantics). statcs that it is arbitrary in that one signified definition above ln c.xplaining the nature ofthe sign, Saussurc makesno provisionfbr the societaland culturalaspects ofla'guagc. 1.heterm vocal in different lar-rguages,and almost all these signiliers were 'chosen' tn the will have dift-erentsignihers definitiono'cr-emphasizes the fact that the primary medrumof languageis sou'd antlthat arbitrarily. t,inguistic signs or symbols have to be leamed whct.t ouc acquircs onc's language, wnti'g is only a secondary representationof the p'mary speech. I_et us row examrnethc since they are based on a leamed convelltional relation; in most cascs, the narncs wc glvc to remainingtenn arbitrary symbols which brings us back 1o the saussureanconcept there arc two olher typcs oflinguistic linguistic of the things are conventional, not ofnatural origin. l{or.vever, sign.Accordi'g to Saussurcthe ringuislic sign is madeup of signifier andsignified: semiotics),narnely icons (literally 'Pictures') attd signe srgns (as delinetl by linguists working in - signifiant t signtfri. It may be remarked that thc Saussurcandir:hotomy contlnues lcons express mainly fbrmal, lactual similarity rcspcclable a indcxes which havc to bc defincd refercntially. traditionof semanticsstarling in Ancienl Greeccwith thc stoicsthat had an identical thcrc is physical rcscmblancc betrveen thc shapc ol- dichotomy between the mealilg a1d the form; in icons, olltoivov /sdmainod plus oqprcLv6pcvov/semainorneno.,, (orliroiver,v/sEmai'cir/ the sign and its ref'erent(here, the line between fomr and rcfcrent is solid rather than dottcd). "signify") l'hc basic assumptionhere is the word (i.e.,thebasic unit of syntaxand se'rantics) Onomatopoeic w.ordslike Dang,thump, roar, eIc.are examples frorn English for this phcnomcnon as a linguisticsign composed of two parts: rhe./brmo1-the word (signifier) and what is meant of clircctreprcsentational connection betwcen a word and somcthing in the 'real' rvorltl. As rs well (stgnified),or irs meanitrg(concept). It will bc shown in chapters of tlealing wjth inflectional known, all languagcsposscss highly iconic words by which speakerstry to inritate tlre sounds moryhologythat the form of a word mustbe 'fhe distinguishedfrom its inflected(.accittental,) contiguity between mcaning and lbrm. rvhich forms nature. lndexes express mainly factual, exislential the word assumeswhen it functionsi' the scntcncc.It must alsobc mentionedthat conccpts ofplacc and time such as herc - there' tcrminology this inrfexical featuresoflanguage includc rclational can be confusingsince the 'form' of a word (significr) .srgniry, could bc takcnto now - thetl, I -),ou - he, this - that.Tlteirrefcrcnce is rnultiple (c.g.,,t'c'rrcan theoretically rel'erto boththe'concept' (mental image) and the .thing, itself(refcrent). As is wcll_known,there elcmcnts in discoursc can disambiguatc thetr cxtensivc exists millions of addresses)and only othcr linguislic scholasticliterature bearing on therelationship ,concepts, ,things,, between and bur this all meanrng. is only of marginalinterest to hnguists.However, we haveto kecp in mi'd that the domain of linguistic r'cauing docs not incrutle the ref'erent.obviousry, we can dear with .things, thcnselvesonlybymeansof'conccpts',asexpressetlbythescholasticdictum 1.4 Iconic T-endency of Language vocessigni/icant Onomatopoeic worcls are only one subcategory of icons, those sometimes callecl images mediantibust:onceptibus "words signify by meansof conccpts,,. more Hencethe line betweenlbrm Linguists working in semiotics (1he slutly of signs and sign systems)distinguish two (signifier)and referent (thing) in the famous'scmiotic,trianglc reprocrucedin Figurer.3 is Diagrams arc characterized by a similaflty dotted. only subclasses, namcly diagrams and metaphors. pafts. A classical cxanlplc w between form and mcaning that is constitutcd by thc relations ofthcir AN TNTRODUCTION 1'O'IIIE SII]DY OF MORPHO]-OGY INT'RODlICTION

ofan icon ofrelation is proportionar anarogy.An infantircspeaker ofranguage slgn *brung who createsa new form (insteadof brought)compretes the folrowingaiagram 1o. p.opon,onl, ,,,N ,/l\ (4) utts bring rung ,/l\ X syrnbol index

Metaphor is thc semantictransf'er through a simrlarityof senscperccption and rs based perceptlon on a ofa fu'ctional resemblancebelween two objects.Its full discussronbelongs to semantics'Thus linguistic signs rnay be classilled antlhierarchizecl in thc manrershown rn l.rgurc lmage diagranr mctaPhor l'4' The insistenceof many linguistson the ico'ic tendencyof languagc(whereby semantic samenessts ref lected in formalsameness) may comeas a sulpnse10 many studentsof linguistics Fig. 1.4 Classification of linguistic signs who haveleamed about the arbitrariness of languagevs. the iconicity of ccftainsystcms o{'animal conrnunlcatlon'Linguists claim' for instance, (lerman thal a beetlance is icorric(rather-than arbitrary) (6) Greek Czech sinceit dircctlyfeprescnts its subjectmatler (i.e., Positive thereis a directconlection between the dance hupscl6s hoch /ho:x/ vysoki itselfandthe sourceofnectar in the number anddirection ofthe gyrations);on the otherhand, hupsel6tcroshcihcr /ho:er/ vy55i ComParattve it is assumedthat thereis almostnevcr any comcction Superlative betwccnlinguistic sign and ref-erent the hupselotatoshcichst/ho:xst/ nejvyS5i only counter-examplesbeing onomatopoeic .imagcs,). words (: Howcvcr,in morphologyit is "high" "high" "high" comparativelyv€ry easyto find iconiccorrelates betweenlinguistic signs and thcir ref.erents.For instance,in English, Latin and Arabic (3 - trutnot in syllablccounl (l - 2 - rhe positive,comparative and superrativedegrees of In Germanthe relatiorrship holds in soundcount - 4 5), adjectivesshow a gradualincrease its positive,but the in theirmorphological 'flesh' conespondingto the increase l); in Czechthe comparative is shoderbyboth syllable aud sound count than (or decrcasc)on the part oftheir referent,as shown in (5). superlativeis longerthan the comparative;and in Greekthe comparativeeurd superlative havc thc samenumber ofboth soundsand syllables(but both arelonger than the positive). (5) English Latin Arabic Anotherfrequcntly used example of iconicityis reduplication ol'the linguisticsign which high alt-us kabir posrtive indicatesmaterial increase on the part ofrclcrent. Thc subjeclof'reduplication is practically high-er alt-ior ?akbar Comparative inexhaustiblewith classicalexamples coming liorn languagcswlicrc this linguisticstrategy rs high-est alt-issimus ?al_?akbar Superlatrve grarnmaticallyless marginal than in English.For instauce,in Malay .)r(r,/?8nlcans "man" and '.deep, .,big, high" grear', or6ng-or(mgmeans "people"; here the multiplication on the semanticside has its counterpaftin thereduplication of thelinguistic sign. lt maybe saidthat this typeof pluralizationis moreiconic In I-atin the comparativeis longer in a varietyof languages than the positiveand the superlativeis longerthan the thanthe usualpluralization by meansof grammatioalmorphology found comparatlvenot only by soundcount wilh repetitive but arsoby syllablecount (2 - 3 - 4); in Englishboth such as ln6o-Europealor Semitic.l'hcrc are situationswhere we are dealing comparatlveand superlativehave the appropriatethan samenumber of syllablesbut the relationshipholds in actionson the referentialside; onc could say that nothing would be more soundcount (3 - 5 - 6) takingthe diphthong 'naturally'(i.e., iconically) astwo sounds.Also, the Arabicelative (Arabic does reduplicationon the linguisticsidc. Hencc "daily" is cxpressedmost not distinguishthe comparative Malay huri andsuperlative inflectionally; the superlativetakes the definite by reduplicatingin many languages,for instauce,Hebrew .yont-yon, Hindi tlin-din, article?al- while the comparalive doesnot) is rongeronly by soun.Icount than the positive. huri (cl. Englishdq, h1'duY). llowever' it is possibleto find languages on the scale whichshow less iconicity in this respcctor cvcn where It sceinsthat wc havcto assumethat various languages u'ould rank differently this relalionshipdoes not hold. Malay l11orelcol.ltc Grcek,Gcrman and czcch may bc usccito cxemplily thesctwo of iconicity.Latin provcdto be more iconicin comparisonthan czech, and possibilities,as illustrated (6). in in pluralizationthan English.Of course,to makean exhaustivestatemenl is next to impossible becauseit wouldmean contrasting the full systemicpotentials of tu'o languagesand linguists are :,rt0 still lar Ilom beingablc to do that.Neverthcless, thc conclusionofthis sr:ctionshould bc rather AN INTRODIJCTION TO TI{E STUDY OF MORPHOLOGY INl'RODtJCT]ON

srmple;earlier statcmcnts such as "any search RECOMMENDED RSADINCS ror ... iconicityin languagewilr reveallangr.ragc to be almostertirely noniconic"(wardhaugh r972:25)wilrnot standup to the cross_language evidence as indicatedabove. wardhaugh argued 1972. Semantik. Eine Einfiihrung in tlie sprachwisscnschaJiliche that..theEngrish number system proceeds as Lfrekle, I{erbefi F.. fbllows: one,hpo, three, ... ten ... thousand,and Fink. f.ur, so on, nolo,e, one_one,otte-otte_one, one_ B etleu tttn gs I ehrc. Miinchen : ot'e-one-one,..' eurdso on-Four is not four 1. C'amhridge: canrbridge ur-riversity Press times as rong as one". However, if we look at writing Lyons, John. lgJJ . Semuntics. Volume systemsof variouslanguages (add 'written' 1946. Thc Meuning o;f Meaning. 8il' Edition. l.ondotr: symbolsto the abovedefinitions of language),rt will Ogden, Cllarles K. & I. A. Richar

YryryYwtzJ4)9102030 w<

Fig. 1.5 Writing numeralsin Akkadiancuneiform

s l0 AN INTRODU(]1]ON'I'O f III] STI]DY OF ]VIORPHOI,OGY INTRODl,IC]TION ll

EXERCISIlS l)iscuss the paradigm ol'the vcrb "to go" in Latin, Spanishand Frcnch fi'onr thc poittt ofvicrv of polynrorphy (suppletion).polyscmy and allomorphy. Identily fir'sttlrc root, stcnl and Analyzcthc paradigmof the verb "to bc" in Latin,spanish ancr French pcrsonal su{Iixes where possible. French data havc to bc phoncnrioized. of polymorphy l'om the vicw.point (suppletion),polysemy and ailomorphy. lctenlily first the root, sremand personalsuffixes whcre possible. Frenchdata have to bephonemicized. Latrn Spanish French Present Sg I eo voy VAIS Latin Spanish French lndicatrvc 2 vas VAS Present Sg I sunl soy suis 3 it va va Indicative 2 es : crcs CS PI I lmus VAIr1OS allorrs 3 est :.. es est 2 Ius vals allez PI I SUInUS somos sommes 3 cunt van vont 2 estis sois 6tes Impcrlect Sg I lDalll rba allais 3 sunt son sont lndicativc 2 ibat ibas allais Present Sg I st l]'t s6a sois 3 ibat iba allait Subjunctive 2 sis SCAS SOIS PI I -!lbamus ibamos allions 3 sit sea soit 2 rbatis ibais allicz PI I siluus seinros soyolts 3 lbant ib:rlr allaicnl 2 sitls scdis soycz 3 sint sean solcnt

Analyze rhe paradigmof the ve.b "to be" in Sanskrit,Avestan (o1r persian),ana Farsi (ModemPersian) from rhepoint of view of porynrorphy(supplction) ancl alromorphy. Excrcisc As r' 1, idcntifyfirst theroot andpersonar sutrxcs. Note:The formsof the l",Sg and the 2''dPl Imperfectin Avestanarc not documcntctl.

Sanskrit Avestan Farsi Present Sg I ASlTlI 6hmi h:istan-r lndicative 2 isi nhi h6sri 3 6sti iistl hiist PI I smdh mdhi h6stim 2 sthA stii hristid 3 siinti hdnti hdstand Imperfect Sg I L-, asam ; DUOAtn Indicative 2 asrn ds Dl_ldl !, 3 asit as bld PI I asma ahna budim ! :1'-. 2 asla ')r DUUId 3 asan hon budand

.tfj rry GR,\NINIA'f I(]AI- U N I1'S l3

]'EX t I)iscourse Anall'sis

CHAPTER TWO GRAMMAT]CAL TINITS

2.1 The ll/ord Grammatical Analysis 2.1.1ldentiJication attd Definition This chapterwill phrase; and, finally, a frce without referenceto the notion of the il'ord. It is customaryto includeboth lexical decomposition lornr which is not a phrasc is a word. According to Bloomfield (1935:178). "a word is a free lorm of sentences into rvords,and morphological decornposrtron of wordsinto morphcmesunder the which docs not consisl entirely ol-(two or morc) lesserlrcc fbrms; in brief, a word is a ntininruur label of grammaticalanalysis The word is simply the umtpnr excelrenceofthe grammatrcal fi'ce fonn". All t[e units of thc ranks lowcr than w'ords (i.c., rnorphcmes and phortctnos) arc thcn analysisas a final point in syntax andas a startingpolnt ln morphology. bound since they never occur alone as sentenccs. Bloornficld hinrsclf was aw'arc of variotts The centrality of the co'cept of worcl wiil be even morc obvious ir.we think difllcultics connected with this definition. For instance. the arlicles the ancla, though rarcly grammatical of the analysisas the centrarringuistic activity flankedby discourseanalysrs (decompo_ spoken alone, play the sanle pan in the Ilnglish language as the lomrs f/ri.sand llirll, rrr4richfiecly srtronof texts into sentences),and phonologicar anarysis(deconrposition of morphemesinto occur as sentences.Hence the traditional olassiflcation of the artrr:lesas rvords. Bloomfield was phonemcsand words into syllables), asin Figure2.1. prcoccupicd rnore with words under their phonologrcal aspectthan their grammalrcal and lexical word thus appearsto be a unit intermediate in rank behveenthe sentenceand the morpheme. propcrtics. 'l'hcsc terms will bc discussed in thc ncxt scetion It is worthmentioning that this unit is recognized by the conventionsof variouswriting systerns (with some notableexceptions such as that of sanskrit). Furthermore,traditional grammatical lore 2.1.2 Phonological, Cranunaticul and I'e.rical tr4/onls dealswith word forms,not with morphemes. As rve saw,in the preceding section, thc tcnn lvord tumed out to be surprisingly problenralic Paying dueattention to all thethree aspects of different wordhood(i.e., phonologicar, grammaticar anci w.hen it came 10 its definition. We may wish to approach the r.vholeproblenr frorn a scmantic)wc may adopta'tra

and its orthographiccounterparr turites representa particular grammatical grammatical plural pastis actuallyquitc common categorlzed word which can be mobility betweenthe morphemesof the and as the third personsingular presentindicative. Needlcss (andmeaningful), as shown in (4). betweenphonologicar to say, the rerationship and grammaticalworas .l.he neednot be one-to_one. phonologicar /r'tn/ rcpresentstwo word different gramrnaticalwords: thepresent tenseof run antlthcpast partrciple (4) ah - yor lar - dl of run (i.e., two different inflectionalforms of thc lt represents the phonotogicarword /hrt/ take - PROGRESSIVE PLURAL - PAST three grammaricalwords (prus the ,^, "they weretaking" ";J"";;;r?;. 2.1 .3 Internal Cohesionof the Worrl or one of the characteristics of the word is that it tencrsto be interna'y morphemes stablc,r.c., that the constitutinga complexlexical item occurin a fixed order.The intemal ah - yor du lar thc word contrasts cohesionof with its positional mobitity in the frameworkof the sentence.For instance, take - PROGRESSIVE PAST PI,IJRAI- we may toprcalizcthe sentence "they weretaking"

(l) His carclessnesswas aslonishing For furtherdiscussion see 4.2. 1234

by 2.1.4 Phonological Correlqtions bcginningwith the complementastonishirtg: Phonologicalcriteria may be usedfor thc segmentationof'phonetic strings, since in many languagcsthe word is phonologicallynrarked in someway. Ofcourse,the useofphonological (2) Astonishingwas his carelessness critcriafor scgmentingthe phoneticstrings presupposes somc knowlcdgeof the phonological 4 31 2 systemof the examinedlanguage; on the otherhand, thc phonologicalanalysis of the language qucstion only aftera sulficientnumber of word andrnorphcme boundaries have Thepermutation in canadvance 4 3 1 2 yieldsan acceptableEnglish scntence.Howevcr, the threemorphemes been established.This fact demonstratesnicely the interdependenceof grammaticaland of carelessne'ss(care + less* nes.s)cannot be pemruted.similarly in Latin the scntcncc phonological in that linguistscannot hope to completefirst the grammaticalanalysis and words o1-three analyses may be permutedby topicarizationin at leastfour ways,as show' in (3). lhenmovc on to phonology,or viccvcrsa. the phoneticstrings in (3) Soveralkinds of'phonologicalevidcncc arc relcvantin segmenting Igniscamem coquct "Thc fire cooks the meat" rvords.For instance,a greatnumber of languageshavc thc so-calledword accent, which means I 123 thatmost words (with theexception of clitics,cf . 2.4) areaccented on oneand only one syllablc : Ignis coquet canlem (theaccent rnay be ofdynamic or melodicnature). In Frenchthe accentcan fall only ou thc last I 13z pronouncedsyllable of a word (with thc cxceptionof the reducedschwa [el); knowing this one Camem ignis coquet may concludethat there is a word boundarysomewhere before the next unaccentedvowel. 213 Analyzing czech data,where the accentfalls on the initial syllableof the word, it may be Clamem coquet ignis thatthe following phoneticstring contains at leastfour words: 231 assumed

i{owever' (5) J6nrideiilpsAkLickem. the two morphe'resof eitherthe nouns ignis andcctrnent or rhe vcrbcoquetcannot "Johnhit the dog with the stick" permuted(*rsrgz *etcoqu be or are impossibre).It appears that the positiomarmobility of meaningfur elementsis found at the level ofphrase(and sentence),whereas the lower level ofword where the accentis fixed with referenceto the the shows A more complicatedsituation arises in languages intemal positionalmobility only exceptionatty. no, lnstance,in the sequence or the penultimatesyllable. For instance,itr inflectional of several end of the word by the lengthor weight of the iasl suffixcsvariations sometimes may occur. In Turkishthe phenomenon of.positional Ancient Greekthe accentcannot fall on thc antcpenultimatesyllable if the ultima containsa long t6 AN INIRODUCI]ON TO THE STUDY OF MORPIIOLOGY GRAMMA'IICAL UNTI'S T7

vowcr; in Latin, on the other hand,the antepcnultimatesyilabre penultimate can be accentcdprovidcd the (1) Thc+boy+s l toss I ed+Mary+s+hat+ovcr+the l il:nce. syllableis light (i.e.,open and containin beassumed Latindata it mav thatthe rorowing phoneric ,,.i"s .or,:;r'::il:lfll#lvzing The level ofworrl is by-passcd and we reach the level ofsentence directly fiorn thc levcl ol' in this sentenceconsist of only one morphetls (6) Amikushipurnnekivit morpheme. Despite tl-refact that some words ws ..The have to introduce word boundaries (#) to avoid the confusing of the lexical and granlmatical friendkilled the wolf, morphcmes.

It may bc ofinterestto considerorthographical conelatesofthe phonologicaicriteria (8) I s#toss r ed#Mary+s#hat#over#the#feuce' somcwriting systems si'ce lhc#boy employgraphemes which display differentficrms for inirrar,medial and final position in thc word. For insrance, in BibricalHebrew the fricativcs gl occur fij v o x f .o not 2.2.2 Segntentctbilitv of W'orLls lnitialry unressthe prccedingword endsin a vower and thesetwo into slnallcr nlcanlngful clcnrclrts connecrion, words arc in closc It is important 1orealize that r.r'hethera w,ordcan be dividcd b:J ztaB"tr r,,t ..in ".g. b; f: ,,tellapev Babel,,ana b::;:t ..and from a number of flective Iatrguagcs in Baber"; ',Bibel; /ulJepapeu is only a matter of degree. Of course, typical examples arc the plosivesin initial positionur.,noi.ut"o 0",n.0",,ii"ai;:iJ" rhe refter.

lntuitively,however, we feerthat thesetwo strategies(acrding thc seg'rentsand repracingone (13) hat man goose segmentby another)are sufficicntly distincttojustify the introductionofthe hats men geese versusinternar terms€xternal inflection. Extemarinflection .onrirt, of addingsegments whercas inr.ernal inflectionis rcarizetrthrough the modification ofthe phonologicalshape by walk \4'nte llnd lnternal replacingonc or.thc segmentsby anotherone.In English thereare examples of both extemal walked wrotc found inflectiorr and internal taking placein one word: child - children (where/ajl is rcplaccdby /r/ anrJ added)and rranl ts keep- kept (wherc /i/ is replaceclhy /t/ and/t/ is added).To dcmo.stratc that intemal Clearly.in theseequations we nrayreplace thc lexemesby arbitrarysyntbols (using capital inflectionmay be ce'tral to thc norninal andverbar sub-systems we may look at letters)and the exponentsof the grarnmaticalmeaning (number, tense) by anothersct of arbitraty distinguishes Arabrc,which abouttwenty productive patterns ofinternal inflection.For insta'ce,the plural of symbols(using small letters): kittib "book" is kutub,iabar '1nountain".p6al ..vulture,,, ,asr rtusur,ctc. The repracivc in processes Arabic arc more complicatedthan in English, as canbe seen.Indccd, it is nccessary (14) Ax Bx about to talk _ C-x theconsonantar root ('trilitteral')into which variousvocaric patterns areinterdisitatcd: Ay Bv cv

(ll) roor K T B itsL NS Rm S- Pm : srngular i a aa a@ Pn Rn Sn plural u u ua ln (14), each word is analyzedinto two components its lcxical and its granrmatical T'hereplacivc proccsscs in the verbalsystem are equaily compre x, e.g.,k.ttha ,,he : y, present= m, past: n). All the nounson the top line of thc "rt rvrore,,,kuttba meaning(singular - x, plural waswritlcn", .)nktubu.,hc writcs", ,,itis ,yakf abu written,,: equationhave the component x (singular),on thebottom line y (plural);all the verbson the top havethe componentm (present),and on the bottornn (past).Thus it can be maintainetl,as Lyons (12) KTB YK.rB (1968:183)puts it, that"the morphemeis not a segnlenlof the word at all ... but merelyits pastactlve a a presentactlve a u 'factorialfunction"'. What is dislributedin theword aresememes rather than motphemes, or, tts Pastpassive u i presentpassive u u lexical and grarnmaticalmeaning. It is only when the lexical and grammaticalmeanlng are (-a rn lcatub-aand _u in yaktuD_lz are suffixes). matchablewith distinctsegments, i.e., whcn thc rvordis segmcntableinto partsthat thcsccan bc referred to as morphs. The word wrote, wltich camot be segmentcdinto 1wo morphs, slill Finally'it is possibleto find so-callcdsuppletive wordswhich arcindctcn.ninatc with respect represenlsthe cornbinationof two sememes:write (Iexical meaning)* Past (gran-rmatical tosegrnentation:govs.went,bacrvs.worse,Frenchal/"eye"vs. yeux,Elerbertit,.eye,,vs.arn. mcaning).on the otherhand, the word walketlis segntentableinto two morphsu'alk + ed and, undoubtedly' standsin the samegrammaticar 'vel,/ relationshipto go as walkedis to tuark,bur of coursc,these arc cxponentsol'two sememes:wait (lexicalmeaning) 'l- Past(grammattcal wbereas thereis phonologicalresemblance between the menrbersof the latterpair thereis none rneaning).It will bc arguedcorrcctly that thc morph/ti occurringinw'ulketl (oridl occLrrringin whateverbetweenwentandgo.Similarexamprescourdbeprovided trom any lungr"g.. Students begget{)are indicative ofthe phonicsubstancc ofthe morpheme{d}. ilorvever,we shouldavoid of Greekwill bereminded of their difficurties with reamingthe heavirysupplerive morphoiogy segn-rentingwrote inthis manner:write + ed, sincehere thc grammaticalmeaning of thepast is of theaorist (for instance,dripon "u eft" stands in the samegrammatical rerationship ro teipo,,I explessedby theprocess ofreplacing /ajl with /ow/ (seefurlher discussion in 8.2);see Figure 2.2. lcave"as eidon "l saw"to horo,,I se€,). we have1o concrucle that in manylanguagcs trereare words which cannot be segmcntcdlnto 2.2.3Allontorphs parts andthat the morpheme does no1 always have 1obe an idcntifiablcsegmcnt of thc word.Still, In the precedingsection we noticedthat the regularpast tense morpheme Id I can be realized wc would maintain that ail the above unsegmentable words enter into a proposrtronof differentallomorphs lIl andldl in two differentcontexts: the lonner after voiceless grammatical by two equivalencewith the segtnentablewords; consonantsand /d/ eisewhere.If we examined further examples(such as petted, paddedl we would discoverthat thereis a third allomorph/ed/ occurring afterlt/ andld/. This is summanzed in (ls). 20 AN INTRODLjCTION TO tlili S.l.tit)y Or, MORpt{Or.OGy GRAMMA-fICAI, IINITS ll

Semantics Pasl lexicaffy, in thc scnsethat the word o-rsclccts the pluralizing morphenre{ n } and the word,tlatunt kecpstl-re Latin pluralizingmorpheme -a /c/. Seethe more detaileddiscussion in 8.2.

2.3 Analysis into Roots, Stems and Affarcs Morphology Morphologicalprocess Suppletion lnlleclionaland derivatioual rnorphemcs (c1. 4.1 ) aretraditionally classified by therrpositirrn with rcgardto the root (or the base).ll they precedethe root they arecallcd prefixes; i1-they follow the root suffixes;and if they are placcd insidcthe root infixes. In the word ccls, for irrstancc,rzt is the root and -.sis an inflectional suffix. ln the word careless,care isthe root (or Phonology /t/ ^'/d/ /ad/ - Replacing/aj/ with low/ went thedcrivational base) arrd ie.s.sis a derivationalsuffix. SinccEnglish does not haveinflectional prefixes,wc may look at Arabic where in yaktubu "he r.vrites",!,1r- is an inllcctional prefix Fig.2.2 Morphological unitsand proccsses (meaning3"jperson), KTuB is theroot (notc that the root in Arabicis a discontinuousmotphenre;, md -a is an inflectionalsuffix (rncaningsingular and indicative). In the word hemoun,nroatr is (15) (i) /edi after/t/, /d/ theroot (or thederivational base) and be- is a dcrivationalprefix. To exemplifyinfixes we may (ii) /tl aftet voicelessconsonants other than ztl look a1Latin or Arabic. For instance,in Latin the morphemc-n- whic,happears in the prcsent (iii) /d/ elsewhere Iango"l touch" is an infix; noticethat the perfectofthe sameverb teligt"l havetouched" docs not show it.'Ihe root is then said to be discontinuoustd-lr-g. In Arabic the infir -/- derives It is customary to call thesethree altemat'ive representations of the sarncmorphcme alomorphs. reflexive r:r passivcfonns from the transitiveverbs: Fa[{iM "understand"vs. li]F-t-uHa}l:l For instance,the rcgularpast tense morpheme in Engrish,which may be referred "comprehend".The rootF-HM is againdiscontinuous: Ft-al{aM. 'lnterdigitated'vocalic pattenrs regularly to as {d}, is representedby threeallomorphs /ad/, it/ and/d/ . lt is important to realizethat all these in Arabic roots are sometimescalled transfixes (doublc or triple infixes):s'afiR "poet" vs. threeallomorphs arephonologically conditioned, which simplymeans that the selectionof one Jal'aRa?"poets". Another tlpc of a doublcaffix is callcdcircumfix; lor iustancein Ilerberthe of them is determi'ed by the phonological shapeof the precedingsegment: the / I (prefix and suffix added sirnultaneously)derives fcmininc nouns lrom their consonant voiceless circumfix selects/t/, the voiced one/dl, and in thc caseofthe homorganic/t/ and/d/at andakttl "ffiend" t t-amdakull "friend (Fem)". A lessfitting exat'nple the the end masculinecounterparts. third allomorph/e

(CRAMMAI t( AI 1 WORD

Inflectional IJerirarional I irOof I Dcrirational Inflectional Prefix Prcfix Strffix Sullix STEM STEM

./\ ./\ (CRAMNI41l('AL) WORt) ,/\ ROOT Thematrc Inflectional Vowel Sulfix Itig. 2.5 Inflectional and derivational allixcs Iaud- _a -mus Derivational affixes have the potcntial lo change the membership in the group of primary ['ig. 2.3 Grammatical word in Latin grammatical categories (seeunder 5.1 and 6.1). For instance,the addrtion ofthe denvational sufllx -ic 16rthe noun denocrat results in an adjcctive; the addition ofthe derivational suffix -ize (GRAMMATICAL) WORD rcsulls in a yerb. On the other hand, the verb democratize it-tflcctcdlor the past tense remains a verb, or an adjcctive inflecteclfor gender, number and caseto agreewith its hcad noun (in l-atin) rcmains an adjcctive. The distinction bctween inflcclion and derivation may be blurred in some cascs.For instatrce, STEM the nasal infix ofLatin ntentroncd above is a dcrivational rather than inflectional affix even ifit I I sewes to mark thc seconilary grantmatical catcgory ol aspecl (i.e., its presence does not change a-I the grammatical class both thc prescnl lango "l touch" and tho perfect laligt- "1 have touched" are only grammatical forms of the satnc vcrb). Pcrhaps thc bcst wc can do is 1o recall the traditional grammatical theory according to which inflection was colrsidet'edto bc any ctrangc made in the lbrm of a word to express its relation to other words in the sentellce.Hence all the Inllectional Derivational ROOT grammars of flcctivc languagcs inclu

a universaltendency lor derivationalaffixes (prefixes and suffixes)to occurcloser to the root than inflectional alfixes (prefixes and suffixes); 2.4 Clitics derivationalelements tend to be centrar and poinl mention must be made of certain word classes (parts of speech) which infleclionalelements peripheral. The root At this a anclderivational affixes (ifany) constitutethe stem, and are vierved as lalling belween full-fledged words and grammatical af fixes. They are the infleclional affixes are prefixetl or suffixed traditionally to it (see the discussionin 4.2 for some controversial refcrrctl to by the ternr clitics or grammatical words (not to be confused rvith grammatical words examplcs).Figure 2.5 visualizesthis. words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs) carry lexical At this point we have to distinguish discusscd in2.1.2). Futl-Iiedgcd more clcarly betweeninflectional and derivational is of symbolic nature; on thc othsr hand, adpositions affixes l'flectional afrrxcsare those acceut and their lcxical meaning that mark secondarygrammaticar categories:gendcr, postpositions), articlcs, particles and pronouns do not (usually) carry acccnt and numbcr'case rvith nou's (cf 5.2), andperson, (prepositions and tcnse,aspect, mood, voice with verbs(cr. 6.3). mcaning is of indexical naturc (cf. i.3). Definingncgativcly, it may be saidthat derivational tlieir lcxical affixesare those thal arenon-inflectional. 'lean' The absenccofthcir own lexical accent makes them clitics in that they have to against flrll-fledged wonis (lrom Ancient Greek 6yrcl,r,v6psvo /cnklm6lnena/ "(words) leaning against") )A AN INTRODTJCTION TO THE S1'IIDY OII MORPHOLOGY GRAMN4AT'ICAL TJNI'I'S 25

-ror lnstance,the definite article in Engrishis a proclitic the:md, whilc its counterparl (r) a sct ol'morphemes Rumanianis an encliticont:ul lJponcloser in examinalionwe may morc 'word-like' classifythe Engrisharticle as (ii) a scl of pht-rnemes thanthe Rumanian one, becausc of its abirityto be separatedfrom (iii) a relation ofscqucnce. an adjcctive:the gootr its noun by man;in Rumanian,the articre behavesalmost as a suffix in attachedto the noun beingalways or the adjective(both phonorogicalry 'l'his and orthographically1: morlel is successful in thc description agghrtinative polysynthetic biln-ul om' om_urbun _ of and languages other languagesmay repeatthe article in the noun phrasc,e.g. whcre phenomena (see ha-?ti hat-tofi tsiblical Hebrew the of suppletion and discontinuity under 2.5.2) are rlon-existent, or are or Ancient Greek io anir ho agatho.s(bu1 arsoho agathdsanEr) only vcry marginal. For instance, Cree vcrba.l fonns niwdltanlau, "l see him" and niv,clpumik" he Typical exampresof clitics are shortpronominal forms as in Ancient "you" GreeKmoi..me,,and seesmc" w'ould be analyzed as follows: 'ror (vs fuil form emoi "to mc" andsr.ti,.to you,); conrrastdo.s moi..give "gimme(it)" me (it),,or with dosX emoi"give X to me,,; similarly,,riskei moi,lit. it preases ..r (16) + I + "l vs. emoi me like it,, ni wAp afil aw scs him" ariskei,lit. it pleasesME (not someone else)..1(e'rphasized) tike it,,. ISG see 3SG I r3 Their intcmrediatesratus bctween {''lr words and affixes is arsoreflected conventions in varying spe'ing of variouslanguages; for instance,French hyphenates pronominal I + + "lle imperative clitics in the ni wtp aln ik sccs me" dorrnez-nous-la"give hcr to us" whereas Spanishspells them together S€C 3 (-il damelo *da wrth their verb ISC 3SG 3 I - invcrsion marker) "give rne it" (not me ro).However, both Frenchand Spanishspelr their cliticsas full pronominai wordsin preverbalposition:je Ie vois andr. veo,.rsechim,,, respcclivery. In this model morphemcs and sememcs are paired in an exhauslive one-to-one conesporl- otherhand' Semitic languages on the spelltheir pronominarclitics alwaysas clitics.The sameis true dence. ln the past this model was overuscd to thc detrirncnl ol-the useful distinction between ofthe conjunction"and" emdvarious prepositions whichare always spelled as proclitics word phrasc/clause/sentence.If transl'erredfrom and Hebrew in Arabic morphological and syntactic structure, i.c. vs. on the Indo-Europeansi<'e, in Latin the con;unctionque,,and,,is polysynthetic to that oll'lcclive languages,one enclitic spered as an the analysisol'thc agglutinativeand languagcs (c'g przler malerque"father and mother') but not the olher copurativ played granunatical thcorics. In et e conJunctjon..pater may become oblivious of a crucial role by thc rvord in nrost mater' In the samc language,thc postposition cum.,with,, is speiled * boundary and # pronouns: as an encriticwith practical terms, one has to operate with two types ofboundaries: urorpheme mEcunt"with me" but as a fut word with nouns:cum prtre..with the word boundary, in thc analysis ol-inflecting languages. Contrast To express the intermediatestatus of cliricsbetween 'ather,,. fu, wordsand affixesit rs customary to place the equalionsign (-) between the word and the clitic, e.g. lhe:man;morpheme + + + boundary (17) Cree: ni wap arn ik Polysynth.-tic is specifiedby +; and word boundary by #, e.g.the .gootl#friend+s. Iir-rglish: he#see+s#me Inflecting accentualproperlies As far as the of clitics eurrlaffixes are concemed,it is usuallycraimed that, words' they unlike full do'ot possessany acccnt.ofcourse, thereare a, sortsofcounter-exampres It woufd be wrong to analyze English * he 1 .see+ s t me. Ancient Greek (e.g. logos:tls "a certainword" vs. Iogoi:tines,,certain praise" words,,; Lattntaud+o,,1 but laud-a+mus:Ancient Greekpaideu+ads,.educated,,; etc.) But, on Parudigm Model abovestatement the wholc, the 2.5.2 l4/onl anrl may be usedas a first approximation ur their idenlification. l'he Word and Paradigm Model is a hierarchical (vcrtical) rnodcl r.vhichasstgns a contral role to thc word as wcll as to rts constitutive elsmcnts (rnorphcmcs). l his ntodcl is succcssful itt 2.5 Basic Approaches to Morphologt (flcctive) introflccting .languagcsn'hcrc thc phcnomena of Therc the dcscription of inflccting and arc thrce basicapproaches to morphology: Item and Arrangement morphemes. Examine the following and Paradigm Moder (IA), word infixatiol and transfixation create so-called discontinuous Model (Wp), antl Item and process (Ip). Model set ofdata llom l,atin:

2.5.1lten and ArrangementModel (I8) rumpo "l break" rupi "l have broken" The ltem and Arrangement Moder is a purely rinearmoder seeksto split "I leave" reliqui "i havc lefi" (morespecificarry, 'r,hich eachword relinquo eachphonological form of u *o.d; in,o a numberof indepcndentry "l "l poured" segments(morphemes). functioning tundo pour" fudi have This modeloperates with 26 AN INTRODUCTION .TO'I HE S IlII)Y OF MoRPIIOT,OGY GRAM]\,IA'IICAL TINI'fS 21

In the left column all the forms haveone thirrg in corlnlon vis-ii-vis their counterparts The transfixcd (interdigitated)grammatical nrorphemer-n is discontinuous,and so is thc column:they display ur ,re right a nasarinfix beforethe finar consonant of the root. contrastru * 111_ lexical cot.tsonanlalroot K I-B). J'o come up with its grammatical analysis onc has to apply the with rup etc. However,ro p acknowledgerhe fact,h" ;;"-r.';;;:;,_,: :::::1: juxlapose, sequencing(sorar rhe rA modcr) WI'model, i.e. otre has to or superimposc,thc singular and plural fonns. The solution isnor enough. n,'.n"lT##:l;ffJffi:j:il:,J is that I 17marks singular in "book" and "donkey" but plural in "mountain"; ltencc thc nced to be done by contrasting the forms in thc left and right corumns.The conclusionbased classify Arabic nouns into declensionalparadigms (cf.2.2.2). examrnationof English glosses on the would be that the nasarinfix marks express non-perfectrbrms or, to rt in negativeterms, its absence marks perfcctforms. rhis is 2.5.3 ltem und Pro

Morphologicar irreguraritiesof inflectingranguages arecaptured by allocati'g fbmrswith similar irregularitiesto diffr perfectbyarraching,n",;T::;:',T;"1:::ilffitri::J:::rr::r;:,1;'HT,T; fonns thc pcrfcct by the suffix -s bcrongs to conjulation III. The verbs which by form their perf.ect removingthe nasalinfix from the root (t"-tig-7 *ulpartial recluplicationand vocaric belong change) alsoto conjugationIIr. rn the lastexamprc, however,there is no resemblancewhatever betweentherootfer- and its counterparl rnthepertect, tul_. Transfixation found in introflecting ranguagessuch as Arabic splits not nomrnal only the verbaror root but alsocreates discontinuous grammatical morprremes.Examine the following of Arabicplural set forms wrth their lexicalroots capitalizecl:

(21) .,book" KiTats KuTuB "books" jaBaL ..mountain" iiSaL '.mountains', .,donkey" HiMaR HaMiR "donkeys" 28 AN II{TRODUCIION I'O TI{E S'fIJT)Y OIi MORPIIOI-OGY GRAX,I.VIA]'ICAI- { INTIS 29

RECOMMENDED READINGS EXERCISES Bloomfield' Leonard'1935. Ltmguage. London: Allen andUnwin. (Revisedeairion.) (A) i 3-16). (chapters tdcntificationoIwords Fromkin, Victoria & RobcrrRodrnan. rg74. An Introduction to Language.New york: Holt, L Latin is a language that pemrits many varialions in *'ord order. Positional rnobility is Rinehanand Winsron. Gfeason, therelorc highly relevant to the location of word boundaries in Latin sentences. Usc the Henry A. 196r. An Introduction to Descriptive Linguistics.New york: Ilort, Rinehart accentualcriteria discussedin 2.1.4 in isolating giving and Winsron.(Revised thc words in the sentencesbelou, antl Edition.)(Chapters 5 and 6). thcil grarrrrnaticalmeanings. Harris,Zelig s. l95 r . Methodsin structurar Linguistics.chicago: tJniversityor- press. Hockclt, chrcago charles F. 195g.A course in Modern Lingursrlcs. york: Ncw l.he Macmillan company. (1) R€ginam6gnaf6minaer6samdcdit. (Chaprers14, 15, tg, 2O). Klavans, "The great queen gave a rose lo the woman". Judy l985. "The independcnccofsynlax ,. anclphonology in cliticization, Language ^ ,,: ,,,. : : , 61.95 120. \l ) l.cmr nacded l Lr()samregrnamagnu. "'l hc grcat queen gave a rose to the *'oman". Kr6mskll',Jiii. 1969 The Word as a Linguistic Llnit. TheHague:Mouton. ;,.- Lyons' John (l) PatcrsdpiIrrsfilioupistulammisit. 1968'Introduction to TheoreticalLittguistics. cambridge: carnbridge univcrsity "The wise fathcr sent a lelter to the son". Press.(Sections 3.2 and 5.3). Nida, Eugene (4) ISpistulamsiipi€nsp6temrisitfilio. A. 1949.Morphologv-: A DescriptiveAnalysis of llords. 2"dlldirion. Ann Arbor, "'fhe wise fathcr sent a letter to the sou". Mich.: Universityof Michiganlrress. (5) Mignusrexglitliumliliodedil. "The great king gave a sword to the son". . ,,:,.-: : -- (o) f lltomlsrteprstulSmrexsaplcns. "'l hc rvisc king sent a letter to the son". :. , (7) Clidiurrrrrrrlcsnrdgnusrfgldcdit. "'fhe greatsoldier gave a swordto the krng".

- *1 ( 8) Rcxsipii nsmagrtaeregtnlerosamded it. "The n'ise king gave a rose to the grcat qucen". (9) Sapientipiitnepistulamfiliusmisit. "l'he son senl a letter to the wise l-alher". ( 10 ) M 6gnareginarcgisapi6ntiglddiurndcdit. "The great queen gave a srvord to thc wrsc kilrg".

2. Isolate the following words in the Russian selltcnccs below and state their tneaniug. Your analysis should assign every phonological segrnent in Russian to a certain Finglish word. There should be no residues.

(a) hcrc (d) molhcr tgl was u) siek (b) liiend (") lather (h) lny (c, dog (0 nill come (1, tonlorTow 30 AN INTRODT,ICTION I'O I Hf] S I'I ]I)I' 0II MoRPHOI-(X;Y GRAMN4A'I'I(]AI- I INI'I'S 3l

(1) bylzdesrdnig "(A) friendwas here". Turkish (2) s.,rbdkebylibr!n6 "(The) dog wassick". ( I ) Ankara ve Izmire gidcccgirn (3) drLigblitb6len "(The) friendwas sick',. (lit) (4) Ankara+NOM and- lzmir+DAT go+PROGR+l SG sablkabyl6zd6si "(The) dog rvasherc". "l am going to Ankaraaud lzrnir". (5) m6jnterspridr6rzdftre "My fbtherwill conretomorrow,,. (6) rn,rj6m6trb,rFn6. "My motheris sick',. (2) uzun yol uzun yollar (1) zdftrcpridi6tm^j6m6rr "My motherwill cometomotrow,, (lit) long road long roads (8) m6j.rt6tsbolrcn "My fatheris sick',. "the long road" "the long roads"

3. Isolatethe wordsin the fotowi'g crzechsentences and statc t.cir mcanings.your Lctlin should analysis assigncvery phonorogicar segment ofevery sentenceto sonleworci. (3) Ancyram Smymam-que c(] no residues. Theres'ourd be (lil) Ankara+ACC lzmirl ACC - antl go* I SG "I am goingto Ankaraand lzmir". I.

