AUSTRAUAN WILDLIFE IN AUSTRALIA

a magazine on wildlife and the environment published quarterly by the Wildlife Preservation Society of Queensland

ARTICLES ON AUSTRALIAN WILDLIFE ALONG THE NATURE TRAIL WITH THE EDITOR VINCENT SERVENTY

PAGES FOR TEACHERS PICTORIAL PAGES IN COLOUR BOOK REVIEWS CONSERVATION NEWS FROM ALL THE STATES

Subscriptions-Australia $2.40 Overseas $3.20 Payment to the Wildlife Preservation Society of Queensland Box 2030 GPO BRISBANE. QUEENSLAND 4001

Available from Newsagencies every Spring, Summer, Autumn and Winter for 60 cents. MARCH 1975 VOLUME 18 NUMBER 5 PUBLISHED QUARTERLY BY THE AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM, 6-SCOLLEGE STREET, SYDNEY. PRESIDENTAUSTRAllAN, MICHAEL PITMAN DIRECTOR, FRANK TALBOT NATURAl HISTORY

A GRAND NATURAL EXPERIMENT. 154 THE NADGEE WILDFIRE BY HARRY F. RECHER, DANIEL LUNNEY AND HAYMO POSAMENTIER

EMERGENCE OF THE PYGMY ANTECHINUS 164 BY ROBERT G. B. MORRISON AM,n,Watkoos

POTS AND POTTERS IN PAPUA NEW GUINEA 168 BY MARGARET TUCKSON AND PATRICI A MAY

COVER: Traditional potters of Papua New Guinea use SEARCHING THE SOUTHERN SKY 174 neither potter's wheel nor BY A. W. RODGERS kiln. There are variations in firing techniques, but in each method, the pot is in direct contact with the flame. (Photo: Margaret THE RIDDLE OF PERIPATUS 180 Tuckson) BY ROBERT HARDIE ABOVE: The kundu, a fired clay drum, is unique to the Markham Valley of Papua IN REVIEW New Guinea. It is coiled, in the same way as a pot, in THE FIGHT FOR THE FORESTS 186 two sections which are later REVIEWED BY STEPHEN S. CLARK joined together.

EDITOR/DESIGNER NANCY SMITH

Annual Subscription: $4.50--Australia; $5-New Zealand and New ASSIST ANT EDITOR Guinea; $&--other countries. Single copies: $1 ($1.33 posted ROBERT STEWART Australia); $1.45-New Zealand and New Guinea; $1.70--other countries. Cheque or money order payable to The Australian Museum should be sent to The Secretary, The Australian EDITORIAL COMMITTEE Museum, PO Box A285, Sydney South 2001. Overseas subscribers HAROLD COGGER please note that rates are to be paid in Australian currency. KINGSLEY GREGG MICHAEL GRAY Opinions expressed by the authors are their own and do not necessarily represent the policies or views of The Australian PATRICIA McDONALD Museum.

153

"RECOMMENDED RETAIL PRICE INTERNATIONAL STANDAflO SERIAL NUMOEA 00049840 A G RAND NATURAL EXPE� THE NADGEE WILDFIRE

BY HARRY F. RECHER, DANIEL LUNNEY AND HAYMO POSAMENTIER

ire and its use in the management of very different from those produ . ced by the natural areas must be one of the most modern practice of controlled rn F bu ing-the deli berate firing contentious environmental issues in Australia. of the bush to reduce th The Australian bush is highly inflammable and amount of litter or 'fuel' in the forest. Co� although fire is unquestionably part of its trolled burning minimizes the . risk of wildfi rne , natural ecology, naturally-occuring fires are b ut I 1tter removed by these controlled burns MENT

not only includes the flowering plants whose Australia; antechinus and rats are good ex- . . . N a d gee blossoms contribute so much to the beauty of amples. This 1s not because these animals are River Plot our forests, it is also an important part of the unimportant or uninteresting, but simply before the fire showing habitat of ground-dwelling animals. because· there have not been enough thick layer of leaf Little is known of the smaller, and biologists to make the necessary studies. Yet litter and middle- sometimes less attractive, animals of if we are to ensure the survival of Australia's storey vegetation. Oaniellunnev unpolluted and have no J are introduc IS h Our study was conceive. d to help make re­· commendations on the reservation of h . natu � 1 areas and on t e1r management. Particular was felt about the use concern of co ntrolled National Parks, Nature fires in r Reserves and

