Global Anti-Semitism in World-Historical Perspective: an Introduction

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Sociology & Anthropology Faculty Publications Sociology & Anthropology Department

Spring 2009

Global Anti-Semitism in World-Historical Perspective: An Introduction

Eric Mielants Fairfield University, [email protected]

Lewis Gordon

Ramon Grosfoguel

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Repository Citation Mielants, Eric; Gordon, Lewis; and Grosfoguel, Ramon, "Global Anti-Semitism in World-Historical Perspective: An Introduction" (2009). Sociology & Anthropology Faculty Publications. 41. https://digitalcommons.fairfield.edu/sociologyandanthropology-facultypubs/41 Published Citation Mielants, Eric; Gordon, Lewis; Grosfoguel, Ramon. “Global Anti-Semitism in World-Historical Perspective: An Introduction” in Lewis Gordon, Ramón Grosfoguel and Eric Mielants (special guest co-editors) of a special issue of Human Architecture: Journal of the Sociology of Self-Knowledge, Volume 7, on “Anti-Semitism in the World System: Past, Present and Future”, Spring 2009, Vol. 7 (2), p. 1-14.

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HUMAN ARCHITECTURE: JOURNAL OF THE SOCIOLOGY OF SELF-KNOWLEDGE A Publication of OKCIR: The Omar Khayyam Center for Integrative Research in Utopia, Mysticism, and Science (Utopystics)

Global Anti-Semitism in World-Historical Perspective: An Introduction

Issue Co-Editors: Lewis R. Gordon, Ramón Grosfoguel, and Eric Mielants Temple University • U.C. Berkeley • Fairﬁeld University –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– [email protected] • [email protected] • emielants@fairﬁeld.edu

Abstract: This introduction to the Spring 2009 issue of Human Architecture: Journal of the Sociology of Self- Knowledge begins with a discussion of “The Articulation and Re-Articulation of Anti-Semitism” in a world- historical perspective, focusing on such topics as “Anti-Semitism in the Longue-Durée,” “Christian Europe’s Final Solutions,” and “Israel and Global Anti-Semitism.” It then follows with a survey of the volume’s articles which were part of an international conference entitled, “The Post-September 11 New Ethnic/Racial Conﬁgurations in Europe and the United States: The Case of Anti-Semitism,” organized by Lewis Gordon and Ramón Grosfoguel at the Maison des Sciences de l’Homme (MSH) in Paris on June 29– 30, 2007. The two scholars along with Eric Mielants also served as co-editors of this issue. Part of a series inaugurated by a discussion on Islamophobia, the conference brought a majority Jewish group of scholars together in the hope of bringing to the forum a critical exchange and conversation among the participants. The discussion presented in the introduction is not necessarily representative of the views of the scholars included in the collection.

The articles collected in this Spring States: The Case of Anti-Semitism,” orga- 2009 issue of Human Architecture: Journal of nized by Lewis Gordon and Ramón Gros- the Sociology of Self-Knowledge were part of foguel at the Maison des Sciences de an international conference entitled, “The l’Homme (MSH) in Paris on June 29–30, Post-September 11 New Ethnic/Racial 2007. Part of a series inaugurated by a dis- Conﬁgurations in Europe and the United cussion on Islamophobia, the conference

Lewis Gordon is the Laura H. Carnell Professor of Philosophy, Religion, and Jewish Studies and Director of the Center for Afro-Jewish Studies at Temple University and Ongoing Visiting Professor of Philosophy and Govern- ment at the University of the West Indies at Mona, Jamaica. He is the author of several award-winning and inﬂuential books, including, more recently, An Introduction to Africana Philosophy (Cambridge UP) and, with Jane Anna Gordon, Of Divine Warning: Reading Disaster (Paradigm Publishers). Ramón Grosfoguel is Associate Pro- fessor of Ethnic Studies at the University of California, Berkeley, and a Senior Research Associate of the Maison des Sciences de l’Homme in Paris. He has published on the political economy of the world-system and on Carib- bean migrations to Western Europe and the United States. His most recent book is Colonial Subjects: Puerto Ricans in a Global Perspective (University of California Press, 2003). Most recently he was co-editor, with Eric Mielants, of a special issue of the International Journal of Comparative Sociology (Vol. 47, Aug. 2006) on Minorities, Racism and Cultures of Scholarship. Eric Mielants is Associate Professor in Sociology in the College of Arts and Sciences at Fairﬁeld University and Research Associate of the Maison des Sciences de l'Homme in Paris. He is the author of The Origins of Capitalism and the Rise of the West (Temple University Press, 2007). Most recently he co-edited Car- ibbean Migration to Western Europe and the United States (Temple University Press, 2009) and Mass Migration in the World System (Paradigm Press, forthcoming).