(4) via longa viae longac (4, here (d) sick "thc long road" "the long roads (b) man (e) was (c) cat (B) Idcntification of morphemes and mo4rhological proccsscs

(l) biltuil6vrek "(A) man was here". ofSrvahli (and Bantu languagesin gcrteral) is thc cxtstencc (2) Onc ofthe characteristicfeaturcs koikabilancmocn6 "(The) cat was sick". of noun classcs.'l'herc are specilic singular and plural prefircs that occur lvilh lhe llor.lllslll (3) dl6vjekbilndmoccn "(l'he) man was sick". each class. ln thc tbllowing scntcnccs, two ofthese classesarc included: (4) bilatuk6ika "(The) cat was here,'.

(1) mtoto amefika "The clrild has arivcd". Il. (2) vitabu vitaanguka "The books will fall". (3) mtu amclala "'Ihe personhas slept" (a) tomorrow (d) father (1) "The knives will fall". (b) visu vitaanguka morhcr (c) IS (5) nrtoto anafika "'I he child is arriving". (c.) t'lty ( fl sick (6) vikapu vinaanguka "1'hc baskcts arc falling". (7) visu vir-neauguka "The knivcs have fallen" ( I ) muj6tecpiijdezitra "l\{y father will come tonlorrow". wamelala "The people have slept". (2) (8) watu mojemiitkajen6mocna "My mother is sick". (9) watoto watafika "The cirildren will anivc". (3) zitrapiij

(b) consrrucred? Thatis, whar kinds of nrorplie'es (10) "shepherd" l"J;lffi, arcsrrung togerher ard role ro)lm (l 1) yaroq "green" ycruqqrm (c) I{ow.rvould you say in Swahili: (12) maSiah "Mcsiah" maSihin-r ( l3) Sade "field" SAdo0 ( l3) tne men are falling. (la) bdyi0 "house" ( batim l4) T.hebooks have anrved. .fhe (1s) "prophe1" nJlJl lrnr (15) napi children will sleep. (l6) maqdm "place" mcqr)nr60 (16) T'hc baskct will t-all (I7) susa "mare" siiso0 ( I 8) mirveO "death" moOirn 6' Dcscribe the morphological proccss lountl in the followirg data lrom c.lassicarArabic. (19) fes "tree" \ eslm to specily its meaning(s). Try (20) safe "lip" Sal()U'-^ "bear" ( ..he (21) dop dubbinr 1) kataba wrote,, ,.he kattaba dictate<.I,, "physician" (2) .,he (22) rolE rofc?rm iarLrfa was noble,, ..he iarrafa hotror.ed,, ,.he (23) rap "many" rabbrrr (3) fahima undcrstood,, ..he lahhama explainecl,, 'Justicc" (4) .,he (24) sedaqa sadaqo0 kabura w,asold,, ..he kabbara magnifiecl,, "cnemy" (5) ,.he (25) ?oyep ?oyeBim Sakka was doublfuj,, ..hc Sakkaka filletl him (6) ..he rvith doubr,, (26) laFena "brick" leBdnim lazza was strong,, ..hc lazzaza roinlbrce

(4e)?issa "woman.. naSiln (50) yona "pigcorr.. yoninr (51) kite0 "dog" kalapim (52) besa "egg" bEsirn CHAPTER'THREII (53) fipparon "pencil" fefrono0 PARAI)IGMATICAND SYNTACMATIC RELA'fIONS (s4) baO "daughter" bano0 (55) ben "son,, banim (56) iahor "black" Sehrtnm 3.1 The Notion of Distribution (57) ?i "island" ?iyyim Every linguistic unit (i.e., phoneme,nroryrheure, lexcrnc arrd to a certuiu degreeererr (s8) ?adom .,red ?edLrmmrm sentence)has a characteristicdistribution. 'l'hereare basically ibur typcso1'distributron: (59) ?dres "earth" ?arasoO (60) IaBen ,.white.' lcl3anrm (i) Distribulionalequivalence (ii) Clomplementarydistribution (C) Definirions (iii) Distribulionalinclusion (iu) Overlappingdistribution 8. Definc and cxcmplify the following morphological processcs: Two units are said to be distributionally equivalent if thcy occur in thc sanrerange ol- (a) vorvclchange (e) tonalmodification do not havc any contextsirt cotnmonthcy are saidto bc in (b) (i) strcss change contcxts;on thc otherhand, ifthey interfixarion (0 subtraction complementarydistribution. These two temrscover thc {amiliardistinction bctwccn photrctttcs, (c) suppletion 0) infixation (g) partialrcduplication morphcmcsand semcmes (contrastive units) on the onesicle, and allophones, allomorphs and (d) transfixation (k) conrplete (h) circumfixation reduplication alloscmes(complementary units) on theother. Examplcs of totaldistnbulionai equtvalence can ,/bisccm to be distributionally 9. be foundmost casily in phonology.For instance,phonemes /p/ and Dcfine andcxemplify the ibllowing terms: equivalentas a glanceat lhe lollowing rangeofcontcxts niay dclllollstratc: (a) sirnpleroot (d) dcrivationalstem (l) lnitialPosition FinalPosition (b) complexroot (c) inflcctionalstcm - (c) pin - bin lope lobe inflectionalprefix (0 thematicvowel pic - buy rip - rib pain sip sib l0' The - banc - morphemehas been define

contexts of x contcxts ol y Hsncesome linguists . mightbe inclincdto contexls ol'x and y labeirabelphonemes /h/ andt4/as it can easilyo" rr,oiun subphonemes.Bur distributionarytir,'":;;,ill1":Jo suchas/p/ una,hr *",;,::l iijl,[i.liiTi:ff:"-**'.":.uto u,,, obviousrv, o,,!,o'o matchreap or .n u"..n"rr,,,1!1t.i:;: distributional,"""::'-l analysis wouldbe a tediousur.in*, a certain point ir *o-e ,lo it seemsthat at Fig. 3.2 Overlappingdistribution fi:r;:,il:::'l?::il:: ":i:;::;':::: n:",;,i::",H contexts,lbr instarcc,in rcportingthe cvcntsfiom somebodyelse's point of view. Contrastthe :t,,, wherei we :m ffi ;ffiiii.; ili aredealing with " ;rr :: hundredsand thousands Betweenthese two of units. following minimal pair of sentcnces: of distributionalequivalencc we must

#.T:i:i:*l;, r*;fmi:: t ; -l Roma xm phonotactics ;:;;t:': phonology) *:j;T;# (synlagmatics andmorphotactics at the levelof (syntagmaticsat tltlre rvithpattems level of morphologv).phonoracrrcs -o paradigmatics lc andr";,::"*::11i:simpermissible dears "r0"""*r,ri" groupingsof phonemes. theinitial .lr.t., of th..., For instance,rn English ru;"*::*",'"'*"-.t*il:,,,tffi:,,;:::;.; ji paradigmatics morphotactics r;;;l:i";:ffi permit both sequences .tt L.r/ o r -d u- I a r Lake+pROGRESS1yn+p4"r-.rtrt.rori^ue+pRoGRESSlVE+r1-gp.41 r pAST F'ig. 3..1I'aradigmatics and syntagmatics in n-rorphology and synlax g 11p1pn] *thcv and le'el weretaking". of lcxologr, ,*"r""r*" ;",::,".:l::ultAr Svnragmaricsar rhe '.", il:J whelher he wants to expressconfidence or doubts about finding a Russian speaking secretary. In lj:illffi i,::;;,::;,::$**::,,,,* answering the question What happened to Mar.y? the spcakcr has a choicc between the acttve svrtasmarics j;#;:::ljH:TJJ:, rurtherantl ,",i the passive construction She wus kissed b.y John dcpending on whether he arrhe rever "0.i, o"*digmaticsand John kissetl /rcr or woulddeal with (sentences)intontrr".r"urii.;r":::':"tj,1t:s thelinking otsynractic unirs wants to foreground the event of kissittg or its instigator. suchas the ut ou" n'"ntiol:j,::",LlflT::TT;:,*":'o *"r *irr,minimuipui., or,.nt"n"". Paradigruatics and syntagmatics may also be interpreted in tenns of thc Saussurcan e thc indicativc andsubjunctrve conrrast: diclroton-ry of langue and parole. As pointed out above, paradigmatic relatronships work in obsentia which mcans that a parlicular linguistic sign is opposed to other signs (phonemes, (5) On cherche lui saitle russe unc secretaire / l morphemes. lexemes) not bccausc thcy arc in the message but because they belong to langue, utd lqui sachele russeJ thus according to many structuralists, paradigmatics reflects the essential characteristic of langue It relationships contracted by a particular is of interestto note th (system). On the othcr hand, thc reality of syntagmatic anarvsiswhere consrrucJ' asdiscourse linguistic sign with thosc beforc or after should be relegated Io parole. ";iHJ*;:TTl:iil"'#'T":TT:ffJ::"n".d Under this assumption, only the study of linguistic units (phoncmcs, tnorphcmes, lcxcrnes arequire often interpreted as,code, .messase,; and in orher and sememes) and their paradigmatic relationships would belong to the study of langue, whercas -"Jr:1ff;ff'r:i:svnlagmatics ,,Tffi their syntagmatic relationships would belong to the study of parole. Hence sotnc structual :I,ffi fi :il"":,i.THT:1T: linguistic schools do not treat syntax as the proper object oflinguistic description since syntax :,ili1:l,H_T#::,T:il1ffachoice-ot".tr,i" orthe subjunctive, i.e the;::lJ:ffi#:::ff"kerhas indicative (i.e., lexotactics) does not belong to langue. Howcvel, we cannot say that phonotacttcs and nventoryofverbal formsdepending on morphotactics do not belong to langue (the fonner implernents morphcmes and the lattcr 40 AN INTRODUCTION TO TIiU S'|L]DY OI. MORP}IOI,OCY PARADICMA'fIC AND S\Nl ACNlA'fIC] Rl]LAI'IONS 4l lexemes)and it is ntccessary to give syntagmalicrelationships rangue. their duc place in the stuay of notionalplural 3.3 Markedness Wheretwo or m< ringuistic units(e g'' perfcctivevcrsus often thc case imperrbctive) that orre ispositive' arern contrast,it is grarnmaticalsingular ormarked, whi,e the orher is oppositionis ;:'T*fftl*j#Tff:HJff.,;ori intuitivelyfelt to be les' other han., .0".ifi" us'al' understimdingof rnarl ntavbc-o." haveaprurar """d;";1;;:;ilffT'3;iH'il;J?,li:,:11'"1,"; Fig. 3.5 Internal plural rb,,,*h:':l"s is related to a singular ibrm fc may be sai

(8) r6ra 6xo liii (perfecl) 6en pin6 ..I pi6 haveeaten, I Fig. 3.7 Distributional inclusion and aspect am not hungryany more,,

Ilere, the semanticcategory ofresultative (9) hnperfcctive Perfective Lrpcrfective (cf. Irish I bythe perfect io*euer, miit "be dying" -+ umiit "have died" "ro itis equary o"rr,oi1it ,lli :r;i!:;:;:;l;;ff:;:il? ',ii. umiit r umirat "bc dying" ii!:l:i!:#,^ii]ll,iL:i:il::,*i:""#.rmesbvescribr.i"-,t,,u^wn,ing,,can bit "beat" + zabit "kill" 1tri:,:ffifimi:;:*i:iii:::#::fi ;:;i:l:,::':ilT.Iilr*x zabil -) zabijet "bc killtng" j:-o:-"1'rv*itr,tr'",t,'ilJ,l*1l::""*'.'."':ilf ;:lf1:1i.":.3Jil9" Tffi l::* It is equally tlilhcult to use t'he criterion ol' morphological conrplexity in discussing ,;ff*flj*;ffi.ft"H:ffi markedncss in Scrnitic languages. Classical Arabic conjugates its perfective (past) fonns by ;::Tt*ifi l;**l: means of sufhxcs and impcrlective (prescnt) forms by means of prefires Which category is Lct us examinesome ,i_:ff rnarked'/ Or morc marked? markcd- unmarked o whichtend to cor.eratc with the |iif ,1,".-#l?ff;:tt"rities*" morphological.flesh, unmarkedcategodes tend thantheiran",. marked to haveless (10) Perfective Impcrfcctivc -'""*r"^:::".*"counterparts For instance, V+iag)orpcrfec t(hovevl u"r,t.ilr"r*ssive (6e Sg 3 kataba "he wrote" yaktubu "hc writcs" 2 katabta "you wrote" taktubu "you wt'itc" ".;:il#:Ti":;:il**#:'t*ffi 1 katabtu "l wrote" ?aktubu "l write" i,f counterpart; multipledi:ltrl"L;,#*I.'ff similar from a variety of examplescoukl be languages.on the oth ,T:,::l:-:""'.compt"xii;corelates ** 'Jff]i':J: Anothcrmorphological critcrion for markednessis the greaterlikelihood of morphological '".i",,r'#1t#:T"::'::trff;; inegularrtyin urunarkcdforms. ln AncientGreek the categoryol'the aoristis morphologically T#:"[ffi:;ilffiH:il,HT::''"roronnpcrrecri"""Junl*un,uo-extremclyiregular (suppletive),u,hereas the markedoategory of the imperlect(vis-i vts thc perrective:tr".ffiverbs verb.Consider thc tblloivirrgdata: (bysurrixation). considerthe roi;;,;:#,#T.,:i::::ifi:_:lffiTT prcsent)is usgallypredictable fron'r the presentstem of'tho 44 AN INTRODUC]I'ION 1'OTHL S]'UDY Or,MORPiIOI-OG}. PARADIGN,IATIC AND SYN'IA(]MA'IIC II}rt,A'I'ION S 45 (l l) Prcsenr Lnperl,cot ph6ro Aorist "l carry" RECOMMENDED READINGS 6phcron €nenkon tr6kho "l run" 6trekhon edramon drikno "I bite" \ntlr:rson.Stephen R. 1985. "lnflectional morphology".Lttnguuge \,polog1' and Syntactic 6daknon cdakon lelpo "I leave" Descriptirn.Volume 3 ed.by T. Shopelr,150-201 . Cambridge: Carnbridge University Press. 6leipon dlipon ( orrrrie,Bernard. 1976. Aspect: An Introdurtiott to the Studyof VerbulAspeO. Cambridge: Seefuflhcr discussionin 6.3.3. (iambridgeUniversily Press. (Chapter 6). Alother morphological "Notes on transitivityand theme in Dnglish,ParlI". Journal of criterion for markedness llrrflitlay, Miclracl A. K. 1967. gical identity) is *at of so-called or iorms. ,, syncrerisnr Linguistics3.37-8 1 . ;"be ;;;;":T::::l:observedthat frequently lmorpholo- markedcategory, "r" thcreis syncreti* while the oirt,.',, in ,t I irrlcfoged,Petcr. 1975. A Coursein I'honetics.New York: llarcourt BraceJovanovich. urmarkcd;";; " Univcrsity ll:.'*,r,*.; ;';;Ji#;:f"T:,ffi :"ji#Ji ;, nstance,in I yorrs,John. lc)68.Introductiort to TheoreticalLinguistics. Cambridge: Canrbridgc cateSoryof theimperfecri"", ;lJ'" - Fulure)i'the unnrarkcd *hir. r;,;;)'::.-the rnarkcd i**"t aspecruar Press(Section 2.3). wav catr'eorvof theperfecdv" disrinctio, (pasr- fbr Volume 2. CambridgeUniversity Press. (Chapter 8.) Pasl,where non_past "";;;;;;, a two- .-. 1971. Semuntics, """-;:]]"t rclcrsto luturctimc). N,litchell,Tcrence F.1962. ColloquialArubjc, London:'l'he English lJniversities Press. (12) lmperfective rlcSaussure,Ferdinand.lg55.Coursdelinguistiqueginirulc.5'htsdition.Paris:Payot.(Part2, Past Perfective nosil "used Chapter5). lo carry" prin,6s ..broughr Presenl ,,r in,, der Phonologie.Trovaux tlu cercle linguistiquede cany I rubetzkoy,Nikolai S. 1939.Grundziige :::O (habirualty),,prrnesLi,.1 f uturc ..1 will bringin,, 7. (Englishtranslation by C. A. M. Baltaxe,Berkeley/Los Angeles: University of bridunosit, will carry,, Prague ( aliforniaPress, I969). 46 AN INI'RODT,rCI'ION IO TIIE S I'LDY OI',\{OR"HOL(Xi\ PARADIGNTA'II(] AN D SYNl ACI\IA'II( : RI-LA1]ONS 11

EXERCISIS ( | i) SareY "street" Sawaref l' Discuss "carpentel'" an

(a) distribution ( il) zame) "mosque" lawarneY (b) notionalcomplcxrty (26) dekkan "shop" dakakirr (c) ovcrt morphology (27) madfaf "cannon" madalct (d) privative (28) "proprietor'" mallakrn vs. equipollentopposition malllk (29) bahhar "sailor" bahhara "cteu," 4. A largeproportion ofl (30) sckkin "knil'e" sakakin "dog",pr.orru-o,rr" filil:il:fi:#il;"ouo.l 1-r'"g rhebase pauem, e.g, katb (31) xfirj "pricst" xawame pattcrns ' Th"tt arenrany diflirent andfrcquently it is not pluralizing (32) sayyad "hunter" sayyadin possibrcto derlucc,1.,,t versa)wirh jegree (33) dahhan "paintcr'" dahhanc anyhigh orcertainty.Various the ;"ill::1,ff;l:::,jffi:::i#;* plurals olmost nouns (34) lon "color" ?alwan must be mcmorizcd individually. (3s) fid "holiday" ?atynd Discover antl c.lescribeas (36) scnr "tooth" snAn patternsas vou can in the SvrianArabic (o"*"r"rrT,TJ"il:*' lbll.wing

(24) matlak (2s) mallakun bahhar '.sailor,, (('I ) qitta "cat" qitat bahhara .,crew,, (26) bahr ..sea" ((r-1)lis[n "tongue" alsutr (27) buhur safina "ship'' ({r5) haqiqa "truth" haqa?iq (28) suli.rn rasrll ',apostle.' ({rtr) gil "ghoul" gilan rusul (29) Sanl "partner" (67) nazila "misfortune" naz-a?il (30) Suraka? nahr "r.iver"'. ({rl1)nfir "light" anwar (31) anhur harf "lctler" ((r()) haram "pyranrid" al.rratn huruf (32) ?imim ..imam" t /0) wiOaq "clrain" wu0uq a?inrma (33) xalU "gulf' (7r) dik "rooster" diyaka'.'duYhk -. adYiik xuljan (34) faftat 'pofter,' (72) diwan "council'' dar.lawitt fattaila .,a (35) qanna .\r,;r-,, groupof porters,, (13\ zalzala "earlhquake" z,alazil qan}at (36) hat "situation', (74) firtawn "pharaoh" faratrna ahwal (37) jabal (75) maf(a)z "goat" amfuz^'mafiz "mountain" jibal (38) bab "door,' (76) kahl' "cave" kuhtl' abwab (39) madrna 111) n7r "yoke" arlyar'tttrart (40) -,.J mudun sura "picture" (7tl) fansa "prey" fara?is suwar (al) na?ib "representative', (79) hin "totncat" hirara (42) nuwwab madad "help" (80) hirra "cat" hirar amda4 (43) madda "stuff' (8r) hihl "cresccut" ahilla-'ahalil mawadd (44) maks "lax" (82) hfunma "reptile" ltauamtn mukls (45) baxii (83) wakr "(bird"s)nest" aw'kar-'awkur "miser" buxala.? (46) nals (84) kub5a "hook" kuba5 "person', anfus (47) jisr (85) ni5an "larget" naYaiin "bridge" jusrir (48) sabil (86) raj "cro\\ D" tijit: way subul (49) tayn 'eye" (87) bnq "lrulltpct" abwaq fuyin (50) xabir (88) blsa "kiss" bnsat "expert,' xubara? (51) kabbnr (89) uwar "heat" ur "coat" kababit (52) balkon (90) zatafran "sallron" zatatlr "balcony" balakin (53) sabab "cause" (91) xAtnn "lady" xawalin asbab (54) tays "billy (92) moda "fashion" modit goat" tuy,us (55) walad (93) lakan "basin" alkan "boy" awlad (56) tanq "road" (94) qanat "despair" qunlt turuq (57) Safir (95) bu?ra "locus Dtl(ar "poct" Sufara? (58) sayf "sword" (96) tutlw "linrb" atda? suyuf (59) zawja (97) firzal "lion's den" trazil "wife" zawjat (60) faqaba (98) walima "banquet" wala?im "obstacle" tiqab (61) faqiba (99) kursul "wristbone" karasit "end" tawaqib (62) gadir "pond" ( I 00)dayla "village" diYat - diYat gudur IN!'I,ECTIONAT, AND DbR]VATIONAI- MOR-PHOI-OCY 53

Wlral is an essential characteristic of inflcction is the lacl that all the five (or lcss) lorms ,lrr.rlrlyas verbs; put dilferently. inflectional pl'occssesdo NO'l'change the nrembershipin the CHAPTER F,OUR , l.r.,r,ol'primary grammatical categolies (: parts of speech).What tltcy do is they express (1.e., tNFr.I]CTIONAL AND DERIVATIONAL which they are attached: -s marks the secondary MORPITOLOGY lr.rrrrrrraticalize) the lexical notion to llr,rrrrrrraticalcategories ofpersot.t and numbcr, -etl the category oftense, etc' I )crivational morphemes, on the othcr hand, may derive one pafi of speech from anothcr; tn 1,1 The Scope of Inflection and Derit,ation ,,llr!.r words, derivational processes usually change thc membcrship in thc classes of primary Tradirionally, infler (derivational paradigm) with to isdefincd 11r;rrrrruaticalcategories. Consider the following dcrivational set expressitsrerarion ,;H":ffilinlfilXJ asa change inrhe rorn, ora rvor.d .r rr)ws showing derivationai processes: variousprocesses derivation, on the wherebyr.*;;;';;:;:t::t' orherrrand, deals wirh instancc,verbs may r- words(or uu,".; ru Engrish, :::ffi*ll1"o,,n* ror (l) democrat (C'oncrete) Nour chooses;by 'n1il;;;:l: the 3d Person the vowel singuiar Present:(he) "hunging in the root ," ,n" ,,"ltT-.,in democracy (Abstract) Noun a suffix in thepast parlic mavsav,ha,morpho,og;:fr ii5i,iffi'i democrattc Adjectrve ;:ffffr*,,:;:i1.::iil:iilI;1;:ffi of paradigmatic democratically tr Adverb setsof fivc {brms: dem0cratlze Verb (r) lnfinitive(,base,) I Noun (ii) 3'dSg pres democratizalion (iii) past 'I'he nouns: denrccrul -+ tlcnto<'rulic; the sullix {-li I (r\,) pastparticiple suffix {-rk} derives adjectives from vcrbs rlt:rives adverbs from adjectives: tlemocratic+ democrttlical/y; thc suffix {-ajz} dcrivcs (v) Gerund(or prosent l,articiple) trouns lrom fronr nouns: democrat s tlenrocratize('denominal'verb); thc suffix {-cin} derives s ('deverbal' noun). It is urore difficult to establish lhe A flull_fledged x,:rbs: tlemocrcttize tJenro(ratization fivc_rr we have to accoulll asahatorcl'zo'se' gee, tlcrrvational rclationship, if any, between democrat anrJdentocrttcj'. Ilere erc,is excepriona, which arc held plccisely for the allomorphy of /d6mekra:t/ and /clemhkresi/;these tu'o alternants ;;W;**fniXjn=:liTl,?I;it,i verbs * ant) have togcther by tlre nrorphophonernic altcmations le al and le - a/; furthermore, dentotrttt base' (r)lfrnnnitivet:.r'""*,"u,,0*,,*'ii'l;::*il;l;,:*:.:iq::T;.|,i:::'ll[:::"'r verbssuch as,.i,,, ,lunocracy are also linked to the same set]lanticunit which is usually callcd a derivational and(ir,) r",, njl"*:::i'::].::j:::'"me in of regionalEnglish (i) Infinitive ',."";;.:ilff.fi: I lowever, the problcm with a derivational base lies in the dcgrcc olabstractncss. champions sruneform (I give ]n'"t""; anrt (iii) ,"., ,,'r, i,u o,r, have the and a nutlber of :rltstractphonology do not hesitateto postulate an unaccentedderivatiorlal base To uccount lor :"::';::**^;:i;J.'l,l'Jifir:i*ru;:rrrorphological rulcs which are necessary fbr the derivation of surface forms. nrfu rules conditioned dl.#",,!ff tlcm6krosi/ lrom underlying /demckrat + i/ we would need vowel-reduction +oiV '1andamorphophonemicrulc :Ji:,,#*;.'f ,;tli*:fi::ffi ::::;:*J*,""..:ililil; 5ylheprcccdingorfollowirrgstrcss(e t:r -.Vantlt :,ff + suffix -,y(iii Note that this ruie is i:.i}lJ,Tfl t s/- derivational ). with a morphological conditioning: i.e., the change I r .t has nothing to do with phonological (l) (irarnmalical NoT conditioned phonologically, Meanrng this solution MorPhologY properties of/i/, since there are lornrs such as tlemoc'ratic" For this and othcr reasons Infinitive choose abstractsoltttiotl' rvork rs unacccplahleto many linguists and we may cousider all altcmatirc less 3.u prcs run Sg (-r chooses bases:/d6mekrtr]tl (+ democrat' dentocratic)idcm6kret/ past works runs rtamely two accentedderivational with rnorphological pastparricipre ran tlentocratize).Thosewho are unwilling to rvrite abstfact phonological rules .' 'cxceptional' and ffi to consider the altemation t s in /demakrat-/ ^'/dem6kres-/ Gcrund #:i., run(rnfinirive) conditioning have choosirg 'explanation' on parallcl paratligmaticsets: *.,.*.L1-,tor,,lng running rclv ft-rrits 54 AN INTRODUCI'ION IO THE S LIDY OF MORPHOLOGY INFT,FCI]ONAL AND DERIVATIONAL MORPHOI-OG\' 55

(3 ) dcmocrat autocrat democraric ::^'i"*"t. (\ Kind "chitd" autocratic ) dentocracy (Plural of ,(inrl) Kind-er "children" anstocracy'1*1^slocratic autocracy (Diminutive ot Kind) Kind-chen "baby" Thosesynchronic lingurstswho (PluralofKintl.,t'hen) Kind-er-chen'babies' do not hesitatet discoverthat open rhe Oxtord English demo*at a'ndandaristocrat Dicrionary will "r^rr*, are popular fi:"rormatrons arountl I 7g0), whereas ^r)":",,:j: of the FrenchRevolution ll, re rrrstcadof expected *Kintl-chen-er (Base - Diminutivizing Sutllx - Plural Sulfix; we obtain t*" a;r;;; (formed rherure r , ., postulatetheother l,uttl r,r (.hen(Base - Plural Suffix - Dinlinutivizing Sulhx). However, here it seems that we are rhoselimes,";"J;:l,J;.':';*il';;";T"#.j.T'Jffi":,;:,::':,'J;'*l:[,,] rlcrrlingwith a real plural suffix but with a stem-forming element (Stummbildurtgselentent)' logizedin rule) which has with pluralizcd and diminutivized Modem r'.encrr.Thi.,'"f;;;;;;;il| beenputarivery morpho- llrrs rvill become obvious if we compare the abovc fonns of Old French way of sayingthat is dcad.l o' the palatalizationrule l,,rrns ol' (r/er) Bruder "brother"'. t" *"t o";;;;"t inclinedro postulare u a't1" rerationship may be rbrmer ,"r::::^::r;::::,.:::r,;;::,^",we rormedrrom the,rerivarionar (6) Kind "child" Bruder "brother" Kind-er "children" Briidcr "brothers" Kind-chen "babY" Br-iider-chen "littlc brothcr" reachirrg m;;f*l brolhers" [6slstems of dcrl ll*rt*****=*t#*",i,ii:;:# Kind-er-chen "babies" Briider-chen "little *Brul-er clement :**;illtt":',rilH:wt. Obseryethat there is no rnorphcme boun

l nere are some rare and German Czech Latin dou considerthe (8) andderivariona, r0"", followingGerman inflecionar Bruder bratr frater "r(r::,ll-;;T"TiJ,""ot"'' Diminutive Bri.ider-chen brati-ft frater-cul-us Plural Brtider-chen-O brati-ic-i frater-cul-t )O AN INIRODUCTION TOTHE S'I'UDY OTMORPHOI-OGY INFI-NCTIONALAND I)ERI\/A I IONAI-N4OI{PHOI,(XIY 51

Inlhe lattcr two languages, the plural suffix unmistakabl fbllows in Lalin is thcrean thediminutivizing rlr., ..(.(ti()lt by assumingthat with thc possible exception of copulative compounds such ns inflectior .rrn* marking;*;;;t suffix.onlv and In czcch have a o_surfifll thesingulaq while both lrr,lrcr rrrrrnerals,the order of elementsin cornpoundsis stablc. ;;';;'|u'"t Gcrrnan ranguagecomparison ,n".rtrarr 1"*in (8).In:t .h.",d '" b.;;;;'j;::JJ*fi,'n'. ,*. orcross_ I t frrrl.t,.sisof Inflections (9) in English: nouns (for gcndcr, German I lrc lbllowing grammatical categories may be inflected Czech Latin comparalivc and superlative),adverbs (for der Bruder rrrrrrrlrr.ra1d case),adjectives (for comparison,i.e., bratr frdter (for pcrson, numbcr, tense, and Diminutive dasBnider_chen_O , ,,r I r|:I ison), pt onouns (tbr gen

al-rr-lar-dr (l l) Strong Dcclcnsions al-rr-dr-lar take-AORtST_pLURAL_pAST Masculinc Neuter F cn-rinine take-AORIST_PAST (short (long rocll) "they took,, pt IrRn L (short root) (long root) rool) "stone" "ship" "housc" "si11" "teaching" giclu lar In theseTurkish verl Sg. Nom stiin sclp h[s positionaily,n,.'.nu;*#ll tcnse (Past) and pturar sclp hus gicfc larc fi ffiT,Tffi'#:-'* number( ) are Acc stan Aorisl). there markingverbal aspecr sclpes htses gie{-e lare are ," ,,rli.';;: :i"-:lT'ritx (progressive, Gen stAnes mobiritv giefc liire i' .r".i'"ii."ararnxarion. l)at stallc sciPc h[se primarygrammatical*ollarives"..;;;ilffi1"Til:,"j;:fisitionar the gieta,-c lara, -e cate'gones; membership in the crass Pl. Nom/Acc stanas sclpu hus consequentry,i, i,rs,not of wanr ro no,"hun:ttpossible to say *dentocrat_atton_ize lrIsa giel'ena larena form a deverbal ;;,;::,:::,:T\r: " rf we Cen Slat)a scipa ";" giefum larum ;*iy*j:#1!X":":XJ::#H:HJ::.ffij;,# Dat stallulr) sciPtttn husum Ensri,h :,.""#,#t Qtive-and-twenty'.;;;;,:1",:T:il"Ti'il ;".o;'J,,,,*",,r-tr," ( 12) Weak Declensions possibre ffillt":o*ontv fiinfitnrtzwunzig to say both: ,1r""",r:;;-^:;":::.:.:l:"3* but in czech it is Masculine Neuter Femtntne ..name,' ..eye" "sun" :::: i :ji[!, Sg.Nom nama €age sunne :rkt:x;:y.,:;**: eage sunnan -::,";:;ji ;rjilil naman Gcn nalnan eagan sunnan 58 AN INTRODUCTION 1O TIIF STUDY OF MORPHOI,OGY INFL.ITCIIONAL AND DERIVATIONALMORPIIOI-O(jY 59

Dat naman eagan sunnan PL vowcl. Horvever, they can be segmenled only at the price Norn -an ' 'l'r r.rlr1g,with the notion of thenatic Acc -an ,,t ,r t r.rtrip arbitrarinessand inconsistency and only some of thenl are analyzable. Working ivith Cen rlr, ,r1ler'l.atin lorrn ser-yos(occurring in Plautus) wc nray discover the following pattern for tllc -ena (all plurals) Dat _um t"rnrrtiou ofthe nominative,accusative and ablative:

This systemis rcmar (15) a-stems o-slems a-stems similarto morphorogy thatof Mod in much o"r,uuo', (which hasprescrved Nom puell-a-O serv-o-s ntan-u-s er condirionthan English). its earlier ,:1T:::-ompare, fbr instance, -u-m the following lorms: Acc -a-m -o-m ( f 3) Old Englisl Abl -a-: (length) Modern Str< Gcrman weak Shong sg Nom .,u.lnt weak I r,,rr rrrorrosyllabici-stcms, e.g., vn=,vim, vt"lorce" and e-stems fit this pattern, but thc problem narra stein Gen sta; Name rr0rrkl be ro account for the lcngth in thc norninative. consequently, we may try to refonlulate naman st pl Nom (-n marks the Nom Sg of a-stems and -r.rsmarks the Nom Sg of o-stems sffin naman t':;:t rlrr rriulitional slatement ffffi' markers with post-themalic elcmcnts: -O rvor'tldmark the Nom Sg of a- Dat .ren,otum namum ,.r. 1by itlenlifying case Steincn rules Nanrcn .t|rrrsarrcl -s the Nom Sg of all other stems. Therl, we would tleed somc rnorphophoncrnic It may *rtlmor-s' be observedthat -.si t,, ;rtttrLlflt for rimor "rutnor" and honos "honor" frOnl 'undeilying' represcntations be derived .lt,utt;r-s cf . *cJent-s> tlEns\;-m would mark the Acc Sg everyrvhere(rumorem would :T,i"T.i?,..,m:1il3:.".":ilg:l* lengthening of the thematic vowel As ;:*:*",",;,,,,-..;:lili,,^:.:,Ti:,:ff Iti|,t rimor.-m); and thc Abl Sg would bc formed by the rotmar gender: thematic (.; crassin"";"";;;;;;Jbased thematic vowel is conccrncd, it might be tempting to identily it with nrarkers of ""*.r ; ;;;;::::,1;.JJff onthe l;rr rrstlre Greekor Latin. languages (and U-stems are mostly masculine and c-stems femininc; Inthe raner ;";-i,Tlllil jlt:t:ropean suchas Sanskrit, ,r lcrliline. -o llascuhnc neutcr). analysts '"";,;;". rrrrlirrtunately,i-stems are both masculine and f'eminine. Whoevcr is intcrcstcd in this 19'hc by :ffi;',ff'#;i:::::.:2i::'.:'.,1",;r"":T,T:H':::"*ii:m::: rrr:ryproceed along these lines. Actua'lly, this analysis was proposed at the end of thc could be rlrt. Ncogrammarians who maintained that a good many of the Latin inflections (14) FiveLatin Declensrons , rplaincd as bcirtg dus to thc coalescenceofa once distinct rnorphology' .l.he Iu bcst we can do lor Latin is to assume that its inflcctions are not synchronically UIIVV Hctrce, undoubtcdly, the traditional handling of Latin declensions 4_stems o-stems ;rrrrrlyzableinto morphemcs. C-stems rulcs' Sg Nom /-stems a_stems and this is why classicalgrrrnrnarians did not cstablrshnrorplroplroncmic pueira servus(' e_stems lrr r'emorizing os) rrlmor i^-:^ a r;^- ,Errrb nlanus patternsof formation (i.e., paradigms). This problern will be discussed again lrom ac(. ai) i rFS lrrrrrDerely that Dat ls tts tlillcrcnt angle in chapter Seven; lor the time being we can make a significant obser-vatiorr ac r-l er i i- (or fusion) ofsignificates' Acc :un 'ulei I atin inflectional endings show a considerabledegtee ofcumulation (< om) em Lrrr type (other u'ell known examples are Abl u im um em I iltin is simply a typical example of a fusional linguistic Pt NJ^^ E \;rrrskrit, Grcck, Lithuanian, Russian, C-zech,Polish, Serbian)' ae (r a,i) i Es sutfixes Cen es frs Diarnetncally opposed are so-callcd agglutinating languages in which inflectional arum orum Es um one DatlAbl ium uum ;rr.c{ypically composed of a sequence of morpherncs with cach morpheme represcntlrlg r-s rs Erum ibus rbus language, may bc taken as an cxamplc of this Acc ds u/ibus €bus rifatxmatical meaning. Turkish, or any other Altaic os es es,4s rls ds lrrrguistictype. Consider the data in (16) from Latin and I'urkish tcaching of Latinwas based on the Li'guists, ,,.11^..j.iot1t"natmaintain n of thisbattery ttratttrie inllecrionarsuffrxes of endings' ur. .lttott'1']onegmentable in a more abstract analysis 60 AN INTRODUCIION I.O THE SI.UDY OF MORPI{OI,OGY ]NFI,F]CTIONAI- AND DLRIVA'TIONAI- NIORPI]OI,OGY 6I (16) Turkish C'ase sg ::t'" { l,)) Root Gendcr Number Nom vrr adam Acc Fem Sg Nom puell a oo vir_um adam_r Gen a :I Gen adam-tn Puell Pr J,T] Acc Pucll a Am Nom vlr-t adam_lar Acc Abl Puell a a: vir_ds adam-lar-r a :t Gcn r ir

Pl Nom rijalun ?imra?atun Acc rijalan :..rrrlrlttlu.ily'inClassicalArabicr'vemaytintlclearcutexamplesofagglutirrationhullhese lerioal and ?imra?atin of lusion, cspeciallyby a ratherttnusual Iusion of Gen riialin ,r' ,.rrrrlt:rbalanccdby examples ?imra?atin ablaut in lndo-Europcan languagcs; ll ntay !,r.rilill;tltLralmorphcmcs (somewhat reminiscent of by ihc lcngtherring of the gcndcr Sg Nom rt .,, lrr.Dotedthat we have to assunlethat nunrbcr is cxpresscd n "a teacher(M)" mudarrisarun"a teacher ()f thecasemarkcrof masculinenouns'cl-' Acc ### (F),, rrr,rrl,t.r t'emininenounsbutbythelcngtheningof mudarrisatan in (21). Gen mudarrisin ,,rrt,l,trt r.ttilirt vs. mudarristna pr mudarrisatin Nom mudarrisrrna mudarrisatun Acc/Gen mudarrisina mudarrisalin Clear cut examplesof agglutination comellom theurtrrnrrectron infle the masculine 'r of femininenouns. genaeris ma.k",t *t;; ;;"^'; Assunrrngthal l.'}*1,;:il;il:::1.:*,::: r.Ji:;ffHff;T:il1;illl;"m,l;

(21) Stenr Gcndcr Number case (+tndsf; Masc Sg Nom mudarrrs q a un Acc mudams AAan Gen mudarns AAin Fenr Sg Nonr mudarrrs at@un Acc mudams alAan Gen mudanis al@ Masc pl ln Nom mudarris A:una Acc mudarris o: Ccn mudarris a Fem pl Ina Nom mudarrrs at:un Acc mudarris at:ln Cen ntudarris at.in

Thecase entrings of mascurinenouns inflected extemalryin theplural thosein thesingurar. arenot identicalwith flowever,they areidenticar if thenoun is inflected intemalry(a-u + i_dr: (22) RoottNumber Gender Masc Sg Nom Case RaJuL aun Acc RaJuL Aan Gcn Ra"iul ain Masc pl Nom Rijal Oun Acc Rijel- (a an Gen Rijal Ain o4 AN IN,TRODUCI'ION TO.I'HE Sl,UDY OF MORPHOI,OGY INFI -ECTIONAI- ANI) DERI\/A'1'I0NAI- NIOItPTIOI-OG\' 65

RECOMMENDED READINGS EXBRCISES *r:?:"#ill"ili, Anouttine ofthe structure of shifta.New york: in Ame.cancouncit t,lt,rrlitythe following morphological categoriesin'i'aiclhit, the Berbel dialecl spokcn ,,,,rrthwest by Applegate (1958): Campbefl, A. lg5g. Otd Englnh Morocco as dcscribcd Gramrnar.Oxford:Clarendon press. (ireenberg,.loseph. I 966. ZanguageUniversals 'l.he with special Referenceto Hague: Mouton. Feature Hierarchies. ( .r) Verbal roots and their lexical meantttg. (l)) verbal affixes and their lcxico grammatical mcarling Kurylowr'cz'Jetzy' 1964'Infle.ctional Dcrivatior-ral Categoriesof In.o-Europeaz. Heidelbcrg: (r') vcrbal allixes and their grammatical Irrerning' Lewis,Geoffrey L. 1967.Turkish carl wintcr. Inflcctional Gro**or.O*fo.O: Clu..ndonp..... Moreland, Describe morphological processesexpressing thc past tonsc Floyd L. & RitaM. ,r. trl) Fleischer.r rwrJ!'er.t>rJ.l-attn: 1973. Latin: AtAn Inten.sive of Caiiforniapress. Course.Berkeley: University (c) C,'onstructparadigntatic sets lbr t"::1il.::tl;]jj.l,,i mar ofthe Arabic Language vorumes t fi:l and'2 cambridgo: (i) Subject aflixes (ii) Dircct objeot aftixes (iii) Indircct object allixes

inflcctiorral Describe their disrribution within wortls witlr respectto the rools in various categories.

tr:ltrscriptlon (i.e'. do not tlsc the lollowing rlata. Notice that the cxarnplcs arc in phoncnrlc trv to pronottnce them):

(l) rdir "you wcnt" (2) dant "they (F) wcnt" (3) ifaiast "he gave it to hirn/hcr" (4) urasntllnt "they (F) did no1give it to them (M)" (5) tramt "ye (F) rvanted" (6) umzYt "l took him/it" (1) raiiamz "he will takc mc" (8) isfifll "he stolc her" (9) fauasntt "thcy (M) gavc it to them (F)" (10) nda "wc r.l'cttt" (l l) tsJrnrt "ye (F) stolc" (12) ramtfiy "I will give it to You (F)" (13) Iiyast "l gave it to hrmlher" (14) tkayast "I used to give it to him/her" (15) uramtill "he did not give it to You (F)" (16) urakzrtY "l rvill not sce you (M)" (11\ izrat "he sarv me" (18) rakmtamz "hc will take You (F)" 66 AN INTRODT/CTION,fO'fHE SI'TJDY O / OF MORI'I{OI,OGY INI''LLCITIONAI- AND DERIVA-IIONAL MORPHOI'OGY

