akademiskkvarter Volume 04. Spring 2012 • on the web academic quarter

The Parthians between and China Gan Ying’s mission into the West ( AD)

Leonardo Gregoratti, PhD, is Post-Doc fellow at the University of Udine. In 2010 he was DAAD fellow at the University of Kiel, Germany in order to work on the publication of his PhD thesis : Between Rome and Ctesiphon, Roy- al authority and peripheral powers along the trade routes of the Parthian kingdom. Most of his work concerns the Roman Near East, , the long distance Trade and the Parthian Kingdom.

Abstract Following the expansion westwards of the Chinese Han Empire at the end of the 1st century AD the Parthian kingdom entered Chi- na’s political horizon. Gan Ying, a Chinese envoy was at the head of a diplomatic mission charged with establishing direct contacts and business relationships with the , the final destination for most of the goods they were exporting to the West. Gan Ying was able to reach Arsacid-controlled south . Although very close to the Roman territory he did not manage to go further and accomplish his task. The Parthian leaders, well aware of the commercial role they played between Rome and China, dissuaded him from trying to proceed. This largely unknown but extremely interesting episode in the ancient history of Asia provides direct evidence concerning the political and commercial role of Parthia, Rome’s fierce enemy, in central Asia and along the Silk Route.

At the beginning of the 1940s the sinologist Homer H. Dubs specu- lated on the possibility that the small unit of one hundred men in “fish scale” formation which, according to Chinese sources was crushed by the Han at the Talas River battle in eastern Ka- zakhstan (36 BC), may have been formed by Roman legionaries cap-

Volume 04 109

, ------2 110 . 4 . 3

Leonardo Gregoratti Leonardo county, north-west county, Volume 04 several years before (53 several years before Yongchang Yongchang , , these soldiers crossed the Eu crossed , these soldiers The Parthians between Rome and China Rome and between The Parthians Dubs battle of Carrhae Liqian village during the According According to . 1 It is thus much more understandable the interest aroused by the aroused interest understandable the It is thus much more Despite the fact that that hypothesis was soon considered as mere was soon considered Despite the fact that that hypothesis of the eagle and that of the dragon Rome and China, the Empire possibility of contact and interchange among those political giants, among possibility of contact and interchange and Far two cornerstones of historical experience in the West the concerning the sources by western East. The information provided the from importation of silk and other goods to the Roman Empire trade contacts undoubtedly took place. that indirect East prove that network of routes exchanged among traders along Goods were later known as the “”. The merchants active along this for transporting goods along a de responsible normally were route the the “Empires” par excellence in the modern minds of Westerners They and Asians were the respectively. first states able to unify all deeply structure, local subjects in one stable political the different influencing the culture and civilization in those two parts different alive remained has state of model their reason this For world. the of of inspira Asia as a source and over the centuries in both Europe tion for all the political subjects which succeeded and which tried to their historical heritage. themselves as legitimate heirs of present still today incarnate and the Celestial Empire The Roman Empire state structure and historical model for every the archetype Chinese and moved to China. and his that Chinese culture ly conjectural, with the general interest Dubs’ idea has also found years in Europe, in recent tory aroused new supporters. In the “Roman ancestry, Roman the inhabitants claim ern China, where Re Tourism. of Office local the by regularly organized are Festivals” up this fascinating idea using itcently some modern writers picked setting for some quite successful novels as a background two main states of the ancient world. They still constitute the were tured by Parthians tured by Zhizhi, a chieftain of the BC) and used as mercenaries barbarians phrates of the Roman domains following marking the edge frontier prisoners in the to conquer Parthia (54 BC). Taken Crassus’ attempt Arsacid town Asian to the central sent they were disaster at Carrhae as stated by Pliny of Merv (in nowadays eastern Turkmenistan), tribes. Finding themselves by local and employed as mercenaries by the later recruited they were again on the defeated side at Talas quarter

