Pollutants in Urban Waste Water and Sewage Sludge 232 Appendix A
Appendix A
APPENDIX A URBAN WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS (WWTS) AND SEWAGE SLUDGE TREATMENT (SST)- REGIONAL ASPECTS
Figure A.1 Water and pollutant sources and pathways in urban catchments [after Ellis, 1986, note that this figure could be extended to include sludge output from the WWTS and also other potential inputs such as from urban use of pesticides * a gully pot (also known as catchbasin) is a chamber or well, usually built at the kerb side, for the admission of surface water to a sewer or sub-drain. It has a sediment sump at its base to trap grit and detritus below the point of overflow.]
Pollutants in Urban Waste Water and Sewage Sludge 232 Appendix A
TREATMENT PROCESS OUTLINE:
Urban wastewater and sewage treatment is comprised of unit operations to separate, modify, remove and destroy objectionable, hazardous and pathogenic substances carried by wastewater in solution or suspension in order to render water fit and safe for discharge and intended uses. Stringent water quality and effluent standards have been developed that require reduction in suspended solids, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD, related to biodegradable organic compounds), COD (chemical oxygen demand) and to some extent coliform organisms (indicators of faecal pollution), control of pH as well as the concentrations of certain organic compounds, together with some potentially toxic elements and non-metals.
Sewage sludge consists of residues originating from mechanical, biological, chemical and physical treatment of wastewater in sewage plants. The quantity and nature of the arising sewage sludge are subjected to strong fluctuations depending on the wastewater composition, the kind of wastewater purification process and the purification degree. Two different sewage sludge types can mainly be distinguished:
· Primary sludge: becomes physically or chemically separated from wastewater in primary treatment · Secondary sludge: arises from the biological step (surplus activated sludge, sewage sludge from trickling filters) and tertiary treatment (often nutrient removal).
Primary and secondary sludges are usually combined to create a composite sludge, which often goes for further treatment in sludge digestion and dewatering. Residues resulting from screening in preliminary treatment are not considered as sludge, consisting mainly of coarse solid particles, grits, sands and grease [Magoarou, 1998].
Although the ‘nitrate’ and ‘phosphate’ ions in sewage are beyond the realm of this project, it has to be noted that pollutants such as potentially toxic elements, organics, sulphides and residuals, can form insoluble phosphates in the course of treatment processes. These have great propensity for sedimentation in all stages of the sewage treatment process, thus becoming part of the sewage sludge that has to be managed.
Figure A.2 shows the schematics of urban wastewater and sewage sludge treatment.
Preliminary
Primary Advanced
Secondary Treatment Secondary
Treatment
Treatment Treament
Secondary
Nutrient Removal, Nutrient
Sceening, Physical/Chemical Sludge Activated
Settlement
Colour Removal Colour
Girt Removal Girt Solid and Liquid
Basin
& Grease Trap Grease & Separation
SECONDARY TERTIARY
PRIMARY
RESIDUES
SLUDGE SLUDGE
SLUDGE
Sludge Digestion Sludge
Anaerobic/Aerobic
Sludge
Dewatering
Mesophilic/Thermophilic
Conditioning
Composting
Stabilisation ponds Stabilisation
Advanced Treatments Advanced Land Application Land
Figure A.2 Schematic Urban Wastewater and Sewage Sludge Treatment
Pollutants in Urban Waste Water and Sewage Sludge 233 Appendix A
REGIONAL ASPECTS:
Protection of the receiving waters from pollution by harmful effluent is the primary goal for the treatment of urban wastewaters at WWTS. Urban wastewater is defined by the Council Directive 91/271/EEC of 21 May 1991 concerning urban wastewater treatment (and as amended by Commission Directive 98/15/EC of 27 February 1998) as, domestic wastewater or the mixture of domestic wastewater with industrial wastewater and/or run-off rainwater. The figures for water supply, consumption and treated wastewater are very variable across the European Union. The water supply (litres/inhabitant/day) fluctuates greatly accross the European urban areas (EUROSTAT data,1998-2000, Ginés, 1997). Not all collected wastewater is treated; the percentage of urban wastewater not receiving treatment ranges from 3% in Germany, up to 77% in Greece. This may include unplanned wastewater collection, such as septic systems or leakage of UWW collection systems. Cities such as Milan and Brussels do not yet have a centralised WWTS.