rich wildlife, we must be as concerned and knowledgeable about native rats as we are about koalas and kangaroos. Above: In 1969, staff of The Australian Museum's Auth0r a (Lunney ) Department of Environmental Studies. began weighing study of the small mammals in the Nadgee Rattus fuscipes. Nature Reserve which lies south of Eden on Weighing is a '. · N rout. me pro- the border of Victoria an d ew Sou th Wa I es. cedure with The Reserve is bounded on the west by ex- each capture. tensive State Forests and on the east by the i ht A n t ecRh �muss: Tt uoe artof,· ocean. As with all Nature Reserves in New being cut for South wales, public access is restricted and future identifi- scientific research is encouraged. Nadgee has cation of the · individual. Below: a very nch w 1· Idl"f1 e popuI a t·10n an d there are Daniel Lunney Auth or (Posamen- extensive heaths, coastal scrubs and wet and tier _) sha_king Rattus _ dry sclerophyll forests. Nadgee's most impor- State Forests, but the information was lacking fusc,pes into weigh- · ing bag as routine tant asset, however, may be its_ sma11 f res h - which was needed to advise on how control­ trap-clearing procedure. water streams, the only ones in NSW that led fire might be used to prevent wildfire and Daniel Lunney still ensure the survival of the small plants and animals of the forest floor. When we began our work at Nadgee we planned three or four years of observation during which we could get a reasonable idea of the ecology and behaviour of native small mammals, their habitat requirments, and normal fluctuations in population size. These data could then have been used to interpret the results of experi­ ments in which we deliberately burned or otherwise changed the habitat. Each habitat has its own distinctive fauna and although Australian Museum sc ientists have collected extensively, studies have con­ centrated on small mammals and birds. We began at Nadgee by establishing a st udy plot in forest on the Nadgee River adjacent to a clearing formerly occupied by an old home­ stead. The trees here are mainl y second growth dry sclerophyll-predominantly Silver· top Ash, Bloodwood and Monkey Gum. The forest runs along a ridge that slopes steeply on one side to the Nadgee River and gently on the other to a Paperbark swamp along Wombat Creek. The river side of the fore5t HARRY RECHER t T e _ , Senior Research Scientist a � Australian Museum, is head of the Museum 5 Department of Environmental Studies.

TORY AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HIS is regularly scoured by floods. The Reserve was established in 1957 and the fire history of the area prior to this is not well-known. It is likely that parts of the heaths burnt each year and may have been burnt re­ gularly over thousands of years by the Aboriginal population. A wildfire in 1933 burnt approximately half the area of the Nadgee Reserve including the fornst where the Nadgee River plot is located and, in 1965, the heath on which ten of our study plots are located was also burnt. A strict policy of fire H.F.AochCf supression was then followed. One conse­ quence of this was the invasion of the heaths burnt, and sixty percent of the logs were Above: Ring-tailed destroyed. The loss of logs may have a long- Poss_um caught by by shrubs and trees and the decline of some the fire Left t erm eff ec t on w1'ldl'f 1 e an d ·1s perh aps the most · · heath birds, notably the Ground Parrot. · The h eath s were By 1972 much of the forest had a well de­ s1gn1'f' 1cant change. Rather than disrupt our re- stripped by the T veloped understorey and ground vegetation search, the fire has provided a unique op- fire. Below: he f ire was intense although litter was noticeably patchy. 1971 portunity to study the effects of wildfire on be hind Jane and 1972 were unusually dry years for small mammals. Spiers beac h. southeastern New South Wales. In December Many animals were killed and the beaches were littered with dead birds. The personnel of the National Parks and Wildlife Service counted more than eight hundred. Parrots, honeyeaters and wrens�enerally small birds rather than the larger kookaburras and cur-

Allan Fo,o:

A11anfo:,,,: 1972, a chance bolt of lightning gave us a superb opportunity to study the effects of wildfire. The fire ignited under dry conditions in an area of fairly high fuel load. This was the first major fire at Nadgee since 1933. Between sixty and seventy thousand hectares, includ­ ing almost the entire fifteen thousand hectares of the Reserve, were burnt. Included were the heath and forest habitats in our study areas. All the heaths were reduced to ashes and sixty percent of the canopy was burnt or scorched in forest areas. Ground and understorey vegetation burnt throughout the Reserve and soil litter layers were removed. On the Nadgee River plot, ninety percent of the canopy was scorched, litter and vegetation layers were DANIEL LUNNEY is Research Assistant to Dr. Recher. HAYMO POSAMENTIER is Technical Officer (Scientific) in the Department.