academic

kvarter akademisk - - - - of 111 century Mu-lu rd

, was the fun 7 Leonardo Gregoratti Leonardo Volume 04 in the Chinese sources) was sources) Chinese the in 6 . 5 century BC). The Arsacid rule rule Arsacid The BC). century nd Anxi The Parthians between Rome and China Rome and between The Parthians . 8 Since then for more than three centuries Rome’s expansionist The city of Selucia on a the rich Tigris, and populated metropolis In Merv, the Silk Route, Arsacid leaving domains, the forked intoIn Merv, The kingdom of the Parthians ( Parthians the of kingdom The plateau. Past them, beyond the extreme foothills of the Arsacid Arsacid foothills of the plateau. Past them, beyond the extreme territory, Asian steppes. Heading north the road lay the boundless the Merv, and Nisa Rhagai, Ekbatana, toward proceeded Chinese sources distinct branches, to the north and south of the Taklamakun two near the desert they remerged Having crossed desert respectively. by the territory controlled entered Altaj Mountains and thereby the Gulf and the Indian Ocean to the south and the Caspian Sea and the and Sea Caspian the and south the to Ocean Indian the and Gulf Caucasus to the north. the by opposed fiercely were East the in and Mesopotamia in goals Parthians. Arsacid kingdom of the close to the most vital centres andmen of of movements point in the sphere damental reference Asia and Ro central goods between the Eastern Parthian provinces, north headed route the metropolis, Hellenistic the From Syria. man of the Northern Iranian to the ancient Parthian capitals wards BC), BC), in central Asia, close to the remotest borders of the Seleucid dynasty and Arsacid of the members were Its monarchs Empire. the weakening of the to gain the best advantages from able were house of Seleucos and the consequent disintegration of that huge over large their control to spread Hellenistic state. They managed territories of Southern Asia. The Parthian mounted armies, after the whole Iranian plateau, and Mesopota overrunning western of the Euphrates river, mia, stopped on the eastern bank (2 expansion Arsacid the of limit including the Euphrates to north-western India, from stretched Persian the between lying territories the all and Mesopotamia, termined portion of the itinerary. Usually they were supported by supported Usually they were of the itinerary. termined portion the political subjects lying on the routes traffic which considered East and the long distance trade between from the taxation of goods of income source an important West subjects lying and powerful of these political The most important connecting Roman territories on the route in a strategic position with China was the ’sestablished a few decades after 3 death (in the quarter

academic

kvarter akademisk - - - - - in . The 11 112

Hsiung-nu Leonardo Gregoratti Leonardo Volume 04 The Parthians between Rome and China Rome and between The Parthians . . His narration was later collected in . His narration was later collected in 12 13 . Very likely the merchants, subjects of the likely the merchants, . Very 9 . As is easily understandable, it was necessary, in necessary, As is easily understandable, it was . 10 But Ban Zhao’s plans were even more ambitious. Around 97 AD, 97 Around ambitious. even more But Ban Zhao’s plans were With the campaigns to the West and the ensuing extension of the and the ensuing extension the campaigns to the West With Of course many merchants were active along those trade routes na and the Parthian Empire the at Ying Gan named dignitary important Zhao placed an Ban do all that was possible to head of a diplomatic mission charged with that realm to establish contacts and business relationships which the Chinese knew well to be the final destination for most - the Kingdom of Da exporting to the West of the goods they were Quin: the Roman Empire frontier of the Han state, operated by the Chinese General Ban ZhaoChinese General the the Han state, operated by of frontier the Parthian Yong, Ban and by his son AD) (between 91 and 101 of the Celestial Empire the political scene entered Kingdom along the Asian leader was to extend Chinese control goal of the Central-Asian commercial routes in order to preserve their effi ciency the Huns, and impede the nomadic tribes (like by the connections with the West interrupting from Chinese sources) or the Indian ports. the Parthian border which Chinese silk reached reo to able were Chinese the campaigns military major some After Chi between land by contact direct a restore and Route Silk the pen and some of them provided information about the remote lands information about the remote and some of them provided andannalists Chinese the as well as Roman the which visited, they geographers needed for their works. One of the most valuable by provided account the is unknown, largely being despite sources It a concerns Chinese the envoy. travel undertaken by an official no regions diplomatic mission which was able to reach Chinese consti The report to visit before. Chinese diplomat had been able tutes one of the few first hand evidences from a traveller along the Silk Route and sheds light on the fundamental role played by the an insuperable political obstacle for communications Parthians as between the two Empires. the Authority Chinese Eastern Turke from for the transport responsible King, were Great stan to of such activity and the massive the continuation to ensure order profits for the Arsacid administration, to impede anyrelationship Rome, and avoidmain trading partners, China and between the two would exclude which between the two Empires, a trade agreement trade. the long-distance caravan from the Parthian merchants quarter