(19) rairlifa "he will giveit to me,, Turkish (20) urrastfin l,atin ClassicalArabic "they (M) will not givc rr adam (21) tbnunt to him/her,, ',li Notrl. r'ir "mau" rajulun "rhcy (F) used to build,, rajulan adatnt (22) tbnutl "you Acc. vlrum built ir" adamln (23) raktbnuy ( icrt. virr rajulin "I will buildit for you (M),, adamlar (24) fantaunt l'l Notn. vin rijalun (F) gaveit to you pl),, (25) ..they (M Acc. viros rijalan adamlart urrauntlfint "rhey(F) will norgivc it to ye (F pl.),. adamlartn (26) itifar (;cn. vtrontm rrjahn "he usedto steal,, (27) tr;nrt "you stole" (28) fiemina"woman" imra?aturl kadrn nird "we \1l Norn. wgreclean,, kadmt (29) rsirdmr Aco. leminam imra'/atan "ye (F) washcd,' lEminae imra?atin kadrntn (30) sirdn "they Ccn. (M) washed,, kadtnlar (31) rakuntizra t,l. Nom. 1.'cminae imra?dtun "he will seeyou (F pl),, (32) Acc. leminas imra?atin kadtnlart urkunizri "he did not seeyou (M pl),, kadurlarln (33) tzraytnt (len. leminarum imra?atin "l uscdto scerhem (F),, (34) itdn "he usedto go,, (35) tkanr lru'asshownin4.3thalLatinislusionillwirhrespecttoinflectionofnouns.Hor,vevcr,the "they (F) used with ro give,, are scgmcntablc in a more abstract analysis operating (36) nramz "we rrrllcctional suffixes of l-atin usedto take,, and morphophonemic rules' (37) sucl.ras a shorl and long thcn1atic vowel, zcro suffix ifaiamt "he rr.tions gaveit to you (F),, dcclcnsions displayed reduce along these lines thc varicty ofthc fivc traditional (38) fantast "they n ttcmpt to (F) gaveifto him/her,, (39) in(15). riy "I wanted" (40) urlrriy "l did not want her,, of Classical Arabic: (41) ratttzra Idcntify the following morphological categories "he will seeher" (42) Lbint (a) Verbal roots and thcir lcxical meantng' "they (F) used to cross,, processcsand their lexico-gramntatical meantng' (43) ubit "you (b) Dclivational affixcs and usedto cross" (44) rabiy (c)Cotlstructparadigmaticsetso|inflectionalsr'r|fixcsexplossingsubjectanddirect "I will cross" (45) obiect. tzrati "you sawme" "you (F)"' (46) ifaiir (d) Predict the following fiomrs: "ye (M)" and "he gaveit to me" (47) rfirasr "you gaveit to him/her,, data: (48) tlamtasnt "ye t.lsc the following (M) gavehim/it to (a9) them(F),, diy I went i1" (50) tdam ( I ) katabahf "he wrote "ye (M) went,, (2) fahimatha "she understood hcr" "you (M) subscribcd" )egntent (3) iktatabta the words of l_atin, Classical Arabic and discussrhe.o..".oono.n." Turkir (1) iftahamtlni "you (F) comPrehcnded me" belweenmorphemes ancr r"o r.i",i#Jl';;;,TJ'"*remes, (5) kutiba "it was destined" (6) aktabnahfl "q,e dictated it" (7) afhamtunna "ye (F) instructed" (8) istafhamna "they (F) inquired" another" (9) talahaml "they (M) understood one 68 AN INTRODI,ICIION TO I,iI[ 69 S]'UDY OF-MORPHOLOGY INIIt,E(]TIONAI, AND DF]RIVAI'IONA I' IVORPIIOI -O(IY

(10) rakatabna "they (F) wrote l-stclns l/-stems (l l) qutilat to eachother,, 4-stems r.{-stcms C-stcms "shewas killed" "fricnd" "firc" "stlll" (12) taqaralnn "daughter""son" "we foughtwith one suhrd agnis bhanus (13) israqralti another,, Nr)lll suta sutas "you (F) um (14) riskedyour life,, em am am tlll tadaxalri 'you ,,\(:c (F) interfered,, a ina tttta (15) adxaltunnaha Iilstr aya Ena "ye (F) introduced E ayg avf' (16) adxalatki hcr', | )ut ayai aya "she introducedyou (F),, as cs os ( l7) fahimaka r\lll ayas at "he understoodyou" as cs (18) ( iL^il 4rric asya adxalnakunna "we -s inrroducedyou (F pl),, i .iu au (19) xarajru L()c ayam e "l left" as ayas a\ as (20) axrajnakum Nottt aS aS "we djsnrissedyou (M pl),, as irt tirt (21) israxraj[hum r\cc ds dn "they (M) exploited bhis ibhis ubhis them (M),, I l rstr lbhis ais ibhYas ubhYas Translate )at abhyas ebhYas bhyas the following scntenccs I into ClassicalArabrc: bhYas ibhYas ubhYas Abl abhyas ebhYas lnlm dm irtam ultant (22) "they (F) left" ( rcn anam Equ su isu tlsu (23) "she wasdismissed,, [ .oc asu (24) ',we understoodonc ano1her,, (25) "ye (F) inquired" (26) "they (F) iilroduced you (M pl),,

The fbtowing tabre displaysthe batteryof 60 inflcctic of in varioustraditionar grammars. Sanskrilas presented provethat rh",.nu-b'nu'sulfixes more abstracranalysis which considerabryin a operareswith the a,,"*fiT:;"Trcduccd

(a) thematicvowel (b) suffix (c) morphophonemic rulesof ablaut(gradation)

Hinr; consider/E/ and,/o/ asdiphthongs /ai/ and/an/ i, theunderlying fom (Ip rnoder). INIJT,ECTIONAL CA.I.ljGORIES ASSOCIAI.ED WI.TTINOI\4INAL I]LIMI]N.I.S 7l

sub-calcgorlcs as thc r ,r, , l, | $ lrrclrare heaviiy flective and whcrc the adjectivc shows the sanlc fronl betng ,,,,rrrr,l0t.s. llowever, if we look clscwhere,wc rcalize that this situation is fhr not inflected fbr ,!l\, t.,irl l;or instancc,in Itnglish and Turkish attnbutively uscd adjcctives are r sub- NFLEcrroNA LcA rE whereas in Latin and French they are. Put cliffcrenlly, thc norninal GoRt:Iiil:tl *tJfl ,r" NoMr ,,,il,.r irl(l trumbcr. NALELEM EN rs in nouns, but thcy are only secondaryitt ,,rtrt,0iles ofgender, number and case are inherent or congruence was r,t1r r trr r.s;urarking for nominal sub-calegoricsrvith adjectivesby agreement primary 5.1 Nominal data: Categories , l,rrrrrt.rlttl bc only a matter of 'surface' grammar.consider the lbllowing 5.1.1 Nowts and Adiectnes Classical parts of speech have been limited I I I F.nglish Turkish Latrn to u broad classcs: adverb, prooouo, noun, verb, adjective, preposition, interjection, "* good man iYi hir adam vir bot.tus nrr]numera]' coniunction, a particre. ln traditonar and possibry articte and l;;;;;,":,':j:oLgrammatrcal theory a good woman iyi bir kadln Gmina bona the parts of speech *"." Noun was defined d"finJ in notlonal terms. nameof as tl goocl men iYi adamlar virl bont anypro*-',;:,qil';:LiHiljfi:fi good rvomen iyi kadlnlar IEnliuae bouac (property) ji: ofany person,prace, H:lflff f ::*.:;JJ?,*li animalor thi'g oenoted expressed by a noun.properties by adjectivesare ofsubstanccs o'a static nature;on the Ilrcl-atinadjectiveshowscompleteagreemcntwithitsrrounilrgcndcr'nunlberandcase(r,lr exprcsscd other hand, propertiesof by verbs areofa dynamic substances Sg or Nonrinativc Pl' etc')' On the othcr hand' we nature,or, morecommonly, l,,,ttrrt Nominativc, virt bonl: Genitive and changes verbs denoteactions, states *iyi-ler will the casc bc ofstate ofthc subject. *good-snrerrrn English or ttdttm-lttr in Turkish. Neither foi.."rri."'"1 subjectlesssentences ,,frlrfr)t say Grammaricar belrbelongsto svntax). (Gcnitive Plural) wc find recrcfinitionorrhese threc ..1f,)$.n languagcs,thus vcrsus L,atinvirontm bononttrr *' adj norionar;;*:::':,:":::::: in thc lattcr two ;*:ll ective) wourd be' J::::::;:' ..,;:l'HH' :"[::il: |,rr1i|rshgoodmelt,sandTurkishiyiudan.lctr.tn.ofcoursc,inbolhEnglislrandTLrrkish, :;ffi :,iffi I sub-catcgoriesof gender' number antl case .rrIlt.cltvcscanbenomtnalizcd.Forinstance,youngisanadjcctiveuscdasanorrrirlalitltlrc theacrjective); the verb (pluscomparison rvith *:s as a primary fillilislrsentence'.Whatcanoneerpect.frornthel'oung?'Observe'howel'er'thatwestillcannot granmatical categorythe rncrudessubcategories .;:l::"-o"oted domain of which passingthar 1,Irtt.itlizc;.f'onttheyouttgsisnotgranmatical.ontheotherhand'inTurkislr,norrrinalized rhisdichotomf T""l}fi:ffi .lt|;t.ctivesbehavelrkenounsinthallheymaytaketlreplural'cascandpcfsolialsrrffixcsa|tcr in.,l,;il:,ilil1;,lll,'Jliil;t "r'tty In othcrwords, the crcfinition tS::J; bii.viik"big, old", hii-vik-ler-in of themajor gr".rrr"", or the indelinrte arlicle bir belbrc them; considcr: crassesof nounand rlrt,rrr, rndependentryofsyntactic verbcannot be made "young" geng-ler-in "ofthe youllg"' andlogrcar considerations (noun_verb, ,,ltfers"; httstu"lll", bir husttt"a sick person"; gerrE ' Plato subject-predicate, (429-347B.c.), agent-action). permissibiiity of fomring the cornparative and who wasthe first to distinguish I f' we take as the critcrion of an adjective thc cxpricitrybctween nouns the term 6ir1pa/rhema/ and verbs, used for the latter ',rrlrcrlalive,nounswillbeexcludedForinstance'inEnglishwemaysayTherit:hltt'eontllL'bd| 'predicate' "or"g;;_:'th e wordrh;mameans borh .verb, It is significanttbat in and this ctasrifi*.utionverbs and ,l.l'ltt'richestli,l,eonthebay,butnothingsimilarcanbcdoncwithThctltunlivesolllheba.Y.||1 same adjectiveswere put together converse crass This may seemsurprising in thc nominalizable (i.e., can bc uscd as nouns)' thc on grammalicargrounds ,rllrerrvords, although most atljectrvesare sub-categories sinceadjecti'es havc the same ofgender' numberand * rroun. oo, our, on notionargrounds, |.,||()ltrue(adjectivals,suchasba'sinbussropcannot|ormthccomparativcorsupcrlativc).Nole sensesrnce borh verbs "ua. it makesperfect andadjecrives may be charact..ired .r|stlthatthe.noun-ness'oftheadjectivecanbeamattcrofdcgrec.Fronrtlrcdiscrrssionabove a, features-on.;;.;;;"". it isof interest (dynamic "' tonote thar rater Greek grun'-u.iun, ||i|ppearsthatadjectrvesrnTurkisharcmorenorrn-likethanadjcctivcsinEnglish;\\'ecannotSay il*I"J.*H;"ffi:, ubandonedrhe rich as a noltn in respectto pluralization' but . I lrt' riches live on the bult, t.e.to treat the adjective adjective)-verb,wheren;"Jfi perl]aps in all languages' we have to drau' a #r*'1"":J.Tj;:i,:H"T*:T"T",:,:#;$i::*; \\,(:oan in Turkish. HowcveL, evcn in Turkish, ancl dichotomywas of a to the specilic adjectival catcgory of notionalnature, the later dichotomy .|rviding line betu,een noun and adjective when it comes was of a gr,mmaticalnature emphasiswas on nominarsubcategories (r.e.,the st ur"a uy noun, and . ornparison. ol nouns, adjectives).The tripartitedrstinction adjecti'es and verbs,or the compromisebetween notional I-atinandGrcekadlectivesarenot|ormallydifferent|ronrnouns.Aswasshownin(1)'wc made and grammalicalcntena, of gender' lateron in metrievaltimes was inflection. The adjective, as far as lhc catcgories and sincethose times it has r.irnrrottalk aboul specitic a

Slavic lamiliesof thc Indo_European phylum crcated (Masc) inflection. v tut be calleda specific { Complcx Adjective (Masc) Personal Pronoun Let us considerord adjcctival ') Englishas a representatr,unut "he" strongdecrension ora-djcctives dispravs "good" almost ;i;;;;::;[JH:T:::'il]iJ; Sg Norn gerdsis ji. identicalwith thoseof pronouns.""0,;r, il'jiJi'Il ii.^"llowing data: Ccrr gdrtrjo 1d ".".,"0", (2) Dat gcrajam jirrrr Noun (Masc) Adjcctive (Masc) f)emonstrativcpronoun Acc gerEti 1i Slrong (M asc) Strong Loc gerhjamc janrd '.stone,, "good" "this" Instr geruoju jud sg Nom stan sod 0es Acc stan god-ne 0is-nc ', | .' l'tott<.ttttts cen stan-es god-es 0iss-es pronouns tlo not 'name' pcrsolis, animals and things but 'replace' Dat I rDresscdtraditionally, strn_e gdd-urn "instead 0iss-um (llre pronomen \\ascaltlued on Greek trVtOlvrrpiCt/antonymia/ of the Instr- rlr,.rrr l,atrrlterrn god-e case UYS ,,,rr") On lhe one hand, pronouns rcscmble nouns in that they are inflected for number' pronouns sharethe catcgory of pcrsott wrtlt Il.wever' .rrr,l.ltr a limif ed degree,for gendcr';on thc other hand, theso-called weak declension ofadjectivesis identical a small closed (grammatical) class' rvhercas nouns ale a largc w,i1hthat of.w.eak nouns r, rlrs. liurthermore, pronoulls are (3) open {lcxical) class to which we may lreely add ncw oucs' Noun (Masc) Adjccrive (dcrivcd tiom (ireck (Masc) l o analyzc pcrsonal pronouns we have to introduce the notion of dcixis Weak Weak only onc class ,.I ir vtrur /

Latin French rs t,/t t" Sg 2"0Sg ii il ils 'hdb -hok ea eae elle elles Masc -h€ba -hoka id ea I cnr -hEbi hoki Examplesofgendcr dir in the 2n Persmav that the l'' (or 2"J) Pcrs Alto-Asiaricphylum. amonglanguages beronging I lrr. llrst fornt is unmarke{ for gender, the second lbrrn spcoilies ;*::::or rnstance' classical :e l:rnd ro thc Arabichas tlistinct 2"d icrs;;?;. . ,( male and the third form specifies that llie posscssor is l'emale' antlprural: rn bothsi.sular 1,,, '!s()r'is , ll 1r1y contes as a surprise to rcalize that truly geuderless languages are genderless evetl ltt (7) rlr, rr plrrrotninal systems. Examplcs arc comparatively numerous and may bc lounil among 'f 2.dperson \ lr.rrr. I Jralic anclAmerindian languages. urkish (Altaic lamily) nlay be used as an cxanrple: Masc ;;ir,,* |jil; Fem .?anti ?antunna r.,.ri ^ I lo) Singular Plural rersou Masc huwa hum 2ndPerson sen slz Fem hiya hunna 3'dPerson o onlar

Irr Modem Arabic dialcctsthc gendcrtlistinctior ns ln the plural disappeared. (7), Arabic has lrvo fomrs in each o1'thcsc lbur slots. Or rve may colltrasl SyrianArabic is as follows: Thc systcmof \ , slrow,nin Classical tlrr,,'poor' systemwith the'rich' systemsof Latin and Czech: (8) Plural Turkish 2,,dperson ( | l) Latin Czech Masc ;tjf.''- , 3'dPcrson ?onru 3'd Person 3'd Person Fem ?enti / person Sg PI Sg Pl Sg Pl 3'd Masc huwwe ) narure Masc is ii on oni Fem hiyye / I Fem eiL eae ona ony ) o onlar ollo olla Thereasons for this Neutcr id ea J simplificationhave to classicalArabic do with ref hadro use the masculine (lzcch ._, ,;il,";il",T.j1il"T::r":*T:; gendcr-languages,it is ofintcfcst to obscrve that Latin and shorv the typical and l{cruming to oneman"),whereas Modem [)lural (cl" Ne ut Pl vcr|'a "words" ;:r;il"::;11"i:J* SyrianArabic u,",,n. unmarketl lrrtlo-Europeansyncretlsnl of Feminine Singular and Ncutcr grammaricarg"nd., rrrrtlI'em Sg,fEntin-a"woman") even with personal plolloulls' #,1lilfl .'iliT;, 'l'herc problems with pronominal number distinctions in the 1'' Person Whcrcas Arabic'these w'ere rormed "ont.irbil":Tffi T:::fil"n*.J#H],,;l are various from themascu trr" i^*", .,you Again' iioutta (two),, andhuntc ..thcy ..tlrr.cctablcs''is'.table.Itable,ltablg''wecannotSaythat..we('-tlrreeofrrs).,is..Il+I'+I].'. in rererringto thecouple "a (two),,. of manuna u *.onrrr,,or ..two on the basis ofthe to women,,,there was l lrc pronoun |re covcrs basically two distinct groups which can be establisliod gencrer. a clasrr rn thcsecases Modem Syrian ,"::;";:^;:::lr,r;::",*r Arabic usesprurar foms speaker and addressee distlncuon: tmpleof a language makinggendcr distinction pers may mentionAdcni Arabic in rhe l,' Sg ive gender i n S pa nish no, : (i) the speaker-group (- I + he, * hc, . ') but NOI'the lrstcner group; o,,o,*x:." ::i;::}::?;:K; (: you or you an'J gendcr {il:fi (ii) speaker-group (- I or I * he' + he, ") AND the listcncr group distinctionwith posscssivc trui ;;*i.::*:;:*; the pronouns.For insrancr Asiatic he, I he2...)as well. phyrumtr,o,1,."" i*rs or..nry,,anrJ..your,,,;,1:1.:.rr.r$:::'::::"",;,r;rrhe Arro_

It is of interest to llote that ln both cases,one or more 3'd Persons may or may llot be included. grammaticalize this distiuction between two some languages (most notably the Algonkian family) 76 AN INTRODLIC]IION WITH NOMINAT- EI-8MENI'S 11 TO.TIIE STUDY OF MORPIIOLOGY INIII,EC'IIONAL CATEGOzuL'S ASSOCIA'IED

meanlngsof '.we',. f.hus Cree has two 1., person ev-lcr-im "mY houses" plural forms which keep these ll\) cv-im "mYhouse" possibiliriesapart: two basic -in "Your(Sg) house" -in "Your(Sg) houses" houses" -i "his/herhouse" -i "his/her (i) ntrananincludes the speakergroup but exclndcsthc ..I "our hottsc" ev-ler-im-iz "outhouscs" group being addressed: and ov-im-iz he/theybut not you.,, (Pl) houses" This form is calledl",pers pl exclusive. -in-iz "Your(P1) housc" -in.iz. "Your (ii) l{trananawspecifies that both "their houses" the speakergroup and the addressee_group -ler-i "their house" -ler-i "I are rncruded: (andhe/they) and you (andhelthey)". This form is cared .rpers pl incrusive. nominal antl pronominal plural appears tn \rr riltcr.cstingproblem connected with marking for Nevertheress,therc arc languageswhich form theirplurar evlerihas three mearlings: personarpronouns by the simple rfr, l"r l'crs. tlere the single form pluralizingof their singurarcounterparts. As a crassicalexample we does may quotechinese which not prurarizenouns, but doespruralize pronouns.The cantonese ( (i) his/herhouses systemis as folrows: l(t) [ evleri 1ii; theirhousc ( l2) nt;* ..t" \ ngarv_day..we,, ( (iii) theirhouses ..you" nay niy_dey..you,ye,, koei..he/shc,' k6ei_day.,thcy,, (i) (ev'Pl) PossSg (ev ' ler)t (ii) (cv) PossPl (ev)ler l t languagescourd be * anaryzedsimrrarry;for instance, (iii) (e\'+Pl) PossPl (cv r lcr)lcr i lJu"?,ro"l" "'"ic Turkish,as shownin ( I3)

i. Thc curiosityof this systemlics tn f lrefirrm in (iii) *ev+/er+ler+iissimplified into ev]]ler+ (i3) ben.,t" biz..we,, ler+i"thetr" isanomalousifcomparedwith ,.you', rfrelactthatthepossessivesuffixof the3'dPersPl scn siz..ye,, suffix is addedon the right (asusual with rlre1,, and 2nd Person. [n thesepersons the pluralizing o,.he/she" onlar,.they,, the 3'dPets: leA l Flencethe homophonyof rr,'rrns):lrn + ,z, whercasrt is adderlon the left in instcadof *ey"]i r /er). This clashdoes '.lrrs/lrerhouses,, (ev+ler+i)and..their housc'' (ev+/er+i Hcrclhe situationis morec< ina,s,rfnx (es. socuk ;::,ffi";ilT;:HT#i::::J;rJ[ffiffiT" |l(|lcxistinotherlanguageswithsimilarSystcmso|possessivesuffixcs.Forinstance'Persian pronominal (wlrichisoneo|thefewlndo-Europeanlanguagcswithasystcmofpossessivesu|fixes)adnrits prurarizingsuffix"rili';;i -rz which occurs This is shownin (17): typica'y wrth possessivesuffixes: ir pluralizingsuffix on the right evenin the 3'dPerson'

(14) ev nouse "my brothers"' (17) baradar-am "my brother" baradar-an-am ev-lm "my house" (thepossessor "his brothers" is in the singular) barddar-eS "his brother" barldar-ln-e5 ev-im-iz "our house" (thepossessor is in theplural) "ourbrothers" baradar-em-an "ourbrother" barldar-dn-em-1n Turkish may be taken as an exampreof a type baradar-an-e5-an "theirbrothers" where possessivepr,nouns are baradar-eS-an "theirbrother" realizedas suffixes (bound morphemes), 'inguistic whereasLatin an

"mY brothers" (18) fratermeus "mY brother" fiatres mei "our brothers" frdter noster "our brother" frttrEs nostn 78 AN INI'RODUCTIONTOTHE 1g STUDY OI.'MORPHOT-OGY INIiLTC"IIONALCATEGORIESASSOCIATEDWI'fIINOMI]\AI-I]I'EMHNTS

In Latin the possessir be satisficd with obscr-vlng whereasr.urkish,,*r,r,ffi: t', lr,rl". l(' syntax and discottrse analysis; here we have to adjectival intenogativc prollol"lns.It ussian data andits possessive i:J,":;"';,.fij;ilffH.H,fi::irlnH:,,,,,, r,lr, ,1, rr ical tlifferencesbetween nominal and suflix. Contrastthe fi following constrault: ""rilor"r, .,11,r ,rrrrrtltctexample of this ( I 9) Latin Turkish English , Set AdjectivalSet frater | ') Nominal rneus kanleg_im 'l rny brothcr Musc I kot6ryj? fiAtrismei "u kardeg_im_in I t

(20) Latin LEXEME ,rr,.|;rttlccedfromthemtoestablishirrga.natural'senranticbasislbrgendcrinindividual Gender POSS PRONOUN Gender l,rrr1,.rr:rges.ltisclearthatthenon-linguisticuniversecanbeclassifiedinavarietyofways Number major clistinctionsis undoubtedly that of living Number ,I I or(lflrg to various setsol properties.one of the Case C.asc ''|||tlin|atebeings(humanandanimalbeings)versusinanimatethings.Thisistheessenceof as elaborated by lhe neo-Platonic ,,il(. ()l thc most I-amous classifications of the universe T'urkish ((LEXEME + Number)poss + \umbs1) fs5g in I'-igurc 5 i l,lrrlosopherPorphyry, show'n ' and so arc plants Howcvcr' the things (Porphyry's minerals) arc inanintatc lnterrogative' relative lrrorganic andindefinite pronouns exhibit morphologicalsimiiantres rn marly .|.r:si|icatiot.lofanimals(Porphyry'sbrutes)asaninratebeingsdeperrdsctuciallyotrtlre languagcs'ln thc flective In.o-European ranguageswe fin

Theadjectival fotms |(lrtltcr,theyaretoberegardedaSconstnrctsofalinguistictheory.''Cunerrtly,howerer.lirlguists areused if we demandadditionar are intimately linked rvith inforrnationabout animatc in the f'act that universal semantic featurcs objectswhich have bcingsor ,ilc lllore interested alreadybeen mentioned. For to us through their instance,ifrhe discussionis about,.poets,,we ol- individual languages which are accessible may demandadditional ,,,nceptual structures i'formation by asking "which poct is thc bcst (onc)?,,or in Latin lrr.rtpltologicalSystems.Letusascertainwhetherwecanusethesemantic.nrarker,animaletn QutpoEtaest oprimus? However, if .out we wantedto ask of the blue, i'the aboutthe besrpoet (r.e., .lrllrIyz-tngthegrammatlcalsystemoIsumerian(gencticallyisolated)'.l-hcbasicdichotomyoI casewhcn "poet" would the not be give'as the topic by 'persons' vcrsus a group of 'lhings' with the context),we courduse the lcxis is usua.ltyrcfererj to as a group of quis: Quis estoptinus poetu? fo-. Srrrrrcrian "who is the bestpo.tt,'. a firil explanalionof this phenomenon rrrerttbcrshiP as shown in (23)' 80 AN INTRODTJCTION TO TIIE S]'UDY OI- MORPHOI,OGY I NIl-LC fIONAL CA'I-F.GORlESASSOCIAIIiD WffH NOI'lln-r\t' ELF'MliNTS 8t

among substance | |IIr ,r,..il r ,,r A lio-Asiatic languages.Examplcs of such grammatical systemscan bc lbund in'furkish rti rr, ( lrrlkish) orAn]erinrlian (Cree)and Eskimo-Alcut languagcs(lnuktitut.t.'fhus I in translating lront rtr, 1, l,(.rs Dronoun o is used in rci-erringto both male and lbmale beings and in cree lt'D,.r trill,r ,lr rrc have to use "he" or "she" (or "it") according to tllc contcxt. Similarly, epicene , 11,I..:.(.s dll "hc", "she", and "it". lt is ofintcrest to note that in gendcrless languages gendcr, e.g., cal in English r, ., ,..,, ()(.eur oven in the most unexpectcd cascs(epicene - common "brothcr" or "sister''i ,,r rr rfr.rrrrte liollt lom-&tt or (she-)cat).ln I'urkish ktrtlcS may denotc either ktzkunles (litcrally r,, l, lr.l tr)..sistcr"unambrguously we havc to usc kr "girl" in apposition: denote eitlrer "sorl" or organlslrr mineral l, rrr,rft.sibling"). or in Sumerian the epicene lexente tltttnu may we have to use rni "wonlan" in apposrlion: ,/t ,l.rrry,lrtcr.";to refer to "daughtcr" unambiguously cornesfiom Janlero ,/\ .trt,,rrtrttillircrally "fbmale offspring"). An unusual example of this naturc lexeme rzsrtdenoting cither ,/\ rl rr,,lrrlrt.language, Afro-Asiatic phylum)'"r'hich has an epicene ..wotnall".'Ihese using r'vordsarlk "male" and animal Plant Ir,ilr ()r may be referre

tJ-l) crkek aYl hc-hear This dichotomyis imposed on rexisby gramnrar;for instance, pERS.NS digi aYI she-bear onry rnay form thcir plural by the suffix -eze.THINGS or their determiningadjectives haveto be redupricated.It might scemvcry strangethat Sumerian grammartreats animals as TITINGS; \trrrtlat.ly,Latirrcoultlspcci|ytlrenaturalgentlerol.animalsdenotcdbyepiccnclcxeltrcshy Sumeriandichotomy but, obviously, the PERSONS-THINGSis bestcxplainable .soul, rrr,r.s"rttale" and i nct "female": in termsof in that divine anrj Jem animarsoonot. con."quenly, iilllJ1:;,lffilij::,whereas wemay wish to use the pair rHrNGsopposition*",ffi:-;:"jff ()5) vulpesmas "fox" I';'r,;:11*:":T:}'i,,",ffi vulpCsfElnina "vixcn" or "shc-fox' say' English t"lll"lli, is co-extensive'It is of interest "wolf ' to note that gro'ps of pERSoNs lupus colleclive]in Sumerian l+animate may be treatedas THINGS lupaor luPuslemina "she-woll' [+inanimate].Needless to say,attempts u'ork with the categoryof animacy to definedindependentty of a particular doomedo priori. ranguagewould be Allthenounsofmanylndo.Europeanlanguagescanbeclassitledintothreegenders It may come as several grarnmatical phenomena: a surprisethat some grammatical feminine anrl neuter in oKler to account for systemsdo not reflect the.natural, rrr:rsculine, dichotornyof animatc (humanand non-human) beings into male-f-emale.In otherwords, is nothing in them which there would correspondto rhemas-cu'ne-feminine.ichotomy (r) occurrence ofspecific endings (suffixes) of many Indo_ 82 AN INTROD(,ICTION TO TIII S'TUDY OI MORPIIOI-OGY I NI;I,ECTIONAL CATEGORIES ASSOCIAl'ED WIl H NOMTNAL F]LIlIVlFNI-S 83

(ii) adjectivalconcord(agreement) | ,r,,p(.rn lalguages abounclin disagreementsbelwccn linguistrc and non-linguistic worlds. (iii) pronominal referencc l'r,,r r rlrlrl cxamples come frorn Old L,nglish where u,y'"wil'e, womatl" a;ndrno:gtlen "maiden" (il) correspondence to natural gcndcr ,,, l{ ll(.ufcr.(as are their German coutltelparts das Weib and rtlcsMtidchen); among body parts r,,,,,rr "lrrclst" and hEaforl "heacl" were neuter, but v'amb "belly" and eru,t/"shoulder" w'crc ^"t##:il;l,t;:j;.-t."ut pavingatte'lion to alt thesc rourpoinrs wourrr be misreadi'g. l, llrllllll(. particurarrv (nouns fcmale bcings) werc grammatl- impossibretoassisn;;ff;j,',111[,jll'ffj;llnot rcriabre.For inslance, ir is ol lltc other [ra1d, some natural femir-rines denoting of this "virgin". Sinrilal exarnplcscould be clominu.s"lord"rs criterion lf we saythat the ,,rll1 rrr;rscufine'. wlfnrann "woman" and mrzgdenmtLnrl graimatr"attymascurine noun becauseit h languages.lt is signilicant that diachronically these 'illogical' 10make some provisions toaccommodatc rrrrrltrplretlliom all Inrlo-Europcan nouns,tu" #;:T;tt: in essentiallytwo ways. On the one hand. thc language by adjectival *Jl:tffi;::";5ff; \ ,t, 1rs $,cre everywhere 'improved' on concord (n): manus longa,,along hand,,. On the hand, it nlade thc system more 'logioal' by "peasant" other hand, the nounogrtcokt r,,,t rr,l ol'the gender system or, on the other is grammatically mascurine even if it has the samc gendcr' Standard L'nglish rvent in "woman" inflectionar suffix _c asJEtnina , ,,r,rlrlrsltirrglnorc agrcementbetu,een natural and grammalical As these few cxampres show, a

Reference Femiuinc Neuter dominus .,lord" (17) Masculine _us bon-us .peasant" ntalc nrasculine bik krdva telc agntola _a bon-us male mascuiine "bull" "cow" "calf' tEmina "woman', _a bon-a ,.hand" f.emalc l'cminine manus _us long_a lcmininc bcran ovce jehnd "lamb" For the purposes "rant" "cwc" of Latin it was not necessary to deal with criteria (ii) and However,in (iii) separately. the cermaniclanguages the situation is different;here, adjectivar concora klisna hiibd formal in being overridden is purery hiebec by the morphologicalcriterion (i). Thus in old Ilnghsh the noun "stallion" "mare" "foal" *man,:sdg6daytnnann."i:il:iffiq:;!,;:;.::;,ilJ:"#;::::i?ffw-tfirunn..vvoman"shows tl pronomtnal ],ff1; muZ i.ena ditd referencethe noun wlfmawt behaved as femininein accortrancewith "man "woman" "child" naturalgender (it was rts denoted nccessaryLo sayGesuwest 0n hte?..Didyou seeher?,,and no1 hine.,bin,, when referring to a woman). in dialects For instartco' Smalleradjustments on the 'illogical' gendersystem are numerous what is thc notionalbasis for gender assignmentin Indo-E'ropeanranguages./ "horse";tter Pferd is masculinein Yiddish' rvhereasslarrdald known, the As is we,_ Yitltlishrcassigned the genderof three grammaticai gendersn,ur"urirr", fcrninine and neuter found Pferd.tlowever,weshouldbecarefulnoltopushtlris Europeanlanguagcs in lncro- riurrnankeepstheless'logical'neuterr/as reflect the associationestabrished 'rany theuoun by the traditionalgrammar between too far.For instance,it woukl be hardto arguethat Yiddish reassigned naturar gender (sex)and grammaticar typcofreasoning gender.However, as is ..waler,' to the categoryof feminitte. equalrywen_known ail Indo_ ll rr,sser (whrchls neuterin Standardcennan dtts lla.sser') 84 AN INTRODUCTION 'I'HE 85 1O STTJDY OI MORPIIOLOOY INI.I,I'C IONAI-CA EGORIESASSOCIAI'F'DWITIINON'IINAt-I']LENIEN't'S

tlie Was,ser, for sonre d But obviously f,,ll,,\i lllli llolls are feminine: burg"city",cettster"mililary camp"' sclr"col1ty") #;;:T::il#:::: proven by examining other languagcs' J;",:T:t,:1,,j"Jfiili i];ff:: ,t,,t, r , ilr,llliltg universal on that phenonlcnon aScan be [::l*f ;i:,ffi:':J:J:: Montrcul is f,ll,, lilr.frrrramesofcitiesarel-IeuterarrdinCzcchthoycanbelongtoanygender: 'l'o criticize 'illogical' gendersystems morphological critena ofvariouslanguagcs from ,,,,f., rlllrf(..l,rtrltu"P|agtte" is feminine, antl Toronto is ncutcr; in c--zech a universarrstviewpoint that beingscoul

substance ,," /,qdlx\ ./ f iiiiiii\\ / r.iiiiiii:'l / 1.,. uxxxxxixxt \"'.', lx'lxl;:;gl{{*l/-,<.rn ll;l;l;l;l;x;:x:;;1,.r{FFh- ,/\ \iiiiiiilrl/\i*xi f ^xrxxxxxxxxx\iiii:"ii:\ /\,/\ , fiii'iii:iiiiiil anlmatc Inanrmate concrete abstracl \{tlL|iy., book \ milk ktve

non-human dog lnternalPlural External plulal (manyindividuals in a grouP) (rnan1'grttttPs)

Fig. 5.2 Hicrarchy of serlanlic li:atures Fig. 5.3 Plural ofcollectives

collectivcsbehave as massnouns in Engrrsh.rn the latter the sufl'ix ranguageobscr'c that hunrers in Arabic is dual. In Classical Arabic it is fonr-redby use words denotinganimal tendto ADolher numcrical catcgory merl), and fenrinine anrl singularizcd schoororfish an int...,ti'ij;ffi'#J',:';,:^#i:::: ,rr| (ligyptian -En) addcd to both masculinc (ruiul-uni"two "two tr-ees")'It possessesonly onc :"::;:":{":?:":#,,,.rn;:,,:i::, nouns (znwlcl-r7nl) "two rvivcs" and iuiur-ut-dni collectives'In a sense,we may ,,rllt,clive tark about a aoubreplurar paraphrasabre ,.many/various lorms in thc singular (-irr groups"' as -ayni (both genitive and accusativc) vcrstls two oblique shown in Figure 5.3. illrlrrlue forTn Since even singulativcsare pluralizable oblique fonn (dcpcnding we may obtain two -artaccusatlve).The plural may display two or ouly onc differcntplurars with many nouns. r,r.nitive and The systen-rworks as shownin (2g) torEgyptianArabic. ,'r wlrcther it is formed inlema'lly or extemally): (2o1 Singular Plural Dual ,.a (10) Singular Plural Plural Singulativc samak_c ljsh,, samak-at"many,' (inrcmal) (cxlcr'rlal) Collective sanrak ..(a schoolof) fish,, ?asmak "(various ..a typesof) fish, fishcs,, "king" "clerk" Singulative iagar_a tree,, Sagar-at "(a ibw) trees" muluk-un katib-trna malik-ani Clollective lagar ..(a Nonr maltk-un lot of) trees,, ?algar "(diffcrcnr -a1'ni kindsol) trccs,, Cen -ln -itr -tnl .an -an -rna lrYni In similarcases the plural Acc ofa singulative(a countplural) standsin contrastto thc plural ofthc underlying collective (which indicates abundanceor variety and which possessingthe categoty ofdual (lnuktitut' numerals)' is not uscd afterl I lris statc olaffarrs rs paralleleclby other languages ln termsof the singulative iagar-a'.a tree',is regularly of markedncss (cf. 3.3) one expects collcctivc 'rorphology, reratedto the Sanskrit, Ancicnt Greck). ln terms of ur.rivcrsalprinciplos iagur "(a o1)trees" or "trees" in generalby the additionof For itrstanccin Ancicnt Grcck tnasculine (or -e), 'ot the femi'rne sLrffix-a Itwcr fonns in the nlarkcd catcgoriesof plural and dual. This sr.rffixis lcngthenedand + adtletlto Ibrm tht four in thc plural and only t\lo in thc suchas i ag a ra t "la rrounsdistinguisl-r flve lbmrs (wilh vocatrvc) in thc singular, re*.1rrecs" occur mosr commonr; T#':"jJ#:t 'double ;*T::J :";:t'': categoryof dual' This is shown in (31): plural',called prurar ofabundance, nrostmarked is formedby a bascpattern change SaGaRt ..1diffe.ent (.broken,prural): c,ic,iR krnds of) trees,,. 88 AN INTRODUCTION WI'l'H NOMINAL F'I-EMENTS 89 I,O I'}IE STI,TDY OF MORPI{OI-OCY lNILF(--TIONAL CA'flGOzuES ASSOCIAl'hD

(3 I ) AncientGreek masculine ,.man,, nouns(o_stcrns) ,,,i,., lr,t.cl{orne"and Ronutnteo"lgotoRome").[lowcver,notraditiollalgramll]arnlallltalns Singular (basic mcaning) exhau sl s thc Plural Dual rtr rr l.rlx.ll ing cascsby their principal semantico-s;mtactlcfunctions Nom rinthrop-os to speci[y a whole array of 6nthrop-oi anth16p-o r,,r.rlnr(;uring ot-varlous casesand all traditional grammars have Gen -ou -dn -oin .rr|,.trIt;ttYnleaningsinlcngthysectionsdealirrgwithsyntacticandsetlantlcvalucsofcases. Dat -oy itr terms ol'its total meanitrg' lct rts -ois -otn ll, t,rr( (lrscusslngaltempls to spccify thc categoryof casc Acc -on propcfiics (grammatrcal functions) of -ous _o , r,*rrr(. s.me of'the most cornrnon semantlco-syntacuc Voc -e ^: -o ,'r'.r'.|||l-atin.Thetradrtionalparadigmwlthprincipalsenrantico-syntacticiirnctionsof ,rr,lrrrrlrr:tl c,ases is given in (33): Givc'thc seeming universalityof the notion of courrtability it may conreas a sulprse that sor.uelanguagcs do not have t{(} (ilsc Function where th e d is rinct io of a serltencc n,**;:'ffiiT lff i# :TT T* tlominus "lord" Nominative subject numeralbul i?::::,:il:Tj";:ffj,:T: it nray equa'y well be left unexprcsse<'. name of addressee othcr mcansor.cxpressing pluraliry domlne Vocative languageswithout in morphologicarprurar include reduprication Accusative direct object of transitivc verb of the rexical itcm or of.its tlomtnum attribute.F'or instance Malay pluralizes as shownbelow: domini Genitive Possesslon domin6 Dative indirect objt'ct (32) orang orang-orang of dcparture domin6 Ablative (i) point "man" "people" (ii) instruntent perdmpuan pdr6mpuan-pdrempuan woman "women" Startingwiththegenitivc(tlrecascof.possession')itisobviousthatthislabelisfitlingill .r.tltt1rIessuchasdrrnzrstnetputris..myfatlrcr'shouse''where.,myfather''isapossessorandthe Howcvcr'it should be keptin ffrindthat the morphological process .Itrrttsc,,hispossession.Howevet.'rvewillbeintroublciIwctrytousgthelabe[.possessive'in ol'reduplicationexpresses not only nu'erical plurality but alsoother notionssuch as indefiniteness, intensity (,r\essuohasartorpatris.Thisphraseisambiguousandcanbetratrslated(i)"lalhcr'slove"or Exarrples or 4istribution. from the sarnelanguage incrude tujoh orung,,sevenpcople,'(not *tujoh rtrung_orang), {l|)..lovctowards|atlrcr,,.(1.rans|ormalionalCrammarmaintained:th^|(lmorpatrlsinrrrcatting lama-lamadahuru (ii) thal of rtmanuts "rong ago",m,ta "eye" but mata-mura"policeman,,. am.tt "father krves [us]" ancl in meaning Reduprrcationof thc {r) rs a trarrsfonttalion ol'puter attributiveadjective is common tou'ard r.e" and "nly father's in Surnerian:na',stone,,, gar,,big,, ..big raitrer,,l. obviously,..my father's love na-gur-gal stones,,.It is /,,r/,1''lr..we lovc Ior.rr] of interest 'l'ratiitional recognize this to noticethat onry nounsdenoting in the same rvay granlmars THINGS areplura.lizable by reduplicanon, Irorrsc,,canhardly be sarcito bc 'posscssed' denotirrg nouns PERS'NS haveto beplurarizea by ,,king,, thesuffi x -ere,e.g., rugar rugar-ene..kings,,, |,retbyrei.erringtothecasein(i)assubjectivcgenitive(..tlrc|athcrlovcs',)andthccascin(it) cf.5.2.1). .rsrlbjectivegenitive(..welovethefathel');inothcrwords,tlreyrecognizetlredi||eretrtsourccs .,ltIrcgcnitive..l.ouseanotherexample'thegenitivedec:emcutnorunrinaplrrascpuerdecenl 5.2.3Case It|l||()n4|71'lit.boyol'tenyears,.,tenyearoldboy''cannotbelabelled.l,lossessive'.Itsl,aiueis ofthc It was recognizedby ancientgrammarians the genitive expresseshere an attribute a rong time ago that caseis thc most important ,;rruply dcscriptivc ol a certain age ofthe boy; theinflectio'al of categoriesoflhe noun.In a traditional displayofcascs, such as that familiar rrom :;ttlrstantive(notcthatRussianwoulduseanajectiveintlriscase).Ifu'ecxamirredastr|ficient textbooks purely syntactic of Latin,Greek, old Englishor thcre is a basic dichotonry between German,each casc is given a labelwhich trrttttberof exalnples, it would appcar that least suggestsat oue of its semanticfunctions. Thus the nominative wasthe caseassociated wrth gcnitivesandtheoneswithnrorescmanticcontcnt;thelbrmercanbesubdividedintothe (or naming possessive' marking) the sublectof the sentence, into a numbcr of subtypcs such as the dative was the casedenoting the receiver rrrbjective and ob,iectivc g€nitives, thc latter beneficiary or of giving.some linguiststend to disregardthese traditional taxonomies as worthless; rlescriptive,partitive,etc.Thelastmetltioncdstrbtypeofthegcrritive,thepartitivegenltlVe, this attitude,however, is basedon takingcertain .face casesat their varue,(thus it is easyto (|ctlotestolalityfromrvhtchapartistakenout,e.g',libraolel..apotrndoIoil','SeeFigure5'4. how 'illogical'the show Latin casesysten is by singling out examplessuch as accusativeofprace, [,etusexamtnesomeofthefunctiorrsoftheabIativc.]tsnatlc(ub.latustst|rcpassir,c whereLatin uses the sane syntacticcase which is appropriate with transitive verbs:Rontam lxrrticipleo|a-ferro..takeaway,,)Suggeststhatoneofitssemanticftrnctionsislocal(orspattal) 90 AN INTRODLICTION TO TIIE S.TT/DY OF MORPHOI-OGY INFt.l-ICfIONAI-CA'|EGORIESASSOCIAftiDWI.IIINOMINALIILI"MENIS9I