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2LEWIS R. GORDON, RAMÓN GROSFOGUEL, AND ERIC MIELANTS

brought a majority Jewish group of schol- Jews was further affected by the emergence ars together in the hope of bringing to the of Islam in the seventh century ACE and its forum a critical exchange and conversation spread from West Asia to create Islamic among the participants. This introduction Empires with a reach extending into the In- is not necessarily representative of the dian and Pacific Oceans to the East and the views of the scholars included in this col- Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean to lection. the West. As Christendom was heavily influenced by the cultures that became PART I: THE ARTICULATIONS AND known as “European,” Islamic Civilization was based on Arab culture and brought RE-ARTICULATIONS OF ANTI- prominence to Arabic, a linguistic frame- SEMITISM work with many manifestations among various peoples in the Arab Peninsula and Anti-Semitism in the Longue-Durée subsequently across the areas of Muslim conquest. Even though Islamic civilization A contemporary discussion of anti- covered many cultures and linguistic tradi- Semitism requires reflecting on the emer- tions, Arabic became the lingua franca of gence of Christian Europe; Zionism; and the Islamic World. the state of Israel. After the fall of the an- As with Christianity, Islam was at first cient Roman Empire in late antiquity, it was indexed in terms of the revealed religion of Christianity, at first under the rubric of the a common people in the region of West Asia Holy Roman Empire, that organized under known today as the Middle East. But unlike Christendom during the Middle Ages the Christianity, which became more associ- territories that subsequently became Eu- ated with peoples outside of the Middle rope. Since Christianity rose out of ongoing East, the Arab cultural dimensions of Islam struggles among the colonized people of presented cultural mores that required Judea, many of whom spread across the Ro- fewer radical adjustments for the Jewish man world during a period of ancient Jew- peoples spread across the by then Muslim- ish proselytizing, the consequence was a governed territories, and the added cate- constant presence of Jews among Chris- gory of “people of the book” in Islam en- tians who were by the Middle Ages a hege- abled a status for Jews and Christians that monic group. Moreover, although there was absent in Christian-governed territo- were many Jews living outside of Judea, the ries with regard to non-Christians. When destruction of the Second Temple in 70 the North African Muslims, the Moors, ex- ACE, the centerpiece of Jewish life, created panded the reach of the Islamic world into an entirely Diasporic Jewish world in Iberia in the eighth century and formed An- which Jews became quintessential minori- dalusian civilization, whose impact was ties among Christians and, in other places, felt as far north as southern France, the sit- other “Gentiles.” uation of Jews was transformed to an in-be- The situation for Jews in Christian tween condition: For the Christian peoples, lands was tenuous, marked by restrictions the Jews were outsiders within and were on movement, domicile, and ownership, more associated with the North African and, on many occasions, violent persecu- and West Asian civilizations, although tion. The Christian conversion of the Em- many in those regions were descendants of peror Constantine in 312 ACE led to people who came to Judaism during the pe- Christianity as the state religion of Rome riod of Jews actively seeking proselytes and edicts making Jewish proselytizing a prior to the period of Constantine; for the capital offense. This historic situation of Muslims, they were accepted as of similar if

HUMAN ARCHITECTURE: JOURNAL OF THE SOCIOLOGY OF SELF-KNOWLEDGE, VII, 2, SPRING 2009

GLOBAL ANTI-SEMITISM IN WORLD-HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE: AN INTRODUCTION 3 not the same origins, because Islam was a Islamophobia. Thus, anti-Semitism has proselytizing religion from the same areas three components from its inception: “anti- of the world, but they faced limits because Jewish anti-Semitism,” “anti-Arab/Mus- Jews were not Muslims. Crucial during this lim anti-Semitism,” and, often overlooked period, however, as David Sasha (2008) has because rarely formulated, “Anti-Afro- pointed out, the Arab allowance for Arabic Arab/Muslim anti-Semitism.” The year to facilitate hybridization allowed the pos- 1492 was marked by events that brought sibility of Arabic and Arab Jews, which en- these components together in familiar abled the existence, for a time, of both ways: Jews and Muslims were ordered to Muslim and Jew to be regarded at times as convert to Christianity, and those who re- a unity in the face of Christendom. fused were subsequently expelled from the The focus on anti-Semitism in this col- Iberian Peninsula through pogroms and lection raises the question, then, of how an- massacres (Baer 1993; Gerber 1992; Bresc cient and Medieval versions of anti-Jewish 2001). Recall that the people who became practices should be interpreted, especially known as Semitic people were character- since even the term “Semite” came about as ized as coming from what we currently re- an effort in eighteenth-century French and fer to as the Middle East or Western Asia German scholarship to organize Arabic, and Northeastern Africa, and this group in- Aramaic, and Hebrew under a single lin- cluded Arabs as well as Hebrews, the tribal guistic nomenclature, which was crystal- designation from which Jewish people lized in the nineteenth century in the work emerged. Recall as well that the term itself of the French scholar Ernest Renan. Con- has origins in philological research in eigh- temporary discussion of anti-Semitism teenth-century France and Germany, where prior to this period is, in effect, a retroactive it referred to linguistic types. By the nine- organizing of the past in the language of teenth-century, it was transformed from a the present. It may be better to say “proto- linguistic ascription to a full-fledged racial anti-Semitism” when referring to this form category for the mixed-race group of peo- of hatred prior to modern times, but given ples of East Africa, West Asia, and the the impact of the term, we will simply refer southern parts of Europe that were meeting to “anti-Semitism” to refer to the circum- points of those geographical zones. stances that link the discussion from the The people who became known as Middle Ages to modern times. “Semites” were, and to a large extent still A consequence of Islamic control of the are, what in recent racial language—as ob- Mediterranean was a limitation of trade served by Charles Finch III (1991)—is re- that locked in Christendom from its south- ferred to as “mulattoes.” It was an ascrip- ern and Eastern borders. The economies of tion pushed by Arthur de Gobineau, the Christian territories suffered greatly during father of modern racism, in his discussion this period, which led to the Crusades, of Jewish people in explicitly racial terms in whose expansion was stopped by the Otto- his Essai sur l'Inegalite de Races Humaine mans of Turkey in the East. In the West, the (1853–1855). The concept itself worked “Reconquest,” as this effort was called un- within an economy of fixed points or cen- der the leadership of King Ferdinand and ters, through which a theology of meaning Queen Isabella, culminated in the fall of as meaning—of organized centers from Grenada in 1492. which contaminants and degraded matri- Many Jews were, during this eight ces, as Gil Anidjar (2008) argued, echoing hundred years period of Moorish rule in the poststructural observations of Jacques Iberia, linked to the Arab world, which Derrida—flowed, produced, and orga- meant, also, that anti-Judaism fused with nized a new race retroactively placed into