academic

kvarter akademisk ------some 113 . , the Ar 15 22

(the Arsacid , the official Anxi Leonardo Gregoratti Leonardo , a political situa 17 Volume 04 Naturalis Historia Naturalis Hou Hanshou , which most modern scholars most which , . 19 states: «Later on, The Parthians between Rome and China Rome and between The Parthians Tiaozhi . . 14 20 . As the Chinese seemed to know well know to seemed Chinese the As . 21 Hou Hanshou . Anxi . In antiquity that land was known as being the seat as being the seat . In antiquity that land was known 17 16 From the dates reported by Ban Zhao’s envoy it is possible to con the dates reported From According to Gan Ying’s report it seems that the in those years report Ying’s to Gan According Ar The political situation. precise a to record seems Ying Gan Gan Ying states that the westernmost place his mission was able was mission place his that the westernmost states Ying Gan and topographic characteris The exposition of the anthropic tion also reported in the earlier Chinese historical descriptions in the earlier Chinese historical descriptions tion also reported of the region over the country had been enforced. King’s control Parthian Great passage in the A sentative in the area. Given the goals of Gan Ying’s mission it would Ying’s Given the goals of Gan sentative in the area. collaboration, to turn of in search unfruitful, been have predictably Arsacid class in Ctesiphon, the fulcrum to the members of the ruling of the State of facilitated contact between the have never would leadership sacid world, one the pro powers of the known economic two greatest of most of the goods that trav purchaser, the other the main ducer, Arsacid territory. elled across sacids seem to have militarily occupied the entire area, transform area, the entire sacids seem to have militarily occupied ing Mesene into a Parthian Satrapy and nominating an Army of ficial asresponsible for the points of major economic interest: the cities and river harbours clude that the gap of monetary emissions of the independent king dom Characene that took place in those years was due to a military or even political occupation of the client potentate. Characene har Arsacid harbours and the authority bours had in that period become that regulated and controlled the commercial traffic and transac King or on his military repre on the Great tions depended directly years earlier years vassal kingdom of Characene Arsacid of the (Characene). They and subjugated Tiaozhi kingdom) conquered, have, in fact, installed a Senior General there to supervise all the J.E. Hill) small towns» (Transl. the more general historical work, the general historical the more Hans annals of the Later of the country was to reach of the , ar on the northern shores Mesene, identify as subcontinent the Indian from sea routes rival point of the some elements shares Ying by Gan provided tics of the region in Pliny’s Mesene of with the description quarter