Gcnitive ('ornibustaun sCtltantur "llulls defendthemselves with horns" l.acrimatgaudi6 "l Ie weepsfrom joY" semantlc ablullyusinstfttntetttl fr,r,lrrrrrrrafly.thesearecalledabtafivusquulitdtis"ablativeofquality", (and) some olhers, e g rrr,.lrilrrrental,,and ablativus causae "ablative of cause." These ' "caesar goes lvith all thc army '") r,,ril,rrrtir,(,..with"(asin caesar onutibtrsc:opi'fs pro/iciscilttr.. subjcctivc regardtng objective .,rrPlxrsetl of the instrumental. we may summarize our findings possessrve descriptivc partitive ,rr, to be subcategories with the functions erpressedby the rtr, rrrr.;rrringof thc Latin ablative in Figure 5.5. In dcaling Fig.5.4 lt appears that there is a dichotomy Typesof thegenitive Lrtrn rrhlative an illtercsting observation can be made .abslr.act' (such as conrparisott' tlLIality.causc' rrrr.t.ilthc Inorc (grammalical) l-unctions srnce 1,, thrscase courd cxpress the 'point functions (directton' space' ofdeparture,(i.e., prace ffom rnstrumentality)and the more 'concrete' ('local') fiom which):Rond exeo,,rgo ,r,,,,rr[xriliment Rome" and domouheo "l am leavingthe house".It shourdbe mentioned constructions that prepositionress trrrrr';lltisdistinctron,'grammatical'vs'local"istairlycommoninrnanytreatmelrtsofcase- of this typc were common torvard.grammatical, funclions only with propernames of itr a vanety o|languages. Since Latin gravitates elsewhere citiesand smailerisrands; ,r',|t.rtls lbun

(35 Vir lirtctionwithLatin,nominativeisamisnomcr|orTurkishandthetermabsolutiv€wouldbc ) summ6ingenid behaviorofthe absolute(suffixless) form rrrorcappropriate. 'l'he reason is thepeculiar syntactic "A man of greattalenl,, wlrichcanappcarasbothasubjectofascntcnceanrlanindcfinitcdircctobjcctofaverb,as shownin (37). 92 AN INTRODUCI]ON Lt'EMENI'S TO THE STI]DY OF MORPHOLOGY INIIt,FC'I'IONAL CA I'EGORIES ASSOCIAI'ED \\'ITII NOMINAI- 9l

Ablative parl is laken out talo-a Partitive massor part of a r'vholefrom which a tirlo-na tlsslve sldts talo-ksi Translative changcofstatc tulo-n Instrumental instrument, mcans ahlative Iocative Instrumenlai Local cases Inessivc "in the house" talo-ssa f "fiom (inside) the house" talo-sta 'lnterior' { Elatiue direction origin I "ittto companson space ttme quality I lllariuc thc housc" inslrument cause accompanrntent talo-on "atlnear thc housc" talo-lla f Adessive I l'ig. 5.5 Typesof "from (outside) the house" the ablative talo-lta 'Extcrior' I etrtative "to/towards thc house" talo-lle I Allotiu" (37) ev agrldr "the housewas opened,, (ant1 which are better not classifled as llr'r( irte two morc caseswhiclt arc not local cases cv aldrm r,ililttlatiCal): '.I boughta house,, ' "without the house" talo-tta Abessive The accusativecase can only be usedifthe object is Cornitative "\'!,ith tho house/s" defined(i.e., the accusatrvemarks talo-rncnsa definiteobject ofa verb): thc

(.orriparedwithTurkishtheFinnishsystcmoflocalcasesismorepreciselnmalklng (38) cvi aldrm t'\|}|icitlythecontrastexteriorvs.interior,showninFigure5.6.'I.lris,ofcortrsc,isnotloclairn "I bought thehouse,, "frorr oulside the house" carlnot be madc rlr.rrtlistinctions such as "fiom insi

(40) Antakaa minu-lle pullo vrrttr-d l.ornon6sovbyl velikynlud6nnym (- INSTR) grve me-ALLA'I' boftle wine-PART "l,omonosovwas (- became)a grcatscholar" "Cive me a bottle of wine,,

l lltttrntertt Accusativc " I is to be usedelsewhere' 'l'his is used to rel'er to the distribtrtion caseis morphorogicailyidentical l lrt. torm 'alignment' (cf. Harris & Carnpbell 1995:240) (andactLrally also with thegenitive u,rththe insf rumerrlatl thi, marking' refers in a tteutral way to nominative- .as", tro* ,,| [ r,,r lrlurlogical markers; the 'aligrunent ol'oase singurar).rtis ori'rercsr ro and active-inactive) observetharrhe Sravic ,."rJ;I'jil;T;:ffiilI#l1or","tism cr r rn|ltive, ergative-absolutivc (and othcr pattems such :Lsdouble-oblique of accusative a'd genitivc (with Finnisli) arc of familtar animate ma.culine-nou,rs) ilr, l,rril,,Lragcsrve stu

Ghor-a ay-a RtsCOMMENDED READINGS horsel ABS come tPP - Subject \ll,frl,,(frf,.rorrnM.rg|r.TheGramnrurofCase.crambridge:cambridgerjniversityPress. 11r1rIr11.tIc.JosephR.lg5S.AttotttlitteoftheStrttctureoJ'Shilha.NcwYork:AmericanCouncil In Hindi ergative-absorutive arignmentis usedonry in the past ,,1| carncdSocleltes. tenseand the pcrl-cctaspecl .196g. York: (perfect,pluperfcct ganns, Llnit,ersalsin Linguistit'rlreor1. Ncw and futureperfect); hence the fr,f, ll r,l.rnon w. & Robert T. ed. rabersprit ergative typorogy.contrast (45) with (46)where thenoun "ftend" appearsin thc absolutrve ll,'ll. Rinehaft and Winston' lbrm becausethe pre

tsXERCISES 122) deBardx "Your(F) word" l. Analyze (23) susoOaxl "Your (M) mares" the systemofpossessive suffixes in Biblical Hebrew. (24) malko 'his king" (a) (25) malkan "thcir (Ii) king" How are the sex and tl gendcr (26) sifram "their (M) book" numberorrhe 0",.",;o"J;:;;:in:T*-ili:t;'*'-aticar andthe (27) do0alah "her rvord" (28) malkaxem "Your (M) king" Hint: Beforc answeringthis qr-restio'construct FotJR paracrigmatic "his queens" possessive setsof Hcbrcw (29) melaxo9iw suffixeslor the following categories: (30) sifraxen "Your(F) book" (31 "thcir (M) queen" Possessed posscssor ) malkaOam Sg - Sg pl Possessed - possessorSg (32) melax6y "mY kirrgs" PossessedSg - possessorpl Possessedpl - possessorpl l lrcbasic foms of the abovenouns and therr plural formsare as follows: and specify their sex/genrler distinctio's in appropriatcpersons. Englisli "your" Be carerurr.vith which is four-wayambiguous: ntascSg, Masc pl, F.emSg, Fem pl. milcx "king" malaxlm ,efe, "book" srl-arim [Jsethe following data: malk6 "queen" melixoO "sotrg (l) ..my Sir slnm matki king,, (2) ..their daf3ir "wortl" daParim s[so0eh6n (F) .. mares,, "marc' suso-: 0 (3) Sirexa slsa (4) mcraxooch6m;:Ilil];::l;,,, distributionof morphophonemicvariants oi'the root (5) defJaii ,.my (b) Describethe word,, possessivestrffixcs' (6) .'his (c) Commenton the'leak' in the systemof thc malka0o queen,. (7) ..your (d) Translateinto Llebrew: 5ir€x6m (M) songs,, (8) .,her susa0ah mare,, (9) .,our (33) "our words" molax6nu kings,, (10) .,her (34) "or.rrsong" suso06ha mares,, words" (ll) malk€n[ ..ourking,, (35) "their "your (M) word" ( 12) .,your (36) Sirexern (M) song,, (M) queens" ( l3) ,.your (37) "your deBandn (F) word,, (14) ,.your (38) "our songs" selhrdyix (F) book,, (15) ,.your Sirexa (M) songs,, '). ofpossessive affixes in Coptrc' (16) slsaOin ,.therr Analyze the system (t ) mare,, (17) difJr€xdn ..your (F) words,, the number (a) c thc sex, number and person of the possessor, and the gender and (18) malxexdm ..your Flow al (M) kings,, Note: coptic distinguishes two genders: ..your of the possessedrealizcd morphologically'/ ( 19) mclaxo06yix (F) queens,, "bone" femininc, e'g', ovhe "tooth"' ..your masculine, e.g-, kas and (20) silrexdn (F) books,, paradigmatic set of coptic possessiveaffixes use thc following data: (21) ..your (b) construct the sifrOx (F) books,, .F

r00 AN IN1RODUC--1]ONTO THE STLIDYOF MORPHOLOGY INFLECTIONAL CAIIlGORIIlS ASSOCIATTD WlIll NOMINAI- LLFMFNTS 101

(l) pajor "my father" significant general statemenls regarding the distribution of lour (2) lirrtleavor to nrake pefkot "his basket" pluralizing suffixcs and umlaut, and their interplay u'ith gendcr' (3) pekkah "thy (M) earth" (4) nefkot "his baskets" 'l'ago (l ) Tag "day" (M) (5) penjot "our father', (2) Bach "brook" Biiche (M) (6) peukohit "their fire" (3) Or*el "uncle" Onkel (M) (7) tenk'ii "our hand" (1) Sohn "son" Scthne(M) (8) nenjot "our fathers" (5) "hand" Iilindc (F) (9) Hand tekbo "thy (M) tree" ((r) Otter "otter" Ottcr (M) (10) netinovhe "your teeth" (7) "year" Jahrc (N) (l Jahr 1) roubo "thy (F) rree" (8) Rand "margin" Riinder (M) (12) tesmau "her mother" (9) Vogcl "bird" Vogel (M) (13) taape "my head" (10) I"6we "lion" Lciwen (M) (14) nekehe "thy (M) cows" (M) (l I ) Apparat "utensil" APParate (15) nakor "my baskets" (12) Biss "bite" Bissc (M) (16) nesojk "her breads" (13) Fluss "river" Fliisse (M) (17) teumau "their mothcr" ( l4) 'l'r0bsal "sorrow" Triibsale (F) ( I 8) tesk'id "her hand" (15) Kunst "art" Kiinste (F) (19) refehe nlscow - (16) Tafel "tablct" 1 al'eln (F ) (20) teubo "their tree" (17) Endung "ending" Endungen(F) (21) tesovhe "her tooth" (18) Ente "duck" Entcn (F) (22) nouovhe "thy (F) teeth,' (19) Schaf "sheep" Schafe (N) (23) poujor "thy (F) father,' (20) Bild "picture" Bilder (N) (24) ncnbo "our trces" (N) (21) l{aus "house" llhuser (25) perinlas "your tongue" (22) Schloss "castlcl lock" Schlcisser(N) (26) netinehe "your cows" (23) Fcnstcr "windorv" Fenster (N) (27) tetinbr) "your tree" (24) Kloster "rnonaslety" Klcister(N) (28) poukot "thy (F) basket" (25) Auge "eye" Augcn (t'i-) (29) ncukas "their bones" (26) Oht "ezrr" Ohren (N) (30) nckovhe "thy (M) teeth" (27) Geist "ghost" Geister (M) (2E) Kessel "kettle" Kessel (M) Pl,ral formationin German canbe describedin its interplaywith grarnmaticar "beam" Balken (M) F, gender(M. (29) Ualken N). There are severalplural suffixes (_e,_er, _e.) -en, and.theroot can be umlauted(4 , (30) Grabcn "ditch" Gribon (N1) ri, u t 11,o-r d, au I du). (31) Lelrcr "tcacher" Lchrcr (M) "father" Viitcr (M) (a) (32) Vater Elaborateas many plural pattemsas possible in the fbllowing data. (33) Bruder "brother" Briidcr (M) (b) Reducetheir numberby disregarding.exceptions, (singleoccurrences). (34) Bruch "fraction" Briiche (M) (35) Mensch "ntan" N'[enschen(M) (36) Buckel "hump" Buckel (M) t02 AN INTRODTiCIION WffH NOMINAL ELttMEN'l'S 1.O l,IiE S,fTIDY OIi IVlORPHOLO(iY tNILEC'flONAL CATITGORIES ASSOC'IA fllD 103

(37) Biichse "box" Biichsen(F) rIIt ll-kilabu daxalat "the dogs came iu" (38) Eber "boar" Eber(M) r I ') irl rnar?Atu daxalna "the rvomen came in" (39) liinfahrt "enlrance" Einfahrten1t;1 (40) Einfhil "intrusion" in Biblical Hcbreu'; Einftillc(M) t lsingthe following dataelaboratc the rulesof verbalagreemerlt (41) Glas "glass" GlAser(N) do it scparatelylor the tuture and the past: (42) Graf "count" Grafen (M) (43) Gunst "favor" Giinste(F) ( I) tiSmorha-?iSSa "the womanu'ill protect" (44) Gut "merchandise" Giitcr(N.1 (2) yiqlcll ha-?apo0 "the fathersu'ill kill" (45) I{aar "hair" Haarc (N) (3) baO,tiftohr "daughter'you will open" (46) Ilacken "heel" Hacken(M) (4) ben,tiqtol "son,You will kill" (47) Haifisch "shark" Haifische(M) (5) tilkodnahan-nairm "the womenwill catch" (48) Hahn "rooster" Hrihne(M) (6) yiftah ha-?ap "the fatherwill open" (49) Haile "hall" Hallcn(F) (1) nA5im,tismoma "women,you u'ill protect" (50) t{en "lord" Herren (M) (S) ?cna5im,tiftohu "men, you will open" (51) rlirn "brain" Ilime (N) (9) paOehahab-ba0 "the daughteropened" (52) Itotz "wood" Ildlzer (N) (10) Sameruhan-na5inl "the womenprotcctcd" (53) Floss "raft" Flcisse(N) (11 ) laxadhab-ben "the soncaught" (54) F-loh "flea" Fl6hc(M) (12) qatelnha-?anaiim "the men killed" (55) l'ohlen "loal" Fohlen(N) (56) Flut "flood" Fluten(F) (b) Therearcthrcephenomcnainllebrewverbalagreementwhichareutlknownintlre (s7) Jude "Jew" terminology .Iuden(M) Indo-Europeanlanguagcs. ltlcntily themclearly using appropriate (s8) Jagd "hunt" Jagden(F) (c) Translateinto l{ebrew: (59) .loch "yoke" Jochc(N) (60) Order .'contrrrand" Ordem(F) (13) "sons(= bantnt)'you will kill" (14) "the fathcrprotected" rhere are variousphenomena in atljectivaland verbal "daughter,you will protect" agreemcntfound in the Scmitic (I5) languageswhich arc unknov languages ( "the womenoPcncd" Describeat leastlour of thcm 16) using the rorowing 0"," "r'J;:.::""iT#:'*- 1958): tr. l]erber(Taielhit) spokenin southwestMorocco (according to Applcgate (f ) al-rajulu wasixurr "the man is dirty" (2) al-kalbu rvasixun "the dog is dir1y" ( 1) asif (M) "river" isafir (3) al-mar?atuwasixatun "the womanis dirty" (2) tagiif(F) "palm tree" ligLal (4) al-rijalu wasixuna "the men aredifty', (3) tzihanul(F) "stove" tihuna (5) al-kilabu wasixatun "lhc dogsare diny', (4) amdakul(M) "{iiend" imdukal (6) al-nar?atu wasixatun "the womenare dirty" (5) tamdakult(F) "friend" timdukal (l) al-rajulu daxala "the man camein" (6) agudid(M) "bird" igudad (8) al-kalbu daxala "the dog camein" (1) agadir(M) "fortrcss" igudar (9) al-mar?atudaxalat "the womancame in" (8) adrar(M) "mountain" rdram (l 0) al-rijalu daxalD "the mcn oanrcin" F

104 AN INTRODI-ICTION TO,I]IE SI'I/DY OF MOI{PHOLOGY INF-LECTIONAI, CAl'L(iOzuES ASSOCIAl't]D WII'H NONIINAI, iJLIJMI']NI S t05

(al Describethe formation of theplural in Berber. fipparon "pcrrcil" (b) bcsa What type of affix is used Howdoes marking tr r:ffi1.3;.:ffiTffiJfiln" )r'scrihe ofTurkish'local' cases.[Jse the following data (from l-ervis ",.,n. o,".",, | the semanticvalues l')tr7): 7. Elaboratethe rules of morphorogyoI num erars ill"::TlJff ""Hl govc'ringthc |lo,i"TT:nlll,,',,,"0"., I oeituVe I su-da "in the water" (l) ?issa I ) ?aha0 "one woman" (.)) Rarnazan-da "in Ramadan" (the lnonth of fasting) (2) ?i3 ?ahad "one man" "in (3) ( l) ihtiyarltk-ta old age" Sanayrm kelaBim "two dogs" (l) yirmi yaqtn-da "trventy ycars old" (4) Setayim na5rm "two womcn', ( s fikir-dc degilint "I am not of t'lrisopiniorl' (5) SAloS ) bu fanrn "threecities" (6) Scloia kala0im "three dogs" (7) A blative ?arbaf bano0 "four daughters" (()) gehir.dcn ayrtldt "he departcd fronr the citY" (8) ?arhafa rnclaxrrl "four kings" lll pencerc-dcn girdi "he entercd by 1hc lvindorv" (9) ?arbaf' besim "four eggs" "for that rcason" (10) { lJ) on-dat] ?arbafa fefronoO "four pencils" (9) l-iibnan-dan biiytik{iir "Turkey is bigger than l-ebauou" ( I 1) hemi5ia Tiirkiye ?alj

I )alive (a) "threewomen" ( l3) mektubu Ali-ye gcistcrdirn "l showed the lettcr to Ali" (b) "one father" ( Tiirkiye-ye dtindiiler "thcy rcturned to Turkey" (c) "two queens" 14) ( l5) talebeimtihan-a hazrrlanryor "thc studcntis preparing lor the examination" (d) "threebooks" paid theseapplcs?" ( l6) bu clmalart kag-a aldrn'l "what was thc total amount you tbr (e) "four bitches" (i) "one egg" Vocabulary: (g) "rwo kings" yirmi "twentY" alma "applc" (h) "two pencils" bu "this" al-drn "Youbought" (i) "live women" degilim "l anl not" mektub "letter" 0) "onc pcncil" ayrll-dr "he deParlecl" gdster-dim "l shorvcd" "theYretumed" talebe "student" Vocabulary: dtin-dij-ler hazrrlan-Iyor "he/sheis preparing" ..dog,' kelep ?ap "farher,' fir .,ciry,'(Fem) malka "queen', baO 'daughter" sdfer "book" (Masc) ..king" melek kalbA "bitch" F

INILEC]TIONAI- CATLGORIES ASSOCIATED WI'LH VERBAI, ELI]MEN'I'S l()7

Morphology Noun Verb (irammar CHAPTER SIX Syntax Subject Predicate 1NI,'LECTIONAI,CATECORIES ASSOCIATEDWITH VERBAL ELBMENTS [,ogic Agcnt Action primary 6,7 Verb as a Grammatical Cstegory As establishcdunder 5. r . r , the verb could be grammatical and logical categones defi'ed asa primary grammaticarcategory the Fig. 6.l Oorrespondencebctween domainofwhich incrudcssecon

However,in thc contextwhich Greek is suitableto pronominalsubstitution, such as in answering (3) English Lattn qucstion the Quidfecit lottnnds"what did Johndo?", the epainein strategiesof Englishan4 Latin will (to) Praise laudare differ. Comparethe answersto question: (Aorist), ep€ynck6nai (Perfect) this (to) have praised laudavisse (Perfect) cpain6sai epaineisthai (Passtvc) (to) be Praised laudan (2) He ran away. Efligit. Theperfectinfinitiversrealizedsynthetically'i'e''bymeansofinflectionsinLatinand passivc:epEvnethdnai (Aorist) and (ircek (in Greek there afe two other infinitives in the In this case, Latin displays morphorogicar predication, which may be defineti as a cpOynasthtti(Per|ect),cf.(6))butbymeanso|thegrarnmaticalauxiliaryftaveinEnglish'The predicationwhich takesplace within the systcm ofthe of the gramrnaticalauxrliary be in English' Latrn verb. The Latin vcrb, in contrastto oassivcinfinitive is realizetlanalytically by means F-

108 AN INTRODUCTION I'O lHE STI,TDY OF MORPIIOLOGY INFI-EC'IIONAL CATIGORIITS ASSO(IIA'I'DD WII H VERBAL L'l-EMITNTS 109

All theselanguages allow for the aspectuarcontrast Nominal Fllements cvenrn thepassiveinfinitive. Thc systemmay English be porlraycdas a doublebinary opposition:

(4) non-Perfect Perfect Active (to) praise (to) havepraised Passive (to) be praised (to) havcbeen praised

The Latin systemmay be diagrammed simirarlyand it is of interestto observe formation an anary,tic in the perfect passiveinfinitive (where Englishhas two grammatical auxiliaies andbe): have case gender numDer contpailson

(5) Infectunl perfectum Quasi-Nominal Llements Active laudare laudavisse Passive laudan laudatumesse

Greekdistinguishes thc perfective(Aorist) and retrospective (perfect)infinitives (seernore Paniciplc (Vcrhal Adjecrir c ) under6.3.3) andrealizes all thcscdistinctions synthcticaily:

(6) perfective Imperfective Retrospcctivc Active ePainein epain6sai ep€1,nek6nai Passive epaineisthai epainethenai erreyn6sthai

gender number case comParlson aspcct A parallelsituation exists in the participre in Engrishand Greek.English possesses four fomts Qtraising,being praised, havingpraisecr andhaving beenpraised)and Greek six lbrms: Verbal tilements

(7) Imperfcclive perfecrive Retrospective Active epalnon epain6sas epeynek6s Passive Vcrb epainolmenos epainetheis epEyn€m6nos

Latin docs not possessthe aspcctualcontrast ofperfectivity in its participial system:lauddns "praisirg" is an activeparliciple andrautrdtus.,praised,,its passivecountcrpart. tsut Latin (and alsoGreek) has participles which havc modalmeaning. Thc so-calrcdfuture participre (rormed cunouslyfrom the passivebase by the suffix -ur-us:lautla+-ir-us) isusedonly with the auxiliary r tliec e.r.re"to be" in phraseswhich imply 'volition' person number tcnse aspect mood on the part of the speaker.They correspondto Engfish phrases"going to", "be about ro": .,r scrtpturussum means,.rintend to write,, or am going to wnre". FIosEsbeilum irtatirt erant ..The catcgorles maybe translated enemywere likery to make F'ig. 6.2 Primary and secondary grammattcal wtn"' The so-calledgerundive (forme

I l0 AN INIl,lclflONAL CATEGORIITS ASSOCIATED WfrFl VF'RIIAL ILI]MLN fS il1 INTRODIJC'I'ION'I'O ]'HE STIIDY OF MORPHOLOGY

(i) the aclionwhich wilr ( ll)) Nom laudarc be donein the future(i.e., the temporarcaregory ol.futurity); (ii) the action which shourdbe done(i.c., the modalcategory of Gen larrdandi necessity); 'laudando (iii) the actionwhich is underway (i.e.,the aspectuarcategory ofprogessivity). Dat Acc laudare ^ ad laudandunr Themodal meaning is themost .,we Abl laudand6 conlmon,for instancenobts eundum esr haveto (or.lght lo) go", memorionobrs exercenda "we esr have to train our memory,,, erc.rn hts librts regenits "by gerunds (r'erbal nouns) T'l-redative ol'the infinitive is quile readingthese books" the third mcaningcan be cxemplilied. l lreseoblique cascs arc called pay" (lit I arn not to Let us nou'examine the nominal r,rr,.,il occurs in constructions such as non sun soh'endo "l catrnot Iup] categoriesof participlesand infinitives.As mentronetl such as inlartcrs above,inflection for gender the other han<1,thc ablalive is quite comnlon in adverbialphrascs may be limitedin participlcs.Thus in Latin, thc active participre 1,,r1rrrg).On is "tired by (from) talking"' As not in{lectedfor threegenders, r, rt,!t),'by(from) sustaining the injustice" and tleJbssustllcendo whereasthe passiveparticipre, the future participle a'd 1, t6e phrase verbally (as above) gerundivearc: r,. rrcllrknown, English has the option of constructing the gcrundial (as above) or a passive , ,r rl{rrninally "by sustaining ol' the injustice". Latin has an activc option (8) gerundive has to be used. It is of iutcrcst to note that Greck has PresentParticiple Passiveparliciple Futureparticiplc ,1ttrlt tnitu.i-uferztrlrs',rvhere the Gerundive oases' Masc \ with Latin inilnitival inllection by means of the gerund itr obltque laudat-us laudatur-r.rs laudand-us rr,rtlringcomparablc _l article to (gentive tori' dative fenr laudhns r ,r()ekinflects its infinitrve sirnply by inflecting the preposedneuter I "not to obey" would be Neuter J - nominative ro1. Greek uithEs tuti hupakotiein used -um -um -um /,,r.. accusative An example of the dative: NikEson rrrrrrslatedby the gerund in Latin: ntsuEtus oboetlientlt. " Grsek, on thc kalos "Wtt'r over wratl.tby correct rcasoning other hand, inflccts unfailingly ail its six participres,evcn the presenl ,,rRcn tq, logidzcsthai participle, for thrccgcndcrs: V'erbal Elements tt.3 Secondary Grammatical Categories Associoted with (9) Latin Greek h.\.1 Person and Deixis Masc l eparnon Thecategoryo|.personisdefir"rabler,vitlrrcfcrencetothcnotiollo|participatirrninthe *l of by the speaker to refer to her/hinrsclf as a subject I em ) laudans eparno0sa rliscourse: the first person is used when spoken to about her/hirr-rself;the third Neuter J epaino0n rliscourse; the second person representsthe listener the speaker and acldresseeTcsntcre person is usc

n2 AN INTRODUCTION TO.t.HrrS.rt.rDy OF MOl{pilOLOcy INFLBCTIONAL CAI'EGORIES ASSOCIA'lED WITH VERBAL ELITMEN'lS 113

(12) Sg I gel-iyor-um Person "I anrcorning" (-iyor: progressive 2 aspect) -sun "you are coming" 3 -g "he/she/itis coming"

Paradoxicaty,in Englishit is the t dcfinite negativcmember of thecategory of person + definite ovenly whrchis marke

tt4 AN INTRODT]CTION Wrf]l VFRBAI' EI-]IMFlNTS 115 TO'i.IIE S'I,LJI]YOF MORPHOI,OG\ INFI-IICTIONAL CATEGORIIIS ASSOCIIA'l'ljD

"the following proposal",this proposal Latin S I,)nglish S which he is about r.omention (new rnfbrmation). Similarly, in Ancient Greekhotre ho /rigosmeans .,the folrowing word,,whereashoutos ho rogos means"the aforesaid word". 'fhc threemembers ,,Lhis,,, of thesystem arc: hoilros horte,,this,trrat,, eketnos"that". 'l'radilionally, personhas been rcgardcd asa categoryofthe verb sincei' flectrvelanguages it is markedby the personalsuffixes. Since L,nglishand spoken French are poor in this rcspect we may profit from examiningricher morphological systemssuch as thoseof Latin and l.urkish.

(15) Latin Turkish V PRO PRO V ..1 love Sg I am-o sever_im love., urn- -o I _As ..you 2 _sin love,, ..he/shc try pronominalization 3 -at -A lovcs,, Fig. 6.4 l" Sg derived

finglish S l-atinand rurkish (andmany other [.atin flectivelanguages) in contrastwith Bnglishand French n do not needanall'tic specification of the subjectsince they rely on morpliologicalprcdication. .l.o /\ say"l loveyou" in Latin i1is enoughIo /\ sayft omo,or in Turkish"serti severint.rf we specriythe subjectby usingthe independent pronounegd (.orben in I'urkish)the meaning ot-ego /\ te amo V wouldbe different The speaker V PRC) PRO in thiscase emphasizcs that HE (or SHE) lovesthe addressee in -0 I tttYt contrastwith someonewho doesnot um- love(or hates,etc.) the addressee.fhis contrast,o|course, may only be implieda:rd not realizedlinguistically. Thus we may translateego E omlertherby Fig. 6.5 DceP PRO usmgsentential stress "l loveyou" .,I or by a so-calledclefted sentence am the one who loves you" Thelattervcrsiollmightbcpreferablewhenthecontrastisrealizedlinguistically asinegr) E amo non.frater tuus "It is I who loves t|,'\tiJy.''|ntestlllonles'oarhs,etc.butthislepresentsanothertypcoIdiscortrsc..I-hus,itis you no1your brother!".Given rhesedifl'erences in as basic, not derived from considcr pcrsonal pronoul)s and other deictic elements discoursestrategies of analytic(English-type) |rclbrablc to and synthetic(Latin{ypc) languagcs,we may universal and that we cannot lmaglne a NP. Let us renrind oursclves that pronouns are wonderwhether there are similar differences I tleep in what is calledunderlying or deepstructurc. It adjectives or afticles' without pronouns' whcreas thcre arc languageswithout seemsthat thcsediff'erences are here llnguage non-existentsince in both caseswe haveto postulatean abstractpronominal elenrent PRO (determinedwith respectto personand number)which is the (t.1.2 subjectof thc vcrb, as shown Tense in Figure 6.4. It might be temptingto talk abouta prononrinal (Latin temptts is calqued 'rhe term tense goes back to the l-atin *'ord lernpnsmeanitrg"time" element'replacing' the subject(or NP) to obtainmore unrversaldiagrams than the usualS + for labelling time-t'elationswhtch arc lcftrr.rnr-rs).Since antiquity, rhis terln has been usecl NP+VP,as shorvnin Figure6.5. on Greek as Latin luutlabat "heishe ptaiscd" vs' laudut exprcsscrJ by systematic grammatical contrasts such However,this would be a controversialproccdure. First of all, pronounsas deictic elements ..hc/shcpraises,,,orEngltsh(I)klvedvs.love.Jakobson(1957)characterizedtenseasadcictic depe'd o' olher elcmentsin discourse. Thc first personis used by the speakerto refer to her/himselfasa subiectofdiscourse, cat€gory,(ashil.ter)whichputsthenarratedeventinreferencetothespeechevent.Sincethe the seco'd personto refcr to thc licarerwhen (or event or state) can be spokento always 'now" the tense ofthe narrated action abouther/himself; on the time ofthe utterancc is otherhand, the third personis usedto referto persor.rsor things (present other (past or 'after-now' (future time), or'simultaneous-\vith-now' than the speaker and oithcr 'beforc-now' tlm(]) hez*er. The repracementof the subject by pronouns (linguistic pronominalization), in the realm time)'Hcncc,thetypicaltlrrce.wayanalysisoftensewhichprel'ailsinmanytraditiona]grammars of what is spokenabout is quaritativerydifferent from ofvariouslanguages:Present,Past,Futurc.Evensonrclinguists(e.g.JcsperseninhisPhilosophy assumingthe role o1 the subjecl in discourse.To exempliry this statement,it is a normar representativeof the 'natural' division of tirne of Grantmar,l929) behcvcd this trichotomy to bc procedureto pronominalizein casessuch as .Iohn came , he came burin I cantethe tirst person that this trichotonty' shown in (16) ts 'present', 'past' and 'futurc' It is also noteworlhy (subjcctof discourse)cannot be replacedby the noun../c,in. into of course,we may sayI, John sntith, 'now" 'bcforc' and'aftcr'' reflected nicely in the system of a

I -_

r t6 AN INTRODUCTION,TO I'}IE S'N/DY OF MORPIIOLO(;Y INFLITCTIONAL CA'|EGORIES ASSOCLATED wITII VIRI].{1. EI-EMLN'l S \17

(16) belbre now ;,, r lt'r'tivc and imperlective should no1be confused with perfectum and infectum, tems used by I'AS1' \r, r(.n(grammalians for similar notions referring to complction of action or process. Thus the PRESIINT FIJI.URL | ,rtrrrvolbal systcm may be analyzed along the follou'ing lines: Thus Jespers'r talks aboul the past as before-now and thc future as after-now. prinrarl distinctions ( 19) Aspect ofthe past and future are then subdivided 're by means ofa secondary application ofthe notrons'bcfore' .after' Tense Infcctum Perfectum (past) and future): Presett{ uttto amivi (17) Past atttabarn atndverent I ttture amdbo atnavcro

PRF,SENT IJ[J' It_L 'before' 'aller' I here are tlree binary conlrasts in this paradrgm: 'befbre' 'aller' plupcrfcct pre-presenl future perfcct futurc (therc are olher ( | ) aspectualcontrast: perfect vs. nonperfect. Marking lbr thc pcrl'ectis -v Thc result is a seventerm notionaltense-system, which is suitablefor the analysisofthe types of marking for thc samc category, nrost notably -s, and reduplication); relative aspect(or anteriority) in pre-prcsent termsolits Pluperfect, and Futurci)erl.ect. (ii) temporal contrast: present time vs. non-present time. Marking for non-present is -b in thc non-perfect forms arld -er in thc pcrfcct lotms; 6.3.3Aspect (iii) temporal conlrast: experienced (past) time vs. non-experienced (future) time. This It is fundamentalto distinguishbetwecn tenseand aspect.Both are concernedwith time conlrastopcratcs only for non-preselltlintc. (both aredesignators in Jakobson'sterms) but in diffcrcnt ways. whercas,as pointetl out above, tenseis a deicticcategory which lelates 'fhe tlre l'' and the timc of thc acrron(or cvcnt or statc)to the time of morphological marking is less oonsistent and may lre best dcnlonslratcd for utterancewhich is 'now" aspectis concemed with representingdifferent positions of the subject .'"''Clonjugation. Consider the paradigrn ofthc l" Conlugatton: rvithinEvent rime' Putdifferently, aspectis concemedwith the intemaltemporal constituency ofthe cvcnt (situation-internaltime), whereas lense,as we saw above,allocates event wrthin the (20) Past Future coverof Universal Time. Sgl arn-a-b-a-m am-d-b-o Usingverlical lines to representthe initial and final limits of an evcnt,wc rnay discernfive 2 -a-s -l-s positionswithin Event Time: 3 -a-t -l-t Pll -a-mus -i-mus (r8) AiB--.---'------..-.c -._..-.--DlH 2 -a-tis -i-tis Prospectivc Inceptivc progressrve Perfect.ive Rctrospective 3 -a-nt -tl-nt

PositionA represcntsprospective is aspect(Iwirt wrire,Turkishyaz-uca{-rm);Brepresents In the majority of forms (2nd and 3d sg, lu and 2"d Pl) thc contrast Past vs. FuLure inceptive (RussianTcv.i-p ju"I will the marker drink (: emptythe glass)"); c representsprogressive or itlentifiablc by thc contrast -4 vs. -i. These contrastivevowels occur irnmediately atler imperfective (I am wriring,Turkish yaz-ryor-um); D reprcsents Traditional grammars talk rather perfective(Russian ja ry-pir,.1 lbr non-present time in the system of the non-perfect aspecl. drarrk(= emptiedthe glass)"or Greek analyzablc. 'aorist, eJu-s-a,,I solvcd"); and E rcpresentsretrospective lboutlmperfect and Future cndings -r7svs. -rs';ho'nvever, it is obvious tllat tliese are (traditionalperfect: I havewritten or may bc Greekgd-graph-a). B, c, D positionsrepresent immanent l'hus the whole Latin system of aspcct and tense in tetms of its morphological markers aspects(interior to the event),while A and E represenrtranscendent aspects (exterior to the ropresentedas shown in Figure 6.6 (thc final -/ marks the 3'd Sg)' event). Let us examine some simple exarnples for the values cnumerated above' It is ofintereslto observe thatthe term aspect is a translationofthe Russieurword vld (lrom videt"'see,view") and it was usedfor the first time in the analysisof Russianand other Slavic languages:soveriennyj perfective - andnesoveriennuj r)id = imperfective aspect. The terms

I 119 INFLECTiONAI-CATEGoRIITSASS()ClA.IF]DwIl.HVLjltl]A|,F-l-I]]\,{IjN,|S lr8 AN INTRODLICI'ION TO TI{E S'I'UDY OI, MORPHOLOGY

used with specification of Ir rs rvell-latown that in English the present perfect may not be hand' the to say */ have seen lhu! ))esterda.)';on the other f,,r..r rllilc. Tlius it is irnpossible flm to that Bill is leuvittg is acceptable, although recentl)'refcrs ;rrr fr.tI in I have recenlly learned type of incornpatibility of the perfecl with ,"rrr lx)int of time in the past However. the English instance,in Spanishthc- pcr[-ect may co- ,r,lr,.r5ialsol pastrime is far from being universal.For (Perfecl) ay'e.7...se ha eslrelludct non-Pcrfect Perfect ,,, r lll with arjverbs of'past time: Guslctvctf'erran ha muerto -g -v '||||,111(,et.llosmonlesrlettteve..GustavoFcrrarrdicdyestertlay.-'hecrashedlastnightonthe .llr mountains" (Stevenson, 1970:62)' '\\ covcred georbcitet (Perfect),butttts ,/\ ,/\ Sirnilarly,itispossibletosayinGerman Gesternhabeithviel ,/\ 'l *l (Perfect) nruchyesterdit.t'' his restriotion on the co- ,/\ /\ rrrrlrrrssibleto say in English have worked non-Present Present be furthcr investigated in a varicty ol' Present non-Presenl rr(( r|il.enceof temporal adverbs and thc pcrl'ect should -b -g -i -er may be exenrplifietl with the following l,rrrl],uages.The contrast presenttime vs' non-prcscnt time n .tm-.Fl um a-v-i-t ,/\ | ,rllnscntences: ,/\ ,/\ (23) Domum suam aedificat ast Futurc Past Future "He/she builds/is building (his/her) house" -a -t -t aedificabat am-A-b-a4 am-a-b-i-t am-d-v-er-a-I am-a-v-er-i-t Domum suarn "He/she built/was brrilding (his/hcr) house" l'ig. 6.6 Latin systemofaspecl and tense Domum suam acdificabit "Heishe will build (his/her) house" (21) i. Dornun aedificat"hc buildsiisbuilding (his) house" .l.heretsrroSpacelnanintroductorybookonmorphologytodiscussthervidevatietyofletrse- ii. Domum aedificavit"he built/hasbuilt (his) house" Ncvcrtheless' we may be interested in cxanlining ;rsl)ectsystems found in drfferent languages' system of that of Latin. contrasted rvith Latin' the The first senlence with the imperfective verb aedificat suggests an incomplete event brrctly a rnore complicated systcm than perf-ecttve called aorist, \44lichtnay be analyzed as a (sornebody'sbuilding activity takesplace in the very momenl of the narrator'sutt€reulce). It may Arrcicnt creek exhibits an additional form, "solve" as an exrmplc: be bcst translatcdinto Englishby the progressiveform "is building". The eventis simply in .rspccl.Lct us use the rerb /rio progressand it will last for sometime after someone'sutterance has come to an end. On the other Perfective Retrospecttve hand,the secondsentence with the perfectaedificault suggestsa completedevent at the time of (24) lmPcrlbctive l[-s-o (Futrrre) l6-lu-k-a(Perfect) the utterance(somebody's building activity wcnt to its end beforethe narator's utterance).It is Non-past li-o (l'resent) 6-lu-s-a(Aonst) e-1e-l[-k-en(PltrPerfect) usuallysaid that this form (calledtraditionally perfect) covcrssimultaneously the perfective Past c-lh-on(Imperfect) aspectand the presenttime reference;in semanticterms, that it rclatesthe presentstatc to the past event.To demonstratethis point,we may considerthe fbllowing pair of Englishsentences: Conrpared\\,iththeLatlnsystemo|twoaspectsandthreetelrses,theCreekparadigmhasto beanalyzedasconsistirrgol-theeaspectS:theimperlcctivc,pcrf.ccliveandrctrospectivc;andtwo by partialreduplication; the aoristby the suffix (22) i. I havelost (Perfect)my wallet ronses:non-past and past. The perfectis fonled ii. I lost (Preterit)my wallet -'r.Tcmporalcontrastnon-pastvs.pastismarkedmorplrologicallybytheoppositiono.vs. augmcnte-(plustliil'erentpersonalendings).Itissurprisingtoseethe|trtr'rrelistedrrrldcrthe The first s€ntencesuggests that my wallet is still lost, whereasthe secondone wilh the simple pcr|ectivcaspectbutthismaybejustifie

I F_ l

(IATIIGORIES ASSO(]IA l [lD WITH VERBAI. ELI:MH\l S l2l 120 An- INTRODIJCTION TO INFLEC'I'IONAL I TIIE Si.UDy OF MORpHOLOcy

Creekaspects much the sametask as the Russian prefixesused to perfectivizethe non-pasttense and thus rcl'cr to the future;compare Greekgrup-s o "r will write" with Russianja ntt-pii-u. The traditional term aoristis takenfiom Greek aoristos(meaning "unbounded, unlimited, wrquarified,').we may best understand the meaningof the aorist vis-i-vis that of the perfectand lhe imperfbct.In vielv Anclent Greekthe aorist internal view external denoteda simplepast occurrence ofthe eventwhere the slbject ofEvent Time is in positionD (perfective aspect).The perfect,on the olher hand,6enoted past cvcnts rcsultingin the present statcwhere the subjectis in position E (rctrospectiveaspect). For instancc. lhe perfectpepoiEke tofito could be translated"he has (already)done this" (1hepast event with presentrelevance), whereas ,.he pcrfcctivc retrosPecuve thc aoristepoidse toito meanssimply did this',.If we want to impcrfective cxprcssaspectual qualifications -DiE suchas progressivity or habitualitywe haveto use the rmperl'ect \lrr."'--"'----"'--"--'--c (Aorist) (Pert'ect) epoieitotito "he wasdoing (lmPerf'ect) this" or "he uscdto do this". Traditionalgrammars maintain that thc aorrstnarrates the e'ent whereasthe imperfectdescribes it; more importantly,both arc Immanent aspccts, !-ig. 6.7 GreekasPects whereasthe perlect in viewirrg the event externallyis classifiedas a Transcendentaspect. 1'his is shownin Figure6.7. It is ofinterest (2(r) AncientGreek Indicativc and Imperative 1oobservc that the tense-aspectsystem ofModem Greekis csscntiallythe same(tn 2,d Sg 2tuPl terms of oppositions)even if pcrl'ectan<1 future fbrms were replacedby ;uralytrcal lbrmations(the perlect is nowadays Indicalive leiPeis fonnedby meansof the auxiliaryixo,,have', and the futurc ] tcip"tc J by da "will"). We may usethe verbpldzo,.play',as an examplc: Imperative leiPe

the pastls the imperativefonrs carryno ovefi indicationoftense; (25) Imperfectrve Perfective Retrospective tt is no coincidencethat Prescnt pedz-o pek-s-o(modal fomr) 6x-o pdk-si rrr|c

-' -

t22 AN VERBAI- Ill'l'MF'N1'S INI'RODTICTION TO 1}IE S'TTJDYOF MORPHOT,OGY INI;l ECT1ONAI- CATEGORIES,\SSOCIA'I'ID Wnli 123

As far asthe aspectualcontrasts are concemed, ( tl imam (Acc) dehi "Cive me her!" thcscare possible in the imperalivebut aft ) Mahyam not particularlycommon. As in the (Nom) "May she be given 10 mel" indicative.Ancient Greek allows for a threc-wayaspectu,l Mahyam iyanr diyatam contrast:Present (: imperfective)_ Aorist (: _perfect perfective) (_ retrospective);cl the ficrms 'fhe in thc maitr of theverb leipein'leave'in the 2"d Ss: Suh.junctivc scntcncesare another subset oijussivc scntonces. suhjur-rctive is called , l,rrr:c is mosl typically used to express rvish and the subjunctrvc in this tunction (29) sulrjunctive AspectualContrasls in the AncientGreek Imperative ilptutive. In English we usc the s-less form in the 3'd Pers Sg and in French the Indicative lmperative | \\ rllr()ut{le): Present leipeis leipc (imperfective) .,leave/bclcavrng!,, "youleave/areleaving" ( ll) Lor)g live the Queen! Vive la rePublique! Aortst elipes fipe (perfective) "you left" ,.lcave!,, I r:,crlwith que in rhe3"r Pcrs, the subjunctive expressesa demand:

Perfecl l€loipas t6loipe (34) Qu'il ecnve. (retrospectrve) "you havclefi" lit. haveleft! "May he writel"

I'Russian wc also subjunctive expressesa polite prohibition: find the usualaspectuar contrast imperibcrive - perfectivein the imperative: l lsctl with the negatrve particle in the 3'd Pers, the

(30) Imperfcctive ..drink pij v6dku vodka" (35) Qu'ils ne le fasscntPas Perfcctive vlpij v6dku "empty (this grassoi) vodka" (lit. haverlrunk) "MaY theY not do it!"