Table A.1 Population and household access to sewerage and wastewater treatment facilities Country Population Percentage of population with access to sewerage and public WWT (1998) facilities thousands Access to No treatment P P + S P + S + Year sewerage T (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) Austria 8,075 76 1 1 39 35 1995 Belgium 10,192 78 37 1997 Denmark 5,295 87 18 1996 Finland 5,147 78 0 7 71 1997 France 58,727 81 4 0 0 77 1994 Germany 82,057 92 >31 >47 1995 Greece 10,511 70 16 0 0 54 1996 Ireland 3,694 68 32 23 12 1 1995 Italy 57,563 84 16 3 38 26 1996 Luxembourg 424 88 0 19 57 11 1995 Netherlands 15,654 98 2 0 68 28 1994 Portugal 9,957 55 34 9 11 0 1990 Spain 39,348 62 13 11 34 3 1995 Sweden 8,848 86 0 0 5 81 1995 UK 59,090 96 9 9 64 14 1996 - England & - 96 10 0 0 86 1995 Wales -N. Ireland - 83 1996 -Scotland - 94 1996 TOTAL EU 374,582 84 - - - 48 -
[after OECD Report, 1999, EUROSTAT, 1998-2000] P=primary, S= secondary, T=tertiary treatment
Table A.1 shows the data in EU15 for the total population, population access to UWW collecting systems and to urban wastewater treatment facilities. The EU15 average shows that 84 % of the households have access to UWW collecting systems, whereas only 48 % of the urban wastewater is treated in primary + secondary + tertiary treatment facilities.
According to the European Waste Water Group (1997) report on urban wastewater treatment in the EU and accession countries, there are marked differences between various European regions in terms of primary, secondary and tertiary treatment as shown in Figure A.3. The four represented groups of countries are: EU10 (all EU countries minus Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Ireland and Sweden), EU south (France, Greece, Italy, Portugal, Spain), EU north (Germany, Finland, Netherlands, Luxembourg and United Kingdom) and AC10 (accession countries, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Lithuania, Latvia, Poland, Romania, Slovenia, Slovakia).
Pollutants in Urban Waste Water and Sewage Sludge 234 Appendix A
The percentage of population not connected to the UWW collecting systems (considered "rural") increases in the order: EU north (4%) < EU south (18%) < AC10 (40%)
The percentage of untreated urban wastewater increases in the order:
EU north (7%) < AC10 (18%) In terms of primary, secondary and nutrient removal treatment the order is: EU north (57%) > EU south (3%) > AC10 (2%) These differences show a north-south and an west-east divide and point towards the need for greater investment in the urban wastewater treatment in the southern region and the accession countries. Figure A.3 Urban wastewater treatment in EU and accession countries (minus Cyprus) [after EEA, 1999, chapter 3.5 Water Stress] Pollutants in Urban Waste Water and Sewage Sludge 235 Appendix A Northern region (Sweden, Denmark, Finland and Norway): Environmental awareness in this region is high compared to many other countries in Europe (Germany and the Netherlands being the major exceptions to this). This is in part due to the environmental damage experienced in the past decades in this region from trans-boundary acid deposition due to the burning of high sulphur fossil fuels. A number of national pollution events, such as mercury poisoning of fish due to discharges from chloralkali plants also increased awareness of the damage emissions can cause. This led to increased recognition of the need for national and international agreements to limit local and global environmental perturbations and has led Sweden and Norway in particular to be among the most pro-active nations in terms of setting environmental standards and education amongst the general population. Finland, Norway and Sweden have low population densities and there are similarities in the commercial activities in these regions, for example the oil production, metals and engineering and paper manufacturing industries. Denmark has a higher population density than other countries in the Northern region and therefore more of an urban environment but also has a high level of environmental concern about water pollution, although all the drinking water in this region is from groundwater sources. This compares with the UK, for example, where approximately one third of potable drinking water is abstracted from surface water