academic

kvarter akademisk ------114

Leonardo Gregoratti Leonardo Volume 04 The Parthians between Rome and China Rome and between The Parthians . 23 He reached Tiaozhi next to a large sea. He wanted to cross He wanted to cross sea. next to a large Tiaozhi He reached Anxi (Parthia) of it, but the sailors of the western frontier said to him: “The ocean is huge. Those making the round In fact, the report of Gan Ying continues: Ying of Gan In fact, the report In the occupied lower-Mesopotamia it is In likely the that occupied the lower-Mesopotamia officials It is easy to comprehend how it would have seemed more rea more seemed have would it how comprehend to is easy It For the Great King it was vital, not only that the two states not bevital, not only that the two states King it was For the Great the relationships between the two Empires – by preventing the dip – by preventing between the two Empires the relationships his territory – but he nonetheless possessed the crossing lomats from fail. their mission to means for causing, discreetly, Ying and his explorative mission, upon their arrival in Mesene, in Mesene, and his explorative mission, upon their arrival Ying who had troops King’s had been occupied by the Great the region apogee and to a phase of wide put an end to the Characene trade political autonomy. was in contact were with whom the Chinese mission and merchants informa provide to trained properly men or agents governmental King Pa The Great interest. Arsacid in line with tion and answers to the all the monarchs attentive of the most perhaps ()?, II corus fruitful of his kingdom, anxious to re-establish revival economic risk the degeneration of could not contacts with the Celestial Empire them of their role as mediators and of the high earnings related to as mediators and of the high earnings related them of their role Arsacid costs, and the between the sale and purchase the difference the taxation of the derived from the substantial revenue of crown transported goods to gain collabo in order sonable, to Ban Zhao and his entourage, turning to mer the Roman territory, ration in the attempt to reach who classes of a Kingdom, that of Characene, chants and ruling years had demonstrated a considerable open during the previous economic initiatives, as well as a conspicu foreign towards ness Unfortunately for Gan Arsacid directives. ous independence from able to entertain reciprocal diplomatic relationships, but it was ex relationships, diplomatic reciprocal able to entertain as much as possible, that the merchants important to avoid, tremely meet. If that had happened should the two Empires coming from impres in the light of the would have remained, the tangible risk wouldstates the two which means inexhaustible and resources sive between the collaboration and a direct have had, that an agreement excluded the Parthian merchants Romans and Chinese would have depriving long-distance trade between East and West, the from quarter

academic

kvarter akademisk - - - - 115

Leonardo Gregoratti Leonardo Volume 04 . century BC during the era of Em 24 nd The Parthians between Rome and China Rome and between The Parthians . 25 trip can do it in three months if the winds are favourable. are winds the if months three in it do can trip you, it can if you encounter winds that delay However, by sea go who all the men why is That years. take two to men urges ocean vast The years. three for take stores of and get homesick, and some think of their country, J.E. Hill) them die (Transl. Modern scholars dealing with the Parthian state managed to Modern scholars dealing with the Parthian state managed to Recent historical research has been able to substantially improve has been able to substantially improve Recent historical research Deterred from continuing by such nefarious news, Gan Ying Ying Gan continuing by such nefarious news, from Deterred shed light on the structure and the policy of the Arsacid kingdom Arsacid and the policy of the shed light on the structure by western sources. description provided beyond the stereotyped thus gradually emerging of ancient history is the shadows From lying between the Roman and Chinese another powerful Empire ones: a bitter enemy to the former and a cunning trade antagonist for the latter. renewed business harmony, Pacorus II, remembered in Chinese in Chinese II, remembered Pacorus business harmony, renewed with the name of Manju - sent a series of gifts to the sources the Mesene from lions and birds which were among Chines ruler, marshes (101 AD) contribution of Chinese The our knowledge of the Parthian Empire. has been in particular report Ying’s in general and Gan sources relevant. leadership conceived a It seems evident that the Parthian well-defined policy concerning the long distance trade thorough me of its role Asia, a policy which aimed at strengthening central diation between Rome and China. Gan Ying was asking, deliberately multiplying the days necessary was asking, deliberately Ying Gan Chinese of the not to inform the and making sure for the crossing, via land - by simply following the Euphrates possibility of reaching of Syria. with the Roman province - the nearby border what had hap to his homeland and report to return resolved the failed attempt of Ban Zhao, the Chinese leader After pened. with the Parthians already the agreements ship decided to renew established at the end of the 2 King that the Great accepting the proposal (145-87 BC), Wu peror seal the To AD. during the ambassadorship in 87 presented had Therefore, the informants exploited to their advantage the absolute the informants exploited to their advantage Therefore, to Roman , about which ignorance of the maritime routes quarter