VOLUME 18 NUMBER 5 creases, the ground vegetation in th rawongs-were killed. Presumably, large birds e forest will become less dense and the pre were able to fly above the fire and avoid_ the -fire situa. tion will be restored. strong winds it generated. On the heaths and New growth on the heaths consist along the roads we found many dead . s almos t entirely of plant species present b kangaroos and possums. We heard stori s of . efore th e � fire. However, species are more wid kangaroos leaping off cliffs into the sea 1n n ely spread � years after the fire, each effort to avoid the fire. With logs and trees still and, two of our study half again_ a many plant burning fiercely we saw many that had plots have � species as The density of escaped unhurt or with only minor burns . previously. grow th is low . nonetheless and only the first Clearly many animals, including antech1nus twenty centi­ and rats, escaped by going underground into_ metres has regrown to the conditions that ex­ holes and wombat burrows. Some escaped by isted before the fire. The slower rate of growth taking cover along streams where the fire was on the heaths and the failure of weedy plants less severe, and others outran the fire or to colonise these habitats suggest s that the ducked back around it into places already heaths are much poorer in nutrients than the burnt. Though the fire caused great loss of forests. An old analysis of the Nadgee heath life, many anim?)IS survived--enough to re­ by the Department of Agriculture indeed in­ colonise Nadgee. Unburnt patches of vege­ dicates this and suggests it was the result of tation and the banks of streams swarmed with too-frequent fire. young antechinus. This is understandable Our research at Nadgee consists of three since antechinus mate in winter. Hence, the separate, co-ordinated studies. The first is an fire came after the young were independent investigation of the ecology of small mammal and populations were at a maximum level. In populations in dry sclerophyll forest adjacent contrast, the two native rats, the Bush Rat and to the Nadgee River. The Nadgee River plot the Swamp Rat, which were found hiding in covers six hectares and, before the fire, it deep beds of ash in the burnt forest, were all supported populations of two dasyurid adults. They do not normally begin mating marsupials, Stuart's Antechinus (Antechinus until November and few young, if any, are in­ stuarti) and Swainson's Antechinus (A. dependent in December. swain soni), and two native rodents, the Australian plants are well adapted to Swamp Rat (Rattus lutreolus) and the Bush withstand the effects of fire and almost im­ Rat (R. fuscipes). Our studies have concentrat­ mediately after the fire at Nadgee, sprouts ap­ ed on these four small mammals, although peared from eucalypts and banksias. With the twelve other species of native mammals occur first rain, seeds germinated. By the following commonly. These are Pygmy, Brush-tailed and Jurie, the heaths and forest floor were green Ring-tailed Possums, Swamp Wallabies, Grey and some plants were even flowering. In the Kangaroos, Potoroos, Short-nosed and Long­ forest, numerous weeds and grasses nosed Bandicoots, Yellow-bellied and Greater responded to the increased light and to the Gliders, Dingoes and Wombats. Emphasis has nutrients released by the fire, and by the end been placed on long-term population changes theof 1973 forest floor was densely vegetated. and the way small mammals use a common Many of these plants were previously un­ environment. Animals are trapped alive, common. The Kangaroo Apple (Solanum marked by toe-clipping and released. aviculare) for example, formed dense thickets The second study is designed to provide de­ in our study area, but prior to the fire we knew tailed information on the habitats used by of only one of these plants in the entire small mammals and the features of the habitat Reserve. The lush spring growth of 1973 died that determine which species of small mam­ back during the heat of summer, but with mals are present. This work has been confined cooler and wetter conditions in the winter to heaths and data are available from thirty growth resumed. By the end of 1974, the un� plots. each plot is a circle thirty-two metres in dergrowth was so thick that walking in the diameter and small mammals are collected forest was difficult. Wattles that germinated with ordinary rat traps. Among the measure· from seed cracked by the fire stood three and ments made on each heath plot are foliage four metres high and eucalypts, banksias and density, leaf litter, diversity of plant species, other native plants achieved similar growth and extent of bare ground. and have tended to crowd out much of the Before the fire, the same species occurred in weedy vegetation. As these plants continue , th both heathland and forest. Since the fire � to grow and as the shade from the trees in- ce House Mouse (Mus musculus), an introdu

158 HISTORY AUSTRALIAN NATURAL Pre-fire and post-fire aerial views across the two heaths, lmpressa Moor and Nadgee Moor with Nadgee beach and Nadgee River in centre of photos.