sources that receive effluent from wastewater treatment. The Central Region (Germany, Austria and CEE countries): In addition to Germany and Austria, data are gathered where available for Switzerland and for Central and Eastern European countries (Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia), all associated EU countries. Environmental awareness in the Central Region is high in Germany, Austria and Switzerland whereas the CEE countries experience a high level of environmental damage due to the long years of neglect while part of the Soviet bloc. Transboundary pollution issues are very important in the accession CEE countries and their neighbours. Very little data is available for the CEE countries regarding the pollutants in UWW and SS. An inventory of organic pollutants in the environment in the CEE countries was done by a team at Brno University, the Czech Republic. (Persistent, Bioaccumulative and Toxic Chemicals in Central and Eastern European Countries - State-of-the-art Report-TOCOEN REPORT No. 150, 1999). The main organic pollutants investigated are the PAHs, PCBs, PCDD/PCDFs and their ocurrence in the urban environments in the CEE countries. Most data available is from the Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary. The Southern Region (Greece, Italy, Portugal and Spain): The environmental awareness in the region is on the increase in the recent years. Water resources are limited in the Southern Region and therefore recycling of treated waste water and pollution reduction at source are important issues. Data regarding sources of pollutants is less abundant in the 'Southern Region' especially regarding specific organic pollutants. The region has among the lowest percentage of population access to UWW collecting systems in the EU (70% for Greece, 84% for Italy, 55% for Portugal and 62% for Spain). The percentage of non-treated wastewater is among the highest in the EU (16% for Greece and Italy, 34% for Portugal and 13% for Spain) [after OECD Report, 1999, EUROSTAT, 1998- 2000]. Typically, the metal content of sewage sludge in Italy is low, according to the literature [Garcia-Delgado et al., 1994; Lang et al., 1988] suggesting that the sludge is mainly of domestic origin, with negligible contribution from urban and industrial wastewater. Data for Southern Italy were gathered in a two years pilot campaign [Braguglia et al., 2000; Marani et al., 1998; Mininni et al., 1999]. Pollutants in Urban Waste Water and Sewage Sludge 236 Appendix A Metal Concentration range Southern Italy Literature As 1.1-1.8 0.3-20 Cd 3-23 1-50 Co 1-4 5-30 Cr 227-535 40-1500 Cu 258-373 160-1600 Hg 1.1-3.1 1-12 Mn 80-109 240-600 Ni 34-57 20-240 Pb 95-137 80-850 Zn 1650-4213 900-4200 Table A.2. Metal concentrations in sewage sludge (mg/kg of DS) Wastewater treatment systems in Italy may treat 'non domestic' wastewater if the following requirements are fulfilled: - the plant has a residual capacity of treatment; - wastewater meets the limits for discharge in UWW collecting systems; - wastewater derives from the same territorial area; - the same treatment tariff valid for the UWW discharge is applied. In Spain, which is organised in 17 comunidades autonomas (autonomous communities) there are more than 300,000 point sources of water discharges (both to superficial and to groundwater) out of which 240,000 are to UWW collecting systems [Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, 1997]. However, the quantification of the pollutants discharged is very limited. Routine controls are generally limited to those established in Royal Decree 509/1996 and which must be published every two years: BOD5, COD, suspended solids, total phosphorus and total nitrogen in the case of treatment plants located in sensitive areas. However, these controls are usually employed only for the discharges (not for the wastewater coming into the treatment plant). As the discharges into the UWW collecting systems are under the control of the local governments (municipalities), the limited information on levels of pollutants in wastewater that exists comes from the enforcement inspection controls and is not publicly available nor published in any form [Palerm and Singer, 2000]. There is almost no information on sources of pollutants and levels of pollutants in urban wastewater and