academic

kvarter akademisk

- - - - 116 , (2005) Chaumont Chaumont

and Gardiner Gardiner and , XV, 44; XXXIV, 44; XXXIV, , XV, , written between Hack, Jacobs and Hack, Jacobs and Leonardo Gregoratti Leonardo Volume 04 ., VI, 122; Paus., I, 6. 3. Nat. Hist. , c. 88. 2918; Empire of Dragons Empire 1907, 177-178; Grosso 1966, 1966, 1907, 177-178; Grosso

Nat. Hist Nat. 1907, 149-151; Leslie 149-151; 1907,

Loewe 1971. (2007), about the journey of a Roman Hou Hanschou The Parthians between Rome and China Rome and between The Parthians

., 32; Plin., The Annal of the Later Hans , VI, 54-55; ; Chavannes ; Crass ., c. 7-14; 2001. The merchants met in a place called “Stone

177-178; Posch 1998, 361. , VI, 125; 136. , VI, 47. Nat. Hist. , c. 88. 2918; 1906, 216-245; Chavannes 1906, 214 1906,

1907, , ,

2004, 153-154. The Parthian Interpreter Mans. Parth 2010. http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/numismatics/par Nat. Hist. Nat. Hist. 282-284. Hou Hanschou mainly imperial of AD utilising as sources the 4th and the 5th century ficer’s reports from the previousChavannes periods of the dynasty. Han 1984, Chavannes ; Walser 1985. 1973 ; Walser Choisnel, 2004, 63-65. Plin., Parthia imported slaves, raw silk, steel, high esteemed the horses of , Among the exportations were 145. in China where they were called “celestial horses”. Haussig 1992, 126- 130; J. Wiesehöfer, Plin., Tower”, Chavannes 16; Choisnel 2004, 147-149, 152-153. 1993, 157-161; Wolski 1966, 163-167. Chavannes, 1906, 228-233; Grosso Choisnel Isidor. Isidor. Plin., Starting a quite successful tradition of comparative historical studies: historical comparative of tradition successful quite a Starting 2008; Mutschler, 2005; Hui, 2008; Mittag, Roberts, 2003; Edwards, Scheidel, 2009. thia/frames/pamaec.htm 1938; Debevoise Kingdom: Parthian the history of on the In general Schippmann 1980; Bivar 1983; Dabrowa 1983; Frye 1984; Wolski 1993; Wiesehöfer 1994. On the sources the recent Weber, Plut., 5; 2. XVI, Strab., Dubbs, 1941; Dubbs, 1942; Dubbs 1957. Dubbs, 1941; Dubbs, Plin., Massimo Manfredi’s For example Valerio by the Valerian with Emperor along captured soldier about a Roman An Michael E. to China after he escapes and Persians and his journey derson’s, Au of Marcus during the reign senator and his Parthian slave to China relius.

14 15 9 10 11 12 13 8 16 4 5 Map: 6 7 Notes 1 2 3 quarter

academic

kvarter akademisk , - - - - , 50, , 50, 117 . Syria T’oung pao

Grosso 1966, Grosso ; facteurs qui la con la qui facteurs , Paris Leonardo Gregoratti Leonardo Volume 04 S. av. J.-C.), av. S. er -I e 176-177; Grosso 1966, 167- 176-177; Grosso 1907, 177-178 1907,