rodent, has established a population on the heaths and observations have been made on this animal. Regular sampling with live traps has also been conducted since the fire in areas adjacent to or near the Nadgee River plot in places that were not burnt and are thought to have provided refuge for small mammals. Among these refuges is an old farming area on the adjacent river flat where, as the third part of our programme, we are studying Allan Fox a population of the Swamp Rat. with the death of all males. At Nadgee, the Antechinus are particularly interesting mating season of Swainson's Antechinus is in animals in that all the females in a population late June. All males die by mid-July and become ready to mate with.in a few days of females give birth within the first few days of each other and within a fortnight after mating, August. These processes occur one month all the males die! Though most small mam­ later in Stuart's Antechinus. The timing of the mals are short-lived-few live much longer breeding is apparently synchronised with the than a year-only antechinus has such a photoperiod as mating occurs progressively highly synchronised breeding season coupled later in the year as one proceeds north from

Robert Stewart Nadgee. Stuart's Antechinus mates at Nadgee in August, in September near Sydney and in October near Brisbane. As a result, the female is raising her young when food is most plen­ tiful. It is interesting to note that young antechinus are cared for by their mothers for a much longer period (90 days) than the rats (25-30 days). Rats also reproduce over a long period from spring to autumn. At Nadgee, the Bush Rats may have two or more litters a year, and the young of the first litter may even reproduce before the summer is over. Their potential for population increase is, as a result, much greater than that of the antechinus. We trapped many animals in the forest dur­ ing January 1973 but found few on the heaths. A few antechinus and rats occurred near the edges of cliffs, where the effects of the fire were less severe, but these soon disappeared, and since the fire few small native mammals have recolonised the heaths. The heath Regeneration vegetation may not yet be dense enough to of Melaleuca armillaris on support viable populations of the species northern headland present before the· fire. of Nadgee Beach.

159 pletely and populations of the Bus tW2liEE h Rat and NAME RESERVE Stuart's Antee h.mus reac h e d very low levels All however, occurred on unbur nt ar eas �---, track nearby and produced young. Oth er anirn 1 s ® mcin study 0 also reproduced successfully in either u / areas b rn or areas. With the unburnt excep' tion of the C �� f cent Honeyeater, a orest bird which depe d nectar, all the animals on we expect ed\� Nadge� were present though populations in some cases low. The I were lush fo I . . res t I great 1 y increased I vegetation the food a I vilabl I kangaroos and wallabies I to and by the su ,, m� mer of 1973, all females had yo ung. Nodgee Rive, plot Condi­ tions were fav urable or birds � Batt.us � study � � which nested Refuge areas sorl'j)led seporutely two and three times during the spring ,,,. and sum. / extens10n ltnes mer. ultiple estings were -...,,-.track � � _ evident among such insect-eating birds as fantails, warblers on and wrens-obviously insects The House Mouse, though, now occurs were abundant. it The second year after the fire the heaths in small numbers. After the fire, has seen other nun:i­ changes. Neither antechinus began breeding almost at one� and its has increased in bers rose rapidly. It seems likely that this numbers although both have reproduced suc­ animal occurred at Nadgee before the fire and cessfully. In contrast, rats have greatly in­ had certainly lived around the ranger's cot­ creased in abundance and the Bush Rat began tage. This mouse has colonised disturbed breeding earlier in the year than is normal. It habitats throughout the world and is has recolonised all the parts of the forest it particularly good at responding quickly to the occupied before the fire and is probably changes brought by fire. It disperses rapidly, more abundant than ever. Though it does breeds profusely and thrives on a wide range not normally occur in forest, the Swamp Rat of foods. It is the only small mammal at has also spread throughout the forest and is Nadgee that breeds throughout the year. now common. In the forest, the number of small mammals One other small mammal mer its mention. Rattus fuscipes, the declined during 1973. The Swamp Rat and Soon after the fire, we trapped the Pygmy native Bush Rat. Swainson's Antechinus disappeared corn- Possum ( Cercartetus nan us) for the first time