sewage sludge in Iberia [Palerm and Singer, 2000]. Water management in Spain is completely de-centralised and the discharges into the UWW collecting system are under the competence of the municipal authorities, which must meet the established parameters for discharge into the public waterways. There is very little information sources of pollutants and levels of pollutants in urban wastewater and sewage sludge in Portugal [Palerm and Singer, 2000]. Most of the information that exists was obtained prior to designing the wastewater treatment plants, but this information was gathered at a local level and is not publicly available. Data are available in Greece for sewage sludge content of potentially toxic elements, and more limited for pollutants in urban wastewater. The Hellenic Ministry for Environment, Physical Planning and Public works co-ordinates the data management in terms of pollutants load in urban areas. The research studies tend to centre on the cities of Thessaloniki or Athens. Pollutants in Urban Waste Water and Sewage Sludge 237 Appendix A The Western Region (UK, Ireland, France and the Benelux countries, Belgium Netherlands and Luxembourg): In this region, wastewater treatment is among the most advanced in the EU. France has over 160,000 km of sewers and 11,300 treatment plants. The WWTS are operated by public or private bodies. The ownership of WWTS and sewers are always public, owned by municipalities or associations of municipalities. France is divided into six Water Agencies, mainly around hydrographic areas, Adour-Garonne, Artois-Picardie, Loire-Bretagne, Rhin- Meuse, Rhone-Méditéranée-Corse and Seine-Normandie. The municipalities operate the sewer systems and often, private companies run the plants [EWWG, 1997]. In the Netherlands, the municipalities are responsible for collection of sewage and disposal of sludge from sewers. The treatment of wastewater and disposal of effluent and sludge is the responsibility of 27 waterboards. Sludge disposal is partially privatised. In Belgium, the municipalities are responsible for the sewerage systems in both Vlanderen and Wallonie. Similarly, in Luxembourg, the 118 municipalities are responsible for the collection and treatment of urban wastewater and sludge. The management of sludge is partially shared with operators of solid waste [EWWG, 1997]. In UK there are over 300,000 km sewers and 7,600 WWTS. The collection of sewage, its treatment and disposal of effluent and sludge are the responsibility of privately-financed water service companies in England and Wales (10), public water and sewerage authorities in Scotland (3), and the Water Service of the Department of Environment in Northern Ireland [EWWG, 1997]. In the Republic of Ireland, the urban wastewater collection and treatment is the responsibility of local councils. Private-Public Partnerships (PPP) schemes are in place for modernising and upgrading the WWTS [Dept. of Environment and Local Govt, Ireland, 1999] Pollutants in Urban Waste Water and Sewage Sludge 238 Appendix B APPENDIX B Physical and chemical properties of selected pollutants In order to understand the behaviour of organic pollutants in the urban environment the knowledge of their physical and chemical properties is very important. Vapour pressure, boiling-point, water solubility and distribution coefficients describe the distribution between solid, liquid and gaseous phase. The adsorption coefficient KOC is important for transitions between soil or sewage sludge particles and water. The transition water/air is governed by the Henry coefficient KAW. The distribution coefficient octane/water KOW is a measure for the lipophilic or lipophobic qualities of a chemical compound. For substances with similar physical properties, their water solubility is a crucial factor for the liquid phase transport. Anionic and Non-ionic Surfactants A1. Linear Alkylbenzenesulphonate Linear alkylbenzenesulphonate (LAS) is a synthetic compound utilized as surfactant in detergents, washing-up liquids and cleaning agents. The most important LAS qualities are represented in Table II.22 Figure B.1 shows the LAS structure formula. Table B.1 LAS properties [Bürgermann 1988]. Abbreviation Molecular Molar mass Colour Solubility Vapor Density formula pressure at 20°C [g/mol] [g/l] [g/cm3] LAS C18H30O3S ca. 326 colourles 