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4LEWIS R. GORDON, RAMÓN GROSFOGUEL, AND ERIC MIELANTS

the past, including the distant past, of hu- This is not to say that there was no dis- man difference. crimination or persecution of Jews in the Mixture was a source of much anxiety earlier periods and early modern periods of and fear during the processes of expulsion Muslim rule. On December 30, 1066, for in- of Jews and Moors from Iberia, since a con- stance, 1,500 Jewish families were massa- sequence of eight hundred years of Islamic cred in Grenada by Muslim mobs (Perez rule brought together a mixture of people 2005:36–37). Crucial during this period, with the usual logic of identity and identifi- however, was that the political regimes var- cation, especially with regard to problems ied across the Muslim world. Andalusian of passing and hidden, supposedly essen- Jews of that period fled, for instance, to tial, substantial modes of being. The Span- more tolerant Arab communities to the ish Inquisition, inaugurated in 1478 in the east, as was the case of Rabbi Maimonides, Christian territories, expanded with that of the most famous Jewish philosopher of that Christendom in 1492 and continued into period. Similarly, the Christian territories the nineteenth century. From the outset, were not uniformly inhospitable, so there many Andalusian Jews and Moors fled to were also Jews who also fled to more north- North Africa and the Ottoman-controlled ern Christian areas. In the Muslim world, territories. The period that followed is one there were some periods of pronounced ef- in which Jews among Arabs and Arab Jews forts to force Jews to convert to Islam, such lived in a Muslim world to the South and as those that led the Persian Shah to order East while a Christian world dominated the the expulsion of Jews from Esfahan or Old north and eventually most of the globe. Persia in 1656, although the order was As with Andalusia, most of the Muslim never fully implemented; by 1661 (only five regimes in North Africa and West Asia rec- years later) the Persian government re- ognized Jewish minority rights (Kramer stored the rights of Jews to practice their re- 2006) and served as refuges for Jews. As ligion without repression from the David Sasha (2008) explains: authorities (Littman 1979). In Muslim countries, “dhimmi” peoples (“protected Traditionally in the Arab world, peoples”) had minority rights because they culture was a unifying factor and were considered to be custodians of scrip- religion a divisive one. Having tural revelations (Perez 2005). In Iran and used the term divisive, I do not Muslim-ruled countries in the Mediterra- mean to imply that the division nean region, these minorities included Zo- was in any way seen as illegitimate roastrians, Christians, and Jews. Thus, the or intrusive. Each faith community history of discrimination against Jews by in the Arab world was provided Arab Muslims, which we shall call “Semitic with communal autonomy while Anti-Semitism,” during this period (1492– the maintenance of Islam as the 1948), was not on a par with the anti- dominant and dominating religion Semitic pogroms, extermination, torture, was clearly affirmed. But under and wide-spread recurring massacres this system Jews were able to con- against Jews in Europe. These were funda- duct their intra-communal affairs mentally a Christian European problem in relative ease having established that considered both Muslims and Jews internal institutions and entities to outside the natural theological order be- administer the affairs of the com- cause they were non-Christian and thus an- munity without the interference of tithetical to the emerging European the Islamic authorities. societies (see, e.g., Kamali 2009). The Chris- tian version was linked to the expansion of