As far asthe category indignation: of personis concemed,it is implicit in thenotion of commandrlgthat ln the 1" Pcrs the subjunctive may express the commandis addrcssed to the personwho is cxpectedto carry it out. In other words.the subjectofan imperativesentence normally refersto the addrcssec.However, many languages (36) Que jc vicnnc ir cctte heure'/ posscssa third-person imperativewhich is typicallyused in a rnorepolite style, since the third- "That I would comc at this hour'j" personlmperatrve typically requiresan intermediaryto transmita command.Examples of the third-personimpcrative Pers, the subjunctivc cxpresscs a wcak negative areavailable from AncientGreek and Sanskrit;their forms of the vcrb ljsed with the negatrve particle in the 1" "to carry" are contrastedin (3 I ): assertion. Contrasl thc following minimal pair of sentences:

(31) 3'Person Imperativesin AncicntGrcck and Sanskrit (37) Jc nc sais rien (strong negattve assertlon) Ancient Greek Sanskrit "l know nothing," 2"dPers Sg ph6r-e bhiir-a "carTy" Je nc sache rien (weak negative assenlon) 3'dPers Sg pher-eto bhiir-atu "may hc carry" "I know nothing."

Anotherpiece clauses, whosc full tlcatlncnt bclongs ofevidencethat the subjectofa jussive sentencecontaining an lmperatlve The sublunctrve rs uscd in a variety ofsubordinate "to docs not have subjunctive ifthe main clause cotrtains thc verb to coincidewith the adtlresseeis suppliedby the passiveimperative. Thus in to syntax. Thus in French we have to use the Sanskritwc havca choiceofconstructing the command in the activeor in the passivevorce. the wish": latterlypically in a morepolite style.Contrast: 124 AN INTRODUCT'iON TO I'}IF, S'I'TII)I.OIr MORI'IIOI-OG'r INF-I,EC'I'IONAL C]A'IIi]GORILS ASSOCIAl'ED WTTH VERBAI- EI,EMEN'IS 125

(38) Je veux quevous le fassr.ez. llrc past forms of the subjunctive are used most typically in hypothetical judgements (i.e., "I want you to do it." lior example, one may rlr',,{. lrdgements which are qualified in tenns of possibility). In Latin, , rrr rtr 1st the real wish lcutdet "may he praise" (the present subjullctive) or lautla'erit "ntay hc 'l'he subjunctive has to bc usea in a variety realizable (irrealis): of subordinateclauses (finar, consecutive lr,rre praise<1"(the pcrl'ect subjunctive) with the rvish whicl-ris not conditional, causal)alier their specilicconjunction:

(.12) Si rne laudarct, amtcus meus cssct (Imperfect) (39) It estcontenr queje le lui aiedit. "If he praised me, he would bc my fricnd" "Hc is satisliedthat I havetold hirn.,, Si me laudavisset, ar.nicusmeus fitisset (Plupcrfect) "lf on'ly he had praised rne, he would have been rny friend" In temls of r'orphology, Romance ranguagespresent iirll-fiecrged sub-systems subjunctive of the thatare typically organized as their "he indicativecounterpafls. Thus in l.atin we lind I lr( sccond scntcncc strongiy implics that did not praise me"' contrasts the past- non-pastand perfectum infectum - in thc subjunctive.contrast the non_modar (indicative) and the modal(subjunctive) fonns ofthc verbrcuttJare,praise, in the 3,dpers Sg: rt \ 5 l/oice (i) 'l'he term voice (vox) was originally uscd by Roman grammariatrs itt two setlscs: in thc (40) LatinModal Fomrs (from ,,(,nseof 'sound' (translating the Greek phonE "sourrcl"), hence the tenns 'vowel' Latin Indicative lnlcctum pcrlccrum trtnusvocalis)and 'voice' (the cffect ofthe vibration ofthe vocal cods); (ii) and in the senseof Present laud-at from -avit tlre 'form' of a lvord as oppose

121 tNIll,['C.I.IoNALCATEGoRIESASSoCIA'I.ljDwITIIVERBAI,F),EIvlI1N.fS t26 AN INTRODUC'I'ION TO TI{E S'fTJDY OI; MORPHOI,OGY

voice called verha deponenlia ,,f ir(.c can be realized wrth thc vorbs which occur in the mi'Jdlc agentis affectedby the action(the speakernormally hears himselfthrough total fee4back;the \ passive participle has als

(43) Das Buch wird geschrieben (German) "'Ihe book is (being)written" l.|risanomalyintheparticipialsystcmwassolvedduringalaterdeveloprrrentofRomance |,rttllttageswhentheauxrliary..have''+.passiveparticipleinthenleanit-tgofthcactll'e r..Iltrspeotiveparticiplervasintroduced.FlenccFrcnchdevelopedtheanalyticalparticipial Yah kirab likhi gai (Hindi) *huhAns w'hile in l-atin we cannot say luud'7tun' this book written+FEM gone+FEM , t1,,.r"iot u1'anlloui"having praisecl" "'Ihis book is written" lIl|rtnctionalpcrspective(cf.under10.3),theuseofthepassivehastodor,l'ithdif|ercnt |||(.sclrtationsofthestatcol'aft.airsdesignatedbythepredication.Intlrecaseofthcactivcvoicc coincides w'ith the agent (Ag); in the passivevoice the subject Latin and othcr archaicIndo-European languages may bc usedto exemplify syntheticpassive rlr,,subjectcoincides wrththe as marking thc entity whiclt (Go). In cither casethe subjeot f'unction is interpreted moryhology.(44) lists the forms of the 3'dPers Sg in all tensesand moods for the verb lautlijre |;rrrcnt or goal of al'lairs: pnmary vantagc point for prcsenling the state "praise".The fomrs of infectum are synthctic, the forms of perfectum analytic (formed by the rs laken as the auxiliarye.sse "be" + passiveparticiple). (46) Mary (Ag Subj) kissed 'Iohn (Co Obj) hy Mury (Ag) (44) Latin PassiveForms: Indicative Jol)n (Uo Strbj)was kissetl Present lauddtur "he is praised" Impcrfect laudabatur "he was praised" lnthepasstvcScntenccourattcntionisrlrawntothegoalrvhichbeconlesthet

It may be saidthat Latin neutralizesthe contrastofvoice in its participial systemin that the activeparticiple is imperfectiveand the passiveparliciple is retrospective.However, the contrast .r_

t28 AN INTRODUC'fION 1'() THF, S'|IIDY OF MORPIIOT,OGY INFI-ECTIONAt, CATEGORI!S ASSOCIAl'ED WITII VL'RBAL ELEMENTS t29

Finally'it is worthmentioning that in READINGS manylanguages even intransitive verbs are passivizablt. RECOMMENDED g', 1e rn Turkish,Latin, sanskrit).For instancc,in ..to Sanskritthe verb go,,rnaybe foundin botrr impersonaland personal passiveconstructions: | ,lflf rc, tlemard. 1976.Aspect: An Introtluctionto the Srutlvof VerbalAspect Cambridge: t anrbridgeUnivcrsity Prcss. (48) Maya gramam gamyate lt)85.Tense. Cambridge: Cambridge Univcrsity Press' lrINSTR village+ ACC go+pASS+3SC r r,rrrrlwir,William W. 1894/1965.A GreekGranmtar. London: Macmillan' fl|wstrn.John&vitBubenik.1997.TenseandAspectinIndo-EuropeanLanguoges'.Theory', Maya gr6mo gamyatc t ryn Iogy. Diach ro ny. Amsterdam:Benjanrins. J+INSTR viltage r-NOM go+pASS+3SC f lrrflc, walter H. 1g75.Time, Aspect and thc vetb. Qu6bec:Presses de l'ljniversite Laval' t,rhrrfrson,Roman. 1957. shifters, verbal Categoriesand tlte RussiunVerb. cambtidge, Mass.: Both versionsmean "I arngoing to thc viilage". similarly, in I-atinwe ,'ay usethe rmpersona/ II ar.,,ardUniversity Press. passrveof"to go" as in (49). l( \l)L:rsen,Otto. 1929. ThePhilosophy of Gramntar.l.ondon: Allen andUnwin h(.cnan,Edrward L. 1985."Passive in the world's languages".Language Typology and syntactic (49) Sic itur ad astla Descriptioned. by T. Shopen,243 281.Cambridge: cambridge university Press. Thus go+3SG+pASS (-'arl to srars lr rrrylowicz,leruy. 1964.Inflectional (,'ategoriesof Indo Europearr.lleidelberg: Winter' "This is the way (to go) to the srars." I rwis, GcotfreyL. 1967.7iu"kishGramtnar. Oxlbrd: ClarendouPress' I yons,John. 197J. Senruntic^s. Volumes 1 and2. Cambridge:Can-rbridgc Univcrsity Prcss' Matthews,Peter H. 1972.Inflectional Morphology: A TheoreticalStudy Based on AspectsoJ [,atin Verb Conjugation.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press' __. 1974. Morphology; An Introtluction to the Theory of lVord-structure' cambridge: CambridgeUniversitY Press. Mcillet, Antoine & Joseph venclryes. 1948. huite tle grammaire comparde tles langue-s classiques. Paris: ChamPion. 'I'hc Mitchell,Terence F.1962. ColloquiolArablc. London: tsnglishUniversities Press. Moreland,Floyd L. & Rita M. Fleischer.1973. Latirr. An IntensiveCourse. Bcrkelcy: University of CalifomiaPress. I'almer,F'rank R. 1965.A Linguisticstudy oJ'theEnglish verh.l'ondon: Lotrgmans. Schwyzer,Ecluard. 1959. Griechische (irammatik. Miinchen: Beck' Stcvenson,C. H. 1970.The Spunish Language Today'Lon'Jon: Ilutchinson' '[ csnicre,Lucien. 1959.Etdments de synturestructurale. Paris: Klincksieck. 'I zermias,Paul. 1 969. N eu grie c hisc he Gruntntat ik. Bem/Miinchen: Francke.

_l 130 Anv INI'RODIICTION CATITGORIES ASSOCIAI tiD WLI H VFRBAI. FLE\"lllN'TS l3t TO lltlr S t.tjDy OF MORPI{OLOCn- INNIiLLClIONAL

I]XERCISES { \ ) Perf'ect dakara "I have made" (()) Plupcrfect adakram "l had ntade" Ntalyzethe whole Ancie't Grcek ( /) Clonditional akarisyam "l would mrke" systemof aspectalld tenscin termsof its morphologrcal rnarkers.Use thc lbllowing data: ,\rralyze the aspcctual system ol Modem Hebreu,. considcr the ibllowing lbnns: (1) Presenl leipo ..I leave,, (2) ,,1 Imperfect 6leipon lefi" ....was leaving,, ( | ) dibber "hc/shc has spoken, had spoken, spoke" ..1 (3) Aorist ilipon lefl" (.1) nraclabber "is speaking, was speaking, speakshabitually" ..I (4) Future leipso will leave,, ( I) yedabber "will spcak, would speak, would be speaking" ..I (5) Perl'ect leloipa havelcft,, ,.1 (6) Plupcrfect eleloipen had left', ( r) Establish three basic aspectual catcgories. (l)) Describc their morPhologY. lising the followingdata, analyze anddescribe the morphological make-up of the systemor. lense and aspectin Hindi. 'rhe marking tcnsc, aspcctand mood itr Spanish in the lollowing data Be Notc: progressiverorms are built on thc past paruclpre Itlenlify the nrorphemcs rah-a of Ihe verbrahna..remain,'. ls fomral as possible.

Yerb hond "to be" ( I ) trabaja "he/she works" m€ nu "l am" (2) trabajaba "rvorketl" mE thA "l was" (:l) trabaj6 "worked" - "has worketi" me nuga "l will be" (4) ha trabajado "has workcd" (5) habiatrabajado "had worked" II Y erb colna "to go" (6) trabajard "will work" nrt catta nu "I go" (7) habri trabajado "will have worked" rnF ialta tha "l wcn1" - "I used to go" (8) trabajaria "would work" mF dal raha hi "l am going" (9) habriatrabajado "w,ould have worked" mE dal raha tha "l was going" (10) trabalc "may hc/she work" mE iala "I went" (l l) traba.ja "workl" mt cala hu l nave gone and attelnpt to hierarchtze m€ dala tha r nao gonc rr. ldentify thc morphemes marking tense,aspect and t]rood in ltalian, mt calu r may go theminatreetliagram.Notc:Theauxiliaryavere,,have,,hasl_inSomcpcrsons. mE daliga "l will go"

(l ) ama "he/she loves" Analyzethe whole Sanskrit "may he/she love' systcmof aspectand tense in termsof its morphologicalmarkers (2) amr Usethe following data: (3) arra "lovc!" (4) amera "will 1ove" (1) Present karomi "I make" (5) amerebbe "wou1d love" (2) Imperlecr ..I akaravam "I made" - was nraking,' (6) amava "loved" (3) Aorist ..I akarsam "I made" - have made', (7) ha amato "has loved" (4) I.uture karisyami "l will make" (8) aveva amato "had loved"

I t32 AN INTROIJI]CTION'fO.I]IE STI]DY OF-MORPI IOLOG Y INFLECTIONAL CA'ILGORIES ASSOCIA'l'FlD WITII VITRIJAI- ljLllMENl'S I t1

(9) avra amato ..will have loved" r\rralyzc the Farsi (Modem Persian) systent of aspect, tense, and mood In temls ot lts (10) avrebbe amato .,would have loved,, rrrorphological markers:

Analyze the whole Russia'system of aspect, tense and mood in temrs of its morphologicar (l) porsad "he/sheasks" markers. Usc the following data: (2) miporsad "is asking" ( l) beporsad "rnay hc/sheask" (l) nesl "l carry" (-1) porsrd "asked" (2) n6s "carried" (s) mrporsid "was asking" (3) nesby "would carry" ( (r) porsidc ast "was asked" (4) prinesf "will havcbrought" (t) mrpolsrdeast "hasbeen asking" (5) prines "have brought" (tii) miporsidebld "had bccnasking" (6) prin6sby "rvould havebrought" (e) porsrdeba5ad "may he/shehavc asked" '"ifonly hcisiie(had) askcd" (7) noS[ "am caryring" (10) porsrdebtd "had asked" (8) nosil "was carrying" (ll) xvihad porsrd "will ask" (9) bfdu nosit' "will be carrying" ( l2) xvahadporsrde bld "will haveasked" (10) nosilby "would be carrying" (l i) prinoSl "am bringing" (a) Provide traditional labels for all thc fonns, c.g. (6) l'crl'ect (12) prinosil "was bringing" (b) Attempt ro hierarchize the malkers identifled in thc lbrnrs abovc itt a tree dtagram (13) briduprinosir' "will bebringing" organized binarily. (14) prinosilby "would be bringing,' (c) 'Ihere are lwo fbrms which are difficult to accourmodateiu thc trec. Idcntily them and cxplain why. (Hinl: Use the theory of markednessoutlined in 3 3)' S Analyze the whole Lithuanian systcrn of aspect,tense and moocl in terms of its nrorphological markcrs. Use the fbllowine data: 10. t;sing the Word and Paradigm modcl, analyze thc Kurdish (dialcct o1'Suleimaniye) system of tense, aspect,and mood in terms of its morphological markcrs. [rss the lbllowing data: ( I ) dirbu "I work" -."am working" (2) dirbau "worked" (l ) ak6wim "l fall" (3) dirbdavau "usedto work" "let \2) bikawim "if I fall" ^. me fall" (4) dirbsiu "will work" (3) k6wtim "fblf ' (5) dirbdiau "would work" (4) ak6wtirn "kePt on falling" (6) esirdirbgs "have worked" (5) bikawtimaya "would fall" (7) buvai dirbgs "had worked" (6) kawtriwim "havc fallcn" (8) bldavau dirbgs "had worked(at intcrvals)" (1) kawlibirl "if I should havc fallcn" (9) b[siu dirbgs "will haveworked" (8) kawtiblm "had fallen" ( l0) btiiau dirbgs "would haveworked', (9) (bi)kawtibam "would have fallen" - "ifI should havc fallen" (l l) buvaubedirbQs "was *"1 working" (10) (bi)kawtibamaya would have had fallen" (12) bldavaubedirb{s "used to be working" ^. (bi)kawtabnmaYa (13) bnsiubedirb{s "will be working"

consider thc lbllowing data which rvill help you to analyre thc above fonns:

_l =F-

LBCllONAl. CATF.CORIES ASSOCIATED WfrH Vtr'RLlAl- llLhNtEN t S I 3 5 t34 AN IN'|RODT-IC'|ION TO THE SI'LJDY OF MORPIIOLOGY lNf

..letmebe- ak6wi(t) '1ou fail" Qi)bin (s) Cklwe slole" Itawti "faller" bu .'lwa'. lr,) €gspse(Aorist) 'haswittd" - "wtC' ..t abim "l a@' biwin havebecD.. l'/r exi disi hasdre$ed ($l ixeedpsi 'hadwriilen' Ansq the following quesliotu: (e) ixe kl€psi "had stols" (10) oa€aigrlpsi '\rill hav€witten" (a) Attehpl ( havedressed" to hienrcni@ rhe idotifi€d mdteB for tfls., 6p6t, and mood in a rre | r ) 0a ixe di6i "would diaetumorga.iz.d li@ily. (12) plenete '1s wshed (b) Povidetadilioml' l.bels pqf@l. (l.l) 0askot6n.le '\/ill bebeins killed fo.(l) (9),e.g. (6) - (c) colmed (14) dEsed" @ ft€ absdce of bl in (7) ud il3 optiomlity in (9) ed (10). Hinr use I]l. oa di0i "willbe theoryofmdkedass ouuinedi! 3-3. (15) (e)vleplrtoe 'wd seen" (d) _ laskilled' \ndis hqpered' (non-pmtoiypical)oDrhe seq@ce of mart6 in(s)md (10)? (16) slolooike(Aor) hdbedkilled (l?) €iiPli0i hasbd w6hed' II Aralv@rhe Ancient creek sysrem ofasp@i, true &rdvoicc in lems otiIs horphotogical (18) ixe skolooi hasbedkilled mrke.s. rtouid halc beendressed Attenpl lo hiffirchi7r thesetrErkd€ in a ree dEgmm.u* lhe toliowins dala: (19) oaiicdi0i

(l) ACei "hdshc leads" Answertle following questioN: (2) esen -ted" (3) .\xill markeB for renF, aspect vo'.e n a trce o'asr.6 Aksei lead'. (a) Hiqarchize the iddined 'nd 111 6gagen ts led"- "led" orgmiz.dbidily. (5) 6ihe(n) ..hast€d'. (b) ftovide lBdidoml' tabelsfor all lhe idcntiii€d vnb to.ds 101 iitt'eir ..hadled, ic) commenron lhe leak'inth€ syslcm oftens drd aspcct (7) ,€et'i "le.ds for hinself'-'ls (beind lat, (d) rrmsl{t€ (20) (29) inio Modm cr€tk: (8) ..led .vas .seto for hjnself' - Oeins) led,. (9) ,tsebi 'Vill leadfor himsctf' (20)'bdshewillbcclrryins" (10) E&6geto ..lcd h6 ledfor him&tf, - for hioself, (21),,hs$olen" (11) .has 6khlai hasted for hinsetf' - b@nled, (22).wsdressed" 02) ethb 'had led fd himself'-..had beentod {23) "hs s@" - "sad' (13) akhhE h6tffited"-.vdled', p4)..wdwashed" (14) akhthilebi 'willbe l€d- (25) '!ill beseen' (26) "wonld hlve stolen" 12 usilcthc \polld word bd P@digm model@tlze rhefollowing Modemcrek s)stenlof iense, (2D hale beenkjlled" aspect, sd voice ir t€ms oI its horphologicalmrk€B. Note: Read@tullv B. Comne (28) would havesem" (1976).Aspe.r (che{itq 4) beforeyou srartwo.king on this s$smenr. (29) 'hd bcenwshed" - wd vashed"

..he./she lemN oi its sorphological (r) fLi canies,, 13.Anatyze rhe whote Latin systemofdpec! tcnseand nood in (2) vl€pi '!€es" markenai sy$onarically asyou cd. Urc tre followinSduta: (3) 0a pl6ni "will t€ washine', (4) 0a vlepsi '\rill s@" (1) dncir "he/sle leads"

I .F

INFLIIC-|IONAL CA IEGORIES ASSOCIA ItTD Wtl tl VERBAl' ELI:\{EN I S t37 136 AN IN]RODUCTION TO THE STLJDY OI. MORPHOI OGY

the parliciplcs aud obsen'e the rules (2) dlxerit "he/shc will have led" I ranslatc the lbllowing relativc clausesinto Turkish. Use (3) dlc€bat "led" ,rl rorvcl harmony: (4) dilcat "may lead" (5) ducet "will lead" ( I l ) "the ntan who ought to die" (6) dhcercl "would/might lead" ( l2) "the wontalt \l'ho is coming now" (7) d[xit "has lcd" ( I I ) "those who will comc" (8) d[xerit "may have led', (14) "the men who came/have come" (9) d[xerat "had lcd" ( l-5) "the women who ought to bc loved" (10) duxisset "would/might havc led', Vocabulary: t4 Analyzc the wholc Turkish syslem of aspect,tense and mood in tenns of its morphologrcal sev- "love" ntarkers as systematically as you can. Use the following data: 6l- "die" ol- "be" adam (1) geliyorum "I am coming" gel- "come" kadln "rvoman" (pluralsuffix) (2) gelecektim "would come', va/,- "write" -lar (3) geliyordum "was coming" in a scusc dilfcrcnl liom the rcprescll- (4) gelmeliyim "ought to come" I rr ('omrie (191(t:52) notes that the perfcct is an aspect "sincc it tclls us nothing directly (5) gelirinr "come" tatjo' of the intemal temporal constitulion of a situation some slate to a preceding silttatiou". His rcason (6) gelmeliydim "ought to have comc" about the situation in itself, but rathcr relates "given the traciilional tcmrinology in which thc (1) gelirdirr "used to comc" lbr w.riting a chapter on the pcrfect is that wrth thc perfcct in a book on (8) geldim "came" pcrfect is listetl as an aspect, it seernsmost convcnicttt to deal (9) gelecegim "will come" aspect". carcftrlly bctwcen perl-ect (as defined (10) geldiydim "had come" comment on this ciilcmma. I-lint: Distinguisli traditionally) and perfective (as used in modern linguistics)' 'Iurkish l5 Atalyzc the system of participial forms in tcrms of its morphological markers. IJse the followir-rg data: /. lvlatthews(1974:139)illustratcsthcr:onceplof'fomaliveambrgLritybymcatrsofthepresenl indicative and present subjunctive in Spanish: (l ) yaz.anadam "the man w,howrites" (2) yazryorolan adamlar "the men ir,'hoare writing now." Indicative Subiunctivc (3) yaztrlar "thosewho usuallyw,rite" Conjugation 1 compro 'l buy' comprc colllpres (4) yazmrgolan adamlar "the men who wrote/havewritten" compras 'You buY' (5) yazacakolan adam "the man who is aboutto \,t,rite" compra'he/she buYs' conlpre (6) yazilryor olan mcktuplar "thc lcttersthat arebcing written" (7) yazrlrrolan mcktup "thc lctterthat is usuallywritten" Conjugation 2 como 'l eat' coma comas (8) yazrlmrgolan mektup "the letterthat was/hasbeen *,ritten" comes 'You eat' (9) ya lacak olan mektuplar "the lettelsthat will be written" come 'he/she acts' coma (10) yazrlmalrolan mektup "the letterthat ought to be written" 'SI'.tRJt]N('TIVIfis an eletlent Then he wonders: "what is thc poilt ' in saying that obviously rve cAN say in sequencewhich is located in its allomorphs e or rr specilically'l

a --

.I'HE 138 AN INTRODUCTION 1,O S1'UDY OF. MORPHOLOGY

so if we must.But the traditionalvicw seemsmore reveali'g. Mood is a calcgoryof rvortls as wholes,which is idertified by the oppositionsof whole ste'rs or word-fonns in trie individualparadigm." Explain,as CHAPTER SEVEN bestyou can,these 1wo viewpoints. Hint: Think of thc two basicapproaches to the sludy MOR}HOSYNTACTICPROPERTIES AND TIII]IRI]XPONENl'S of morphology:the ltern and A'angement modcl vs. thc word and paradiunr model.

Sccondary grammatical categories, such as gender and numbcr (see Chapter Five), and 'morphosynlactic' 1,t'rsun, number, tenseand aspcct(see Chapter Six) are frequently refcrcd to as r rrtcgories.Their individual terms (such as Masculine, Singular, Third Person,Pas1, lmperfective) .rrc called morphosyntactic properties sinco thcy are properties of the word u'l-richplay rolcs rrrboth motphology and syntax. In the framework of the Word and Paradigm modcl thc clemcnts which identify morpho- syrrtacticpropcrtics arc called exponents. For instance,in Moroccan Atabic t-ittJ'-tt"you see" the prcfix t- is an exponcnt ofthe 2ndPers antl the suffix -a is an exponeut ofthe Plural. ln Latin, on rlrcother hand, exporlcntsof Pcrson and Number arc fused in a suffix wlrich is not analyzablc lor lllosetwo propenles:

(1) Moroccan Arabic Latrn "you see" t-Suf vid-es "yc see" t-duFu vid-etis

Examination ofa sufficient numbcr oftypologically divergent languages cnabled linguists to establish five types ofexponence:

(i) cunrulative (ii) lused (originally seParate) (iii) cxtcndcd (iv) agglutinativc (non-cumulativc) (v) overlapping

7.1 Cum ulative versus Agglutittative Exportenence The best examples ofcumulative exponencc can bc found in Ancicnt or conservative lndo- it lluropean languages (Latin, Russian). Iftve examine the norninal paradign ofLatin o-stcnrs Plural rvill becorneobvious that there is no exponent which could be said to identify consistently versus Singular.

_l 140 AN INIRODLJC'TION TO I'HIi STLiDY OF MORPHOLOGY MORPHOSYN'l'AC'rtc PROPER'llFS AND'll llrlR EXPONEN'IS r4l

Morphology Semantics Srrrrilarly,in'furkish verbalparadigms, Number is not fusedwith Personwhereas in I-attn rt r', l.ot us contrastthe followine vcrbal formsliom Turkishaud Latin: l)olysemy r -ffil,'.i l;_:i:.il:l (1) ]'urkish [-atln t ral 5g (@_slems) Sg I gtir-iiyor-um"l see" vid-e-o 'I see" 2 -surr -E-s Polymorphy 3-o ;#ftx;-*," Pl 1 -uz -e-mus 2 -sunuz -c-tis polysemy Fig. 7.1 and polymorphy in Latin 3 -lar -e-nt

(2) Case andNurnber in Latin (o_stcms) lrr'l'urkish we may identifuthc plural morphenre -zz (in the l" and2"d person) at'rd -lur in the Singular Plural r"'l,crson.Surprisingly, the l't PersPl is not theexpected *gdr-iiyor-um-uz; rigidly agglutinative Nominative ,.slave" serv-us serv-i I rrrrrs, however, obtain in possessivcpronouns as shown in (5). Accusative serv_um serv_6s Genitive serv_r serv_orum (5) cv-im "my house" ev-im-iz "our house" Dalive scrv-o serv_is ev-in "thY house ev-in-iz "your house" Ablative serv_6 serv.is A srnrilarmorphological analysis is simply impossiblefor Latin (cf' 5' l 2)' In other words, in ['atin, Numbcr The following is 'fuscd' with case in the sensethat the rnl.lectional As lvith all typologicaldistinctions, of coursc,we arespeaking of a continuum. suffixes mark the lexicaritem for a particularcasc that Arabic t'rccupicsan intermediate and a particularnumber simurtaneously. A tlatatrom Moroccanand SyrianArabic may demonstratc resultof this situationis polysemyof individual *' agglutinativccxponcncc: suffixes(when thc samesuflix marksdifferent rxrsitionbetween Latin antlTurkish on the scaleof cumulative combinationsofcase and number) cmd polymorphy of syntacticfirnctions (when the combrnation of a panicular case and a particularnumber is marked by different sulfixes in dircrent (6) MoroccanArabic SYrianArabic declensions).See Figure 7.1. Sg 1 n-3uf"I sce" 5[f"l see" The situationin Turkish is diametricallyopposed in thatNumber is not fusedwith c_.ase.Bolh 2rn t-Suf t-s[f numberand caseare marked by their own exponents and rn all instancesit is possibleto establish f t-suf-i t-stf:i the boundarybetween them. unrike in I-atin,Turkish nominar suffixes are arways segmentabre 3rn i-Suf Y-5hf andconstant lor all nouns;while Latinhas five pattems ofdecrension,Turkish has only one.This f' t-suf t-5[f type ofcxponenceis called agglutinative(or non_cumulative). PI I n-Suf'-u n-5[f 2 t-iuFu t-S[f-u (3) Caseand Number in l'urkish 3 i-iuf-u Y-iuf--u Singular plural Nominative ev..housc', - ev-ler ln MoroccanArabic it is possiblcto idcntityseparately Person (n- - 1"t,/- - 2'r, i- 3'") and Accusativc ev_i ev_lcr_i Number(-o = Se, -u : P1),and we may concludcthat wc arc dealing with agglutinative Genitive ev-in ev_lcr_in cxponence.on thc otherhand, in SyrianArabic in the I " Pcrsu'c aredealing with cumulative Dative ev-e ev_ler_e oxponencc(O- - 1'+ Sg,n- - l{ + Pl). Locative ev-de ev_ler-de Ablative ev-den ev-ler-den F

I na AN INTRODUCTION TO lHE STIIDY OF'MORPHOI,OGY MORPHOSYN'I'AC]'IC PROPERTIES AND THEIR EXPONENTS t43

(7) MoroccanArabic (Agglutinative Exponence) .,tr,r1rsll.'1husit may be said that in this casethe rcsulting I'usedexponence is underlyingly rggfrrtinative.Theconespondingsubjunctivelomtvivuis"mayyelive"displaysagglutinative n-Suf-O n-Su1-u r \p,lrr:nce at both levels (underlying and surface). These matters are surveyed in Figure 7.2. tl rl Arr()ther type of exponence-relationship is that of extended exponence. It is customarily I'I Sg lil Pl rr l(.rrcd to as double marking. classioal examples are supplied by German plural fbrms rrrr,,lvirrgsimultaneous use of the processof umlaut and the sullixation. Consider the lbllorving (8) SyrianArabic (CumulativeExponence) t ,( ilnlur plural formations:

@-slf n-s[f ( l o) 'Iag "day" Tag-e "daYs" >.\\ >\ Vater "father" Viiter "fathers" I't Sg lsr Pl Mann "man" Mdnn-er "men" Iiuss "foot" Fiiss-e "l-eet" However' in both Moroccan and syrian Arabic, Genderis expressedidenticaily by two dilI'erent strategies:suffixation in the 2ndpers Sg (a vs. = by both -i Mascvs. Fem) and prefixationin I lrr.rr plural is in

In Spanishviv-is"ye live" the ending-rs identifiesthe form aspresent Indicative + 2ndpers Pl. However,examining rherest of the sameparadigm ancl the paradigm of the r.,conjugation (llumd-is "you/ye call") we would predict a form *vivi-r^r. l'he samelorm can be estabhshedon vivis lndicative-i 2"dPers Pl -is thc basisof an Indicative- Subjunctivecontrast (*viviis - vivais)butthisfomr simply doesnot ^+' vivdis Subjunctivc-ri 2''dPets Pl -l.i 'surface'since its occurrcnce would violatephonotactic nrlcs ofSpanish. (Spanish allows for vocalicclusters such as zo and *ii). ao but not for homorganic consequently,we may treatthe Fig.7.2 Fusedexponence in Spanish form vivis as a form resulting from underlyingvivi + rs by a regularphonological process in F-

t44 AN PROPER1IES AND l tlIilR EXPONtrN'lS 1,15 INI'RODUC'I'ION TO THE STI.]DY OF MORPHOLOGY MORPIIOSYNTACTIC

extended exponences. In Ancient RECOMMENDED READINGS Grcek the categories of aspect, tenseand voicepattem in tlr,., fashion. Let us examine the following verbal forms: ed. by P. D. Strevens, lt,r,,,.ll.('lrarlcs B. l966. "t,inguistic typology". F'iveInaugural Lectrtres (12) Active Present lu-ei.,he solves,' ") 49. Londoll: Oxford Univcrsity Press. ,.he washington, D.C : Georgetorvn Imperfect 6_l[_e(n) was solving,, r ,,rvr.ll,Mark w. 1964.A ReferenceGrantnnr of syrian Arubic. Perfecl l6-lu-k-e(n)..he has sotved,, I lrriversity Press. of Moroccan y'rablc. washington, I) C : Pluperfect e_lc_ljr_k_ci(n)..hehad solved,, f f,rrrclf . Richard s. 1965. A ShortReference Grammar perfect .'it Mediopassive 16-lu{_ai has becn solved,, ( icurgetown IJniversitY Press Clarendon Press' Pluperfect e_16_lu-fo.,it had been solved,, | , w rs, Ceofliey L. 1967. Turkish Crummar' Oxlbrd: l4/onl-struclure Nl,rlrlfcws, Pster H. 1974. Morph,logy: An lfltroductiott lo the T'heon'of The active pluperfcct shows the ( lmbridge: Cambridge University Press' (Chapter 8)' overlap of markers for tense, aspect and vorcc in the following fashion:

(13) Active Pluperfect(Arcient Greek)

rerlectPerlbct Active 3'd Sg

The mediopassivepluperfect shows the overlapof markerslor tense, aspect and voice in the following fashion:

( l4) Mediopassivepluperl-ect (Ancient Greek)

Perf'ect 3'oSg Mediopassive

In ( 13), the perfectis marked by the suffix -t andtwo processes(reduplication of the root and the shorteningof the root-vowel r lu lu).The suffix -t alsomarks the activcvoicc vs. medio- passlve-/ tn (14); hcre theperl'ect is only double-markedby the two processesofreduplication andvocalic shortening. As mentionedabove the categoryof tense(past) is arsodouble-marked at both extremitiesof the word rcsultingin the line crisscrossingthe lines with aspectualmarkers. consequently,this stateofaffairs may fittingly be describedby the term overlappingexponence.

I I - =F-

t46 AN INTRODUCIION'I'O HE STI JDY OF MORPIIOI-OGY MORPHOS\NTACITIC PROP!.R f lES AND Tl l IllR f,XPON trN'I S 147

EXERCTISES l';rs( Sg I katabt "l wrote" ktebt "l wrote" 2 (M) katabt ktcbi Identify andcxcmplify the lollowing typesof cxponence: (F) katabti ktebti (M) katab kteb (a) cumulative (F) katbet ketbct (b) fused

(c) extended Arralyze scveral granmatical fonns of the five aspectual catcgorics of Ancicnt Greek (ci (d) agglutinativc r'.1.3)in terntsoltheir extendedand overlappingcxponencc. You should consult Matlhe\ts (e) overlapping ( I 974: I 48 - I 49) before working on this question.

2. It is claimedthat Sanskritinflectional 1" Sg l" Pl 3't Pl endingsshow a considerabledegree of fusronor grarnmaticalmeanings whereas those l'r'csent l[-o-: - ll-omcn tu-ousl ofagglutinatinglanguages are typically courposcdol a sequcnceof morphemes,with each e ll-omcn 6-lu-on morphcnrecorresponding to onemeaning. Discuss this lnrperl'cct d-lu-ort statementusing the following data: Arrrist i'-l[-sr c-l[-sa-mcn e-lt-sa-n I'erfect [6-lu-ka lc-lu-ka-men le-lir-ka-si Sanskrit Finnish I'luperfect e-le-hi-k-cn c-le-lf-ke-mcn e-le-Ll-ke-san Sg Nom glhanr,'housc" talo "house" Gen grhasya talon l.anguagcs are lrequently classifled into structural types of isolating, agglutrnatlvc, Loc glhe talossa (Incssive) llective/inflcctional (thc lattcr subdivided into inflected externally and intemally). Abl glhar talolta Pl Nom glhani talot (a) Dcfine thcse tluee tYPcs. Gcn glhanam talojen (h) Demonstrate that this classification is ultimatcly basotl on thc distinction between Loc grhesu taloissa (Inessive) morpheme and sememe. Abl ghebhyas taloilta

3. Markrngfor the verbalcategories of personand numbcr in SyrianArabic dilfers from that ol-MoroccanArabic. nescribe and explainthe foilowing datain termsof cumuratrveand agglutinativeexponence:

SyrianArabic Moroccan Arabic Present Sg I S[f"I sec" nSuf"I see" 2 (M) tsfif tSuf (F) tsufi tSufi 3 (M) ysnf iSuf (F) rsrf tSuf Pl 1 n5uf nbufu 2 tiufu tSufu 3 y5[fu iSufu

I .5

MORPHEME AND ALLOMORPH t49

(and ,lrrtrrlrutionallylhe major variant (to use the Prague School term) of thc plural the thus be lavored as most convctricnt for thc lr,r,,\(.ssivcand thc 3'd Pcrs Sg) morpheme and may pllrrrr'tic representationof the undcrlying morpheme' CHAPTER EIGHT variation l lrc process description (in tcmrs of Gcnerativc Phonology) o1'this allomorphic MORPIII]ME AND ALLOMORPH tshwa /c/ ,r,rrrltl run along these lines. we havc to postulate an epenthcsis rulc rvhich nt"nt liicatives tr.t\\,cc. a stem final sibilant and the suffixed /z/. Sibilants (alveolar and alvco-palatal +coronal] The in English) comprise the set of sounds which are l+strident 8.1 The Alternation of Allomorphs ,rrr,l ;rl'liicatcs ol lr'l to lhe ,,f ( of /s/ after voiceless consonants would be attributed to assir-nilalion It wasmcntioned in chapter [f rcnce Two that a particularmorpheme is quilc oftcn represcnted occur after nor ofthe preceding consonant,and ofcourse no conditioning would by the samemorph but by rr,,rrrral voicelcssncss differentmorphs in differenl contexts.'l-hese alternate rcpresentations r'r( consonants. Schcmatically: of a particularmorpheme are cailed \ e(l non-stlidetlt ailomorphs. one of the importanttasks of morphorogy is to accountfor theseallomorphic altemations.For instance,the prurar morpheme in English, whiclr rrr lslps+ 7l 11rp1+z.l ldog+ z.l is homophonouswith lhe possessive nounsuffix or the verb suffix lor the 3d persSg lndicativc Epenthests c rs regularlyrepresented by the allomorphs/sl, lz/ and/ez/: Devoicing S- (1) Igle sazl [kretsl [dcgzl Plural Possessrve 3'dPers Sg /ezl glasses glass's (he) sneezes thc plural morpheme as the Ir may be noted that if we hatl chosen the minor variant /s/ of /s/ cats cal's (he) meets 'fhis voioe /s/ aller a voiced rrrrtlcrlyingform we woukl have to posit a voicing rule. rule would /2./ dogs dog's (he) feeds ( r)tts()nantor vowel:

Thcse thrce allomorphs occur in three mutuaily excrusiveenvironments. If the morph /glcs + s/ /kct I s/ /dcg + s1 representurgthc nounr.'orpheme (3) with which theplural morphemeis combinedends with Epenthesis J 7 7 (i) a (strident)alveorar Voicing or alveo-paratarsibirant rricarrve rsr, itr, ftr, 12/or a (stndent) Iglrcsaz] Ikrctsj ldcgzl afliicale/t/,lj/,the plural morphemeis representedby lez/; (ii) a voicelessconsonant othcr than the strident/sl, lil, /n/, the plural morpherneis possible lbr a language that; is a less common sound than ^s(notice that it is represenledby /s/; It may be argued blrt. on the othcr hand, to rurt to include any voiced obstruents in its phonemic inventory) (iii) elsewhcrcthe plural morphemeis represented by /z/. natural given the uuiversal postulate the final devoicing nrle for English scems to be vcry a voiceless olle in the same syllable coda' Another It eonstraint that no voiced consonant follows may beobserved that the orthographical conventions ofEnglish distinguish only two ofthese with rvords ending in sonorants (rr and /) such has r.casonwhy {z} is preferable to {s} has to do threeallomorphs, with -s or - r representingboth /s/ and/zr, and,-es , ,s or representlng/ez/ . 7he the representation of the plural morpheme, the questlorl /rr,rrs,srrs, andfrtlts, e//s, If we chose {s} for ariseshow to representthe morphemeunderlying these three allomorphs,or, rn othcr to other words which do not voice their final s after u'ords, voicing rule would have to be made sensitive whatis thepho'ic substanceof the underlyingmorpheme? obviously, wc havca choice /sln:/ but .since lstnsl; lfolzl btrtJhlse llolsl ells ltlzl between lsl ;truJlzl tt t>rl; hens fttenz,lbllt hence fttensl;sins ftlls ' Those linguistswho favor the latter altcrnantrely on the distributional account;if the contexts(ii) and (iii) bul clsc lelsl. as listed abovearc broughtwithin the scopeof a nrore is sirr-rilarto the 'l'hcre lamrhar casc of allomorphic altemation in English which systematrcstatement it will is another appearthat /z/ occursin more environmentsthan /s/. Sinceall vowels ldl'' 'l'hc the regular past tcnse and past parlic iplc are /cd/' h l and ofEnglish are voiced, atrove. allonrorphs of the environmentofls/ includesonly three voicelessstops /p, t, k/ and two voicelessfricatives /fl , /81:on theother hand, the environmentof /z/ includesthree vorced stops lbl,ld, lgl, two voiced /ad/ in Petted, Paddcd liioativcs rv,r6r,three nasals /m/, ln/, rnrtwo riquitls/l/, /r/, Iive tense vowels iil, /ei, /ul, ror, Itl kicked,... /o/ and three diphtho'gs, raj/, /awr, ojr.'I'he allomorph /z/ is

I I - 150 AN IN'I'RODUCTION.I'O ]'HE SI'T]DY 0F MORPHOI,OGY MORPIIEMI AND AI-I-OMORPH 151

/d/ begged,... (viii) lormulae. lawae (r\) crises,theses The environmentsfor thesethree allomorphs can be statedas follows: ( x) indices/indexes

(i) tadt after/tL, /d/; the plural of ox or goose has the santc kind o1'meaning as thc plural (ii) /t/ after ll is obviously lrue that voicelessconsonants other than /t/: instances rve are dealing with nrorc than oue individual. Horvcvcr, ott thc (iii) /di elsewhere. ,rl r.rrl; in a1l these morphctttcs cxprcssing thc sattlc Incattittg' llr,'il()loBicalside. wc are dcaling with different rr,rrrrely plurality. Consequently, the equation in (5) holds semantically but not morphologically T'heallomorph represente<.I by a voicedconsonant only (in this casethe voicedalveolar stop rrrtlrat tlil'ferent morphemes represent the same semantic unrt' /d/) provesagain to be a major variant The processdescnptron ofthis alionrorphic has arternation to work with two phonologicalrules sirnirar to thoseof the plural morphcme,namery, Mot'Pheme, inserting the rule (5) Polymorphy: schwa(epenthesis rule) andthe ----/ rule of devoicins: Sememe MorPheme' :- \ Morphcmc., (4) /pd I dl /ktk+ dl lbtg+ d/ Epenthcsis o cat coose Dcvoicing -o* cats oxcn gecsc Ipetsdl [ktkt] [begd] root vowel I lrc nouns in (i) do rnI add lazL and lzl but/on/; in addition, the last two changc thcir wc may concludethat and {zrr {d} shouldrepresent prurar and past the words tensemorphemes rn Enelish ,tttl chilcl alsoadtls -r before -an.The nouns in (ii) have a O-suffix. It is notable that atrd galne animals (fish and birds). of course, 8.2 Morphotogical phonological rrrrhis group are the names of edible domesticated vs. Conditioning o!.Allomoryhs Thc llrercaresimilarwordswilharegularplural:pr'gs, F4oats,pheasonts,ducks-Butitisofrnterest alternationficund in thc suffixcsofthe plural anclthe past tense in Englishhas thus forms *'ith thc o-sullix appcaring in thc dialect of hunters: been attributed far til note that some have both forms, the to the phonologicarshape of thc precedingnominar or verbal stem. pond go out hunting duck. ht such caseswc arc not dcaling ahernations, such ir larmer who has dur:ks onhis nlay which areexplicable on purelyphonetic grounds without referenceto the notions rvrthplural forms but rather with collectives (see 5.2.2). The louns in (iii) exhibit a vowcl change of morphology,are said to be phonologically conditioned.I{owever, a '-r itr (iv) replacethc (Latin) the distributionof some {rrrrrlaut)of vanous types:/u/ t lil,law/ lajl,l5,l /ei. The nout'ts morphemescannol. be accounted for phonorogicalry.In such suffix a case,it is i'evitable to list thc srrrgularsuffix -zrn by the plural suffix -a /e/. The nouns in (v) replace the (Latin) singular spccificse t of lexemeswith which eachirregular altemate occurs. beside when somemorphemes arc l.i by the plural suffix -i lall andthe nouns in (vi) keep the (Hebrew) plural suffix /tm/' distributedin this manner, we haveto saythat they areconditioned this state of rexicary. tlrr;rcgular plural in lzl.l'here are vanous terminological problems connccted with Familiar examplesrnay be found in English.The plural /zl lazl' morphemebeside showing three lairs. If we use the term allomorph indiscriminatcly for all thc pluralizing sufllxes lsl , , phonologicallyconditioned ;rf allomorphs/z/, /s/ and/a;d dispraysalso plural severalother pluralizing ttnl,l@1, lel, lajl, lml, it will bccone impossible to statewhat the phonic substanceof the morphemeswhich may be classifiedinto tcn groups: prefer rrrorphemcis, sincc only the first thrce arc phonologically related.Consequently, we should for the to talk about six differcnt pluralizing morphemes and to keep the temr allonrorph (i) oxen,children, brethren conditioned variants. This admittedly is a somewhat pcdantic lnslstcncc on (ii) deer,sheep. . .; bass, lrlronologically pike. . .; quail,grouse. . . is essential tcrminology since the whole problem is a marginal area of English grammar. what (iii) geese,teeth, feet, lice, mice,men, women of is the tact that we may identify phonologically the regular pluralizing morpheme (r v) data,media, rrlier all memorand:r,/memorandums, curricula,/curriculunr rve s and the residuum has to be considered as exceptional (regardless ofwhether (v) radii,fungi lrnglish as {z} tlccide to label /an/ etc. morphemes or allomorphs)' (vi) cherubim/chcrubs,seraphim/seraphs situationis more complicatedwhen we deat with languageswhere il IS (vii) criteria, phcnomena However, the is found tn irnpossibleto identify the regular pluralizingmorpheme. This stateof affairs

I -

152 AN INTRODI]C'IION TO TIIE SI'TJI)Y OF MORPHOI-OGY MORP}IEME AND ALLOMORPI{ r53

languageswhich subcategorizetheir Plural nounsinto variousinfleclional classes. Semantics rmpossible For rnstance,it is to talk aboutregular pluralizing norpheme rn Latinwithout speciSiing the cleclension (andgender and case)ofthe noun'such as in the nominative casco-stcms take -rifthe nounis masculineand _a if _r,and the thcirdismrutionloall'es;:::::,ff1i:illlllljllH::j;i:::Jill*il;,",l^j Morphology phcnomcna'r'he situationin SyrianArabic can be o'tlined arongthe following iines:

(i) -rn is uscdwith nounsdenoting maie human .,tcacher,, beings:mf'ailenr -t mfctilmur and nrost occupationalnouns of the pattem C,aCrCraC,:nuiiar ,,carpenter,,t Phonology l'tl /sl lazl na!!arI n; (rr) -e is used with nouns enrting in the suffix -ii or -i: xadorii i.green-grocer,, 8.1 Polymorphy and allomorphy in Bnglish ..thief ) Fig. xaduriiyye; Itardmi ' + haramiyye; also with many occupationalnouns of the pattem C,aCrC ,,moneychanger,, rACj:sarraf _,+sarrafe; Semantrcs Plural (iil) -at is uscdwith femininederivatives: xar"(matemar)uncle,' + .rare,,aunt,xarat and with singulativcs(see 5.2.2): ZaZ..chicken(s) , iaie,.a chicken,,) aaidt,,sonle cnlcKens.