1907,

The Parthians between Rome and China Rome and between The Parthians Chavannes The king of this country [DaQuin = Roman is a dynastic chronicle written in the 1st cen written is a dynastic chronicle Chavannes , Cambridge, III, 1, pp. 21-99 politique de l’état parthe à l’égard de Rome – d’Ar Shiji . , 8, pp. 149-234 Les Parthes et la route de la soie Les Parthes et la route The Cambridge , The Seleucid, Parthian 3163; 1907. Les Pays d’Occident d’après le Heou Han , cap. 88. 2918; 88. cap. , , c. 88. 2918. , c. 88. 2919: «

, and Gardiner 1984, 268-270; Posch 1998, 357-359; Tao 2007, Posch 1998, 357-359; Tao 1984, 268-270; and Gardiner , c. 4. 168 , 6, pp. 47-68 T’oung pao and Gardiner 1984, 287-288. and Gardiner Leslie , cap. 123. Orientaux (Pan Tch’ao (32-102 p.C.); – son fils Pan Yong; – Leang – Yong; Pan fils son – p.C.); (32-102 Tch’ao (Pan Orientaux LXXVII du Heou Han chou), p.C.). Chapitre K’in (112 7, pp. 210-269 chou, les et è.) n. de 79 ca – 11 (ca I Vologèse à II taban Parthica E., Yarshater and Sasanian Periods Arsacides (III résidences des premiers 1973, pp. 197-222 169; Tao 2007, 99-101. 169; Tao Hanschou torians mixing them with new accounts. torians mixing them with new accounts. Hou Hanschou Anxi (Parthia), Han, but always wanted to send envoys to the Empire] silks, blocked Chinese the trade in multi-coloured wishing to control [to China]» [the Romans] getting through to prevent the route Alram, 2004, 55. Hanschou Hou Concerning Characene remain fundamental : Nodelmann 1960 and and fundamental : Nodelmann 1960 remain Concerning Characene Schuol 2000. Shiji tury BC by Sima Qian; 169; 88-92. Hou Hanschou careful must be really the scholar Dealing with the Chinese sources given by early his information since later writers used to re-elaborate References Coins, in reflected as Road Silk the of History The 2004. M., Alram, Arsacids, in: History of Iran under the D.A., 1983. The Political Bivar, parthe II. Capitales et Chaumont, M.-L., 1973. Études d’histoire 25 Chavannes, E. Chavannes, Choisnel, E., 2004, La 1983. E., Dąbrowa, Chavannes, E., 1906. Trois Généraux Chinois de la dynastie des Han Généraux Chinois de la dynastie Chavannes, E., 1906. Trois 21 Leslie 22 23 24 17 18 19 20 quarter