HUMAN ARCHITECTURE: JOURNAL OF THE SOCIOLOGY OF SELF-KNOWLEDGE, VII, 2, SPRING 2009

GLOBAL ANTI-SEMITISM IN WORLD-HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE: AN INTRODUCTION 5 other practices and concepts that trans- people who exemplified mixtures with formed the prototypical anti-Semitism into West Asian and North African populations. something more grand, to which we now If before 1492, “anti-Jewish anti-Semitism,” turn. “anti-Arab/Muslim anti-Semitism,” and Recall that the Spanish Christian Mon- “Anti-Afro-Arab/Muslim anti-Semitism” archy began the European colonial expan- were defined primarily on the basis of reli- sion in 1492, the same year they gious discrimination (“praying to the commenced the process of expelling Mus- wrong God”) or on theological interpreta- lims and Jews from Andalusia (Dussel tions of Christian natural theology, the anti- 1994). The more marked Muslims and Jews Indigenous and anti-black racism that were the darker Andalusians, but for those emerged in the Americas provided these who could “pass,” a program of uprooting old forms of discrimination with new their “hidden” Muslimness or Jewishness meanings (Maldonado-Torres 2005; 2006; followed, and for those who were Christian 2008). Anti-black racism became part of the but of darker complexion, presuppositions foundation of modernity and affected the of their origins made them bearers of a non- situation of all non-European subjects at Christian past through which illegitimate the time (Gordon 1995; 2008). With the colo- traits could surface. The colonization of in- nial “boomerang effect” (Césaire 2001), co- digenous peoples in the Americas and the lonial racism in the Americas came back to succeeding enslavement of Africans in the Europe and redefined old forms of discrim- New World’s colonial plantation economy inations against Jews and Muslims, includ- then inaugurated what is known as the ing Afro-Muslims or Moors, with the Modern World System. This new system additions of Gypsies, turning them, like grew out of the theological anthropology blacks and Indigenous peoples, into sub- that came upon its limits in encounters human or simply non-human (Grosfoguel with people who were not Christians, Jews, and Mielants 2006). For centuries Jews in or Muslims. More, the reordering of eco- Europe lived the nightmare of anti-Semit- nomic relations from medieval kingdoms ism. They faced persecution, torture, and to global flows of materials led to demands attempted genocide at the hands of domi- for labor beyond the population resources nant Western elites in the new post-An- of the growing centers. A colonial/racist dalusian world, the modern world configuration of anti-black and anti-indige- governed by a slashed and hyphenated se- nous racism followed with a new interna- ries that could be formulated as “Capital- tional racial division of labor and global ist/Patriarchal Western-centric/Christian- temporal organization of Europe into mo- centric Modern/Colonial World-System” dernity (Quijano 2000). Indigenous Ameri- (Grosfoguel 2005). can and African peoples were placed below the line that defines the Human (Taylor Christian Europe’s Final Solutions 2001; Maldonado-Torres 2005, 2006, 2008). They were treated and characterized as The Holocaust, Shoa, represents one of sub-humans or simply non-humans the extreme forms of European FINAL SO- (Quijano 1991, 2000; Dussel 1994; Gordon LUTIONS, but it was not the only effort to 2008). handle Europe’s “Jewish question” in the With the emergence of a new global ra- first half of the twentieth century. Another cialized capitalist world-economy in the anti-Semitic “FINAL SOLUTION” contem- post-Andalusian age (Majid 2003), anti- plated early on by the Germans under na- Semitism acquired new connotations as tional socialism but developed by the particular forms of discrimination against British was to transfer European Jews out

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6LEWIS R. GORDON, RAMÓN GROSFOGUEL, AND ERIC MIELANTS

of Europe (Segev 2001). Exacerbating the colonial dimension of Given the British Empire’s colonial the situation was that many of the Euro- control of the sacred land of Jews, Chris- pean Jews involved in this process were, tians, and Muslims in the former Ottoman- prior to the Holocaust, groups of Jews who governed territory of Palestine, they began regarded themselves as cosmopolitan and with the support of the European Zionists assimilating Europeans to the West versus to export large numbers of European Jews the Oriental and less modern groups of to what is defined by these monotheistic re- Jews to the East. The Holocaust had fused ligions as the Holy Land (Segev 2001; Ger- these conflicting populations of Jews into a ber 2006; Pappe 2006). This began a process singular identity suffering from common of settler colonialism, where Zionism as a persecution. Although seeing themselves form of Jewish nationalism in Europe ac- as returning to the Holy Land, they did not quired colonial aspirations (Piterberg see themselves as commonly linked to the 2008). Although there were other Jewish people, including other Jews, who were al- people living in Palestine before the emer- ready there. gence of Zionism, World War II led to a ma- The term that was created after 1948 to jority European Jewish population seeking identify Jews of the Middle East was “Jews refuge in the Holy Land, and many of those from Arab lands.” There seemed to be a European Jews reproduced there, under the very careful elision of Jews from the Arabic aegis of the British Empire, the classical cultural system that was marked by a forms of European settler colonialism. Pal- strong political bias. Arabs had now be- estinian and other Arab Jews, who once en- come the enemy par excellence of the Jew- joyed certain rights when the Ottomans ish State, which was now seen as the sole controlled Palestine (Greber 2006), were of- legitimate representative body of the Jew- ten opposed to the British Imperial occupa- ish people. With the traditional antipathy tion of Palestine and to many European of the Ashkenazi Jews—and it should be re- Jews’ Zionist aims of forming a Jewish-only membered that Ashkenazi Jews dominated nation-state in Palestine (Hart 2007a). the Zionist movement and had once even The Zionist project of forming a Jewish considered making Yiddish the national state was formulated by European Jews language of Israel—toward the classical who had considered even Uganda at the Sephardic culture in place, the adoption of Sixth Zionist Congress (1903), led in Basel, a new anti-Gentile animus toward the Ar- Switzerland, as a site for the Jewish Nation abs similar to that sense of exclusion that State. These ideas were formed during a pe- had animated Ashkenazi culture for many riod of high colonialism in the European centuries, caused the Arab nature of Jewish nations, especially with regard to Africa identification to find itself singled out for and Asia, since conditions were no longer extinction. Practices of separation fol- favorable for expansion into the Americas lowed, and for non-Jews already living in (North and South) because of the postcolo- the territory, what followed was what a nies and difficulties of maintaining the re- new generation of Israeli historians de- maining colonies there. This view of state scribes as “ethnic cleansing” (Pappe 2007). formation through colonization carried Paraphrasing Aimé Césaire’s Discourse on through to the process that unfolded at the Colonialism (2001), Hitlerism as a continua- end of World War II, which amounted to tion of colonial racist ideology came back to the effort to form a European settlement for haunt Palestinians this time at the hands of Jews in the Middle East (Masalha 2005; groups of European Jews who ironically Hart 2007a; Piterberg 2008). were escaping from the Nazi Holocaust. The settler project was ironically also

