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Zemskii Sobor: Historiographies and Mythologies of a Russian “Parliament”1

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Zemskii Sobor: Historiographies and Mythologies of a Russian “Parliament”1 Zemskii Sobor: Historiographies and Mythologies of a Russian “Parliament”1 Ivan Sablin University of Heidelberg Kuzma Kukushkin Peter the Great Saint Petersburg Polytechnic University Abstract Focusing on the term zemskii sobor, this study explored the historiographies of the early modern Russian assemblies, which the term denoted, as well as the autocratic and democratic mythologies connected to it. Historians have discussed whether the individual assemblies in the sixteenth and seventeenth century could be seen as a consistent institution, what constituencies were represented there, what role they played in the relations of the Tsar with his subjects, and if they were similar to the early modern assemblies elsewhere. The growing historiographic consensus does not see the early modern Russian assemblies as an institution. In the nineteenth–early twentieth century, history writing and myth-making integrated the zemskii sobor into the argumentations of both the opponents and the proponents of parliamentarism in Russia. The autocratic mythology, perpetuated by the Slavophiles in the second half of the nineteenth century, proved more coherent yet did not achieve the recognition from the Tsars. The democratic mythology was more heterogeneous and, despite occasionally fading to the background of the debates, lasted for some hundred years between the 1820s and the 1920s. Initially, the autocratic approach to the zemskii sobor was idealistic, but it became more practical at the summit of its popularity during the Revolution of 1905–1907, when the zemskii sobor was discussed by the government as a way to avoid bigger concessions. Regionalist approaches to Russia’s past and future became formative for the democratic mythology of the zemskii sobor, which persisted as part of the romantic nationalist imagery well into the Russian Civil War of 1918–1922. The zemskii sobor came to represent a Russian constituent assembly, destined to mend the post-imperial crisis. The two mythologies converged in the Priamur Zemskii Sobor, which assembled in Vladivostok in 1922 and became the first assembly to include the term into its official name. Keywords: Zemskii Sobor, Zemsky Sobor, Assembly of the Land, Земский собор, intellectual history, Russia, Slavophiles, nationalism, liberalism, regionalism 1 This study was completed as part of the project “ENTPAR: Entangled Parliamentarisms: Constitutional Practices in Russia, Ukraine, China and Mongolia, 1905–2005,” which received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (grant agreement no. 755504). 1 Introduction The term zemskii sobor (“the Assembly of the Land”) was drawn up in the nineteenth century to refer to a number of different assemblies in the Tsardom of Russia.2 It was contested in the historiography of early modern Russia, with the discussion revolving around the questions whether the individual instances of sobor (“assembly”) and sovet (“council”) in the sixteenth and seventeenth century could be seen as a consistent, albeit dynamic, institution; what constituencies (local and “estate”) were represented there; what role they played in the relations of the autocrat with his subjects; and how they could be compared to the “parliaments” and other assemblies of early modern Europe and Asia. Most of contemporary authors agree that the zemskii sobor was not a coherent institution, and that it was not a “parliament” comparable to, for instance, the contemporary English Parliament or the Polish–Lithuanian Sejm (“assembly”). The historiographical debates on the zemskii sobor had intertwined with the myth-making since before the consolidation of the term. The zemskii sobor had been used by both the opponents and the proponents of parliamentarism in Russia, nourishing both autocratic and democratic political mythologies. Furthermore, during the Revolution of 1905–1907, the Revolution of 1917, and the Civil War of 1918–1922, practical attempts were made to “reestablish” the institution. The Priamur Zemskii Sobor, which convened in Vladivostok in the summer of 1922, became the first assembly to bear such a name. The current study charted the interpretations of the zemskii sobor in historiography and positioned the term in the autocratic and democratic mythologies of the nineteenth and early twentieth century. The historiographic debate on the zemskii sobor, be it a coherent institution or an umbrella term for disconnected assemblies, was stimulated by the lack of reliable sources on individual assemblies, which made the reconstruction of representation and proceedings impossible in many cases. When such reconstruction was possible, the situational representation of different localities and social groups at the assemblies, as well as the latter’s irregularity and incoherence, pointed to the embeddedness of individual assemblies in the hierarchical imperial governance. The heterogeneity of the interactions between the monarch and his subjects, which could be categorized according to their social strata, locality, and position of service, contributed to the imagining of the zemskii sobor as an institution of pluralistic political representation in a dynamic composite society, that is an imperial “parliament,”3 even though there is no evidence 2 Peter B. Brown, ‘The “Zemskii Sobor” in Recent Soviet Historiography’, Russian History 10, no. 1 (1983): 90. 