E Slater E Slater

on our forest plot. The Pygmy Possum is sectivorous and commonly occur together; Rattus /utreolus, primarily insectivorous and is normally but they differ in their habitat requirements, the native Swamp arboreal. With the destruction of the forest periods of activity and hunting behaviour. Rat. vegetation, it was forced to forage and move Swainson's Antechinus frequents logs and along the ground where our traps are located. dense cover where the litter layer is well de­ As the vegetation has regrown, it has been veloped. It forages on the ground and is active caught less frequently, an indication that it is during the day. In contrast, Stuart's An­ spending an increasing proportion of its time techinus is partially arboreal and less depen­ in the trees. dent on cover. It is nocturnal and takes insects It is still too early to know the full effects of from the ground, low vegetation and from the fire. The destruction of litter and ground David Milledge vegetation reduced the number of animals the ecosystem could support and many that sur­ vived the fire were exposed to increased pre­ dation or were unable to find food. It is im­ possible to separate entirely the effects of fire from the effects of weather. Dry conditions during 1971 and 1972 had reduced the num­ bers of Swainson's Antechinus and continuing drought has probably compounded the effects of the fire on this animal. Ironically, it has also been affected by flood. In 1973, heavy rains flooded the unburnt areas along the Nadgee River and drowned all know litters there. In general, however, these are short-term pro­ blems and with continued regrowth, all animals will return to pre-fire levels. Each species has shown a different response to the changed habitat. Some dif­ RATTU$ ferences result from the timing of the fire in FUSCIPES relation to the animals' breeding seasons, but the most significant differences are due to the ecology of the animals. The antechinus are in-

VOLUME 18 NUMBER 5 161 probably exposed both sp cover ecies of an _ increased predat techinus to ion by owl and lizards, feral cats others, but the effe�� been greatest on Sw would have ainson's A n _ techinus which is active during the day. A similar comparison can be made for the two rats. The Swamp Rat is a diurnal herbivore dependent on ground vegetation for cover and food, and it could not survide on the study plot long after the fire. The Bush Rat differs in being nocturnal and omnivorous. Hence, it is not as dependent on ground vegetation for food or cover as the Swamp Rat and was able to survive the immediate ef­ fects of the fire. Predation and the absence of young animals may have been responsible for the decrease in numbers of the Bush Rat during 1973. The Nadgee wildfire was a grand natural ex­ periment. It came when we had already shrubs and trees. From these differences, it is learned much about the small mammals of clear that Swainson's Antechinus would be Nadgee and it was as natural a fire as is possi­ more seriously affected by fire than Stuart's ble. No one will deny that wildfire poses a Antechinus, as the fire destroyed the litter threat to human life and property, but as long layer, ground vegetation and approximately as we wish to preserve natural areas, we must sixty percent of the logs. During 1973, attempt to duplicate the conditions through Swainson's Antechinus on the Nadgee River which they have evolved. Wildfire is one such plot weighted up to fifty percent less than in condition, and it is clear that infrequent pre-fire years. This indicates that its food was wildfire need not be an ecological disaster. Is limited. The weight of Stuart's Antechinus did it an alternative to controlled burning? not differ from that of individuals weighed The natural areas that have been set aside before the fire, as it was able to forage in trees in eastern Australia are too small to survive as well as on the ground and could have ex­ without intensive and careful management. ploited insect populations that developed on Part of this management will involve the use the shoots of eucalypts. Similar opportunities of or the supression of fire. The wildfire of existed for the Pygmy Possum. The loss of 1972 burnt the entire Nadgee Nature Reserve