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“Semitic anti-Semitic” ideology. The Jewish (Wallerstein 2008:31) in the last couple of state formed in 1948 justified and continues decades can only be understood in the con- to justify its existence on the basis of being text of a gradual incorporation of European a refuge for Jews (Hart 2007a; Kovel Jews as “whites” in most Western metro- 2007)—inaugurating many Jews to make politan centers after the Second World War aliyah, migrating to Israel, and in some (Brodkin 2000). In addition, the concurrent cases escaping from horrific conditions un- use of Israel as a Western pro-imperialist der “anti-Jewish anti-Semitism” not only in military bastion in the Middle East (Chom- Europe but also in some countries of East sky 1999)—especially because of its prox- Africa and Western Asia—while Arab- imity to strategic sites of oil reserves in a Jews, in addition to Sephardic Jews from world needing fuel for further develop- Asia, and East African (mostly Ethiopian) ment of competing markets—led to a Jews suffered and continue to suffer from straight-jacketing of Israel’s identity as racist discrimination by European Jews more Western than part of the North Afri- who controlled and continue to control can and West Asian worlds. The colonial most of the apparatuses of the new state. project in Israel can therefore not be sepa- Thus, although the formation of the Jewish rated from US hegemony and global white state in 1948 led to the forced expulsion and supremacy. Over time a triple global alli- displacement of most Palestinians from ance was built between white European their land (Marsalha 2005; Pappe 2007), and white Euro-American elites with Euro- Palestinian Jews and many other Arab Jews American and European Jewish pro-Zion- faced a peculiar development in this pro- ist elites in the West and European and cess. As David Sasha (2008) explains: Euro-American Jewish settlers in Palestine. Western blessings to Israel legitimated, fi- It is for this reason that the only nanced, and made possible Israeli settler Jewry that has been forced to colonialism in Palestine (cf. Petras 2006). remove its adjectival prefix is that of Arab Jewry. There is no other Israel and Global Anti-Semitism Jewry that is called “Jews from such-and-such lands.” It is irresponsible to discuss anti-Semit- ism today without taking into account the This move for extinction from within transformation of European Jews from ra- reflected a policy toward many of those cialized subjects of color into “whites” in outside. Similar to the North American set- both Western Europe and North America tler colonialism against Native Americans and without the transformation of Pales- in the formation of the United States, Israeli tine into a Jewish settler state (Christison & elites, who were mostly comprised of Euro- Christison 2006:116). With the incorpora- pean Jews, violated nearly every treaty and tion of European Jews as white there is an kept over the last 60 years a policy of sys- important reduction of anti-Semitism only tematic, forced displacement of Palestin- into “anti-Jewish anti-Semitism” in the ians from the land—which they argued did West. By contrast, other forms of anti- not belong to them but to the British to give Semitism such as “anti-Arab/Muslim anti- as a territorial possession gained from the Semitism” and “anti-Afro-Arab/Muslim collapse of the Ottomans—and settlement anti-Semitism” are part of ordinary com- of Jewish colonies in these territories mon sense and are strong in the West (cf. El- (Masalha 1992; Hart 2007b; Pappe 2007). Tayeb 2008). The recent incorporation of The “remarkable explicit Jewish-Chris- European Jews and Euro-American Jews tian [combination] in political terms” into whiteness has important consequences

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captured in the following statement by Re- ish anti-Semitism” as the hegemonic forms ligious Studies scholar Carl W. Ernst: of racism in the West today, often in order to blame, in a perverse way, Arabs and Europe and America have done a Muslims and to hide the hegemonic forms dramatic about-face with respect to of white racism, which are mostly “anti- Judaism over the course of the past black racism” (globally) and “anti-Arab/ century. Although anti-Semitism Muslim anti-Semitism.” (We point to the was common and even fashionable global aspects of anti-black racism because, early in the twentieth century, the unfortunately, anti-black racism is also a re- horrors of the Holocaust and the ality in Arab Muslim governed societies, in- establishment of the state of Israel cluding those in North Africa.) Given changed that. While anti-Semitism Arabs’/Muslims’ critical views of Israel still lingers among certain hate and the Israeli state, associating critiques of groups, there are plenty of defend- the Zionist state with anti-Semitism, white ers of Judaism on the alert against racist elites in Europe and North America them. Christianity, of course, re- developed a strategy of “bad faith” (Gor- mains the majority religious cate- don 1995) where the main victims of racism gory in most of Europe and today are accused of being the major perpe- America, and it is not in any real trators of racism. Two recent examples danger. Among major religious were the readiness of the American right to groups, there remains Islam, with a call Justice Sonia Sotomayor “racist” be- complex of media images that is al- cause of her claims of bringing her life ex- most uniformly negative. How did perience as a Puerto Rican woman to the this negative representation come American judicial system and their com- to be, and what is its relationship parison of President Barack Obama with with the actuality of Muslims past Hitler in their objections to publicly sup- and future? ported national health care. The misrepresentation of Jewish peo- The question of anti-Muslim ste- ple as a white people, albeit with protest reotypes looms especially large to- from many Jews, including some European day in terms of sheer numbers. No Jews who insist that they are not white, has respectable authorities defend led to a perverse form of accusation of anti- anti-Semitism anymore, and there Semitism premised upon global denuncia- is a widespread consensus that in- tion of the role of Israel in Middle Eastern sulting statements and stereotypes politics and its impact on the rest of the about Jews are both factually incor- world. A pariah status has emerged for Pal- rect and morally reprehensible, estinians living in the Holy Land, which whether in reference to physical has garnered protest across the globe. Al- appearance or behavior. Yet, at the though similar protest is made by Jewish same time, it is commonly accept- people in Israel, their efforts are pushed to ed among educated people that Is- the wayside by elites in charge of the Israeli lam is a religion that by deﬁnition state and their supporters in the United oppresses women and encourages States who accuse all criticisms of Zionism violence. (Ernst 2003:11–12) or policies of the Israeli government as equivalent to anti-Semitism (Balibar, Brau- Neo-conservative elites in the US and man, Butler, and Hazan 2003; Finkelstien Western Europe (Taguieff 2002; Iganski 2008). This instrumentalist argument dis- 2003), take “Judeophobia” and “anti-Jew- torts real situations of anti-Semitism and