Morphology There areother subgroupswhich we may ornit at this point but what is of intcrest ls the fact thatthe suffix -dt is usedwith most loanwords. This might indicatethat this suffix is the productive most oI'the threepl uralizingmorphemes :

Phonology /e/ /al (6) babor'.stcamship"+ 6n6o.u, ..admiral" ?amiral r ?anriralat Fig. 8,2 Polymorphy and allomorphy in Arabic beb€"baby" I bebiyar tren..train" ) lrenat

Retumingto our theoreticaldiscussion, we cannotcall thesethree pluralizing sulfixes ol'syrian Arabic allomorphssincc thcy arenot phonologically related.For similar rcasonsas in Bnglishwe may keep the term allomorphfor a phonologicallyconditioned variantof the morpheme-e which obtainsafter pharyngeals or r (e.g.,bahhdr "sairor" t bahhdra.,sairors,,).Thus in both English and Arabic we aredealing with porymorphy of the plural meaning(one-to-many rerationships betweensemantics andmorphology), cf. Figuresg.l and g.2. a 8.3 Turkish Vowcl Ilarmony wc may be intercstedin examiningless lamiliar examplcsof phonologicalconditioning of allomorphs thanthose of thc Englishplural andpast tcnssmorphcmcs. we saw abovethal this particular altemationwas ultimately re

154 AN INTRODUCTION'I'O TIIE S]UDY OF MORPHOI,OCiY MORPHEMEAND AI,LOMORPII I55

roducibleto assimilatoryprocesses "measure" Herethe altcrnationsaffect vowels and they are liequenll.r, ( lJ) "name" "forehead" "fcar" relerredto asvowel harmony. Sg Nom isinr alrn 6l9ii korku For the purposesof the following discussion,we haveto classifyTurkish vowelsby thrct. Acc ismi alnt tilgiiYi.i torku)ri pairsoffamiliarfcatures:lrontvs.back(i,e,ti,ovs.r,a,u,o)highvs. low(r,r.i,r,uvs.e,o,(t. Dat isme altrra tilgtiYe korkurr o) and unroundedvs. rounded(i, e, 4 a vs.ri, d, u, o). we may portraythis three-dimensional systemas a cubein Figure8'3. The first setofdata conclusions were cofttct. in (7) containsall the caseforms ol-Turkislr I lrtsc lbrms show that our prcvious tentative inilrt

(Dat, Loc, Abl) contain the rrows17.7 vowcl ( i ) the plural sulfix or the case iitiipreccding "house" "room" "eye" "friend" is front (/i/, lel,lnl,l6l); fufihernrore, wc may simplily outr,nr",,',1tunder(ii), Sg Nom ev oda g6z dost (ii) the casc (Acc, Cen) contains: the vo'a'el /i/ if thc preccdinguoryjli,ttontutrrounded Acc evi +d" odayr gcizii dostu (lil,leD;the vowel /r/ if the preceding vowel is back unrounqr.(irr,f) notice Gen evin odanr gciziin dostun t alnt;the vowcl iiV if the preceding vowel is front roundqd,,ii,,.iii'lthc vowel iu" if Dat eve odaya g6ze dosta the preceding vo'*'el is back roundcd /u/, /o/. Loc evde odada g6zie dostta Abl evden odadan gciztlen dosttan Let us use atlditional data for elaboraling on the seqtlence ofnrorp[,r*.rr,,]fhis allonrorphic Pl Nom evler odalar and "our" canbi tltesc forms as gi,zler dostlar ,rllernation. The possessive suffixes nreaning "my" addcdl0 Acc evleri odalarr gcizleri dostlarr ,ilr()wnbclow: Cen evlerin odalarrn grizlerin dostlarrrr Dat evlere odalara gijz.lere dostlara (9) evrnl "my house" Loc evlerde odalarda gijz,lerd,e dostlarcla evimin "ofmy housc" Abl evlerden odalardan gtizlerden dostlardan evlmlz "our house" evimizin "of our house" lCase1 Theorder of morphemes in this datais as follows:RooT I pt / case. Thesemorphemes cvlcrim "mY houscs" are rcalizedby variousmorphs: the prurarsuffix is rearjzedby two morphs/ler/ - lar/; the evlerimin "of my houscs" accusative(and genitive) su{fix is realizedby four morphsshowing the altemationli/ - /r/ - lw - evlerimiz "our houscs" /u/; the dativc(locative and ablative)suffix is realizedby two morphsshowing the altemation evlcrimizin "of ourbouses" /e/ - /a/; furthermore,if the plural morphemeintervenes between the lexical rool and the case eventhe accusative(and genitivc) is realizedby only tw'omorphs / i/ - /t/ . So far, the conditionine odanr 'lny room" lor this distributioncan be expressed alongthese lines: odamtn "ol-my room" odamtz "our room" (i) the plural suffix or the case(Dat, Loc, Abl) containsrhe vowel /el if thepreceding odanrtzrn "olour room" vowel is fronl(/el,/ril); elsewhere.it is /a/: (ii) thc case(Acc, Gen) contains:the vower/ir if theprecedingvower is row fiont /e/; the odalanm "mY rooms" vowcl /t/ if thepreceding vowel is low back(/'a/);thevowel /iil if the precedrngvowel odalanmtn "of mY rooms" is low front rounded /cil; the vowel /u/ ifthe precedingvowel is low back rounded/o/. odalarrmtz "our rooms" odalanmtzln "of our rooms" We necdadditional data to completeour analysis.Below are listcdwords which contarnhish vowels(only threecases will be nccessary,thc restofthe paradigmis predictable):

-- 1s6 AN INTRODUC'IION'I'O 1'HE STIII)Y OF MORPHOI,OGY MORPI II-ML AND ALLOMORPH t51

('use i/c rer<-\___ casci/c Roo,+P'1< eurri{ \ Root ( I'n., case i/e \ z t'aser/a \ n""{ = ,,.,,1r",., \ (,ase I'r2- case 'a Fig.8.4 The sequenceof morphemesin Turkishnouns Fig. 8.6 Turkish two-way vowel harmony

Case i/e +high +high _.2 Case ile +back +back P,rss +round i{ -round u --.\ pl r i.- (.ase iie Case r/a ,--- Case tla i I'oss r{ +high +high --'\ pl i- Case -back -back Case u,/a 'a -round *round Case ula Poss u ( -.2 , -hich I -h i rrh (ase \ pl u t/a , +Uict, r-back Case ii,/e I *round i .:u*. ... I o _.- Case u/e " I't-rssii ( \ I'1, (,ase ii/c e -hioh -high I.'ig. 9.5 Turkish four-way vowel harmony -back -back -round +round (other formsare predictable rhusgdztinr "my eye",g6zrerint,.my eyes,, erc.; dostumuz,,our flriend",etc.). The sequenceof morphemes Turkishvowels seenin (9) canbe visualizedin Figureg.4. The forms Fig. 8.7 which do not havea plural suffix interveningbetween the lexicalroot and the case/possessive suffix exhibi*he rype of ailomorphy g.5. (i) (i, e) shown in Figure This type of allomorphy is frequently ( l0) (r,ii, r, u) ' ret'erredto as four-way vower harmony. tf the pruralsuffix intervenesonly two-way vowel harmony resultsas shown in Figureg.6. J i we may wish to formarizethese concrusions. First, we [+high] -back I i,l f-backl haveto cxpressthc eightvocalic phonemes C,,+C,, ofTurkish as'bundles'ofthree dislinctivefealures: , -rouno l L-roundl thisis shownirr Figurc 8.7. As we sawabove, rhe suffixes undergoing the four_wayvowcl (ii) (u, oJ lposs ,,r, { lil } nu._on, have to agreewith the preceding vower in two features,namely backnessand roundness(the featureofheight is irrerevant, i.e.,it doesnot matterifthe precedingvowel is i or e, I f-back lCo+Clo the vowel f-back I ll of the suffix hasto be i etc.). t Thusin (10) we write the four rulesof agreementin two features. I lroundl I I roundl

_t 158 AN INIRODIICTION E:{E ANI] A I,I,OMORI'II 159 TO t.Iilr S.I.UDY OF MORPHOLOCY MORPH

its accusative (r.) (t, a) (l) Arabic or French words ending in clear / [l]: e.g. mahstil"produce" lonns *rnuhsttlu; mahsulii,nol according to thc rules of vowel harmony which would givc -r k:idrak"perception"lomrsilsaccusativeiz/rclrl,insteadofthe f+backI / f+back I c., + C" _ (lr) Arabicwordsen

of vowcl harntony cvcn among native Turkish words. For 7 1'+backI C,,+ C,, llrr.rr.arc exceptions to the nlles f+back1 /l elma"apple"'kartleE I +roundI / l+roundi flrlf;lllfc,thelollowingsimplewordscontaitrbothbackandlrontvowels: + "day" -t bugiln fIrrf lrcr.".Bxamples can also be found among compound words: bl "this" gtin LJsingthe : usual conventions crl'cenerative phonology t,tl;ii" (ltilgtirtcan bc hcard sontetimcs),brrq "head" + miifettis "inspector" buTniifettt+"clticf wc may collapse these four rules into :r srnglerule: ntikro|t (': Frenoh) rrr.,1rt.tlor". Many loanwor l,,.rrr\v0rdshave been turkicized by undergoing vowel harmony: Arabic rnumkin '+ (sce Lewis 1967 lor more [ high] nback f rrrl.rslr rmr'irilftirt> nriimktin;French dpuuletre > T'urkish apolel ' 1crbacki 7 1 C"+C. l[3round.J/ iBround] , \iilil1)lcsl.

N.l ll'lorphonology The suffixes undergoingthe two-way vowcrharmony 331 'l ( 929). For 'frubetzkoy 1tt, { }) nuu" ,o agreewirh the l'hc term morphonology was proposed 70 years ago by rubetzkoy i precedi'g vowel in a singreI'earure, namery backness. (distinct from phonology dealing we may ,i,f,?'r]" folowi.jtwo ruresof. ||r,)rl)honologywas a partlcular section oflinguistic descriptions agreement: with thc systctrt of rrrtlr the system of phonenres and distinct frorn morphology dcaling ttt.trtr|tcmcs)whichstutiiesthemorphologicalutilizationofphonologicaldi||ererrces(1929:85). (t l) (e,a/ ) (e) "hand" and ruinoi "manual" the (r, e, ii, d) f rr rrsc Trubetzkoy's example, in the Russian words ruka -l'hese are held together on irlIrrDorphs/ruk/ and /rud/ represonl one motpheme. two allomorphs ihieh I , -back] (regular means that there are more rnstances [ / l-backJ C" + C., rlrc phonological side by the rcgular alternationft - f ] .ou.ai the llst") and they are ,.rrclras oko "eye" oinl'j"ocular", kulak"fist" kuluin'i"having to do with would rcveal that wc lrilkc

160 AN T\ITRODUCTION 1'O THE STTIDYOF MORPHOLOGY MORPHEME AND ALLOMOI{PH I6l

Dat Sg is [ruk'dJwhich has to bephonemicized is /ruke/ herethe [k] of frukd]arremates with { l.l) PenultimateStrcss AntepenuhimatcStrcss [k'] of [ruk'6] in the samephonetic environment .rhis of the front vowere (k , k, / _e). is wh1, fu6co "fire" fu6chi m6dico "doctor" m6disi some linguists would prefer to considereven the "monk" above artemation of ruka _ ntinoj as antico "ancient" antichi m6naco m6traci phonologicallyconditioned. This assurnption, however,necessitates the introductionofvcrl ligo "lake" l6ghi magnifico "magnificent" magnifici abstract underlyingrepresentations such as /ruk + + in 6jl from which the correct phonetic fonn albcrgo "hotel" alb6rghi [ruinriil hasto be deriveaby meansof morphophonemic rures,bypassing the phonemic revcl ol'representation' Thus more recentrythe crassical phonemics/k/ - tkr - - antl I lrcre are, however, sevcral exceptions 1o these accentual rules. T'he words unrico, nemtco morphophonemics tk'r [n] (morphonology) palatalizc thc velar {k} - M - /t/ have been co'apsed in Generative , n.ttty" , porco "pig" and Gr'lcc't "Greek" although accented on the penult Phonology, which namedrrubetzkoy's morphophoneme .r.he on the systematicphoneme. latteris a , i!f15()1ant; on the other hand, stomacrs"stomach" and ctirico "load", although accented buildingunit ofunderrying representations. Thc undcrryingrepresentation contains onry parr ,rrrttpcnult, do not palatalize their velar consonant bclbre -1. of the informationabout the pronunciation of the morphemestored rn the lexicon,and the other Another typical morphophonemic alternation exists between a voicelcss consonant and its aspectsof pronunciationare determinedby phonological rureswhich apply to morphemesof the r ,,rr r.tl counterpart. The limiliar cxamples come from English which has thc alternation bctwecn language.Thus the pronunciationofiruk + in + si1is detcrminedby at leasttwo phonological | ,rrrtlr'vl in the forms knife/knives, wife/wites,lectf/leaves etc. Here the rnorphophoneme {f} is rules: the rule which palatalizesand affricates t before the front vowel i and the rule which r,.,rlrzc

-) :F-

162 AN INTRODUCI'ION TO THE STUDY O!.MORPHOI,OGY MORPHEME AND ALLOMORPII 163

lngere "create" fictus RECOMMENDED READINGS ..paint" pingcre prctus .-hit" pungerc of punclus \rrrft.rson, Stephen R. 1985. Phonology in the Twentieth Century. Chicago: University crngerc .'gird" cinclus ('lricagoPress. (Chaptor lll,rrrrrrllcld,Leonar{. 1935. Language. L.ondon: Allen and Unwin. (Rcviscd cdition ) Given the facl that the form wilh /g/is a major variantwe may attcmpt tt). form to accountfor thc with /l

_t F

t64 AN TNTRODUCTION'fO,II{E STt]DY OF MORP]IOLOGY MORPIIEMI A:.1t) A L.LOMORPH 165

EXERCISES lrr.scribeand try to explainas best as you can motphophonemicvariants of the root in the l,rlk*vingsets of Hcbreu'nominalfonrrs: Describethe allomorphyin Sanskritverbal fonns whosestem conlains a nasalinfix (i' presentandtheimperfect):.vu,ri-"tojoin".Therootissecnrnthepassive tlrt participle:yukrttt 'Joined".

(l) naBi "proPhet" PresentSg I yunijmi "Ijoin" Imperfect iiyunajam (.1) ncpi?i "my proPhet" 2 yundksi iyunak ( l ) na0i?oxcn1 "your (Pl) prophet" 3 yunAkti 6yunak (.{) rlopi'/irr "prophcts" (5 ) napi'lexern "your (Pl) prophcts" Pl I yulrjmris ayuljma 2 Yunkthri ayugkta tl 3 yulrjdnti ayulrjan (l) daBir "word" Describcthe allomorphy seen in thenouns whoseste'r is fbmredby -qn(t)in Vcdic Sanskrir. (l) depan "mY w'ord" Monosyllabicnouns are to be takenas a basis (Pl) for your predictionsrcgarding thc locationof ( I ) deparx6m "your word" (1) dapanm "words" (5) diprex6m "Your(Pl) words" "king" "soul" "eatir1g" ..voice" Sg Nom rala atma ad6n uik il1. ACC raJanam etmanam addntam uicam Instr ripa itmAnd adata vaca ( l) m6lcx "king' Dat r6pc atnrdnc adatc vdce (2) malki "mY king" Gen raj.pas atm6nas adatds vacds (l) malkax6m "Your(Pl) king" L,oc ralnl atmrini adati vaci (1) melaxim "kings" (5) malxdxem "Yourkings" PI Nom rajanas atminas addntas ui"r, Acc raJlas atmenas atiatas vacas l )escribeand try to expiainas best as you cannrorphophonemic variatiotr in the ficllowtng lnstr rajabhis atm6bhis addbhis vagbhis setof Latin verbalfomls: Dat r6;abhyas atm6bhyas adridbhyas vagbhyris Gen r'i.31ranr atrn6nam adat6m vac6m l " Sg Present l " Sg Perfcct Loc rijasu atmhsu adatsu viksu (l) verto "tum" ve(i (2) lodio "dig" lbdl (a) Startby identifying the roots,the stem_formingelements and the suffixes. (3) lundo "Pour" fndi (b) Specify the distributionof allomorphsof individuals1ems. (4) rumpo "break" ruPt (c) Apply the IP i.e., specifythe phonological "split" fidi 'rodel, and morphologicalconditionins (s) Iindir which account for the shapeof the allomorphsof the stems. (6) scindo "split" scidt (1) defendo "Prolect" dEf'endi (8) prehendo "grasp" Prehendt t ._

DERIVATIONAI- MORI'LIOI,OCY 161

Dictionary of Words Formation DxceptionFiltcr Rulesof Word All inflectedIorms

CHAPTER NINE DERIVATIONAL I\{ORPHOI,OGY

9.7 Theory of Word F'ormation Fig.9.l Word formationaccording to IIalle (1973) word formation may be defined as that branch of linguistics which "studles the palcnrs urr which a language fbrms new lcxical units, i.e. words" (Marchand, 1969:2). According r. PI-AY Marchand, word furmation is PlaY,PlaYs, PlaYcd, PlaYing concetned only with composites or complcx lexemes (derivati'es replay play,plays' played, playing and compounds) and not with simple derivatives one-morphemc words which are the subjcct matter ol lexof ogy and rnorphology. For instance, " PlaYer PlaYers simple nouns and verbs such as hruin, birtl utd mttke ca, be studied morphologically (as shown in Chapters Fivc antl Six), but not derivationally since ( dc lactoenshrines the grammarin the lexicon,would be thesewords are not )hviously,the first proposal,which composites. On the other hancl,their derivatives such as hrainl:(tbrmed by heavilyflective languages where the numberolinflections may suffixation) or re-make (formcd lrrlllrlyimpractical in thecase of by prelixation) or compourrds such as bird-bruin may be studietl (versus5 inflectionsofEnglish, 1 1 inflectionsofFrcnch) Furthermore'the dcrivationally lor their motivatiorr, I rilrrrrl() the hundreds semantic restriction, etc. For reasons given undcr 4.1 wc filter' (correspondingessentially to the lists of cxccpttonstn cannot consrder word formation tlrrr.ti0ningof the 'exception either as a part of inllectional morphology or as a parl or.thu by uncertainty.The secondassumptiotl that the dictionaty lexicon as suggestedby gcnerative-lexicalists lr,ulrtionalgrammars) is surrounderl such as Chomsky (1971))antl Aronofl-(1976). The paradigms is nothingnew. Diclionariesof Sanskritand most obvious counlcr-argument rilrrstbc organrzedinlo derivational to the ratter hypothesis comcs fronr polysynlhetic ranguages centuriesago. we may examinethe lexicalentry for barad (such as Imrktitut or Ainu) r\r;rlricwere organize<.I in rhis fashion where lexicalists have to store w'holc sentcncesin the lcxrcon in order rJictionaryof Arabic (i.e. any dictionarywhich hasnot to account for'sentencc-words'. lrr.or becomecold" in any traditional imitationof dictionariesof Europcanlanguagcs): An interestinga(iclc t,r.cnorganized alphabetically in was devoted to this problem by M. IJalle (1973),"vhoenteftains thc {bllowing model of the coexistence of morphology and lexology; see Figure 9. l. However, a (Verb, ClassI) closer (l) barad "be or beconrecold" scrutiny of IIalle's article will reveal that Hallc did nor distinguish clearly between (VerbalNoun, ClassI) inllcctional and bard "coldness" derivational morphology (p. 7, "the nrles ofword fomration gcncrate the infiected barad "hail" (VerbalNoun, ClassI) forms"). This conlusion is, of course, a result of hantlling both inflcctional and dclvational (VerbalNoun, ClassI) morphology by means burud "coldness,frigiditY" of an oversized transformational component (or, in other wotds, ol barrad "refiigerator" (OccupationalNoun, see9.5) handling morphology syntactically). Hence, [{alle's attempt to accommodate both inflectional (Adjective: Participle,Class l) and barid "cold" derivational morphology in the dictionary: (i) the dictionary contains only (and all) lLily (Verb,Class II = Causativc) inflected barrad "make cold, cool" fbrms ofthe languagc,(ii) the dictionary must be organized into derivational paradignrs. (VerbalNoun, Classll) Thus, tabnd "cooling" according to Halle, the lexical enh'ics for WRIT'E and pLAy are organized along these (Parlicipete,Class II) hnes: mubanid "cooling,refieshing" ?abrad "enter upon the cold season" (Verb,Class IV) "refreshoneself' (Verb,Class V) (l ) Inflected Forms tabanad ?ibtarad "becomecold" (Verb,Class VIII) wRr; *;;o-"u"r,*,,",'i,.i,ing,*rr,,"n Actuallythe first informationgiven will be a vowel in the stemoIthe imper|ective: derivativcs rewritc write, writes,wrote, writing, written " writer writers

a I 4 -AFT--

168 AN INTRODI]CTION MORPHOI,O(JY I'O THE STIJDY OF MORPIIOLOGY DDRIVA'I'IONAL t69

(3) barada (u, r,, tlr(. r'olc of delerminant in a syntagma where the determinatum is a dependent morpheme" A bard derivativc I r1, I I ). Whcreas in the compoun d steamboat the determinatum was a noun boal, in the trI I \t,,rnt,t. the detcrminatum is a derivational suffix -er. On thc othcr hand, derivational prefixes Pcrfcctive rl Vowel in the r,rrr. tr lre as d€terminants; anti- in antifascist detennines thc dctenninatum fascist. stem Verbal Noun f f classified of the Imperfective 'l rildrtionally, the area of word formation was treated as consisting of derivation and r mrpounding. The fonner was subclassified according to whether the derivational affix was This, of course,is far fiom including'only shown in Figure 9 2' (andail) fully inflecredforms, in l,r, lrrcrl or suffixed in prefixation and suffixation, all thedictionary, sirrt r theselorms wiil haveto appearin the grammar. (1969:i1), it is possible to regroup this traditional Thusthe grammarof Arabic -.- ll.wever, as was shown by Marchand - contalns .rot rts lexic.' the informationon deictic categories compouuding under oue heading of expansion. l\{archand ofperson (1,2 an

(5) Determinant Detemrtnatunl (4) barada ( -brud- ++ ) Compound free morpheme free morPheme btack bird ll Perfective I hc stemtll.thc Derivative boundmorpheme fiee morphcme Impcrfcctive,Aion-past prefixed word fore see

Similarly' the dictionaryof Russianwill haveto list , word liec morpheme boundmorpheme the perfectivecounterpart ot-rheverls bit suffixed "to beat"since its lexical ,,to meaninghas changed: u_bit. kill,,. ktns dttm

9,2 Derivation versus Compounding Oonsequently,we may wish to keep the term derivativeonly to derivativcsformed by A derivative (derivedor comprexrexeme) shown in Figure 9.3.'Ihis rcasoningmay be is a lexemewhosc stem is formed riom ,,rrllixation(deriving by bound morphernes),as stem (derivationar a srnrpler basc) by some kind of ,,rrppofled recogtrizedby traditional grammarians,an important morphorogicarmodification (most commonry on semanticgrounds. As affixation)' For instance'the Englishsutfix -ic lies in the fact thatthe formerhave a distinctmeatlit]g derivesdenomi'al adjectivesas i, tlemocrat t rlrlh:rcncebetween prefixes and suffixes democratic. A compound, on the otherhand, as independentwoKls), whereas the latterdo not' of is a lexenrewhose stem is fonned by combining ill thcir own (evcn if they are not usetl lwo or more stems(which'ray be scparatedby -I'heprefixes a- and be- appearto haveno distinct an interfix (cf. 2.3) as in huntsman).For insta'ce, (.()rrrse,there are exceptlons onboth sides. [a] bhckbird ts a compouudlexeme whose stem is formed to serveonly as meansof trimsferringa word from one lexical category by combining the adjectiveblack and the rrrr:aningof their own and noun bird. and t0 rrrrotlrer.The formcr derivespredicative adjectives fiom intransitive verbs (l[e is asleep) Accordingto Marchanrt(1969: t l) the and verbs (bespectercled,beliUle, coiningof newwords proceeds by way of .,combining llfc fatter derives transitive verbs fiom nouns' adjcctivcs linguistic elementson the basisof a determinant/determrnatum hand,the meaningof suffixesis usuallybest described grammatically; relationshipcalled syntagma,,.In Itt,tnoan).on the other termsof semantics,the determinatum represents into another,e.g. k.ind-t kindness.[t is rathcr thatmember of the compositelexeme rrrurrysuffixes convert one part of speech rs which modifiedor rather'determined' by the determinant. modifiesthe lexicalmeaning of its determinant;for instance, For instancc,in the compositerexeme t.xccplionalto find a sulfix which steamboqt thc basic word boat underwent a semantic denoting color changestheir lexical meaning fiom "X" into restriction or determination by the thc,suffix -jsft a

_l 5

170 AN IN.IRODUC.TION To THE ST I-DY oF MORPIIOLOGY DERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGY t71

Word Formation ((r) Englishprefixes:

a- [o] adrift, asleep, awash, a-flicker a- [er] amoral, asexual Derivation Compounding ante- anteroom, antediluvian black-bird anti- antichrist, anti-aircraft arch- archbishop, arch-enemy au1()- automobile, autobiography Prefixation Suffixation be- bespectacled,bcsmear counter-ailack king_dom bi- bilingual, bisexual co- co-operate, co-education Fig,9.2 Word formation countel- counter-a1tack, counteract de- decodc, delrost, dehumanize Word lrormation dis- dishonour, disagree en-,em- ernbed, endanger, enslave ex-prenller, ex-scFr'lceman cxtra- extraordinary, extra-mural Derivation Expansion fore- foreground, forervord, foresee hyper- hypcr-critical, hyper-sensitrve in-, im-, il-, it'- inaudible, impolite, illegible, irreligious inter- intcmational, interschool Sullixation Prefixaticln Con-rpounding mal- malad.justment, malodorous king-dom counter-ailack black-bird mis- mislead. misconduct non-payment, non-exlstent Fig. 9.3 Word non- fomation accordingto Marchand0969) post- post-war, pos!reformation 9.3.1l,reJixation pre- predate, pre-war (c1. Premature) (cl. Prefixes may pro- pro-German ProPel) bc detined as bound morphemeswhich are preposed to free (or bound) rebuild, refuel, rcbirth (cl rernain, remotc, t'ccovcr) morphemesAs mentioncdunder re- 9.2, they functionas determinantsof the words (or bound semivowel, semicircle stems) to which they are prefixed. seml- For instance,the adjective nuturar may serve as a deter- sub- submadne, subwaY minatumin variousderivatives such as a n-naturttl, super-natural aftdcounter-nulurel.The boLrnd stemy'er may super- supermarket, superstructure serveas a determinatumin re-fer, de-fer,md pre-fer.prcfixes un-, super-,countcr- transPlar-rt aretaken liom the list ofEnglish rans- transalpine, prefixeswhich rnay be studiedfor their origin and productivity ultra.r'iolct. ullra-conservative in various grammarsin English. ultra- The rist of productive English prefixes, taken from Zandvoorl unhappy, unkind, unrest' undress' unearth (1966:291-298),is reproduceclin (6). u11- As is well known, almostall productive('living,) Englishprefixes are of non_Germanic Howcvet',this typc trl rulre lcas thc restconrbrnes with both Germanicand non-Germanic words ongin, with thc cxceptionof a- (in asreep),be-,fore-, mis- unrun-; fnr- as in andwith_ as lrnguistsarc forget ,,trrtlyof derivationalmorphology belongs rather to diachrony.Synchronically, inh'ithhold areusually not includcd sincethese words aresynchronically unanalyzable. It can variouslexioal be in semantrcrestrictions on combinabrlityof variouspretixes with observedthat negative a-, auto-, hyper-, anrl r.lcrosted mul- combineonly with non-Germanrcwords. we may combincthc . Iltss{.:s(nouns, verbs, adlectivcs, advcrbs). Why is it, Ibr instancc'that

I I!F-

t72 AN IN]RODT]CTION TO TIIE S'I' TDY OF MORPHOLOGY DEIUVAl'IONAL MORPHOLOCY I t)

prefix/e- with both liee stemsand bound stems prccisely the clement connectedwith a pafticular sememe) does not (suchas -fer and_zril)hut theprelix./ore_ lr, ,rrrrrrgfulelement (or more with fi'eestems? Furthenrorc, o'rr we may combines ub- with lr,rlrl llor.vever,they arc morphemes as distributional elements. -mit but'ot w.ithfer. Tolacilitatetht studyof theserestrictions ringuists construclvarious derivationar paradigms. paradigm The fbilowinir of the latinateverbs is takcn from Aronoff(1976:12)and it includcs 't | ; ,\ulJixulitttt arestressedonthcstcmsuchas: onry verbswhiclr refer,excrudingverbsstressedonlheprefixsuchas: Sulfixes be defined as bound rnorphemes whicb are postposed to liec morphenles. As surJbr.(,t 1-ray the systemof sound purtern o/ Engtish by N. chomsky ilr.iltioned under 9.2, they function as dctcrminata of sirnple or compositc (i.e. compotrnd or and M. I{ate this classrs markctr phonologicallyby 'l'hcir the presenceofa specialboundary _): free morphcmes: king-dom, color-blirul-ness, clis agree-mertt. origrn and s),rnbolizedas 'l'.lr\irlive) g,r,rlrrctivity may be studied in various grammars of Bnglish or in the study by Marchand (I969). (7) Derivarionalparadigm of two types of derivalrorr by mcatis LatinateVerbs l ,,r Practical purposes, it is important to distinguish betwecn X:fer X-nit X:sume X-ceive X=duce ,,t ,,rrllixation:(l) suffixation on a native base and (ii) suffixation on a lbreign base (also called refcr remit resume receive reduce l.Jr.rrl.atin base). The fonner method can bc subdivided as follows (Marchand, 1969:215): defer demit deceive dcducc prefer t presume (if) Dcrivation by native suffixes (good gootlness) with no allomorphy infer + rnduce (lr) Derivation by impo(ed suffixes (lot'e lovuble) with no allomorphy' confer "' dhle I commit consumc concerve conduce (c) Derivalion by imported suffixes involving allomorphy: histrjric historicit)', transfer transmit lransduce ability. submit subsume

admit assume adduce I lre lattermethod can be subdivided as follows: pcnnit percerve extsts ts (d) The suffix is added to a Latin stem which closely rescrnbles a word that Aro'offuses this data to

n4 AN INI'RODU(]TION TO.IHL STTIDY OF MORPIIOLOGY DERIVATIONAI,MORPTIOLOGY 175

-t5t vrolinist,copyist, loyalist wooden, carthen -lte Sybarite,Wagnerite -ese Chinesc, Viennese -ster gangster,trickster, songster -esque l)antesque, picturesque -fold twofold, nanitbld (b) Diminutives -ful beautilul, cheerful -lan Dickcnsian, Shavran, Canadian -et(te) kitchenette,owler, islet -ic empl-ratic,phoneli o, classic, historic -rc/y Annic, Johnny,piggie, doggie -ical classical, historical _kin catkin,lambkin -lng amusing, chamting _let booklet,leaflet, ringlet, piglet -ish Danish, Jewisli, gir|sh -ling duckling,fledgeling, weakling, gosling -ivc attractive, instructlve -less endless, countless (c) Abstract andcollective nouns -1ike childlike, heartlike -ly lovely, manly, deadlY -agc mil(c)age,orphanage,drainage,pcrccntagc -ous dangerous, mountainous -al approval,arrival -some troublesotne, toothsorne -(i)ana Shakesperiana,Newfoundlandiana -rh fourth, sixth _ance furtherance,ulterance -ward backwar

(ii) Suffixes derivingadjectives: tr.1 ('ompounding lncliscrrssingthcstatusofcompourrds,lingtListsusuallyrelyonthreecriteria:theunder|1'ing -able breakable, notoriouslyunrcliablc as th(j eatable ('onccpt,stress and sp€lling.However, all thesethrec criteria are (ible) convertible, discernible rrt.lttsalofvarioustreatmentsofcompoundingrnaydemonstratc.Fo[instancc,H.Koziol'the -al cultural, publishedin 1931in Gcmarl' claitns musical ,rrrlfror of the first monographon Englishword formation, -an Indian, Lutheran ofa combination'obviously' cvcn tlilt rhc criterionof a compoundis the psychologicalunity -cd landed,wooded, lt nrayfunction as psychological urrtts blue-eyecl ,.rrrr;rctic groups such as the Hob Romuncatholic Chur<

-I aF-

176 AN INI'RODU(]'fION DERIVAI IONAI- MORPIIOI,OCY 111 TO THE S NJDY OF MORPIIOI,OGY

andthus it is extremelydifficult, if not impossible, |,,1r1)()undassumes the fonn of the stem and the second member takcs thc dual lrom (singular to establisha clearcut distinchonbetwecn ir compoundand a syntacticgroup' | plural fal'D.lt is also notable that at this stage the first membcr of the compound loses Stresshas been used as a criterionby Bloomfield(l 935:22g): ,,|.ri.r, "Accordingly, whereverwe hearlesser or lt,, slrcss (compare English lfcrtinl or ltcrl{nl). More complicated examples to analyzc are leaststress upon a word which would alwaysshow higlr strcssrn a phrase,we describeit They arc fomrcd whcn the pair of groups is to bc denoled; for asa compoundmember: ice-crenml'ajs-,kr.ijm/ is a compountl. ;rlrrrlliz.cd coordinatc compounds. brr ice cream/'ajs 'krijm/ is a phrase,although lf uiava.yasmeans "(the 11ockof) goats and (the flock oQ shcep". 'lllogically" they show thereis no denotativedifference of meaning,,.1.hc f\l:rlrcc, criterionofstress was rejected by the plural lorm in the second-tncmber(the accent is on the Jespersen(1942:8.12):"lfwe stuck to thecritenon ofstress. rlrr.stcnt-fom in the first-mcmbcr;md we shouldhave to refusethe nameof of the second member avis "sleep"). There are other types of relationships which compoundto a rargegroup of two,rinketrphrases that are trrrrrlsyllable generallycalled so, such as headmaster compounds. For instance, English hitter-sh'eel means roughly "swcet or sronewaff,. The spellingis, of course,the worst rrr,r' lrc lbund in coordirrate criterion,since some compounds are hyphenated, or aftertasteof bittcmcss" (OED). Ilere we are no1dealing with a pail but with othersare not, andothers are spelled with no n rllr ap a4mrxture separationbetween the constituents, (one predominant). Sirnilarly, in rcligious terminology God- e.g.gold+ail, stonewall, blackbi.rtl.pcrhapsthe two-strcssctl ir ilil\turc of two properties being syntactrcgroups (s/on e w{Jil, paper French llomnte-Diett, all of them calqued o1 Grcck theinthropos) bag, etc.) shouldbe excludedriom word formation.However, rrr,rrr((ienrran Gotrmensch, it is of intercstto note that man, i.e., a mixture Of two propertics one bcing many suchcombinations have developed forestress (e.g. boyfrientt, r[''.lcs SolTreonewho is both God and nnnsemant)'Furthetmote, they may tcrminology of Hinduism abounds in terms such as Hari-Ilttra (Vishnu- be classifiedas compounds in languageswhrch indulge irr lrrt.rf rrnrinant). Religious cotrpounditrgmore than English ,,lnl\, Lord) and 5'a4,a-Cundra (sun-moon). The deity known docs.Tlt.;,s Steinmauer "stone wall" is classil'iedas a comoouncl Artlhanarffvrrra (Hcnnaphrodite (trident in in Germanbut stone wall is rathera syntacticgroup in English. ,1,I llri-[ lara was representedwith Shiva characteristics tbr the right side of the body compoundsare usualry with vishnu charactcristics tbr the left side of the body studiedaccordi'g to their membershipin the partsof speech(as lrr: Irand. snakes on hls arms, etc.) and grven by their determinatum): cro\4'11on head, and halfofthe traditional V nlark (i) compound nouns(steamboat, brackbird) (ir) compountl lr rrrrchshell in his hands, necklace offlowers, adjectives(color-blind, male characteristics of Shiva on the right hearr-breuking)and (iii) compoundsverbs (outbil, ovedlow, unttertuke). ,rl Visluu on the forchead). Ardhananshvara shows the 'l'hcre are also (accortling to an ancient legend Shiva and Parvati compound pronouns (mvselfl adverbs (somewhere.),preposrtrons (lirto). ,,llc anrl the fcmalc oncs ol Par,zation the left corrJunctrons(whenever) that they merged into one androgynous being)' and intcrjections(heigh-ho). Howevcr, in this book a differenttype of ,,rrcecngaged in such a violent sexual intercourse classification female sexual f-eaturesin a will bc adopted-'that which waselaborated centuries ago by Hinclugrammanans: As is well known, the Greek Hemraphroditc combines malc and grew with lhc rhllurent way (here the myth tells us that the son of l{ermes and Aphroditc togcther differs (i) Coordinatecompounds rryrrrphSalmacis while bathing in her fountain). obviously, the 'notional compounding' (ii) Determinative 'I'o a tota'lly different area, scier-rtifictermrnology compounds(these can be of two types-.subordrnate or dcscriotive) Irorrrculturs to culture. take an example lrom whose cap is both (iii) Possessivecompounds ,rfxrrrrtds in tcrms such as russzla cvunoxtuttha.which is a "milk-mushroom" colors in (rv) Syntacticcompounds '',lrrrk-bluc"(Greek kuuneos) and "yellow" (Greek xanthos). The mixture of these lwo with yellorv spots' rlrrscase does not yicld green;the cap of this mushroom is bis'ically dark blue 9.4.1C'oordinute Compounds Srrnilar examples could be multiplied from any scientific terminology' Somecoordinate which do not have dcrivational rilorphology compoundsare additive. In modernlanguages this rclationshipobtains More interestlng exantples come flonr languages most typically js..four" ,.ten', instance, chinesc fonns its abstract trouns by in numerals;for instance,rfaurteen + (we may note that on the iilr(l have to rely totally on compounding. For phonological (antonynrs): sidc thesenumerals may be realizedwith doublc strcss/fcftin/ or single final stress , orrrpountling two adjectives ofexactly opposite meaning lfcrtinl)- Hindu grammarians applie<1the te.- dvanclvato this typc of compound.This tenr translatesliterally ..pair" .illogicality, + "little" "size" "two" + "two" but it means or.,couple".This rs explained (9) ta-hsiao literally "big" by the + "short" "length" fact that in Rigvedic compoundsof this type (ncarly alwaysnames of deities)each membcr ch'ang-tuan "long" of the compound ,,Mitra +'hear" "distanco" is ibrmally dual. For instance,mitrd-varuna means and varuna,, (: 1r,yi11 yuan-chin "far" deities) *"two + "price" and not, as morphologysuggests, Mitras and two varunas" (singularMitras, kuei-chicn "dear" "cheap" Rigvedic dualMitrA). Similally matara-pitarameans"mother and lather"even if morphologi- cally 'ilrc examples is quitc diffcrent lrom Indo- we aredealing with fwo duals.More 'logical' compoundsof this type appearin tatcrpost- mental proccss illustratcd by these chincse Vedic bitter-sweet docs not mean "taste" bttt documents,for instance,indra-vayu "Indra and Vaya" where the first membcrof the l,rrrrrpcancoordlnate compounds quoted above. English

lrr*.-- J F

178 AN INT'RODUCTION t19 TO THIJ SIUDY OF MORPIIOLOGY DBRIVA'I'ION,{I MORPI{OLOGY

"sweet with bitter aftedaste".on and dit'i-t'itj "worshtpptng tn the other hand,these chinese examples N,,rrrrfi,l),jas-p ati"lordof a family" (with genitiveja.s, Nom.iru) figurativcly' must be iuralyzerr more specificallyas examplesof metonymy (usually definedas a semantlc lrr',r\cn" lwith locativedir r) basedon ternporar transfer or spatialcontiguity). This derivational type is extremelyrare in rn<10- |)r:scriptivecompoundswiththeadjcctivcasadcteminant(thetypebtackbird\arerarein Europeanranguages; compounds is nevertheless,some exampresmay (lit. "black" + "bird"). Ihis typc ofdetemrinative be found in Flindi or persian.For \,rrrskrit:krsnu,lukuni"raven" lnstance,in the latter I combinations with adjectives ,e.,,and \(.ry common in Germanic languages. In English, here belong nguratively.,rrarnc,, broadside, shortcuke;taste: ,,:::ii,";::;:;;:(:::n:f::i:",:.];;:;:lJll ,ft.rrtrtingcolor: bluebird, redfsh,blackboard;dimension: Iongboat, meaning "star"rdingin thc ,tr,.ttlreod, sourdough;genealogical compountls rvith the determinant 9.4.2De te rminative Con ryouncls ',,,rrrtcldegreeofancestryordescent":grtuulitther;ethnicnames:Englishnun'lrishnatt' Thercare basically They have t\\'o tlpes of determinativecompounds. problcms in compounding appear in all flectrve languages' A nounmay be determinedby Specific morphological an adjcctiveas in history and btackbirtr.Similarly, adjectives flective languages bccamc analytic during their may be determinedby thc stemor.a noun rrr tlo with the fact that many tn color-blind as compotrnds' or thcy may be determinedby another terminology of the caseglamlnaf in the analysis of adjectiveas in ic1,_colcl.Intraditional |,|ltscquently it is hard to use the grammarsthe first craJismen whcrc type is calredsubordinate (depcndent).on,'oouno,,t" in English rvhich has few compounds of the type secondlype I frrs problem is rathcr margrnal descriptive compound lt is possible English this type is not producttve, to classify subordinatccompountls r lc;lresentsthe old gcnitivc ending. |lowever, in modem grantmatical accordingto the meaningwhich the determinant has at the level of the undcrlying r,.alffonnationssuchashnnlsnutn,kingsmanetc.werefbmredinpreviouscenturiesButtn lnstance' sentence.For thefbllowing three compound adjectives hantl, we fitrd parts of subordinate conrpounds arequite different at thelevel ofthe ( r(.illtanthis problem is morc scrious. on thc one sentence: underlying heart-break-ing,easy-goittg andnran-matre. "ethnography" (Cotlesdiensl "divine service" vs' The first one refers to trre objcct rrrr.lras l/o/hsfti.,rde "folklore" vs. Viilkerkunde sentence: ofthc (of griefbroke his heart -, heart-breaking studies" vs. Ltinderkunde "regional geography grief;thcsecond one is basedon an adverbiar t;t;ilcr(licnsl"i