academic

kvarter akademisk , ------

118 Berytus München Pacific Eco

, pp. 167-169 . Chicago Leonardo Gregoratti Leonardo : Oxford , The China Society, Society, China The , , Accademia , Nazio Volume 04 JRAS : Oxford , HAW III, 7. , HAW Quellen zur Geschichte des Quellen zur Geschichte des , 42, pp. 322-30. , LXVIII, pp. 254-308 , Franz Steiner Verlag, Stutt , Franz Steiner Verlag, Chinese Knowledge of West Knowledge of Chinese , Sutton Publishing: Stroud Conceiving the Empire: China and Conceiving the Empire: : Aspects of in Trade World the 1982. Darmstadt The Parthians between Rome and China Rome and between The Parthians T’oung pao eschichte Zentralasiens und der Seidens Atti del Convegno sul tema: La Persia e il del Convegno sul tema: Atti , 36, pp. 64-80. A Political History of Parthia A Oxford University Press Oxford Die G , Rome and China: comparative perspectives comparative on an and China: Rome Oxford University Press Oxford , Cambridge University Press: New York New , Cambridge University Press: The History of Ancient Iran A Roman City in Ancient China A A Military Contact Between Chinese and Romans Contact Between Chinese Military A . Göttingen An Ancient Military Contact Between Romans and Between Romans Ancient Military Contact An , 14, 1, pp. 1-21 War and State Formation in Ancient China and Early Ancient China in and State Formation War , Uniwersytet Jagiellonski, Rozprawy Habilitacyjne Rozprawy Habilitacyjne , Uniwersytet Jagiellonski, T’oung Pao American Journal of Philology American Journal and Gardiner K.H.J., Gardiner and The complete history of China ., 2003. The Fall of the Roman and Chinese Empires Com ., 2003. The Fall of the Roman and Chinese Empires Das Partherreich und seine Zeugnisse, Beiträge des internationalen Das Partherreich D.D. , ie ditionnaient fer Colloquiums. Eutin (27.-30. Juni 1996) gart, pp. 355-364 pared, cient world empires trasse in vorislamischer Zeit, Modern Europe Asia during the Han, ern first seven Centuries of the Christian Era, Rome Compared 13, pp. 83-121 Roman Empire. Dynasties and the Han and Tang nomic Review in le fonti cinesi, verso aprile 1965) 11-14 (Roma mondo greco-romano nale dei Lincei, Roma, pp. 157-176 Partherreiches 74. Kraków Chinese. in 36 B.C., London Posch, W., 1998. Chinesische Quellen zu den Parthern, in J. Wiesehö Posch, W., Roberts, J Scheidel, 2009. W., Hui, V.T., 2005. Hui, V.T., Loewe, M., 1971. Spices and Silk eds., 2008, F., A., Mutschler, Mittag, Characene, of History preliminary A 1960. S.A., Nodelman, Federalism and the Balance of Power: China’s R.A., 2009. Federalism and the Balance of Power: Edwards, Frye, R.N., 1984. 1966. Roma e i Parti a attra fine I inizioF., Grosso, II secolo d. Cr. D., 2010. Hackl, U., Jacobs, B., Weber, Debevoise, N.C. 1938. Debevoise, N.C. Dubbs, H., 1941. Dubbs, H., 1942. Dubbs, H., 1957. Lesl Haussig, H.W., 1992. Haussig, H.W., quarter

academic

kvarter akademisk

, - - - 119 Die Seiden

, Darmstadt, , Darmstadt, the Parthians,the Franz Steiner Franz

Leonardo Gregoratti Leonardo Volume 04 The Age of Age The , Acta Iranica 32, Leuven, 1993 Acta Iranica , Oriens et Occidens 1, Occidens et Oriens The Parthians between Rome and China Rome and between The Parthians Das antike Persien. Von 550 v. Chr. bis 650 n. Chr. 650 bis Chr. 550 v. Das antike Persien. Von Die Charakene, Ein mesopotamisches Königreich in mesopotamisches Königreich Die Charakene, Ein Grundzüge der parthischen Geschichte Grundzüge der parthischen , vol. II, I.B. Tauris, London- New York, pp. 87-104 York, London- New , vol. II, I.B. Tauris, L’Empire des Arsacides L’Empire 2001. Griechen, Iraner und Chinesen an der Seiden der an Chinesen und Iraner Griechen, 2001.

, 18, 1985, pp. 145-156 in U. Hübner, J. Kamlah und L. Reinfandt, L. und J. Kamlah Hübner, in U.

, Asien und Afrika 3, Hamburg Asien und , 1980 hellenistisch-parthischer Zeit, Stuttgart Verlag, Records, in Curtis V.S. and S. Stewart, The Idea of Iran AMI N.F. München, Zürich, 1994 straße, straße. Handel und Kulturaustausch in einem eurasiatischen Wege netz Wiesehöfer, J., 1994. J., Wiesehöfer, J., Wiesehöfer, J., 1993. Wolski, Schippmann, K., Schippmann, Schuol, M., 2000. of the Historical and China: a Re-examination 2007, Parthia W., Tao, Iran Charax durch von Isidorus G., 1985. Die Route des Walser, quarter

academic

kvarter akademisk