1.1 extremely low 1 s CH3-CH2-CH-(CH2)8-CH3 + SO3-Na Figure B.1: LAS structure formula. A2. NPEs or nonylphenol polyethoxylates and APEs alkylphenol ethoxylates Polyethoxylated nonylphenols are important surfactants used comercially and in some household products for many years, also as emulsifiers and solubilisers in industrial processing, as well as household cleaning products. They have the general formula: R-C6H4-(OCH2-CH2)nOH, where R=C9H19 and n=6-18. B. Polychlorinated Dibenzo-p-dioxins and Dibenzofurans (PCDD/PCDF) PCCDs and PCDFs are tricyclic, aromatic, almost planar built ethers with comparable physical, chemical and biological qualities. They differ from each other in the position and number of chlorine atoms and the symmetry of the basic structure. Figure B.2 shows the structure formulas of the polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzo furans (PCDD/F). 239 Appendix B 9 1 8 2 7 3 Clx Cly 6 4 PCDD 9 1 8 2 7 3 Clx Cly 6 4 PCDF Figure B.2 PCDD/F structure formulas. PCDD/F are extremely heavy-volatile components (high melting and boiling-points). The vapour pressure drops with chlorine substitution, so that low-chlorinated dioxins and furans are quite volatile. Highly-chlorinated compounds are found in solid state adsorbed on particles. The greatest mobility is in the air. In water, PCDD/F are almost completely bound to particles (high octane/water distribution coefficient). The affinity to organic carbon compounds is strongly pronounced (high adsorption coefficients). Due to their physico- chemical qualities PCDD/F are very firmly bound to soil and sediments. PCDD/F do not react with acids and bases and are quite chemically inert. They are thermally stable at temperatures up to 600-800 °C. The extraordinary stability and the low photolytic reduction render them to be very persistent in the environment. Because of the long life time and the lipophilic qualities PCDD/F can accumulate in organisms: they accumulate predominantly in animal fatty substances [Mahnke, 1997]. C. Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) The polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) form a group of over 209 chlorinated, aromatic compounds with the same structural features. They differ with the degree of chlorine substitution and with their structure. PCBs are substances with low electrical conductibility, high thermal and chemical stability and low water solubility. They are characterised by a high lipophilic character, so they accumulate in the food-chain. Their biological degradability in the environment depends on the complexity and chlorination of each particular compound. Figure B.3 shows the PCBs structure formula. The physical-chemical qualities of selected PCBs compounds are specified in Table B.2. 3 2 2' 3' 4 4' Clx 5 6 6' 5' Cly Figure B.3 PCBs structure formula. 240 Appendix B Table B.2 Physical-chemical data of selected PCBs. Substance Henry Solubility Log KOW constant [g/m3] 2,4,4´-Trichlorbiphenyl n.a. 8.5E-02 5.74/5.69 2,5,2´,5´-Tetrachlorbiphenyl 4.9E-03 4.6E-02 6.26/6.09 3,4,3´,4´-Tetrachlorbiphenyl 3.1E-04 1.8E-01 6.52/5.62 2,4,5,2´,5´-Pentachlorbiphenyl 1.2E-0.3 3.1E-0.2 6.85/7.07 2,3,4,2´,4´,5´-Hexachlorbiphenyl 5.3E-04 n.a. n.a./7.44 2,4,5,2´,4´,5´-Hexachlorbiphenyl 6.9E-04 8.8E-03 7.44/7.75 2,3,4,5,2´,4´,5´-Heptachlorbiphenyl 1.3E-04 n.a. n.a./n.a. (Kow distribution coefficient octane-water) [Bürgermann 1988]. D. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are of major public concern because of their ubiquitous occurrence and high carcinogenic potential. PAHs are multi-core aromatic ring systems with 5 and 6 rings. They represent benzene condensation products. PAHs are solid, mostly colourless compounds. They have a strong lipophilic character and their water solubility decreases with the increase of ring numbers. Low-molecular PAHs are relatively volatile. PAHs with a boiling-point below 400°C exist in the air in gaseous state. The higher boiling compounds are adsorbed to particles. The physico-chemical features of some PAHs are indicated in Table B.3 and Figure B.4 shows the structural formula of selected PAHs. The list of 16 USEPA PAHs is shown in Table B.5. Table B.3 Physico-chemical data of selected PAHs [Bürgermann 1988]. Name Chemical Vapour Solubility KOW KOC Henry constant formula pressure [Pa] [mg/l] [cm3/g] Benzo(k)fluoranthene C10H12 0.1E-07 0.68E-06 6.84 2843420 0.2E-05 Benzo(a)anthracene C18H12 0.67E-06 0.12E-04 5.61 167433 0.54E-05 Benzo(a)pyrene C20H12 0.0 0.38E-05 6.04 450651 0.18E-07 (Kow distribution coefficient octane-water, Koc adsorption coefficient) 241 Appendix B Indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyren Dibenzo(a,h)anthracen Benzo(b)fluoranthen Benzo(g,h,i)perylen Figure B.4: Structure formula of selected PAHs. [Bürgermann 1988] Table B.4 List of 16 PAH group [USEPA, IARC] PAHs Vapour Solubility in Kow Carcinogeni pressure water (mg.l-1) c potency (Torr at 20°C) IARC/USEP A* classification Acenaphthene, Ace 10-3-10-2 3.4 at 25°C 21000 Acenaphthylene, Acy 10-3-10-2 3.93 12000 Fluorene, Flu 10-3-10-2 1.9 15000 Naphtalene, Np 0.0492 32 2300 Anthracene, An 2.10-4 0.05 – 0.07 at 28000 3 25°C Fluoranthene, Fl 10-6 to 10-4 0.26 at 25°C 340000 3 Phenanthrene 6.8.10-4 1.0 to 1.3 at 29000 3 25°C Benzo[a ] anthracene, B[a ]An 5.10-9 0.01 at 25°C 4.105 2A/B2 Benzo[ß]fluoranthene, B[ß]Fl 10-11 to 10-6 - 4.106 2B/B2 Benzo[k]fluoranthene, B[k]Fl 9.6.10-7 - 7.106 2B Chrysene, Chry 10-11 to 10-6 0.002 at 25°C 4.105 3/B2 Pyrene 6.9.10-9 0.14 at 25°C 2.105 3 Benzo[ghi]perylene, B[ghi]Pe ~10-10 0.00026 at 107 3 25°C Benzo[a ]pyrene, B[a ]Py 5.10-9 0.0038 at 25°C 106 2A/B2 Dibenzo[a ,h]anthracene, dB[a ,h]An ~10-10 0.0005 at 25°C 106 2A/B2 Indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene, ~10-10 - 5.107 2B/B2 I[1,2,3-cd]Py 2A/B2:Probably carcinogenic to humans/Probable human carcinogen; 2B:Possibly carcinogenic to humans; 3: Not classifiable as to human carcinogenicity; Blank:Not tested for human carcinogenicity. *IARC: International Agency for Research on Cancer; USEPA: US Environmental Protection Agency. 242 Appendix B Di-(2-ethyhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) Di-(2-ethyhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) appears at 25°C as a colourless, almost odourless, oily liquid and is fat-soluble (lipophilic). It is transported almost exclusively with fatty substances and accumulates in sediments. DEHP forms water-soluble complexes with humic and fulvic acids. Figure II.10 shows the DEHP structure formula. The more important physico-chemical qualities of DEHP are represented in Table II.30. C4H9 HC-C2H5 CH2 O C=O C-O-CH2-CH-C4H9 O C2H5 Figure B.5 DEHP structure formula. Table B.5 Physical-chemical data of DEHP [Bürgermann 1988]. Abbreviation Sum Vapor Solubility KOW KOC Henry formula pressure constant [Pa] [mg/l] [cm3/g] DEHP C24H38O4 0.60E-05 0.23E-04 4.88 35,567 0.53E-05 (Kow distribution coefficient octane-water, Koc adsorption coefficient) Polycyclic musk compounds Three representatives of the polycyclic musk compounds with abbreviation name, trade name, chemical formula and molecular weight are shown in Table B.6. Table B.6 Polyclyclic musk compounds. Abbreviation Trade name Chemical Molecular formula weight HHCB Galaxolide C18H26O 258.40 AHTN Tonalide C18H26O 258.40 ADBI Celestolide C17H24O 244.38 243 Appendix B Nitro-musk Compounds Properties. Nitro-musk compounds are nitro aromatic bonds with a high stability to chemical and biochemical reduction, high persistancy and lipophillic behaviour. Musk ambrette, musk xylene, musk ketone, musk tibetene and musk moskene belong to the nitro-musk compounds. Trade names and formulas of the nitro-musk compounds are listed in Table B7. Table B7 Trade name and formula of the nitro-musk compounds. Trade name Formula Musk ambrette 1-tert.-butyl-2-methoxy-4-methyl-3,5- dinitrobenzene Musk xylene 1-tert.-butyl-3,5-dimethyl-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene Musk ketone 1-tert.-butyl-3,5-dimethyl-2,6-dinitro-4- acetylbenzene Musk tibetene 1-tert.-butyl-3,4,5-trimethyl-2,6-dinitrobenzene Musk moskene 1,1,3,3,5-pentamethyl-4,6-dinitroindan Musk Xylene and Musk Ketone Properties. Musk xylene and musk ketone are nitrobenzene compounds. They are persistent, lipophile and accumulate in the food chain. Musk xylene has a biological accumulation factor (concentration in fatty tissues / concentration in the environment) of 4.1, Musk ketone of 1.1. 