180 AN DI-]RIVA'f IONAL MORPHOI,OGY 181 TNTRODLICTION TO I'IIE SI,IJDY OF MORPIIOLOGY

exocentric,as opposedto endocentric tt.5 Noun Derivation in Arabic compoundsincluding coordinateand dcterminativc compounds' A.'other common term paninian It is often said that the absence of compoundittg is one of the typical fcaturcs of word coming fiom grammar is bahuvrthi meaning litcrally "someonewhose rice plentiful" lorrrrationin Semitic languages.This statementwill not stand the scrutiny and it is really possiblc is (vasyavrlhir bahur asti).In Sanskritadjectival Thus Arabtc possesslvecompounds were formed from tI lln.1.-" examples of cornpounding. Some of them are based on lbrcign models. bolh descriptiveand subordinatecompounds and this proccsswas accompaniedby a shift l,,ti,muftntii "chiefinspector" or hAi,kAilb "chicfclerk" etc. are calqucd on Turkish compounds ofaccent from the final memberofthe compoundto the lirst. may be takcn as a prelix For instance'a descriptivecompound /rr; "lrcad" * bukun "minister" - "prime ministcr" (synchronically, bal brhad-aivit"great horse" could be transformedinto an adjectivalpossessive compound rrr Arabic). Modcrn Hebrew has formations w'hich have to be analyzed as dctemrlnatlve by the shift ofaccent brhdcr-aivu,.possessinggreat horses,,. "appearance" + dok Sinrilarly,a subordinatecompoun

_l - ".-

183 r82 AN INTRODUCI'ION DERIVAlIONAI, MOI{PI IOLOGY TO THE STUDY OI.- MORPHOI,OGY

unit of what tl-reirbasc (vii) t_ocative Singulative nouns are denomitlal derivatives denoting an individual (viii) Hyposratic collectively or generically. Thc dcrivational suffix is -e' 'lerrotes (rx) Diminutive (x) Elative (-'ollective Singulative xass "lettuce" xass-c "a head oflettuce" Abstract noufls are denominal ba?ar "cattle" ba?ar-a "a cow" and deadjectivalderivativcs ibrmed on the pa'errrs C,aCraCre,C,C2[C g, and C eC (e); it naxl "ciate palms" narl-c " a date palm" e will be observedthat _e is lowered to -a aftcr pharyngeals,? andr. convefled into feminillc llouns Many mascultne nouns (denoting male bcings) can be (10) suffix -e: Adjective AbstractNoun t,lenotingfemalc bcingsl by the same Seial "brave" SaZafa "bravery" satb "difficult,' sflbe "difficult" ( l3) Masculine Femrntne kbir uncle" famm-o "(patemal) aunt" "large" kebr "large size" lamm "(patemal) "bitch" kalb "dog" kalb-e Noun sadi? "iiiend" sada?a "fricndship" Occupationalnounsar€mostlydeverbalderivativcs(thcrcarealsosomerlentlminal As the term suggests'only nouns denoting human saheb "friend" sohbe "friendship" ,lt'r'rvatives)formcd on thc pattern C'aC"CriC"' ?abb "father" ?ubuwwe "fatherhood',(< earlier?ubuw_) hcings belottg herc:

verbal nouns (or gerundial OccuPationalNoun nouns)are dcverbal derivatives formed on a varietyofpattems. (14) Verb In the caseof simpletriradical verbs ra?as "clance" ra??as "dancer" thereis no sureway of prediclingwhich pattemis to bc used. Some of the patterns "cultivate" fallah "peasant" are: C,aCrCr,C,eCrC,, C,aCraC., C,aCrdCr, C,(r)CraCr(e), falah C,(u)CruCr,C,aCraCran, and C,eC,C.dn. Noun "blacksmith" (11) Verb VerbalNoun hadid "irori' traddad .,cutling, "butcher" i.arah "cut, wound', iarh wounding,, lahm "mcat' lahham hakam 'Judge" hakm .Judging,, talab "request" talab ..requesting,, Instrumenta|nounsarerleverbalderivatives|onrreclonlhepattels:C.aC,C2aC.e, ..succeed" naiah naZah ,.succeeding,, rrr.rC,Cr aCr(e), and maC'C.aC.,(e): tabad "worship" fbade .,worshipping,, nezel "dcsccnd" nzol .,descending" ( 15) Vcrb lnstrumentalNoun ..trembling,, "airplane" raiaf "tremble', raLafan lar "fly" (root TYR) tayyara feref "know" ferlin ,.krowrns" fatah "open" meftah "key" darab "hit" mcdrab "bat" vcrbal nouns of many simpletrilitterar verbs have singulatives dcrived from them: l.ocativenounsaremostlydeverbalderivativesfonnedonthefollowirrgpattems (12) Verb Verbal Noun Singulative rrra(l'C,aC3(e) and maC,CreCl: darab "hi1,strike" darb "hitting" darb-e "blow" dafat "push" daff "pushing" daff-a "a push" 184 AN TNIRODIJC.TION MORPHOI,OGY 185 TO THtr S-l.LrDy OF MORIHOLOGY DERIVA]IONAI-

(16) Verb LocativeNoun RECOMMBNDED READTNGS ?afad "sit" ma?fad ..seat,' daras "study" ..school,, in worclfornation"Lunguttge Tvpolugl' madrase Arlderson,Stepl-ren R. l985."Typological

_l t86 AN INTRODUC'I'ION MORPHOl-OGY 187 1.O THE STT]DY OF MORPHOLOCiY DF,RIVA'I]ONAL

EXERCISES (r. Provide two examplcs for each of the following:

1' Traditionaliy, the area of word formation was treated Compoundnouns as consistingof dc'vatron and compounding lf we want to keep + the term derivativeonly to derivatives (a) noun noun sulfixation formcd by we haveto introducea new i term expansion.Explain antJ exemplify. (b) verb noun (c) noun + verb 2. In the analysis of compoundsit becamecuston (d) verb * verb coordinatc, dcterminarive,descriptive, possessivc J;""riili.:ffi:1 (e) adjective1 noun give some ;:?:li"'#"ff; good examplesfor each. (f) pafiicle + noun (g) vs1fo+ Particle 3 comment on the appropriatcncssof terms fbr compountiscoined by Hindu grammarians (dva ndva, ka rmadh a rayo, ba huv rlh i, Ia tpurus a). II Compoundverbs (h) noun* verb 4' Below area groupof Frencl]words containing (i) + noun dcrivationalsuffixes. compile a lrst vcrb and of them, classifythem accordingto (a) the word vsltr * vcrb classcsthey atrachto (b) and the word classes 0) thcy form. Add to this list any add.itionalsuffixes you canthink ol (k) adjective+ vcrb (l) particle+ noun (1) intenogation (17) maisonnctte (33) divisible (m) noun1 noun (2) 6clairage (1g) ourson (34) courageux (3) commcncemerlt (19) travailleur (35) porteur III Conrpoundadjecttvcs (1) dependance (20) connaisseuse (36) Genevois (n) noun+ adjcctivc (5) largeur (21) horloger (37) chimisle (o) verb + adjective (6) gentillesse (22) pompier (38) sucrier (p) adjectiveI adjective (7) bonti (23) marxiste (39) compteuse (q) adverb + adjecttve (8) exactitudc (24) Hongrois (40) n6grillon (r) noun I noun (9) marxisme (25) respiratoire (41) trentaine (s) vcrb + noun (10) canonnadc e6) dcpcnsier (42) limaille (t) adjcctivc+ noun (ll) soir6e (27) enfantin (43) apprentissage (u) patliclc + noun (12) plumage (28) th6orique (44) cuillerde (v) verb * verb (13) pienaille (29) sportif (45) glissade (w) adjective/adverb+ verb (14) vingtaine (301 pornru (46) difficult€ (x) vslb I Particle (15) finesse (311 connaissance (47) relioidissement (16) traduction (32) guerison (48) exposition

Compile a similar list of wordscontaining dcrivational suffixesin a langr.rageyou know or study and classifythem accordingto (a) the word classcsthev altach to (b) and the word classesthey lonrr.

_l 1'IltloRl-l lCAL MODlll-S Ol] MORPHOI-OGY 189

c0

------t------NP CHAPTER TEN .I'H EORETICAI, I MODELSOF MORPHOLOCY C1

NPV------rr-- l0,l Morphology and Fornal Syntctr Onc ofthe promises made by the gencrativistswas I to come up with a fon.nal analysrsol'tonso c. and aspcct. -z Lntheir Beginning Engrish Grammar (1976:35s) J. Keyser p. postar and suggeslcd ---\ that "a natural way to treat tense in ----^---\ the present grammar ls to assumc that present and past, like -"' NP the 'future' will, are vcrbs in initial structure". This assumption resulterJin monstrous .lnlfial, structures for very simplc sentenc cs such Joan has been singing, reproduccd herc liom Keyser I cl3 & Postal (1976: 359), as shown in lrigure 10.l. 'fhis represents a rather extravagant proposal (with six clauses and seven ver-bs)for the structure containing one tense (present) NP and two aspccts (perfect and progressive; perfectivc is a misnomcr), cl. 6.3.3. Nevertheless, the authors maintain that "il is not hard to develop a lbrmal I analysisoftcnsc antl l,^ aspectalong the lines ofthis note... but this lics bcyond the scopeol'an inlroduclory work". -\\ -.' ---^--- Fourteen years latcr, judge to by Haegeman's Introtluction to Govennteril & Binding Theo, NPV ( I 991 the contemporary ), lormal syntax still rnakes no provision fior the stucly of grammatical ancl rl lexical aspect. As lar as tense is concemcd, it is assumcd that thc tense specification of the C5 sentcnce is scparate fi'om VP and it is associatedwith the AUX node; the lattcr node rs thc sitc on which tense is realized. In all sentences,with or without I overl auxiliaries, tcnse is located NPvl--^.----- undcr a scparate node, labelled INFI-. Senlencesare viewed as possessing INFL as therr head; I INFL lakes a VP category as its complement and an NP (the subject) as its specifier. Given the (-. fact that an actual word such as the morlal auxiliary can appear in the INFL position the label AUX is dispensed rvith. Under this analysis the senlences hn -/o sctw the boss anrJ.Johnwill sec NPV the boss possessidentical structures. This is shown in Figures 10.2 and 10.3. Auxl Pcrlective Aux] Presenl Joan [siirg. PV] ldu. Auxl Progressivc [6e, [irn'c, In view of the long-established morphological practice to labcl thc bouncl morphemo -erl inflectional suffix, to use the label INFL for the modal auxiliaries such as wll/ is most regrettable Fig. l0'l Tcnscand aspcct accortling to Keyser& Postal( I 976:359) and misleading. phrase Furthermore, as the label Inflectional (for Sentence) suggests,INFL is a node which is taken to dominate all verbal inflection auxiliariesof including person and number. The larter A proposaspect, Haegeman ( 1991:106) mentious that thc aspectualand modal two categones are taken as agreement markers "I shall love"' which may be very restricted as, lor instance, l,.rrglishoften corespond to tnflectionalaffixes in otherlanguages (Latin amabo in English Haegeman (1991:102) claims that there is always the lbnltal apparattts abstract agreement which is often ttnruttr.,Ihave lovetl") but no complexaspectual lorms are analyzedin not morphologically realized (the difl'erencebetween English and Latin woukl be to assume that u,ith two featuresallo'*'s for four cotnbinatiorls:f+'l ense Proposerlabove. The inflectronalmatrix thc abstractACR has lewer morphological realizations -AGRI; and in English than l,atin, i.e. not that English i ACR] is foundin tensedclauses; inltnitives lack bothtense and agreel'nent l-Tense lacks AGR). Untier the assumption that INFL dominates certaininfinitivals not only the tense feature of the verb but tlrcother two optionsL-tense +AGRI andl1lense -AGR]are claimedto illustrate also its agreementproperties (AGR), the above two sentences mcrits ofthis proposal,oue would be representedas Fig. 10.4. ilr Portugueseand English. fesp€ctively. whatever the typological

I ,IIIEORI]TIC]AL MODET-S OF MORPIIOLOG Y 191 190 AN INTROI]I]C'IION'fO THF, STUDY OF MORPHOLO(;Y

to their senlantics' Givcn the cument S (:Infl P) ;rspectwhich cannot be accomplished without duc attention errrancipationofmorphology in generativecircles, onc has to read monographs on formal syntax on morphology, such as Spcnccr (1991). The synthesis of rnorphology NI'-----7-:-- / vp t oncLrnently with those tt,,\ rrrrdsyntax ls yet to comc. INFL NP IPast] lll.2 Morphology and Generative Phonologlt existencc of It u,as only fairly recently that generativc phonology acknowledged the I Det N granted or I rrurrphology(in thc sixtics and seventiesnlolphology was either ignored or taken for I ofphotlology ll cvcn denred).It is ofspecial interest to note that the rise ofthe more concrete lype Joln -ed the boss degree a retunl to (so called Natural Generative Phonology, I{ooper 1976) has becn to a large of morphology. trarlrtional pre-generative notions in phonology accompanied by enlancipation Fig. 10.2 Johnsaw.the boss phor-rology was thr- ( )rrc of thc cardinal mistakes ol the orlhodox linc of abstract generative ,rrrorphcme-invariance hypothesis' (versrts traditional concept of variants in paradigmatic S (-lnfl P) 'surface variants' only ,rrr angements). ln other words, orlhodox generative phonology considered processesoperating on abstract invariant morphemesl NP/vP---tf----.- ;rsa by-product ol-rhc all-important deep surlacc fonns (lbr {.()nsequently,it q,as not interested in looking for true generalizations about n-rodels in tcrms of tt ilrstance, the so-called cxccptions which are explained in traditional N INFL NP havc to bc explained by cumbersome machinery of reordered IPresentl rrrorphology and semantics, these important theorctical poinls by analyzing cenain lrlronological rules). We will elucidate Det N to both phonology and rrrtrrphophonemicphenomena of'acccnt. As is u'ell-known, acccnt bclongs of phonctic lbaturcs o1'loudness' rl rilorphology. To the lbrmer by its nature (accent as an interplay .lohn will sce the boss (word-accerlt, wlrich nray bc a mattcr of IiIllc aM lengtlr), to the laltcr by its inherent properties verbal forms. The paradtgrns \lress or tone or both). Let us examine the accent pattem olspanish Fig. 10.3John will seelhe boss indicated by the acute: bckrw representthe completc sct of simplc lorms with the stress

S (:Infl P) PrcsentSublunottve ( I ) Nonfinitc Prcsetitlndicativc "to love" NPlvp-----f----'- amar Sgl irmo 6me I 1,,\ am6ndo 2 6mas ames N INFI- NP am6do 3 ama dme f+'Iensel Pl I amirmos amernos L+AGR] Det N 2 amiis amels ll 3 aman amcn Joln -ed see the boss John will see the boss Preterit ImrrerfectIndicative ImperfectSubjuncttve Sg I am6 am6ba amara Fig. 10.4Tense and aspectaccording to Hacgeman(1991 ) 2 amAste am6bas amaras 3 am6 am6ba amara canobject that it is basedon the confusionof relationship(agrecmcnt) with entity (tense).And 11certainly doesnot take us anywherewith respectto thc analysisof lexical and grammatical .IlILORETICAI- t92 AN INTRODUC'I'ION TO THE STTIDY OII tr,IORPHOLOGY MODELS OF MORPIIOLOGY l9-l

Pl I am6mos am6bamos amdramos I fooper (1976:26) in An Introduction to Naturul Generalive Phonolog'one cannot clainl that 2 am6steis am6bais amarals tttn(ir. dmd, anto, omurd and amara rcccive stressby a penultimatc stress ru]e. Whereas liarris 3 amdron am6ban am6ran t.ounts syllables liom the end in order to assign slress to individual verb forms, Hooper prefers lo look at the wholc paradigmatic display and makes a simple observation that the most striking Future Conditional rxrint about stress in the verb lorms is not the fact that thc majority of forms have penultimate Sg I amard amaria srross,but that for each tcnse (except present) all persons havc stress on the same syllable in 2 amaris amarias relation lo the stem. ln the inrpcrfcct, the 1'rand 2'd Pl fom-rsarc not exccptional because they do 3 amar6 amaria rrot have penultirnate stress.Rather thcir antepenultimate stresst.nakcs thcm regular in that lhe Pl 1 amar6mos amarianros strr:ss lalls on the same vowel (thematic vowel) as in all other persons.'fhus a sct-nrittg 2 amar6is amariais rrrcgularity (cxception) in phonology tums out to bc a morphological regularity. Of coursc, it 3 amarin amarian rgcansthat wc have to recognize that stresshas a morphological function in language and make pllcc for traditional morphological notions such as thematic vowcl in our descriptit'rns.It is fairly J' W Harris (1969) and mood, i e., that stress proposedto accountfor this accentpattem in the frameworkof gcnerativc rr cll-knorvn that stressin Spanish is actually one ofthe markers oftense phonologyhy a rule that witness the minimal pairs such as umrt "l love" vs. stressesthe penultimate syliable of all verb formsexcept the l"rand 2"u rs irn important motphophoncmic category; Pl of thelmpf 2"rand Subj: rrtnrj"he loved" (Pret), ame "thaI l/he love" (Subj) vs. amd "I loved" (Pret). (ln Gencrative l'lronology, these forms would be considcrcd only as accidental products ofabstract derivation)' y + [lstress]/- (([-perfl)C"V)C,,#1,.,0 It rnay bc noticetl that even if we work tvith rrore concretephonology and morphological notions u'c still do not do a*,ay with exceptions. That is, ifwe claim that in Spanish cach tense stresses This rule hasthree expanslons: rrecftair.r vowcl in all pcrsons, we still have to say that the 1"'and the 2"d Pl Prcs arc cxccptional for thc abstract 1;rsslrowr1 abovc, lorms suchas imo - amamos, etc. fumished the bcst evidence (i) the at Spanishdialects which abandoned first expansionapplies only to the l,rand 2.dpl of the imperi'ectand placesthe r*:lultimate rule). However. we may bc intercstedin looking stressone syllablebefore the imperfectmorphemes -ba and_ra; lltc penultimaterule in favorof arulethat stressesthe stcm vowel in all persons. For instance, in (ii) strcss the stem the secondexpansion /-c"vc.#]"",b assignsstress to all penultimatevowels; Ant.lalusianSpanish the subjunctive forms ofthe second and third conjugations (iii) the third cxpansion/-C,#j.",b assigns stress to monosyllabicforms. in all persons (cona, c6manos, c6mais, c6nton). It is ofintcrcst to notc that historically 'rwcl tlrc satnehappened in the imperfect when a penultimate rule of Latiti was given up in favor of a ln other words,according to this rulc all verb forms,except l" and 2ndpl Impf, arestressed on rrrlc that slressedthe thematic vowel: the penultimate syllable.The fonns which arc acccntedon thc last syllable(lnlinitive amar 1,, sg PreLame,3'd sg Pretamo, sgFut amar6,amaras, amurd), are derived by Haris riom more (2) Latin Spanish abstract underlyingrepresentations which havepenultimate strcss. Thus the infinitrvcamar has Sg I amabar-n am6ba 1r - a final vowel -e in the underlying form, which is deletedafter stressassignment; thc pretcritc I^ amaoas am6bas formsttmtandamoarederivedfrom/am+a+Vand/am+a+U/,respectively.Thcpenultrmatc 3 amibat amiha vowcl is stressedby thegeneral rule, thenaltered, and the final vowel is deleted(noticc that thc Pl I amabamus amAbamos deletion rule must be extrinsically ordere

caseabovc, when vowel lengthstopped a. John (Ag Subject) gave the book (Go Object) to the lriend (Rec) functioningclistinctively at a certainpoinl rn the history ofSpanishthe penultimate 'acccnt (Go was given to the frienrl (Rec) by' .lohtt (Ag) rure the heavypenult' hadto give w.ayto a more transparcnt b. The book Subject) rule suchas 'stressthe thematic The fricnd (Rec Subject) r.vasgiven thc book (Go) by John (Ag) vorvel'.In olherwords, the originalphonological rule ofl-atin c. hasbeen morphologized in Spanish. As mentionedabove, dialectal evidence points in the same direction'Native speakerssimply prefer and Object terms are typically tied to specific positions in the clause; thus in English to considerphonological variations meaningful rather Subjcct than meaningless(and phonologically the leftmost temr, *'hereas in languageswith a rich case marking systetn predictabre).Summing up, we cannot do abstract rlrc Subject is typically phonologyas camouflaged morphology. may appear in any position in the clausc. ln Latin, sentences(a) and (b) allow fbr 2'l Morphologyhas to be studiedin its own nghtsan

thc (i) the form in which termsare realized Scntences (i) (iv) arc nol equivalent pragmatically: (i) may be taketr as representing thc focus, (a) casem;Lrking rrormal stare of aft-airs; (ii), (iii) and (iv) put the Goal, Recipient' and Agent in of thc (b) adpositions(prepositionsandpostpositions) respectively. Pragmatic functions constitute a third layer of lunclional specificalion lre (ii) the fomr in which thc prcdicateis realized (.()nstituentsof pre

which the predicatiorr predicates The expressionrules arcsensitive to the lunclionalspecification ofconstituents. Semantic (5) Topic: The Topic presents thc cntity about functions(Agcnt, Goal,Rccipienl, tseneficiary, Instrument, etc.) will most usuallybe expressed something in the given scltlng' through 'l'he the rnost intportant or salient inlbma casemarking (5.2.3)or adpositions,or a combinationof these.Terms with only a Focus: Focus presents what is relatively semantic function are normally not stronglyticd to specificpositions in the clause(2.1.3). tion in thc givcn setting' syntactic functions (sub3ect,objecf) are also expressedtluough case marking and/or adpositions. stalus of'the constituents and they have their Typically,the cases used for subjectand object are the most unmarkedcases ofthe Pragmatic funclions rnark thc infOrniational language(cf. predication is to be expressed' Certaitr the situationin Turkishand Finnish under 5.2.3). Different assignments of Subject ( ()nsequenceslor the fom in which a given underlying and with giVen pragmatic functions, Objectwill usuallybe codedin the verb in termsofvoice distinctions.For a ditransitiveverb, l;urguages(e.g. Japanese)have special markcrs for constituents such give' prosodic pattcms lbr cxpressing pragmatic as diffcrentassignments ofsubject functionwill resultin theuse ofthe passivevoice: ;rrulprobably all languagesuse special ofdering and stress trilrctions.The Topic is typically unstressed,whereas the Focus usually carrics sentential in the clausc ln our (3) Agent Goal Recipienl I lrc l opic often lavors the initial, the Focus the later (or the final) position Recipicnt and a. Subject Objecr lltin sentcnces (ii) (iv) the most salient pieces of information are the Goa1, follorving represerrtation: b. Subiect AHcnl, rcspectively.1'he assignmentofpragmatic functions yields the Subjcct 196 AN IN'IRODTJCTIONTOTIrlr S,t.UI)y OF MORpHOLOcy TIIEORE'fICAL MODF,l,S OF MORPI{OLO(;Y 197

(6) ii. Ioannes(Ag lop) amlco(Rec) librum (Go Foc) dedit. I ll.4 N at u ral M o rp h olo gy iii. Librum(Go (iermany arrd Austria Top)loannEs (n B)amico (Rec Foc) ciedit. Natural Morphology is au approach to morphology dcvcloped in lv. Librum(Go was adopted m fop) amico(Rec) loannes tAg Foc)dedir. rlrrring tl-re1980s by W. Dressler, W. Mayerlhaler and W. Wurzel. Its namc rrrltation of the titlc Natural Phonology, coincd by D. Stampe for his approach to phonology Their English cquivalents: 1| Xrncgan and Stanrpe 1979). 'l5e Natural Morphologists operatewith severalexplanatory principles: universals, typology, (7) ii. .tohngave the fiiend a BOOK (i.e.,nor a knife). rystcm-dependence, paradigmatic structure and naturalness' iii. Johngave the book to a FRIEND (i.e.,nor to his brorhcr). rv. I'he book wasgiven to thc friend by JOIIN (i.e.,notby Fred). ltl.4.l Llniversuls ( t tnderuniversals thc main c()ncemis the relationshipbctween cxpression en(l nleanlng ll) It will be obscrvcdthat in Latin (and lhc relarionshipbetueen signantio andsignata cottcspondltlglo Saussurc's other inflectional languages)Topic and Focus rlrt.irrerminology. expresslonneutralizc the cxpressiondiflbrences (Mayerthaler) naturalnesswas understood as the inverse connectedwith the syntacticfunctions ofa given ttuttiftmts and signtfds).ln the eighties term Thus in Lati'it is impossibreto tlefinethe notion of markedness. Markedness applies essentially to rnorphologioal subjectand object purely positionally(as in ,,1 an all-pervasive English) In l,atin,it is impossible1o assign Subject (or i.e. to thc relationship of Ihe signans (sign(iant) Io iB signatunr functionto the Recipicntas in Englishtie syrrrbolization coding), Jrienclwas gi,en the book by John; Amrco(Rec) symbolization lbr a pail of signata of wfiich one rs morc riber (Go) .atus est a loanne(Ag), bur not ltirndii). An unmarked, or natural. "Amrcusliber datus (thc latter tenx' est a loanne. rrurrkcd is such that the signans of the marked one is also nrore markerful on theother hand, in Englishif becausein the lrnglish spcaking world someterm has both a semanticand a syntacticlirnction ,.rrlcluedon Gcrm an merkmulhuft, is somewhat unfortunate it is 'I'his usually the casethat the expressionfor (nmrkiert) and markerful (merhnalhaft). typc ol' the syntacticfunction overrides that lor thc semantic llrc telrn marked is used lor both marked function'This ca' bc dcmonslrated rT'hichis met most lrequently whct] by meansorthe rorrow.ingschema (Dik r 9g0:r g): t rxling is claimed to be constructionally iconic; it is the type in 3-3, it is rlot ,lcaling with inflectional morphologics of various languages. But as rve sarv (8) Ag (or 'nlarkcrful') than Go Rec Ben rrlwaysthe case that the marked forrned is phonologically morc substantial by John John to John for John rts unmarked counte4lart. by him markerful (i c fon]led by suffixes) him to him for him For instance,thc marke

Go Obj Rec Obi Ben OQj (9) "man" Plural Marked John John John Latin (vir) r'ir-i t iconic him him him English (man) men I non-iconic Arabic (zalam-e) 'zelnt + counter-icotlic The termswith only a semanticfunction (as in Latin) are alrvaysdistinct form eachother in fotm' whereasterms which havealso thc gcnitiveplural form of I'emintncnouns Subjectfunction and termswhich havealso ob,ect firnction Anotherfamous exampie of counter-iconicityis areidentical in forms and areonly distinguished in spite of being double-markedvis-ir-vis tts from eachother in the caseof pronominalterms. ril liussian.This one is suffixless(markerless) This sort of situationis typical for Russian foms u'ith tl-rcirLatin thc effectof Subjectand objcct assignmenton the lbrmal rurrninativeslngular counterpart.contrast the following expresslonof terms. trl uivalents which areconstructionally iconic : t98 AN INTRODU(]TION TO TIIE SI'UDY OF MORPHOI,OG\ ]'HI]ORE'I'ICAI" MODEI,S OF MORPIIOLOCY 199

(10) Latin Russian fn 'l'urkish, on thc other hand, the ablative srffrx -dan locates its nominal root vcly vaguely in that Sg Nom schol_a Skol-a ,rllrcr iormativcs (such as the plural or the posscssivesuffix) could intervene (udu-lar

(13) Urnlaut "student" geb-c uienik-a Sgl 2 gib-st Ianimatel 3 gib{ ACC PlI gcb-en Iinanimatc] 2 gcb-ct "table" stol-O 3 geb-en

Morphologicalregularity (naturalness), however, may be restoretlhy proportional analogy protlucingthe l Sg formgib; thenthe allomorphsacquire semantic values: igrbi - Sg,/ge:bi - Fig. 10.5 " Animacy andCase in Slavic languages Pl. Anothcr concernof thc NaturalMorphologists is whatconstitutes the crassand its comprementary unmarked inflection rerationship to othcr inflection Gemran classcs.1.o use wurzel,s examples, nouns ending in vowels (other differenr than schw "on,pi"r,"nlufclasses: Auto.,car,,, ,",:lr^;;:::::;i schem.ta: Firma "[trm", !:i:;r"tr::r;;;::[:::l Firmen. The crasswith Auto isthe unmarkedone cxrstcnceo['altcrnativc plural becauseof the forms Cellos, Schemas,I,_irmas. .size,ofparadigms, handledby what ,", il":T;:::":l;f" is callcdparadigm economy, possibretoacertain *offiffi;UT;Ir.ilil*iffi (one lbr thematicnouns, :H"fii::il;i I & II, and one for athematic suchas shorr eurd rong rhematic vower, zero.rro. ferms,onc hasto shift thc cmphasisfrom the "r;ilJ;;:lrr#l;tTTTi:;H:;paraaigm word and (wp) model Process(Ip) rnodcl(cf.2.5). to the Item and

10.4.5Morphological phonologicctl and Nulurulness of the Natural Morphorogists .""0::1".,";:n:rT,]]j,#*'mas are rhc intercomponenrial narurarness mavobstruct the achievemenr in morphology,'n#T:1ff';#,:::T'"tv or thephonorogicut, ."o.pi*orogicar andmo.pr,orogi";;[T:iTffi::i;:,t].lJ:JiTI instance, themorphonorogicar rure producing an artlmatlonerectri[k/ _ to be more naturar erectrifs/ityrscraimed thanthe rureproducing fr.ion u. in concru[crJ-.concrufiJn;or .weak, supplelion seenin the chirer- ch,trren i, mor" natu.al ,strong, than its counterpartin (,asgow _ Glaswegianor Halifax _ Hutigoniun. A famous intercomponentialnaturalncss conflict is the Germanic phonological umlaut whrch losesits motivationand resultsin irregular (unnaturar)morphology. For following setof Gcrman instance,rn the verb forms umlautco'erates neithcrwith numbernor with person: 1

202 I AN INTRODUC-IION TO'II{E STUDYOIi MORPHOLOGY I l RECOMMENDED READINGS

Carstairs-McCarthy,Andrew. 1992.Current Morphotogl:.I_ondon: Routledge. Dik, SimonC. 1980.Stuclies AND SIILDCT I]IBLIOGRAPHY in FunctionulGrammur.London: Aca.emic press. REFERENCES 1989. The Theory ofFunctionar Gramntar.Dorirrccht: Foris. Doncgan' PatriciaJ' & David Starnpe 1979. "The study of Natural phonorogy,,.current Phonol

Diakonof{ Igor M. l I9gg.A,frasian Languages.Moscow: Nauka. Dik, SimonC. 19g0. f lewson,John & Vit Bubenik. 1997.Tense antl Aspectin Intlo-Eto'opeanLanguages" Theory, l _,e8e,,",0""1j!ff.)::,::::;,:;::7#;fi Typotogy,Diachrony. Amsterdam:Benjamins. l Donegan, *.fi 'I'ime, Laval' Parricia *car,emicpress f tirtle,Walter H .1915. Aspectand the L'erb.Quebec'. Prcsses dc I'LJniversile l J. & David,o_0. ,nin. . Approache.s," studyof Naturatphonotogy,,. tlescas. Etude de grammairegendrttle' Actu rrrrr)",),";;:::,:?Theory .t* (.urrent lljelmslev,Louis. 1935.La c:utdgorie 'Iutlundica ed'by D'A' Dinsen,,ru university,r""".'o'otor'cal tri.eio-ingron, Indiana Vll.1.xij 184and IX.2.viij 78 Dressler,Wollgang .,lllements Itockctt,Charles F. 1954."Two modelsof grammaticaldescription". lt/ord 10.210 231' U. lg7g. of I a theory P,o""ertingso\"the xrrh or word rormation,'. ._. 1958.A Coursein MoclernLinguistics. New York: The Macmillancompany. rcr,(Vienna, ,rr, ,liltollliistic lgg5' NaturalGenetative Phortolog],. Ncw York: Academtc - Morphonorogv:The Dynamics llooper,Joan B. 1976.An lntroductionto o1:oirror.r.Ann Arbor: -;X#:1ilTfif;,i:*tr& Karomapubrishers. Press. w u w'-"i,'"4..1e87. (irammnr. of Leitmotifsinru)iu,ot uo,pr,orog,, f ludson,R. A. 1976.Argumentsfor a Non-TrunsJbrmutional Clhicago:University Erben, Johannes.1975 Einfilhrung ChicagoPress. in die tleutschell.ortbildungslehre. F.alkenstein, Berlin:Schmidt. Theory^and Anall:sis.Ncw York: llolt, Rinehartand aOam. f i crammailk llyman, Larry M. 1975.Phonologv: der Sprache Gudeas ;.,, lnstirurum Bibli"";1 ;;r;";;ma: pontrficium Winston. Zlngua Fillmorc,Charle s ..The Itkonen,L.sa. 1976. "T'he use and misuseof the principleof axiomaticsin linguistics" J. 196g. casefor case,,. Bach& Harms I 96g. gg. Fleischer,W. 1975. I 85-220. Il/o ()egenwart'r'sprac&e. 38.1 II' 23 7l ]'he Fodor, I. 1e59."rhe Tiibingen: Niemeyer. .fakobson, Roman. 1936."Beitrag zur allgcmeincnKasuslehre". selectetl writing.s ' "r'i!!i:::"^f:de.urs.chenj;il;ffi;:1,,i;:f:":;; Li n gw, 7 1_ Fromkin,Victori a. 41, 1 86_2 ; Hague:Mouton. troduction to Longuage. york: Rinehart and winston.^ New Holt, -.lg51.ShiJiers,VerbalCategoriesandtheRussiattVerb,Canbrtdgc,Mass.:Harvard Gleason,Henry A. l96l UniversityPress. to Descriptive Lingui'stic.New york: and winston. ,*"rr","!'"1ir'ii!lction Holt, Rineharr .lcnsetr,J. 1990.Morphology. Amsterdam: Benjamins' ljnwin. Goodwin,William W. .lespersen,otto. 1929.The Philosophy of Granmur. London:Allen and lg94/1965.A GreekOrammar.London: Macmillan. Pritrciples.PartYI. Morphologl" London: *"Tl""li;llllll,"illl. I'anguoge -. 1942.A Modern English Grammur on llistorical u,unoo^ speciatRefere,," -'iii,n to-.F"otu,"Hierarc.hies. Allen andUnwtn. Grammar In*oduction .foly, Andr6.1975. "Toward a theoryof genderin ModemEnglish". stu(lies in English to Government& Binding ;fi::il::*lt|if;r:t)i" rheoryoxford: Brackwerr by Andre loly,229 287.Lille: Pressesde l'Universitede l-ille' o'"tot"na to a theory ed. of word formatio,r'. Row' Halliday, Michael lnguutir-rnquiry ry.3-16. Katz,Jerrold J. 1966.The Philosophv oJ Language' New York: Harperand o. *. 1967'"Notes on transitivity anclthcme t" u"rt*i, Typologyand Syntuctic Linguisti.s3.37-gl. 0"" t," Journal of Kcenan,Edrward L. 1985."Passive in the world's languages".Language ererence Descriptioned.byT.Shopcn,243-281'Cambridgc:CambridgcUniversityPress' "Tl;I#t;j,T:##:J:- GrammarofMoroccan Yolk: Harpcr& Arabicwashington, D c : Keyser,Sanruel J. & PaulM. Postal.1976. Beginning English Grarnrnur. New Row. "":'#;:r.:.:#i:-:Tffi svntaxin Cross-Linguisticperspecti.,,e. Foundationsof Language ,:;ti"::"*'"at Kiparsky,Paul. 1968."'I'ense and mood in Indo-Europeansyntax". Harris, JamesW. 1969.Spanish phonology.Cambridge, 4.30 57. Mass.: press. - MIT 1985."The independenceofsynlax andphonology in cliticization"'['artguuge srammar:Vowi Klavans,Judy. artemarion,in spuni.h verb "]tJl;,ii;-,!:J::,:generative rorms,,.E1 61.95 120. ed.by J. Guitarf EdicionesOZ, peninsulienerativo_trunsfr.trmacionul , ** Barcclona: Koziol, Herberl. 1931. Ilanrtbuch tler Englist'lten wortbildungslehre Heidclberg. " Unit The Haguc:Mouton' instructurat Linguistics Krimskli,,Jiii. 1969.The lilortl as a Linguistic ii;tJ]'?i, chicago:university orchicago press. categories of Indo-European.Heidelberg: carl wintcr' ilJr];T'?,^rors Jedliika. Kurylorvicz, lerzy. 1964.Inflectional 1963. ieskd mluvnice.,*n", nakladatelstvi. ,,Ur, Oedagogickd l ,a