3 Ilya Gerasimov et al., ‘New Imperial History and the Challenges of Empire’, in Empire Speaks out: Languages of Rationalization and Self-Description in the Russian Empire, ed. Ilya Gerasimov, Jan Kusber, and Alexander Semyonov (Leiden: Brill, 2009), 3–32; Alexander Semyonov, ‘“The Real and Live Ethnographic Map of Russia”: The Russian Empire in the Mirror of the State Duma’, in Empire Speaks out: Languages of Rationalization and Self- Description in the Russian Empire, ed. Ilya Gerasimov, Jan Kusber, and Alexander Semyonov (Leiden: Brill, 2009), 191–228. 2 that the historical sobors played such a role. At the same time, this heterogeneity also made the individual sobors parts of the differentiated yet centralized imperial autocracy, built through heterogenous practices,4 and hence a “non-parliament.” The study benefited from the Cambridge approach to intellectual history. When discussing historical texts, produced by Russian-language intellectuals and bureaucrats before 1922, it foregrounded the performative aspect of the term’s use within concrete political circumstances and, following Quentin Skinner, understood the contextualized texts as political actions in the authors’ pursuit of specific objectives rather than mere reflections.5 In this respect, it interpreted political mythology as the narratives of the presumed phenomena of the past which were modified and applied to suit the political goals of the present. Given the chapter’s focus on the nineteenth and early twentieth century, the mythologies of the zemskii sobor were studied against the backdrop of Russia’s heterogeneous nationalist discourse in its multiple and intersecting romantic and civic aspects.6 The variety of the sobors in terms of their composition and genesis and the lack of factual information on the individual assemblies made the term zemskii sobor applicable for both autocratic and democratic mythologies.7 In the autocratic mythology, it represented the popular consensus behind God’s anointed Romanov Tsars, referring to the 1613 “Zemskii sobor” which approved the new dynasty, ending the Time of Troubles (1598–1613). This interpretation was employed in the legitimation of the Romanov dynasty, including during the imperial crisis of the early twentieth century, and became an important component of romantic and pragmatic monarchist nationalism. In the democratic mythology, it was a historical Russian “parliament,” or at least a precursor of one, which legitimized and constituted the Russian state. In this sense, the zemskii sobor was used for criticizing autocracy, with its “reconvocation” anticipated to become a modern constituent assembly, similar to the French National Constituent Assembly of 1789, or a modern parliament, and was built into the different approaches to the Russian civic nation. Both mythologies, as well as their intersections, informed political imaginations and designs of the imperial and post-imperial government. Given the intersections of ideas and the changing agendas 4 Nancy Shields Kollmann, By Honor Bound: State and Society in Early Modern Russia (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999), 169; Valerie Kivelson, ‘Muscovite “Citizenship”: Rights without Freedom’, The Journal of Modern History 74, no. 3 (2002): 467–68. 5 Quentin Skinner, Visions of Politics, vol. 1: Regarding Method (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 4–5; Jakob Norberg, ‘Concepts, Political’, in The Encyclopedia of Political Thought, ed. Michael T. Gibbons et al., vol. 2 (Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2015), 647–57. 6 Serhiy Bilenky, Romantic Nationalism in Eastern Europe: Russian, Polish, and Ukrainian Political Imaginations (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2012); Susanna Rabow-Edling, ‘The Decembrists and the Concept of a Civic Nation’, Nationalities Papers 35, no. 2 (2007): 369–91. 7 Dimitri Von Mohrenschildt, Toward a United States of Russia: Plans and Projects of Federal Reconstruction of Russia in the Nineteenth Century (London: Associated University Presses, 1981), 63–65, 242; Richard S. Wortman, Scenarios of Power: Myth and Ceremony in Russian Monarchy from Peter the Great to the
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