PSYC104 SUMMARIES

HISTORY IN PSYCHOLOGY Understanding philosophical foundations of scientific method in psych is necessary to constructively critique and evaluate theories

GREEK ORIGINS OF WESTERN THOUGHT

Pythagoras Numbers explain universe Perfection found in mathematical world Mind/ body dualism: sense/flesh inferior Plato Combined Socratic method (digging deep into ideas) w Pythagorean mysticism Theory of forms: physical objects = inferior representation of pure ideas True knowledge gained by grasping ideas, ignoring sensory experience Mathematics does not explain everything Aristotle First major psychologist: examined memory, sensation etc. Studied nature Rationalist empiricist: analyze info from senses to produce knowledge Explain psych events in terms of biology: physiological psychologist Significance of Axial/pivotal period à question ideas Ancient Greeks for Open discussion and debate valued and encouraged Western Psych Establishment of rigor/ critical/ analytical thinking

THE DARK AGES IN THE WEST

Dark Ages in the Greek learning largely lost in West: halts open inquiry re nature of West human beings Adherence to faith (Church)/ mysticism/ anti- intellectualism > role of human reason Preservation of Greek learning by Islamic scholarship Dark à Middle … rediscovery of Aristotle’s work à reawakening of inquiry Ages Establishment of universities: debate and engagement w world Rise of Humanism

RENAISSANCE HUMANISM Renaissance Social/intellectual focus on human beings Humanism 4 prominent themes: (I) individualism, (II) personal religion, (III) interest in the past, Greek & Roman writers, (IV) Anti- Aristotelianism Rise of skepticism Challenge to Dogma (esp. Aristotle) = return to active engagement w world as focus of speculation and open inquiry Principles of God created but does not micro manage Newtonian Science Material world is governed by natural laws Rejected Aristotle’s final cause concept Accepted Occam Razor Knowledge is imperfect because of limitations of human beings Classification (naming) is not explanation!

RATIONALISM /EMPIRICISM

Francis Bacon Father of empiricism Empiricism Stressed observation of events (died conducting experiment) à induction Subjectivity regarded as respectable: scientists should not have preconceptions Science should benefit society (public funds for science: public good) Descartes Wanted to establish human knowledge on same basis as truths/ Rationalism certainty of mathematics In search for truth: experienced period of doubt 4 rules: (I) avoid all prejudgment, all is up for discussion, (II) Reductionism: divide problems into as many parts required to obtain solution (III) analyze parts in orderly fashion, simplest à most difficult, (IV) be extremely thorough Believed in both Nativism (certain ideas so clear they must be innate) and Rationalism (dominance of logical thought processes) Humans and animals are similar: opened way for animal testing Interactive Dualism: body and mind influence each other Locke Dualist (mind and body interact): not interested in how Empiricism Opposed innate ideas: all knowledge comes from experience But did recognize that operations were innate e.g. arranging ideas Ideas = simple mental images Humans motivated by seeking pleasure, avoiding pain Mind was a blank slate – Tabula Rasa: need experience Hume Careful observations to make generalizations about world Empiricism Can never know reality, only received perceptions A causal relationship is a consistent co-occurrence of two events 4 conditions for 2 events to be in a causal relationship: (I) contiguous in time and space, (II) cause à effect, (III) constant union cause and effect, (IV) same cause for same effect Emotions are consistent motivators of human action Humans/ animals learn through reward/ punishment Kant – synthesis Made clear necessity of experience [observations] & ideas [theory] between Active mind required to process experience and produce knowledge Empiricism & Categories (e.g. causation) are products of the mind Rationalism Human mind = centre of universe. Mind prescribed laws of nature Psych cannot be an experimental science: mind studying itself à corruption – issue of subject/object in study of humans 20TH CENTURY…

Charles Darwin Sought a unifying principle to understand variations in species Survival of best fitted (to environment) Possess adaptive traits, live to reproduce, pass on advantageous traits Humans/ great apes descended from common primate ancestor Emotions = remnants of animal emotions (by-gone survival needs) Structuralism Understand structure/ elements of mind Introspection – main method of investigation Zeitgeist of European psych Functionalism Understand function/ practical use of mind – used any relevant method Combination of evolution and pragmatism i.e. how do mental processes aid adaption to environment Zeitgeist of US psych Psychodynamic Based on: (I) actions determined by thoughts/ feeling/ wishes, (II) perspective: Freud much of mental activity occurs out of awareness, (III) mental processes may conflict w one another Symptoms could be product of unconscious motives Behaviourist Tabula Rasa, rejects mind/body concept perspective Psych should be exclusively an empirical (observation based) science Control the conditions and one can control the behaviour Stimulus-response approach Humanist Emphasis on self-actualisation as ultimate goal perspective Uniqueness of individual Empathy, person-centred Cognitive Unseen processes – legitimate areas of study for Psych perspective How people perceive, process, retrieve info etc. Experimental methods infer mental processes (which themselves are not observed) Evolutionary Human psych traits/ characteristics enable humans to survive perspective Importance of role of genetic/ kinship in influencing behaviour

Definitions • Rationalist = person who bases their opinions/ actions on reason and knowledge • Empiricist = person who supports theory that all knowledge is based on experience derived from the senses • Dogma = doctrine of belief in a religion or political system. Literal meaning in ancient Greek – ‘something that seems true’ • Induction = making generalized principles after observing specific cases • Deduction = process of taking info gathered from general observations and drawing specific conclusions based on that info • Nativist = believes that all knowledge is innate, inborn

MOTIVATION

• What is Motivation? • Historical approaches to measuring motivation • Drive Reduction Theory of motivation • Yerkes-Dodson law • Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs • Sexual Motivation • Goal-setting: What really works?

WHAT IS MOTIVATION

Motivation Driver of directed behaviours; our wants and needs Involves both biological and social drives Biological Motives Thirst, hunger, oxygen, sleep, temperature regulation, waste (Primary) elimination, sex Social Motives Aggression, achievement, power, curiosity, play, affiliation, (secondary) autonomy Physiological vs Physiological (primary) needs, more important than psych psych needs (secondary) needs Approach Drives propel engagement in some behaviours motivation Avoidance Drives repel engagement in other behaviours motivation

MOTIVATION: EARLY PERSPECTIVES

Psychodynamic Behaviours motivated by conflicting conscious/ unconscious desires perspective - Freud Id Unconscious, instinctual, irrational drives Eros (life drive: incl sexual and basic instinctual drives) and Thanatos (death drive à aggressive behaviours) Superego Drives morally responsible behaviours, perfection Outside of awareness Ego Conscious, rational mind Ensures id and superego drives manifest appropriately Criticism Can’t measure unconscious thoughts

MOTIVATION: HISTORICAL MEASURES

Thematic Claim to measure unconscious desires (explain ambiguous picture) Apperception Tests Longitudinal study found relationship btw responses on TAT test (TATs) and future success i.e. predict success

DRIVE REDUCTION THEORIES