HUMAN ARCHITECTURE: JOURNAL OF THE SOCIOLOGY OF SELF-KNOWLEDGE, VII, 2, SPRING 2009 GLOBAL ANTI-SEMITISM IN WORLD-HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE: AN INTRODUCTION 9 reduces the credibility of anti-Semitic dis- Jewish to the gas” in recent anti-Zionist course worldwide (ibid.). The charge con- demonstrations in Europe should be of fuses criticisms of a state’s policies with concern to anti-colonial, anti-imperialist, those against its population. The matter is and anti-racist movements. complicated by Israel being a nation-state, Although it is true that many support- but that could apply as well to the many na- ers of Israel reproduce racist and imperial- tion-states in the Arab world. Leaders have ist ideologies, we should like to stress here tried in those countries to make criticisms that it is not our position that all supporters of their states equivalent to anti-Arab criti- of Israel’s claim to be a refuge for Jews ad- cism or anti-Arab anti-Semitism, but the here to racist and imperialist policies. They, current political climate enables the fallacy and all of us concerned with anti-Semitism of this view to be seen more clearly than in in all of its varieties (such as “anti-Jewish the case of the state of Israel. What makes anti-Semitism,” “anti-Arab/Muslim anti- these cases vulnerable to this tactic, how- Semitism,” and “anti-Afro-Arab/Muslim ever, is that there are instances of anti-Israel anti-Semitism”), should be concerned by criticism also being made by “anti-Jewish the extent to which some anti-Israel dis- anti-Semitic” people and there are in- courses fall into “anti-Jewish anti-Semit- stances of anti-Saudi Arabia, anti-Iranian, ism.” and anti-Pakistan criticism taking the form of anti-Arab anti-Semitism, although the PART II: CONTEMPORARY ANTI- last two are not primarily Arab peoples. SEMITISM If we understand anti-Arab racism as a form of anti-Semitism, the main contemporary ideologues of this “Semitic anti-Semit- We divided the collection of articles in- ism” are many pro-Zionist intellectuals, cluded in this volume in three main topics. both Israeli and non-Israeli (Masalha 2007; The following are summaries of contribu- Spector 2008; Finkelstein 2008). It should tions to this volume: therefore not come as a surprise that anti- Muslim rhetoric focuses not only on “Arabs Anti-Semitism: Past and Present in the Arab world” but also on Muslims in David Ost discusses anti-Semitism in the “West” under the stereotype of “terror- Eastern Europe, examining the popular ist-prone people” (Said 1981; Gottschalk claim of a “new anti-Semitism” said to be and Greenberg 2008). Some Islamophobic presently manifesting itself. Contemporary scholars, such as Raphael Israeli (2008), Polish anti-Semitism is analyzed in order to evoking the third Muslim invasion of Eu- demonstrate how Jews are often associated rope, depict Muslim minorities, as opposed with capitalist modernity, rendering popu- to other immigrants, as inherently danger- lar anti-Semitism more a symbol of non- ous and intent on turning non-Muslim elite disgruntlement than a real expression populations into second- and third-class of animosity towards individuals or citizens in their own countries. This hyper- groups. In addition, he discusses the perva- bolic rhetoric and preempting of critical sive belief in the reality of virulent Polish discussions of a state versus a people have anti-Semitism, a belief deeply ingrained created a situation where real expressions among western Jews with ancestors from of “anti-Jewish anti-Semitism” have be- Poland, and criticizes this as an example of come banal and where old forms of “anti- an unfair anti-Polonism that is itself partly Jewish anti-Semitism” are being recycled to responsible for perpetuating anti-Semit- describe atrocities of the Israeli state. For ism. example, slogans such as “Hamas, Hamas:

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James Cohen dissects anti-Semitism that either aided or gave expression to Eu- brandished as a charge against real or al- ropean anti-Semitism. In his contribution, leged offenders, an approach he considers Wuriga puts forth the proposition that the indispensable to understanding how the idea of new anti-Semitism is another phase notion of anti-Semitism operates in politi- of anti-Semitism—only one that targets the cal discourse and action. He analyzes in de- Jewish State of Israel. Wuriga suggests, tail the accusation of anti-Semitism in cases first, that the European intellectual commu- where it can be shown that the targeted be- nity played a major role in aiding the anti- havior is at least in part imaginary and con- Semitic conception of Jews as Jews; sec- structed. According to Cohen, the ondly, he notes that European Jews were effectiveness of this ascribed anti-Semitism imbibed into European racial fantasies and depends on the ability of those who con- ended up committing Semitic anti-Semit- struct it to denounce it and make it appear ism and/or racism. plausible by connecting it with tangible Walter Mignolo discusses how racial anti-Semitic acts or declarations. Providing formations in colonialism and imperialism recent French examples, Cohen suggests have to be understood in the context of the anti-Semitism is constructed in an essen- simultaneous transformation of Christian- tializing and a-historical manner, lumping ity and the emergence of the capitalist together disparate groups and individuals world economy. In his contribution he fo- into a supposed milieu or nebulous collec- cuses on how Christian theology prepared tive, sometimes portrayed in conspiratorial the terrain for two complementary articula- terms. tions of racism. One was founded on Chris- Santiago Slabodsky utilizes the Frank- tian epistemic privilege over the two major furt School’s analysis of anti-Semitism to competing religions (Jews and Muslims), demonstrate the need to go beyond the vi- the other on a secularization of theological cious circles of the current academic debate detachment culminating in the “purity of by including the interplay between the cen- blood” that became the biological and nat- ter and periphery regarding the imperial ural marker (Indians, Blacks, Mestizos, role of the Jew. Tracing the latter over a pe- Mulatos) of what used to be the marker of riod of five hundred years, Slabodsky re- religious belief (Jews, Moors, Conversos, evaluates typologies of anti-Semitism and Moriscos). Mignolo also discusses the points to the need to read post-1945/48 de- emergence of secular “Jewness” in eigh- colonial anti-Semitism as a confrontation teenth century Europe and how these de- with the colonial legacy that universalizes velopments were concurrent with Western otherness through the Jewish experience. Imperialism in the New World. He con- By tracing the renewal of this construction cludes that secular Jewness joined secular in the debate between radical Jews and de- Euro-American economic practices (e.g., colonizers, Slabodsky concludes that this imperial capitalism) and the construction role of the Jew is as important for current of the State of Israel by what Marc Ellis de- Jewish identity as its disruption is neces- scribes as “Constantine Jews.” sary for de-colonizers. Ramon Grosfoguel discusses the conse- Rabson Wuriga explores European quences of the latest Israeli massacres in voices (Linneaus, Blumenbach, Hegel) that Gaza in relation to its global consequences influenced attitudes and policies on race toward Human Rights and global Anti- and anti-Semitism during the 18th–20th cen- Semitism today. He explores Human turies. He highlights some of the major de- Rights in the 20th century in relation to velopments such as scientific racism, Rights of People in the 16th century and ‘rights of man,’ and others as movements Rights of Man in the 18th century. More-

HUMAN ARCHITECTURE: JOURNAL OF THE SOCIOLOGY OF SELF-KNOWLEDGE, VII, 2, SPRING 2009 GLOBAL ANTI-SEMITISM IN WORLD-HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE: AN INTRODUCTION 11 over, he develops a discussion about Fun- stitutions constructed and incorporated the damentalism in the world today, in notion of a “crucial and exclusive link” be- particular on the hegemonic, silent and per- tween the memory of the Shoah and Israeli vasive form of fundamentalism: Eurocen- defense policy; and Amnon Raz-Krakotz- tric fundamentalism. kin’s Exil et souveraineté: Judaïsme, sionisme et pensée bi-nationale, which addresses bi-na- Jewishness, Anti-Semitism, and tional thought and the degree to which it Identity constitutes both an “intellectual and moral reform” and a political methodology in the For Marc Ellis, anti-Semitism is a concurrent pervasive presence of anti- sequence of the historical collusion be- Semitism and the profundity of the de- tween Western (neo)liberalism and secular ferred effects that its internalization con- capitalism, supported by Christianity and stantly produces in the self-consciousness Constantine Jews. In his contribution he or Selbstthematisierung indissociable from raises provocative questions about Jewish the Israeli national construction. identity, the Holocaust, and the increas- Ivan Davidson Kalmar explores anti- ingly perilous situation in the Middle East. Semitism as one aspect of the long history Ellis uses the categories of a Constantinian of a joint construction of Jewish and Mus- Jewish establishment, Progressive Jews, lim identities, and raises fundamentally and Jews of Conscience and respectively important and provocative questions about links them with neo-conservative, liberal/ how, in more recent times, the commonality left of center and radical perspectives. For between Jew and Arab, which the term Ellis, Constantinian Jewish life revolves “anti-Semitism” displays unambiguously, around the Holocaust and Israel as central could have ever become what he calls a “se- to Jewish life, adopting neo-conservative cret.” Drawing on Edward Said and refer- politics of remembrance and empower- ring to Mel Gibson’s ﬁlm “The Passion of ment; Progressive Jews, while afﬁrming the the Christ” as well as Hegel, he argues that Holocaust and Israel as central to Jewish from the 18th century to September 11, life, see the Israeli occupation of Palestine 2001, the nature of contemporary Muslim as a blight on Jewish innocence and pur- anti-Semitism betrays a clear debt to tradi- pose, supporting a two-state solution as a tional, western anti-Semitic stereotypes way forward for the Jewish people; and and hate literature. Jews of Conscience see the twinning of the Holocaust and Israel in power over others Anti-Semitism and Literature as a deformation of Jewish life and character that can only be addressed through a Martine Chard-Hutchinson provides radical evaluation of the uses of Jewish an analysis of Philip Roth’s The Plot against power in the United States and Israel. America and focuses on the depiction of Etienne Balibar’s intervention centres anti-Semitic riots in America on Monday, on an insightful and critical analysis of October 12, 1942, said to provide “counter- three recent works on Zionism: Jacqueline historical” context for the novel while pro- Rose’s “The Question of Zion,” which inter- viding clues as to its narrative, some of its prets the historical trajectory of Zionism key issues like “the eternal Antisemitism,” and examines the messianic foundations of and even its title “the Jewish conspirational political Zionism; Idith Zertal’s La nation et plot against America.” Chard-Hutchinson la mort: La Shoah dans le discours et la politique looks at how Roth references the riots but d’Israël, and its study of the way in which a also contextualizes Henry Ford, America set of commemorations and educational in- First, southern Democrats, isolationist Re-