Lees,Robert ts. 196 (irammar The of English Nominalizations. Paris:Payot' (English Indiana Universi Bloomington/The Hague: tlc Saussure,Ferdinand. 7955. Cours tle linguistiquegt)ndrale 5'h Edition' r " Lingttistics.Ncw York: Philosophical ewis, Geo rrre r r,:;:i ;,f;;r:;:::.,, translationby wade Baskin, cburse in General o xrb rcr : c raren don pre Lewis, M. B. l96g..il, ss Library,1959.) Descriptiotl' Li,charresNreT6;:;",i:::";;:"_:TTl,llffi,::?i;: Schachter,Paul. 1985."Parts-of-spcech systems". Luttgtnge Typology-and 's\'ntildic Lightfoot,David. Volumeled.byT.Shopen,36l.Cambridgc:CarrrbridgcUniversityPress. 1975.Natural Logic ara ,n" l, Moods.rhe Lipka, Lconhard ,];;:::::.::a,the.Gleek Hague:Mouton. Schwyzer,Erluard. 1959. Griechische Gramnmtik' Miirrchen: Beck' ts7i. to 'Proiegomena' to a theory ll/ctnlstructure in Generalit'e Transformationor'^otot"to-ena or\,./oro formation,,. The Spcncer,Andrew. l99l. Morphologicul Theory:An lntroduttion to and Modern Lingztisttc Thte.,v Kcimer. oln.,".0rlno,."Ji#l; "t*u*' ,a. avE. F K. Grum na r. Oxlord: Blackwell. psychological Lyons, John. Dany D. 1975. "chomsky: From formalism to mentalisnrand 196g.Introtluction ,.- lo.v Theoretic,al,,.cv,e,,Lut Steinberg, press. LitLtngu6tics.cambridge: cambridgeuniversity invalidity". Gloss a 9.83-l 1'7. Ilutchinson' -. 1977.Senontics. Stcvenson,C. H. 1970.The Spanish I'anguage Toda.tt London: I and 2 cambridge:cambridge Macdonell, i": university press. Foundationsof slntocticTheory. Englewood cliffs: Prcntice-Hall' Arrhur A. ,Y:f916. A l/ectic(irunmar Stockrvell, RobertP. 1977. fbr Stttdents. OTford,:O*i.A Marchand,Ha's. I969. Uni*rsity press. 'l csnidre,Lucicn. 1959.Eldments cle syntaxe str"ttcturdle. Paris: Klincksieck. antl r1'pes o/ Present-Da1'English Travanrtltr cerclelinguistitlue cle Prague Eclition. Munich: u::;.'*"to""t w'o)rt ror*otion.2.u lrubetzkoy,Nikolai S. 1929."Sur la morphologie". Martinet, Andre. 1965. tu morphonologic,,. 1.85 85. Matthews,peter La linguistiquel.16_31. IL rnr..O" -.lgs4...DasmorphonologischesystcmderrussichenSprache''.Travaurducert:le Lutin,erb r",,,rij,.!i!iili*,::ry::^^^r:?;#:::,:,:;;:,:!, a^"aon Aspects or littguistiquede Prague.Volume 5,Part2' 7 (English -r::i:ry:#:":,?;:;"::'"i""""'o'-0""rheoryorword-structurecambridge: -. 1939.(iruntlziigederPhonologie.TruvanctlucerclelinguistiqlrctlePrague Press,1969)' translationby c. A. M. Baltaxe,Berkeley/I-os Angeles: University of califomia Francke. Meillet, Anloine & Joseph 'l.zcrmias,Paul. 1969.Neugriec'hische Grammalik. Bern/Miinclren: Vendryes. 194g.Trai td de grummaire comparde New York: McGraw.}{i,||, classiques.Paris:champion. des langues Wardhauglr,Rorrald. 7972.Introduc'liolt lo Littguistics. Mitchell' of the Arubic Lunguugc.Volttntes I and 2. cambridge: TerenceF' 1962.Colroquial wright, w. 1896-1898.A Grantmar Arabic.r,ondon:TheEnglish r".iiil;,lli,1i.:,1," M Freischer Univcrsitiespress. CambndgeUniversitY Press. tstt t,.ti, a, rntensive cliffs: Longmans' Course";;;"r,university Zandvoort,Reinard w. 1966.A Ilantlbookof EnglishGramnrar. Englewood Nida, EugencA. l94g.It4 Analvsis Mich.:univcrsiry of ll/ords.2"d Edition. Arur Arbor, ^ ,r'i*lilr#r!"D.escriptive ogden' charres K' & I' A. Richards. rg46- The Meaning of Meaning.g,h Routledge& Keganpaul. Edition. London: * (Firstcdition 1923.) Palmer,Frank R. 1965.I studv of the Engltsh peirce, l/erb.London: Longmans. charles s. I 955. !::!'""',hilosophical llruings of peirce ed. g".h;.. Dover. by Justus New york: Robins, ..In Robert H. 19i9. defense ofvr yvrWp,,. . Trtrransactions philological 57.116-144. of the Societt, _. 1967. A Short History of Linguistics. London; Lo'gmans. "Some probrem'or*o,a ro..nation". -"T;,:fr:'iii:":::' LinguistischeArbeiten t4 Ros6n, Ha.iimB. 1977. Contemporary Hebrew. TheHague: Mouton. INDLX Ot- LATNGIIAGES 109 1 gender,83 I allomoryhy,19 21, 148 150 36 aspect,I 18-119, 188-191 ovcrlapPingdistribution, l compounding,169, 1'7 5-'176 pronotninalforms, 73 INDEX OF LANGUAGES subjunctive,123 I24 conditioningof allomorphs,i 50-l 5l ' 153 suppletion,I 8 I Arabic dcmonstrativepronouns with regardto voice,125 (tucludesClassical Arabic) Bedawye(Kushitic) remoteness,113 adjectives,6 proximitYattd pronomrnalforms, 74 172 German allography,l6 derivationalPar adigm, compounds,118 179 adjectives,6 consonantalroot, 6 deteminativc Berber: I I 9 expansion(in word formation),169 aspect, dcrivationalparadigm, 167 l69 circumfix,2l 196 exponence,I 43 elative,6 FunctionalGrammar, 194 suppletion,1g determinativecomPounds, I 79 grammat.icalword,22 gender,8 I 108 dirninutivcnouns, 55 56 infixation,2l infinitive,l07 Cantonese markcrsofperson, I 12 gendcr,83-84,85 intemalinflection, l g, 26 pronomrnalfonns, 76 andsYntactic morphonologY,16 1 markedness,43 nrorphological 126 predication,107 passive(analYtic)' number,8597, 199 Chinese pronominaltbrms, 73 prefixation,21 morphonologY,l6l compounding, clcment,55 lTT neutra'lalignment, 95 stent-foIming pronomrnalforms, 74 number, nominaldeclension, 58 8g number,85 strong serni-agglutinative,6 l_63 108 umlaut,55,200 201 semi-fusional,61_63 particiPles, Cree(Algonkian) mobilitY,14 voice,I 26 transfixation,2 l, 26 positional gender, declension,58 8 I 170 173 weaknominal vocalicpattems, l g prefixation, pronomrnal forms, 76 pronominalfoms, 73 third person,i 13 Grcck,Ancicnt Arabic, Egyptian segmentabilityofwords, l7 l8 verbal fomrs, 25 features,3 accent,I 5 collectivenouns, 40, go semantic 123 adjectives,6 singularization,40, g6 subjunctive, Czech l 6 suffixation(in word Ibmratlon), allograPhY, accent,15 aspect,l16,119 120 Arabic, Moroccan 113-r'75 adjectives, 6 comPounds,180 clitics,24 exponcnce,139,141 142 slmtactic aspect,43 pronounswith regardto thirdPerson,113 dcmonstrativc diminutivenouns, 55_56 proximitYand rcmotcness, I 14 Arabic, Syrian voice,I 26 gender,83, g5 exponcncc,143-144 conditioningol'allomorphs, I 52 153 positional imperative.122 mobility, 56 l'innish derivation(of nouns),I g 1_l g4 pronomrnalforms, 75 infinitive,108 exponence,l4l_142 case,9294 voice,125 markedness,43 iconicity, lgT middlevoice, 125 number,85 l,rcnch English number,88 pronominal forms, 74 accent,1 5 adjectives,6,71 particiPles,108 110 clitics,24 suPPlction,l8 2t0 AN INTRODUCTION TO TIII S'I'LJDY OF MOR?HOLOGY INDEX OT.I-ANOTJAGES l voice,125 126 discontinuous morpheme,25 t )ltl H,nglish Spanish I Greek,Modern exponcnce,139-l4l adjectivcs,72 acccnt,191- 194 l Functional dislributional Grammar, lg5 gender,83, 85 aspect,1 19 inclusion,36, 42 196 fusional gender,g3 type,59 strongnominal dcclcnsion, 57 58 case,92 gender,gl g4 clitics,24 tense_aspect,120 weaknominal declension, 57 58 grammaticalword,22 exponence,142-143 I rmperatives, I{ebrew l2l ( )ldNorse subjunctive,124 infinitives, clitics,24 107 l0B markersofPcrson, I 12 derivation irrealis,I25 Sumerian (of nouns),I gl middle gender,g4 voice,126 l'L:rsian gender,80 mood,120,124 88 graphemes,l6 possessivepronouns, 77 numbcr, moryhological reduplication,7 predication,I 06 morphonology, 161_162 l(Lrrnantan Turkish nasal I Ilindi infix, 23, 26 clitics,24 adjectives,7 nominative_accusative agglutinatinglanguage' I l6 ergative-absolutive alignment, alignment,95 95 overlapping imperative,121 distributron,37 l{ rrssran aspect,59-60 passive participles,108_llt case,9192 (analytic), I 26 animacY,119 200 passive(synthetic), definiteness and personal pronouns, personalpronouns, 73 I 26 aspect,I I 6 personalsuffixes, 112 ll3 reduplication,7 I l4 avoidanccof Passive,I 27 positional pronounswith regardto vorce,126 mobility,I4 case,94-95 demonstrative possessive remoteness,1l3 pronouns,77 7g iconicity,198 ProximitYand pronominal 41 Italian forms,75 imperative,122 cxponcnce,1 40'-1 sememes,2 gender,8 1 morphonology,160-l6l morphonologY,159161 subjunctive, I 1I i l2 124 l2S syncretism,44 markersofPerson' Janjero(Kushitic) suppletion,26 personalsuffixes, I l4 rypology, mobilitY,14' 56 gender,g I l9g Sanskrit posrtional verba 76 77 deponentia,127 coordinatecomPounds, 176 118 possessivePronouns, voice,126 75 Latin 127 detemrinativecompounds, l'18 1'79 pronominalibrms, accent,16,93 imperative,122 123 semcmes,2 Lithuanian ll3 adjectives,6, 7l middlevoice, 126 thirdPerson, adjectives,72_73 198 allomorphy,i6l passiveconstruction,'l 28 typologY, vowef harmonY,2l, 152 159 aspccr,I l7_119 possessivecomPounds, 179 i80 Malay casc,88-92 voice,125-126 gg clitrcs,24 number, Yiddish reduplication, gender,83 dcclensions,5g,{l 7 Slavtc demonstrativepronouns gender,84 with regardto Modem proximity Norwegian andremoteness, I l3 personalsuffixes, I l2 diminutivcnouns, 55_ 56 GENt]RAI, IND[X I3

,rttributc, 70 closedclass, 73,114 rrrrl,,rtrent,143 collectivenoun,40, 85 GENERAL INDEX comitative,91 lr,rsc,2I cornmand,120 lr;rsicmeaning, 172 comparison,70 ablative (- ahlat:us),g9 I'errcliciary,88 compensatorylengthening, 162 Aktionsart,l6g causae,90 complementary alignment, g5 lrrrrirism,4l l instrumental,90 lr,rttlld(msrpS.rne), 1 3 distributron,35 active-inactivc,95 locl et temporis, g0 hrrrndary,24 rclationship,200 double_oblique,95 ortginis,90 units,35 ergatrve_absolutive, Inorpheme,24 qualitatis, g0 95 word,24 complex(definite) adjectivc, 72 neutral,95 ablaut,57 oomplexlexeme (- composite),166 nominative-accusative, absolutive 95 (case),60, 9t ,llquing,56 componentialanalysis, 3 allograph,l6 abstract agreement,I gg r'rrso,70, 88, 110 composile(- complexlexeme)' 166 alfomorph,1, abstract 19,20, 14g noun,70, 174, lg2 90,91 compound,166, \16 allomorphy,vi ablative, accent,lg1 9 1 additive,176 allophone,I absolutivc, accusative,8g coordinate,I 76 alloseme,I accusative,88 gg ofplace, 91 copulative,57 ambiguity,137 comitative, action.70 descriptive,1 78 analogy(see proporlional) dative,88,91 aclive, 125, 127 ergative,95 dctcnninativc,1"7 6, 118 analyic (morphology),107, 126 additivecompound, endocentric,180 I76 animacy,g4 essive,94 addressec, 75 genitive,89 exocentric,I 80 anrmate(being), 79 adjectival g2 concord, irrstrumcntal,91 possessiv€,176,179 anteriority(relativc aspect), 1 l6 inflection,Tl subordinat€,I 78 antonymy,777 locative,9l adjective,70,174 syntactic,1 76 aorist,1 l9--120 nolninative, 88, 9l simplc(indefinite) in tsaltic,72 I l0 compounding,168,169 arbitrariness,4 obliqtre, complex(definite) in Baltic,72 concept,5,175 article,70 partitive,89,94 adposition,I94 94 concretenoun, 70, 173 aspect,70, 107, 1 translative, adverb, 16, 168 70, I 75 rnarking,194 conditionalclause, I 24 immanent,l16, casc atfix, 120 12 .ausalclause, 124 condilionrng imperfective,116, affixation, 121 168 ofstate,70 lcxical,2l,150 rnccptive,I l6 t:hange agent,95,125 21 morphological,53, 150 pcrfectivc,116, crrcumfix, agcntivc llg, l2l 21, 150 phrase,1 27 clause,124 phonological,20 progressrve,I l6 71 agglutinating(language), vi, 59, 6l causal,| 24 congruence(: agreement), prospectrve,I l6 agglutinative conditional,124 conjugation(s),23 relative(antenority), I l6 typology,61,198 consecutive,124 conjunction,70 retrospective,I l6 124 exponcncc,140 final,124 consecutiveclause, transcendent,116,120 agreement(: congruencc) g2 constructionaliconicitY' 1 97 , 71, assertion,123 subordinate,124 35 marker,188 clitics(= grammaticalwords). 23 contrastiveunits, assimilaloryprocesses, I 52 2t4 AN INTRODU(]'IION TO THE STUDY OF MORPHOLOGY GIJNL,RAL INDEX 2t5

coordinatecompound, I 76 l diagrammatic (rclationship),l 9g Irlcrnal inflection,I 8 gender,74, 79 copulativecompound, 56 diarhesis( - word, 13 countability,g5 voice.).125 , rllrnsic(ordcring ofrules), i92 diminutivenoun, 174, grammaticalwords (- clitics),23 countablenoun, g5 lg4 discontinuousmorpheme, It'rrrinine,8l 85, i 81, 183 grapheme,16 counter_lconic,I 97 2, 25 discourse cumulation analysis,12, 3g lnul clause,124 (of significates),59 distinctivefeaturcs, l, 3 lrst person,1l I, I 13,115 heteronym,8'l cumulative(exponence), 139 distribution,35, 42 lrrr:dmeaning, I 72 hetcronynry,44,8i complementary, of pcrsonalpronouns, 77 dativc,88 35 krcus,195 overlapping, hypostaticnoun (in Arabic), 184 ofpurpose,gl 36 lorcignbase, 1 73 distributional l,rlm,vi, 4, 5 hypothetical(udgment), 125 declarativc(sentence), I 20 equivalence,35 lirrmalsyntax, 188 191 declension(s),23 inclusion,36 37,42 lirrmativeambiguity, I 37 icon, 5 strong,57, 72 double marking (: extended lirnctionalcategories, I 06 iconicity,197 weak,57,72 exponence), 143 frrrnctional Grammar, 194 196 scaleof, 7 deepstructure, I l4 dual,86 lused(exponence), 142 | 43 ir-nage,5 definite(complex) adjectrve, 72 lirsion(of significates), 59, 66 immanent(aspect), I 16, 120 dcfinitencss,9I, 92,1 12 elative(in Arabic),6. lg4 lirsional(typology), 61, 198 imperfect,119, 121 dcgreeof mark edness,42, 92 endocentriccompound, I g0 Iuturetense, I 15"I l6 impcrfcctive,116, 120, 122 deicticelements (pronouns), I l4 cplcenelexcme, gl time,I l5 I 16 inrperative,121 deixis,73 lirture equationalpredication, 94 third person,122 demand,123 equrpollent(opposition), 4 I gcnder,70 impersonalpassive, 128 demonstrative(pronoun), I l3 ergative(case), 95 inanimate(thing), 79 dependent grammalical,74, 82 (subordinate)compound, I 7g essive(case), 94 natural,74, 82 inccptivc(aspccl), I 16 dcponcntvcrbs, 127 EventTime, l l6 (jenerativePhonology, 160, 191 194 inclusive(in thc 1" PersPl), 76 dcrivation,52, 169 exceptlonfilter, 167 indefiniteness,92, I l2-l 1'3 dcrivational gcnitive,89 exclusivc(in thc I', pcrs pl), index,5 affix,23 76 descriptive,89 exocentriccompound, I g0 objective,89 indexicality,198 base,53,l6g expansion (in word formation),t 69, I g6 partitive,89 indicative,124 morphology,4, 54, 166, l68 exponence,139 possessivc,89 indignation,123 paradigm,166, 172 agglutinative,1 40 subjcctive,89 infectum,117 , 126 dcrivative,166, l6g cumulative,139 infinitive, 107 description,120 syntactic,80 extended(= doublcmarking), 143 gerund, I I I passive,108 descriptivecompound, I 7g tused,i42, 143 gerundial(verbal) noun, 182 perfectpassive, 108 designator,I l6 ovcrlapping,143 gerundive,108, I 10 perfective,108 determinant,l6g, 170, l7g l79 underlyinglyagglutinative, 143 grammaticalanalysis, l6 retrospective,108 determination,l6g exponent,139 grammalicalcategories, vi infix, 2l determinativecompound, 176, l:g expressionrule, 194 primary,vi,23 intleclion(inflexion), 52 determinatum,168, l7g extended(exponence), 143 secondary,vi, 23 adjectival,72 diagram(subcategory oficons), 5 exterior(with local cases),92 grammatical classes,199 216 AN INTRODT]C'ItON -IO'THE STUDY OF MORPTIOLOGY GONLRAL INDEX 217

extemal,lg listener,1 I I rr,rrrring(function of the nominative),88 obliquecasc. I 10 rntemal,lg localcase, 92 93 ruurated event, 1 I 5 occupationalnoun, I 83 inflecrionalaffix, 23, l8g locative,9l rrirtivebase, 173 old infonrration,I l3 inflectional (flective) language,2, | 67 ofproperty, lg3 rrlturalgender,74, 82 onornalopoeic,6 Inflectionalphrase, I gg noun,183 Natural(Cenerative) Phonology, vii, 191' opcnclass, 73 rnstrumental 197 opposition case,9l macroparadigm,200 NirturalMorphologY, vii, 197 equipollcnt,41 noun,I 83 mands,120 rrirturalness,x, 197 privative,4l Intercomponentialconfl icts, 200 markedness,40, lg7 rrr'gativeassertion, 123 optative,123 rntcrfix,2l, 16g,l7g degreeof,42 rrcrrter,83 orthographicalrvord, I 3 interior(with local cases),92 37 m;rkerful, 197 rrcwinformation, 113 overlappingdistribution, 36 inte4'ection,70 43 masculine,82 rrornrnalization,71 ovcrlairpingcxPoncrlce, I inlemal massnoun, 85 rronrinative,83,9l cohesion,14,56 200 meanrng(linguistic), 5 nrrn-cumulative(exponence), 140 142 paradigmeconomY, inflection,l g metaphor,5 n()n-cxperiencedtime, 1I 7 paradigmatic,vt plural,40, 85 metonymy,178 rron-finite(verb fonns), 107 relations,37 39 interrogative middlevoice, 125 126 rurn-iconic,197 structurc,197 pronoun,7g minimal pair, 36 r)()n-presenttime, I l7 parole,39 sentence,120 I I I minimum flee fomr, l3 rrotionaltense-sYstem, I 1 6 participationin discourse, introflecting (language), 26 mood,70, 106,120 participles,70,107 rntroflexive(typology), | 9g morpheme-basedderivational rnorphology, active,1 1 0 incalis,125

pronoun,77 prohibition,42,116 ( ()nlponents(: features),79 subject,I 04 phone,I pronominal reference,g2 rrrarkedness,40 ofdiscoursc,I I I phoneme,I verb,95 pronomrnalvoice, 125 rr:urtico-s),'ntacticfunctions (- properties), of intransitive sysremahc,160 ' pronouns, () olpredication,106 phonological 70, 73 ii gcnitivc,89 demonstrative,I rrre tttc, l -3 subjcctivc analysis, l3 ", I 3 123 124 rndefinite,7g '.,rui lgglutinativc, 6l subjunctive, conditioning,53,150 interrogativc, 7g ,.,.rrrrlLrsional,6l subordinate unit, I possesstve,76 ',,rrri rnorphemic,172 clause,I 24 word, 13 (dependent)compound, I 78 relative,7g ',(nilolics, 5, 8 phonotacticrule, 4 proportional subphonemc,36 phonotactics, analogy,6, 20 1 ',,rrlcttce, 38 3g 1 prospecttvc(aspect), t lclled, l 14 subsystem, plural,85 1I6 proximate,ll2_113 rlcclarative,l20 suffix,21, I 73 broken(: intcrnal),40 proximity,73,112_l13 120 suffixation,143, 169 ofabundancc,g6 intcrrogative, suppletion(: polymorphy)'2, 18' 26 ofpaucity, g6 lrrssive,122 quantrty,85 syrnbol,4 plurality, rr:llexive,125 85 (- morphologrcalidgntrty)' 44. quasr-nominal(verb forms), 107 ..,rrlcrttial stress, I l4 syncretism politeprohibiri on, 123 questron,120 ,,lrrliur(tonsc),115 52,93 potymorphy(: supplelion), vt,2, 140 syntactic polysemy, 'ty.n(" signe),4 vi,2,61,140 176 real(wish), 125 (- sigrrifier), 197 compound, polysynthetic 'r3rrlts (language),vi, l9g 94 receiver,88 .,n;n(ttum(: signified), 197 funclions,I popularformation, 54 reduplication, gg group,176,180 T, \ t(u lilnt (: signifi er), 4 positionalmobility, 14,56 referencc,5 predication,I 06 possessive (= signified)' 4 'r.tltilii vi pronomrnal,g2 .,rrrrplc ( indefi nile) adjective, 72 syntagmatic, compound,lj6,179,1g1 referent,4 relations,3T39 pronoun, :rrrlltrlarization,40 76 37 reflexivesentence, 125 ';rngtrlative,40 syntagmatics, posscssor,76 morPhologY'I 07 relative noun,85, 183 synlhctic pragmaticfi.rnctions, 195 conglucnce,199 aspect(anterioriry), I i6 .rpe:rker,75 systctn predicate,I 06 sentcnce,125 system-dePendence,197 predication, :,grccchevent, 115 106 naturalness,I 99 pronoun,78 ,,pclling,175 system-dependent morphological,106 160 remoleness,l12 l13 ,.plrl crgative tYPologY,96 systematicPhoneme, syntactrc,106 resultative(aspect), 42 .,1xrkr:nabout,lll prefix,21,170 retrospecttve(aspect), tail (pragmaticfunction), 195 prefixation, I I 6, I l9 ',lirle.70 169 70, 106,I 15-116, 168 root,12,21 change of, 70 tcnsc, preposition,70 consonantal,1g ..tlrlt'ntent,I 20 text,38 presenttense, I 15 181 then-raticvorvel, vi, 21,58 presenttine, '.t:rlusconstl'uctus (in Semitic), 115,ll7 195 secondperson,lll, i13 ',r('lfr. vi, 12,21,l7l theme, privative(opposition), 4 I secondaryendings, 55 thirdperson,lll, ll3 process 143 ',tt'nrlirrming element' morpheme,17 l17 segmentability,l7 ',tress,175 time,116 progressrve(aspect), 42, 116 Event,1 16 semantic ',tr()ng(nominal declension),57, 72 220 AN INTRODTJCTION TO TIIE S'IUDY OF MORPHOLOCY 1 of the World/Materials cxpencnced,I I 7 I anguages I l underlyingrcpresentation, I lN(;OM'sDescriptive Grammar series futurc,l15 ll6 I I 4, 160 units,vi, l,3 145Russian ll Andre$s non_experienced, St Devonish I I 7 l,r'r, (( lassicallthioPic) Cirtautas untty,85 ' 8l Akkadian Sh. Izre'el 146 Uzbek l.L). non_present,1I 7 Sh lzre'el' 147 Georgian M. Chercht ',, h r onrerr1l'olynesim) I-. 82 Canaano-Akkadian UniversalTime, I l7 (Creole)S. 148 Serbo-Croatiin S Kordic* past,l15_l16 l rrrl trrrn & J LYrch' 83 Papismetrtu 150 Azcri A. Rodrogligcti l universals, ,' I (Warnbo,Nanibia) D. Kouwenberg& B Mutray* 197 ttlhrlilnhu L. Shkaban present,l15117 8,1Bcrbicc Dutch CreolcS. l5l Tagalog umnarked(inflection 152 Central Breton I WmlTre* class),200 rr' Danylenlio& S. Kouwenberg Universal,I l7 trlirrininn A. Vurson 85 Rabaul CreoleGerman (PaPua l5l Demotic St. topic,195 C Volkcr 154Polci R. Cosper ,, I rntoncscS.-Y. KillilglcYa New Guinca) variants(in phonology) (Austronesran)C Volker I 55 Bashkiri A. Bodrogligcti transcendent ,r' h"t'ti\rh I{. Schulz& A. Eberle 86 Nalik (aspect),I | (t, (non-Pama-Nlangan)W 158Vogul T. Ricse 120 il{ | r, ( Kirrlvclian)U.J. LUde$ 88 Nyulnyul malor, l4g 159Mandan (Sioun) Mauncio transfix, 2 I r,r h,,ltrrl(l'apuan) T.E. Dutton* Mc(iregor* (non-Panra-Nlungan)W Mixcor mrnor,149 I t l,uilir/Kwilli (non-Parna-Nltngan) 89 Warrua transfixation,26 160UpperSorbian G Schaarsclundt w M((ircgor* McGregor' verba deponentia,l2T (Dargwa) N.R Surnbatova& 16l Toura (Mmde) th. Bearth translative(case), l r lr.r ( l uuS,usic)A.L Malchukov* 92 Icari 94 162West Greenlandic J M Sadock verhal(gerundial) noun, t, Ilhl(llc DgyptianR SchuL ct al R.O. Mutalov typology,197 lg2 (Mongolic)Chaolu Wu 165Dagaarc(Gur) A Ilodomo I i \rnrLril I). Killingley& S.-Y 93 Daur verbs,70,106 (Ujiycdirr Chuluu)' 166Yuchi M.S. Lirut agglutinative,6l, l. rllilrllcv' l9g (Arawak) Alcxandra Y l6? ltelmen J. tsobaljik ofsaying l ,Irtrtr(il Otomi (Otommgucan)Y | 00 Bare andperception, 125 Aikhcrvald' I 68 ApacheW de Reuse fusional,61,I9g I rrrll,r' voice(= l0l AcadianFrench I) Jory& V' 169Modqrn Greek B.D. JosePh diarhesis),70,106. 107,125 '0 lllrrrri l( llarlou'* introflexive,lgg MotaPan!ane' 170Tol D. Iloltr vowel 'I ( htr(lirn Arabic S Abu-Absi* harmony,154 102Polabian (Slavic) W SuPrun& ll l7l Sccrct Lsnguage of Cbincsc rsolating,l9g ! ' (lurrlrrtr E{stern) Armenian N.A l rolescntl Yarbir) Qu 1.., tttl:cvul polysynthetic, 'r Chamling K. Ijbertr 172Lummi (Salish)R. I)emers I9g :: hhrrclhoe W. Ilmcke 101 weak(nominal declension), l{}4 Kodav{ (Dravidian)K EBERI' 173 Khamnigan Mongol Juha semt-agglutinative, 57, 72 t' I'rstnrrquodrlY-Maliseet 6 I I05 Romancs(SiIrti) D l{olzinger' .Tanhulren wish,123, 125 t Alxruxluiur) R. Leavitt* P Ccch& 174Ncpali Balthasarllickel & J. semi-fuslonal,6l r x llnr sl Palcstiniatr Arabic (Abu 106Sepccides-Romani Word and paradigm M.F. Ijeilschirili* Petcrson split Model,vi, 25_27,l3g iilrrrshrrdial.) K.N. Shahin* ergativc,96 l0? Roman (Rornani)D.W. I lalwachs l?5 ComccrudoR.C. frcike word, 4, 13 il Northcrn Sotho L.J. Louweus, l.M al. 176 Panamint (Central Numic, lltu- t.r,rlr & A.E. Kolzer et. (Turkic)St Sccgmiller* Aztecm) J Mclaughlitl fomration,l6g I | :rrliha (Wcstcm Occanic) I I 109Ksruchny undergoer,126 Gruzdeva 179 Toba U.lr. Manelis Klem Mrltla I I I Nivkh E. size,198 S Luraghi* 180Degema E.h. Kmt I I lVl\'rl (Algic) K.V. Teeter I l4 Hittite Sorbian(lilavic) (i SpieB l{ll Kupeio J. I{ill | | \lnhrla .l W. ( icir & J Paolillo' I l5 hwer R. Nicolai& P. Zima' 182 Cayuga ll -J. Sasse | | | rrnnnaco ((larib, extinct) Sp. I l6 SonghaY A. !'riedmm 183Jaqaru MJ Hardntan tirIlcrr&S M€ira I l? MacerlonianV Chirikba 184MadureseW D Davis rr | /.tr|{ s Ii. Ilosch & G. Poulosa I I 9 Abkhaz Sl. Kamass A. KiimaP i / ( ,rn!rticn (Llantu) Aluned-Chmaga 120Ainu J.C Mahcr 185 R. Smeets 186 Enets A. KtituraP rli I olrlnuan (f()lyrcsiun) R Hooper* l2l Arlyghe (Niger Kordofan) [i thloa 187Guajiro J. Alvarez ,'r hutrrnra M L. Ilender' 122 Tuki K Vema 188Kurdish G. Haig r" ll lrrussian A.Ja. SuPrun & U I2:] Hindi Mahendra J DeChicchis Salar A.M DwYcr I I'lrsrlral 124Q'eqchi'(MaYan) l8') & Ch E. Toursend 190Esperanto Ch. Gledhill r M{t(liyian/DiYehi J.W Oair & U. 125 Czcch L. Janda ', O schuarzu'ald ChenNai-Xiong { trilI 127 Modcrn Hcbrew l9l Bonan D Ricca 92 Maipure (Ararvakt Raoul lanporri r, I llogun V. l)lunglan' l2ll Turin Piedmontese I (Siouan)M Mixco r,i (irrrc M. (iiacoulo'Mrccllesii 129Siciliano R. tsigalker 193Kiliwa & Miluk Coos (Coosm) Anthony rn, lltrlq{rc J. Feuillet* l30Ratahan N.P Hirrunehnatur I99 r,x sunrtrian J.1,.IIaYes* J.U. Wollil Grant rle Tezcoco Valcntin 200 Karbardian (Hast Circassran)John ,,'r lltriilicutcse (Ital. dial.) R. Bigalke* | 3 I El nihuatl Colmsso lrr lrl (;!llrgo J.A. Pcrcz Bouzar Peralta Schulzer 201 Irish Aidim DoYle / | l'|trrtr llajo (Uto-Aztecan) Z. [strada 133Tsakhur W. Wntflre* Evelln'todd I , t ttritnlcz* 135Latc Cornish I. 202 Qae 2{)3Bilua Evel}n Todd / | htrlrlrrr; (Romaili) L.N. 136Fyem D. Ncttlc' Ket Edwud J. Vajda l, h tettlov & M.F Herrrscltink 137Yingkarta A. Denah' 20.1 Finnish llodc Vfiiluzikr / | Al'r uzzcsc (ltal. dial.) R. Bigalke' 138Jurruru A. I)ench 205 Antashinu S llcnru' / | | hrsil Tibctan S. DulanceY 139svan K. lurte' 2tlt' Quechua Greloble Aguilu /N l.trrlin dla Val Badia L Craflbnara 14l Evenki N.Bulatova&L Schurzwald (Clubclu) Mda Tnilos ,') soul( lin (llasque dial.) tJ J Luders 142 Modcrn Hcbrcw O 207 Dtmxna Alnatat {o ( r(!,lcsc ((iulanese Creole) H. 143Okl Armenian N Kozintseva l'.,r,"ffi I 208 Emb{a (Chun) Duiel Agrurre. 328 TobeloGary Holton 209Hiligaynon / Itonggo WalLL. Languages SpiE 329 Ogbronuagum E. Kari of the 330 Old Nubiar 210 kbire Moss KlvadGKan.@u Gerakl M. Ijrome World/Dictionaries: 33| TaiwaneseLilly to the Studyof Morphology 2l I Fering (Northliisian, Gemauc) L. Chen Arrlntroduction 312 KrflEbert Kiswahiti Saliari B. Salone VII I]UBENIK 333 Wotof t'allou 0 | Minhe Mangghuer_ 212 Udmurt (Finnrugdc) Erbedtrd Ngom Enslish MottttvialUniversity of Newfoundland Wfurkls 3.14Karao Sheni Ilrainarl Dictionary Wug Xianzhmc 335 Japrnese yoshihiko (Qinglni Madical t'oilcg4l 2 | 3 Aocient Greek Silvia I uaphi Ikesmi /hu |il''l|()hapler(withtheexceptionofthelastone)isprovidedwithpertinentexercices.lts llb East Fricrland yaron Yongdrwg ( ZhonAc last twenty years 214 ChiwcreSioua" N l;;;;' M-atras& h uan J un i o r ,ldtrrafe taken from tanguagsthe author has been researchingoverthe Furbce aiertrud Reershmius Midd le Schoot), Kerth Slatu €rgumentaliol it-P1l & Jill D Davirlson ,,rrrr creex, turfish,-Rrinic, Hebrew, Sanskrit, R.ussian)'lts 337 Sclayarcre (Qingha i Junior ti as 2 I 5 Chuckchee(l'aleosiberim) Hasanllasri Teachers, College), pointsin lhe historyof morphologylinked with scholarssuch 338 Old & u,,,,,|l,1thu major turning Alexander Volodir Church SlavonicBoris Kevin Snat (t/rrversity of (1si85),Dressler.(1985)' Bauer (1988)' spencer Gasparov Caltfumia, i'r,, i,,ir tigs+i Matthews(1974), Bybee 2 I 6 ChiriguanoWolf Dietrich Santa Barbaia) Aronoff(19.93)'.ln the last chapterthe author 339 Malagasy 0l Dicaiotr8ry tru0t), darstiirs-Mccarthy(1992);nd 217 Latyian Nicole Nau+ ChadesRandria_ of MbsJ.JohnKrcga. ot tr'loipnologyin its relation-to masimanatta 05 Dictionary nrlrlr.atesa cognitivelyconce;;; suUdisciptine 59Tal 222 Tyvan GregoryAnderson ofSrngo lJmdford& Natural Morphology' Bradford r,yrrtax,Generitive Phonology, Functional Grammar, so-called 225 SkrvenianCh. Gribble 06 A Dicflonary ofNegerhollands IhtrvorsalGrammar, and Typology. 227 Mala;-alam RodneyMoas Robn Sabino 242 Modern Scotsnlexanderll.. & AnnsKatrin Relations' timnbag (:(liltents: Introduction,Grammatical Units, Paradigmaticand Syntagmatic Bergs Nominal 07 Dcgema Morphology,Inflectional Categories Associated with 25 I Xakas GregoryAnderson* - English Dictionarv lillh'dionaland Derivational Ethelbert Kari categori;s Aslociated with verbal Elements, Morphosyntactic 252 Old Saron Janes E. Cathey I tfrncnts, Inflectional ()8Eudeve Dictionary Morpheme and Allomorph' DerivationalMorphology' 254 Saho(East Cushiticl Giorgio Davitl SIuul i',,,po,il." and their Exponents, Barrti Languages 09 A Short. 255 UrteghctTungus_ManchuiAlbina of the Bonrn-EnglishDictirrnarl I lrroreticalModels of Morphology,References' H.Gir[arrova World/TextCollections: Chm Nai-Xionp 256 t0 A Short Dongiiang-English Newari/Nervar E. Austin llale 0l Evcn- Texts Dictionary 2. 257 TJvan(Trrrtrct Cregory Arrdrtj Malchulov Chm Nai-Xione t,.ilN 3 89586 570 futdcrson 05 in Linguistics 07' 258 Biri (pama-Nyungm; PslcslinianTerts KimarvN. I I A Short Mongour_fnglist I INcOM Coursebooks Angela r d ./?0 pD. USD ,18 / DM 72 / € 28 Itnill* Shahil Dictionary Chor Nai_Xone 07 Tariana Text$ (North l2 A Shorr East yugour_Enqlish 260 Ostyak (Uratic) Irina Nikolaeva Anwak) Aleurdru Aiklrcnvald* Dictionary Chm 261 Lingala Michael Meeuwis* Nai-Xione 08 Chinu,k Jaryon Z.vjetJna l3 A Short Dagour-English 262 Klallam Tinlolhy Montlcr Vrac l)9 Westem Apache Terts Dicaionsry 263 Manchu CarsleuNaeher W de Reuse Chm Nai_Xions I I Camling l4 Tlvan NaturalLanguage 266 Chuj Judith Maxwell -Terts Krm Ebert dictionary Gregor/ Structureand lnterpretationin 12 Itclmcn - Texls Jonathar nnderson 267 KaqchikelJudirh Maxwell lhvid MARC AUTHIER& LISA REED Ilohrljik I 5 Xakar diclionary 268 Unk Lawoi' David l{osan. Gregory n,c Pennsylvania State UniversitY 14A Collectionof Iaz Spoken Andcrson 273 Bubburc Ardrcrv Haruna Texts (+CILROM) Silvia Kutschq & l6 Nhaheun French Enslish 274 RomanianCynthia M. Nur:ur - - is to present an integratedtheory of the s]-ll?I: Scvim(ieng* I*xiton Michcl (ed. llro central objective of this book Vakarcl iy"-k a Ferlus hv t,. recent advances in the generative l5 SahoTexts ciorgo Jacq& P. Sidweil) ,,,,i,"nii.t interiace,one which combinesihe most 275 Aragon6s Carlos lnchaunalde llilti 16Mbsy Terts JotutM. 2l Comparetive r,,un"*orfwiththebasictenetsofmodel-theoreticsemanticsThethreeopenlng 276 Chagatay A. ljodroRliseti Keem West BahDaric an approach lo l7 Der OsJfrdnkischc Dictionary p. p. in a step-by-step and highly accessible fashion' 277 Turkish A. Bo,lroeliscl BasisJialektvon Jacq& Srdrvell r:hirplersdevelop, HctzlesKlaus Gepr 22 PalesrinianArsbic-English and meaningin ihese terms 278 lslci0 SpanirhFclici Coles / ',lruclure English-Pslestiniao approach shed.s.light 298 Gheg I'andeli pani Arabic rhe remaining chapters sno* no* lhis 9l ]lf.:-l::-9.-,tl::d:f Dictiolary of ''syntactica||y.triggered,'presuppos.it|ons' tne 300 Nuu-chah-nulrh (Nooaka) Kimary Shahn |!,suesin formal-grammar:the treatment 1.. 23 laven (Jruq) to the generativebinding conditiont: Nakal.ma Consolidated lroatmentof some notabteexceptions "19 thgit?',1 hxlcon pasale paul With respectto tne llrsl lssue' rt.r> l0l Oneid; C. Abbou Jacq& r,l lhe relativeautonomy of syntax and semanties Sidwell of syntactically-triggeredpresuppositions can b-e 302 Sapuan P. Jacq& p. Sidurll* Languagesof the ,,irr,,"otn"i t compositionaliieatment pre;uppositional to spggilc cfss 103 Oi P. Jacq& p. Sidwell lorrnulatedas a condition wnrcn tes lriggers -9 9f World/TextLibrary: devices found in Minimalist syntax' A .304Talicng p Jacq& p. Sidwell :,v"i""tifiotriS"rations definable in lerms oi 0 | coverage of so-calledBare-Outpul 305 Ostyak L Nikolaeva Minhe Mangghucr Folktales ilhu lrl)sequent chapter demonstratesthat the empirical are made sensitaveto J06 OtromanA. tJodroelieeti Yorrg,lrrrng.Warg Xiryhou, Kerth (:ondttionsin generativesyntaican be increasedif such conditions Siiltcr been recognizedin model- l(17Factsr NaonriNagv & Kcvin Stwt llro two types of semanticinformation which have sometimes p. 02 expressions',Finally' 308 Choctow Krrutchko Salar Folklore Ma Wie, lheoreticsemantics; thal ls, ;{ension expressionsand implicature I Ma-Xunhua Jiauhong are two distincttypes of -l I Juang Manrdeepapatraik & Kevrn Shrart ,,,"piri""f evidenceis aOOuceO'wnicn the view that there li2 03 Huzhu "rpp'ort" of tree geometry Karitiana L. RaccmelloStorto Mongghul Folklorc ,,orilanticconstraints and thai those which make referenceto features 320 Lin6ishidcn Economy Gonditions' Kawerqar OwAguilu F. & Kevin Shnt |;Ut, under specific orcumatances defined by representalional 32t 04 Huzhu Folklore Turkish A. Borlroeliscri Seleclions ov(,rridelhose which do not. .122Shanghai Lirrrusishidor& KcvrnStul psycho-linguisls' cognitive SearZhu (eds.) RuJi"n."' Linguists, philosophers, computational and 323 Santali 05^. Dic udirchenfvangelien in these fields' LukasNeukom der .,crentists;advanced underg;duates, graduaiestudents and researchers 324 Karaj K. David Hmison Gebrider Be)anov(l893) WolQang Schulze 325 Piteni Ashild Nass t:,llN3 89586 603 2. fti Anlhology of Menominee 326 Echie Ozo-Mekuri Ntlimele Sayingr I lNcoMStudies in Theoletical Linguistics 14' Tirnothy Guilc E42. 327 Judeo-Ambic Benjantin .'1r)DpUSD 70 / DM1121 Hary 0Z l{aresqar Tcxts ( )u Aguilu F. lntroduction to LinguisticField Methods BERTVAUX & JuslN Co'open HaNard lJniversity LINCOMCoursebooks inLinguistics The present volume addresses the comprehensive need for an accessible, introductionro,rn"_"ii"ir"iio-n- oi"iiniliru" .upto_date, and mrormants.The material,following darafrom native speaker hrthis series: enterpriseor. rierd research.'is-orsani;"Jini;';;;il;";':?::J;H;tJli,,l!"r,"ii.'flx an introcuctori-.Ii anthropotogicatinreresr: phondti=, .'ili;nrogy. uocrotrnguistics/ Ln",i"iigl: syntax. semanrias Diatectology,Lexicography, Fbf iioi"l ui".i"nO ttl BertVaux& JustinCooPer lntroductionto n:#,'J"rX3,'""#nifJ#:l"q:1, i !liiJ3li,:'1ff':ffi|:? FieldMethods grry ; ",-"'.i,ilJ;:#i Linguistic Inese,li"r in"e, lurn, fji:iit,ffi ::"p;if "r,"tare"", followed "c fi","# by suggested:ali ,"aOings'a;irllrustralive i*in l"f,.*J cnapler' Emphasis is praced,not exercises,or each Coursebookin FeatureGeometrY on oeuetopinj;d;;ty of fierd 02 JohnNewman providing enrighteninqsuooestions.ano work, bur rarher on students ;i"*o,"" designed guide down their ornnpeL-on"t path to ""i"n""i"i"g" ro linguisticdiscoverv. tllrFernando Garcfa Murga El Significado. lsBN3 89586198 7 Unaintroduccion a la Sem6ntica b'$?Jffi11$H?ksinLinsuistics o1' StudY ttl VitBubenik An Introductionto the of MorphologY

FrenchSYntax l'l ChristoPherGledhill Fundamentalsof Goursebookin FeatureGeometry JoHNNEWMAN Semantics:an Introductionto Non- MasseylJniversity 12Paul Bennett LexicalAsPects of Meaning

The Coursebookin Feature rlan undergraduatecourse introducing currentphonorogv through a?":!:ry sustained studentsto wrren ,ru o; i;";;iire Geomerryframework. as a coherenr'accessibre, and rt is Fearure wet-itustrateJlniroouctionto the ceomerry,rocusino.on .ut.t or key ideasot takesthe 20 unirsand 40 exercises. readerstep-bv-ste-o rnrougrr rt'r ""rimilii;;.;"'ii! i,Jpi.i"i,ilii,i"i'o"uir", ir tne coursebook of Fearureceomerry. attemptsro presentthe core ioei"'oiluaturu wav' rarherrhan artemprins ceometry in a unifie-d 61-n1ii#0,"1 debale everyaspecr of the rheorv.The. 1"^i1g-porri"-tr'"version 'b-!",ir",ry concerningalmosr is basicatly r".rJi" underryingrhe coursebook rharfound in Saoey,sn" n"u.riitiiiiii'i1"tur","r withthe in non-tinear-i;;; phonotoov E!Ei"l,flili,"!,!":ff::fl1;* 'r"i'i-"i'i"r,i,i'and Evansj ";;;i:x:^ the i::iiilih:"H';;,f,$i:1.'' DepartmenrorLinsuisrics€nd second Lansuase universiiyC"rii"iri. rheauthor tris a pnDi" Irii,iiii,, i'il.iiXi "r "it;;B;yn;:''"'o rsBN 3 89586t02 2. inLins i:t;ii r";;;Tffi'5; uis'ics02'