244 Section Eight - References 8 REFERENCES 8.1 Electronic databases searched (www and academically-networked) American Chemical Society Pubs http://pubs.acs.org/ ANTEnet Abstracts in New Technologies and Engineering http://www.antenet.co.uk Aqualine academically-networked ASFA-Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Abstracts http://www.csa1.co.uk/ (CSA) Biotechnology and Bioengineering Abstracts http://www.csa1.co.uk/ (CSA) CELEX (EU Legal database) http://europa.eu.int/celex/ Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology Abstracts http://www.rsc.bids.ac.uk/ CORDIS (EU database) http://www.cordis.lu/ Current Contents http://wos.mimas.ac.uk/ccclogin.html Ecology Abstracts http://www.csa1.co.uk/ (CSA) EIS-Environmental Impacts Statements http://www.csa1.co.uk/ (CSA) EMBASE (Medicine and Pharmacology) http://www.bids.ac.uk/ Environment Abstracts academically-networked Environmental Engineering Abstracts http://www.csa1.co.uk/ (CSA) Environmental Fate Database http://esc.syrres.com/efdb.htm ESPM-Environmental Sciences and Pollution Mgmt. http://www.csa1.co.uk/ (CSA) Health and Safety Science Abstracts http://www.csa1.co.uk/ (CSA) International Civil Engineering Abstracts http://www.anbar.com/cgi-bin/ce/CEdb Index to Scientific and Technical Proceedings http://wos.mimas.ac.uk/istpcgi/login.cgi Ingenta Journals (bids) http://www.ingentajournals.bids.ac.uk/ Medical Pharmaceutical Biotechnology Abstracts http://www.csa1.co.uk/ (CSA) MEDLINE http://www.csa1.co.uk/ (CSA) Ovid Biomedical Service http://biomed.niss.ac.uk/ovidweb/ovidweb.cgi Pollution Abstracts http://www.csa1.co.uk/ (CSA) Risk Abstracts http://www.csa1.co.uk/ (CSA) Science Citation Index http://wos.mimas.ac.uk/ Science Direct (integral articles database) http://www.sciencedirect.com/ Toxicology Abstracts http://www.csa1.co.uk/ (CSA) Toxline http://www.csa1.co.uk/ (CSA) Wasteinfo academically-networked Water Resources Abstracts http://www.csa1.co.uk/ (CSA) i Section Eight - References 8.2 REFERENCES (PAPERS) · Abendt, R.W. 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WRc, Swindon. xxv Section Eight - References 8.5 Abbreviations ADBI celestolide ADP Antecedent Dry Period (dry/wet deposition) AHTN tonalide AOX Adsorbable Organohalogen (Organochlorine) Compounds APEO Alkylphenolethoxylates AT Austria BE Belgium BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand CDO Chemically Dissolved Oxygen CEE Central and Eastern European countries CEP 2-Chloroethanol phosphate CH Switzerland DBT Dibutyltin DE Germany DEHP Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate DEP diethyl phthalate DK Denmark DMDTAR Dimethyl di-tallowammonium chloride DO Dissolved Oxygen DSDMAC Distearyl, dimethylammonium chloride EI Ireland EPA or USEPA, United States Environment Protection Agency ES Spain EU European Union FI Finland FR France g/t grams per tonne GR Greece HGV Heavy Goods Vehicle HHCB galaxolide HM Heavy Metals IKW Industry association personal hygiene and detergents (Frankfurt) IT Italy kg/t kilogram per ton LAN Long-chain alkylnitriles LAS Linear alkyl-(dodecyl-)benzenesulphonate LU Luxembourg LV Light Vehicle MBAS Methylene Blue Adsorbable Substances MBT Monobutyltin xxvi Section Eight - References MCL Maximum Contaminant (Contamination) Level NL Netherlands NO Norway NP Nonylphenol NP1EO Nonylphenol monodiethoxylate NP2EO Nonylphenol diethoxylate NPE Nonylphenol ethoxylates NPEC Nonylphenol carboxylic acids OP Organic Pollutants p.e. population equivalent PAHs Poly aromatic hydrocarbons PCBs Poly chlorinated biphenyls PCDD Polychlorinated dibenzodioxines PCDF Polychlorinated dibenzofurans PEG Polyethylene glycol PGM Platinum Group Metals POPs Persistent Organic Pollutants PPG Polypropylene glycol PT Portugal SE Sweden SS Sewage Sludge SSM Suspended Solid Matter SST Sewage Sludge Treatment t/a tonnes per year TAMs Trialkylamines TBP Tri-n-butyl phosphate TBT Tributyltin TCDD Tetrachlorine dibenzo-p-dioxin TE Toxicity equivalent UWW Urban Waste Water WWTS Urban Waste Water Treatment Systems WWTP Urban Waste Water Treatment Plant VEC Vehicle Exhaust Catalysts WHO World Health Organisation xxvii L-2985 Luxembourg OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES OFFICE FOR OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS 9 ISBN 92-894-1735-8 7 8 9 2 8 9 4 1 7 3 5 8 KH-40-01-448-EN-N 14 http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/pubs/home.htm See our publications catalogue at: European Commission water and sewage sludge Pollutants in urban waste