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publicans, and major figures such as Lind- offer the readers of Human Architecture a bergh, to carefully scrutinize the depiction nuanced understanding of this persistent of anti-Semitism in this major literary aberration. work. Michael Löwy focuses on Franz Kafka’s Trial, which conveys Kafka’s rebel REFERENCES Jewish consciousness, combining compas- sion for the victim and a critique of its vol- Baer, Yitzhak. (1993). A History of the Jews in untary servitude. Löwy claims that it is not Christian Spain Vol. 2 (Jewish Publication in an imaginary future but in contemporary Society: Philadelphia and Jerusalem). historical events that one should look for Balibar, Etienne, Brauman, Rony, Butler, Judith, the source of inspiration for The Trial. and Hazan, Eric. (2003). Anti-sémitisme: l’intolérable chantage (Editions La Decou- Among these facts were the great anti- verte: Paris). Semitic trials of his time, all examples of Bresc, Henri. (2001). Arabes de langue, juifs de state injustice: the Tisza trial (Hungary religion (Bouchene: Paris). 1882), the Dreyfus trial (France 1894-1899), Brodkin, Karen. (2000). How Jews Became White the Hilsner trial (Czechoslovakia, 1899- Folks and What that Says about Race in America (Rutgers University Press: New 1900) and the Beiliss trial (Russia, 1912-13). Brunswick, N.J.). In spite of the differences between the vari- Césaire, Aimé. (2001). Discourse on Colonialism, ous State regimes—absolutist, constitu- trans. Joan Pinkham (Monthly Review tional monarchy, republic—the judicial Press: New York). system condemned, sometimes to death, Chomsky, Noam. (1999). Fateful Triangle: The United States, Israel and the Palestinians. innocent victims whose only crime was to (South End Press: Boston). be Jewish. Christison Kathleen & Christison Bill. (2005). Finally Jean-Paul Rocchi offers a joint “Zionism as a Racist Ideology” in exploration of racism and anti-Semitism in Donaldo Macedo & Panayota Gounari (eds.) The Globalization of Racism (Para- a textual dialogue between Baldwin and digm Publishers: Boulder, CO), p. 111- Freud. Rocchi argues that the imprint left 127. by nineteenth and early twentieth century Dussel, Enrique. (1994). 1492: El encubrimiento racial metaphors on the Freudian construc- del Otro: Hacia el origen del “mito de la mod- ernidad” (Plural Editores: Plural Edi- tion of gender and sexuality has repro- tores). duced the logic of racial differentiation El-Tayeb Fatima. (2008). “The Birth of a Euro- within psychoanalysis, which can be seen pean Public: Migration, Postnationality, in the mutual exclusion of identification and Race in the Uniting of Europe,” American Quarterly, vol. 60, nr. 3, pp. 649- and desire and the role played by uncon- 670. scious fantasies. Rocchi asserts that as a Ernst, Carl W. (2003). Following Mohammad: modern theory of subjectivity based on sex Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World and sexual difference, psychoanalysis has (The University of North Carolina Press: Chapel Hill and London). been strongly influenced by the cultural, Fenster, Tovi. (1998). “Ethnicity, Citizenship, scientific and religious constructions of Planning and Gender: the case of Ethio- race. At the same time, the binary logic of pian immigrant women in Israel,” Gen- gender and sexuality in psychoanalysis de- der, Place and Culture , Vol. 5 , No. 2, pp. 177-189. lineates the space where a seemingly self- Finch, III. Charles. (1991). Echoes of the Old Dark- assertive white consciousness emerges. land: Themes from the African (Khenti, In all, the articles gathered here do not Incorporated: Decatur, GA). represent a unified voice but those often Finkelstein, Norman G. (2008). Beyond Chutz- unheard in discussions of anti-Semitism. It pah: On the Misuse of Anti-Semitism and the Abuse of History (University of California is our hope that bringing them together will Press: Berkeley).

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