Outlawing Amnesty: The Return of Criminal Justice in Transitional Justice Schemes * LISA J. LAPLANTE Introduction.......................................................................................... 916 I. Truth v. Justice: The Controversy of Amnesty Within Tran- sitional Justice Schemes ............................................................ 920 A. Amnesty in the Americas ................................................ 922 B. Promoting Truth Commissions over Criminal Justice .... 926 C. Foreshadowing Change: South African Victim- Survivors Challenging Amnesties ................................... 929 II. A Changing Global Context: A Legal Framework to Chal- lenge Amnesties ........................................................................ 931 A. International Criminal Law: Individual Accountability for Atrocities.................................................................... 932 B. Human Rights Law: The Right to Justice and the Duty to Prosecute ..................................................................... 935 C. Current Affairs: Qualified Amnesties ............................. 940 D. Calls for Clarity: The Uncertain Future of Amnesties in Human Rights Protection ............................................ 943 III. Peru: Legalizing Impunity Through Amnesty........................... 944 A. In the Name of National Security.................................... 944 * Visiting Assistant Professor, Marquette University Law School, and Deputy Director, Praxis Institute for Social Justice; Brown University, B.A., University of Massachusetts, Amherst, M.Ed., New York University School of Law, J.D. The author thanks Michael O’Hear and Ronald Slye for their helpful comments on earlier drafts, Maria Ryan, Sara Kneevers, and Sara Grill for their research assistance, and Kyle Rabe for his editing assistance. The author wishes to express her gratitude to the United States Institute for Peace, which funded the ethnographic study out of which some of observations in this Article arise. The author also thanks the Institute for Ad- vanced Study at Princeton where the initial stages of writing for this Article began. All opinions and possible errors belong to the author alone. 916 VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL LAW [Vol. 49:4 B. The Massacres of Barrios Altos and La Cantuta............. 947 C. The Pressure to Prosecute and the Battle of Jurisdiction ...................................................................... 950 D. A New Presidential Term and Amnesty Laws ................ 953 E. The Inter-American System of Human Rights and Fujimori’s Downfall........................................................ 955 IV. A New Paradigm: Peru’s Political Transition Without Am- nesty .......................................................................................... 957 A. Where the International Meets the National.................... 958 B. The Barrios Altos Decision ............................................. 960 C. The IACtHR’s Ruling and Interpretation........................ 962 V. Interpreting Barrios Altos: A Bar to Amnesty for Human Rights Violations....................................................................... 964 A. Not Limited Only to Self-Amnesty Laws ....................... 965 B. Other Investigations Cannot Substitute for Criminal Investigations................................................................... 970 C. No Amnesties for Serious Human Rights Violations...... 971 VI. State Practice: Reinforcing the International Legal Ban to Amnesties in Domestic Courts.................................................. 974 Conclusion ........................................................................................... 982 INTRODUCTION Until recently, immunity measures like amnesties were considered an acceptable part of promoting transitional justice in countries seeking to address past episodes of systematic violations of human rights. The po- litically sensitive need to broker peace between oppositional forces of- ten outweighed the moral imperative of seeking to punish those respon- sible for perpetrating human rights atrocities. The “third wave of democratization” in Latin America during the 1980s contributed greatly to this trend, with the use of immunity measures in negotiated transi- tions becoming an important bargaining chip in brokering political im- passe in South and Central America.1 Certainly, the Latin American experience has played a significant role in shaping the debates and direction of transitional justice in several respects. The consistent use of amnesties in the region contributed to the 1. RUTI G. TEITEL, TRANSITIONAL JUSTICE 53 (2000). 2009] OUTLAWING AMNESTY 917 growing acceptance of amnesties in the 1980s.2 By the end of the Cold War, the transitional justice discourse in Latin America centered largely around the truth v. justice debate, which put at issue whether a political transition could or should include criminal trials. Political leaders of these countries often justified the use of amnesty in the name of peace, an argument that went largely unquestioned and resulted in a sort of a political balancing test that more often tipped in favor of assuring politi- cal stability over criminal justice in post-conflict or post-authoritarian settings. Nevertheless, to assure accountability, these countries often formed truth commissions to conduct investigations and to provide a mechanism for truth telling for the benefit of victim-survivors and soci- ety at large. As a result, Latin America helped popularize the truth commission model, reliance upon which grew as a way to compensate for compromised justice schemes. While at first truth commissions were believed to be a “second-best” option,3 they soon became complemen- tary and necessary measures for confronting past repressive and violent regimes through restorative justice. Later, Latin America once again helped reshape the terms of the truth v. justice debate in the 1990s. With national justice largely foreclosed in transitional Latin American countries in the 1980s, many victim- survivors and their advocates resorted to international human rights en- forcement bodies like the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR) for a remedy. As a result, international human rights law ju- risprudence, frequently discussed by learned jurists, strengthened rec- ognition of individual rights while slowly chipping away at absolute state sovereignty. Although a state’s prerogative to use amnesties dates to antiquity,4 the human rights movement suddenly planted serious 2. See Naomi Roht-Arriaza, Truth Commissions and Amnesties in Latin America: The Second Generation, 92 AM. SOC’Y INT’L L. PROC. 313, 313–15 (1998) (offering a historical view of the Latin American experience with amnesties and its impact on the general acceptance of these im- munity measures). 3. See Diane F. Orentlicher, Settling Accounts: The Duty to Prosecute Human Rights Viola- tions of a Prior Regime, 100 YALE L.J. 2537, 2546 n.32 (1991) (“Whatever salutary effects it can produce, [a truth commission] is no substitute for . prosecutions. Indeed, to the extent that such an undertaking purports to replace criminal punishment . it diminishes the authority of the legal process . .”). But cf. MARTHA MINOW, BETWEEN VENGEANCE AND FORGIVENESS: FACING HISTORY AFTER GENOCIDE AND MASS VIOLENCE 88 (1998) (arguing that truth commissions are not “a second best alternative to prosecutions,” but instead can be a form better suited to meet the many goals pertinent to transitional politics). 4. TEITEL, supra note 1, at 58 (writing that amnesties were granted to nearly all participants in the Athenian Civil War in 403 B.C.). For a general discussion of amnesties, see Gwen K. Young, All the Truth and as Much Justice as Possible, 9 U.C. DAVIS J. INT’L L. & POL’Y 209 (2003) (presenting a definitional overview of amnesties). 918 VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL LAW [Vol. 49:4 questions about such immunity measures legitimacy through three main arguments: first, international law creates a state duty to investigate, prosecute, and punish those responsible for serious violations of human rights; second, international law also provides victims a fundamental right to justice (the “victims rights argument”); and third, post-conflict policy recognizes that criminal justice is good for democracy and the rule of law.5 As a consequence, the truth v. justice question began to tip in favor of criminal trials because the rights of victims now factored into a balancing equation that once only considered the preferences of politi- cal leaders and elites. Roughly at the same time as the development of human rights law, a parallel development in international criminal law also laid inroads to undermine the validity of amnesties. Specifically, the end of the Cold War permitted renewed attention to the use of international and hybrid tribunals for criminal prosecutions, a remedy left largely dormant since the Nuremburg trials in 1945. Jurisprudence emanating from these tri- bunals solidified the principle of individual criminal liability for egre- gious human rights violations, which previously was thought to trigger only liability based on the theory of the wrongful acts of states. These streams of international human rights law and international criminal law together helped cause a paradigmatic shift. Today, amnes- ties are no longer assumed to be unconditionally lawful within an inter- national legal framework.6 Instead, many scholars now acknowledge that to be legitimate, amnesties