-- and a large part of the nearby State Forests. nutrients are bound up in large trees, fallen Antechinus stuarti Such a fire occuring again in the near future logs and litter. The decomposition of dead displaying might well cause permanent harm to the plant material releases nutrients slowly, but its arboreal capacity. Reserve. If Nadgee were to burn this year, mature forests are less productive than young, many animals such as Swainson's Antechinus vigorously growing plant. communities. They which have not fully recovered from the 1972 also have fewer kinds of plants and burn, and many plants which have not yet animals-a reflection of the lesser availability reached maturity and set seed, could well be of nutrients and of lower productivity. Wildfire eliminated. Others such as the many weeds massively releases these bound up nutrients and the House Mouse could find conditions and, as seen at Nadgee, there is a tremendous even more favourable after a second fire. It surge of life. Animal and plant populations ex­ would probably make little difference if that plode and species diversity increases. In a A11nJehnek way, fire is a renewal of the ecosystem. But fire also removes nutrients. Some, such as nitrogen, are vaporised by the heat and others are lost by wind and water erosion of the ash and exposed soil. When fires are infre­ quent, these losses are insignificant. Frequent fire, however, leads to progressive decline in nutrients, loss of soil and reduction of the pro­ ductivity and diversity of the ecosystem. We can see little difference between fires set de­ liberately to reduce the fuel load, and wildfire. If either occurs often, the diversity of our natural areas will decline. What does this mean for Nadgee? Clearly, it is a mistake to allow the entire Reserve to burn at one time. The Reserve is small and many organisms are represented by only a few individuals. Leaving large unburnt areas Antechinus increases the chances that these animals and Swainsonifemale plants will survive. The answer, of course, is to with seven young in use fire in a constructive fashion. Controlled pouch. Unlike kanga­ roos, antechinus burning can be used to minimize the chances have open that wildfire will again burn the entire Reserve, pouches. but it would be an error to apply fuel reduc­ fire were a natural one or one set deliberately tion techniques in a monotonous and un­ for park management. imaginative way. The use of fire must reflect Many ecologists are concerned about the and enhance the natural diversity of Nadgee. use of fire for management because they feel Not only must cool, winter fires be used, but that insufficient attention has been paid to the hot fires must be set deliberately during the effects of fire frequency, time of year of burn­ heat of summer. ing, fire intensity and the extent of the area The resurgence of life at Nadgee following burnt. We have seen how th'e timing of a fire the wiidfire has been exciting to watch. can affect the breeding success of native small Though more leisurely, it has been like spring mammals and change the age structure of the following a cold and snowy Northern population. At Nadgee, the wildfire effectively Hemisphere winter. Though the story is not prevented the native rats from reproducing, finished, it is important to see the effects of but because both sexes survived in unburnt the wildfire and to understand the ways dif­ areas and because rats have a high repro­ ferent animals and plants have responded­ ductive potential, their populations have re­ important because fire can be destructive; but covered quickly. Had the fire occurred in fire is part of the Australian environment and, winter, it would have prevented the reproduc­ if correctly used, can be a powerful tool to tion of antechinus: unless these animals ensure the survival of our wildlife. Fully mature reproduce successfully every year the popula­ Assistance from David Hope, Ann Jelinek and Allan male Antechinus tion will become extinct! Fox is gratefully acknowledged. This work has been swainsoni on As forests mature, an increasing amount of supported by grants from the Ian Potter Foundation. author Lunney's kneE

VOLUME 18 NUMBER 5 163 EMERGENCE OF THE PYGMY ANTECHINUS BY ROBERT G. B. MORRISON

igmy Antechinus are the smallest known somersault. Using her tongue she would P marsupials-rather smaller and slighter in rapidly groom those parts of the young that build than a house mouse. Adults are about could be reached. The other position was used ten centimetres long and young are approx­ for more extensive grooming: as she sat well imately three millimetres long at birth. back on her haunches, the pouch opening and They are now accepted by many as the young were pushed forward so that they having close affinities with the Plani­ rested on the ground between her back legs. gales. In this position she would clean each baby The pair of Planigale maculatus that I have thoroughly, spending up to half an hour been keeping produced a litter of five, but grooming the litter. these animals are known to have litters of up Although Aslin describes the young as first to eleven. The growth rate of juveniles pro­ becoming detached from the teats at twenty­ bably depends to some extent on the size of eight days, the young of this small litter re­ the litter. Observations made on this litter, mained attached for about six weeks. The however, agree fairly closely with data from mother would then leave her grass nest only the South Australian Institute of Medical and very reluctantly, not even emerging for food Veterinary Science where these animals are on some nights. When she did so she was being bred and studied by Heather Aslin. almost always accompanied by two or three This pair mated in early July, 1974 when the young that remained attached to the teats as female was ten months old. Her pouch they were dragged around. Those that stayed in became noticeably swollen after the birth of the nest remained hidden from view until they the young some twenty days later. At this were about seven weeks old. They then be­ stage the male was removed and housed came increasingly adventurous, still attaching separately, as males and females housed themselves to the teats at intervals but mak­ together in captivity have been observed to ing excursions from the nest on their own as fight and to kill the young. At about four well as riding on their mother's back by grip­ weeks the young animals could first be seen ping her fur. At about eight weeks they began protruding from the opening of the pouch, to eat solid food, becoming progressively which is directed backward in these animals. independent of the mother from then on. With larger litters the young are seen a little Although these animals can be housed earlier than this. together, their acceptance of each other prob­ At about five weeks, the pouch was very dis­ ably depends to a large extent on sexual tended and the litter could no longer fit maturity and reproductive state. The mother entirely inside it. The young had by this time was removed from the cage after twelve become furred and could be seen moving weeks and housed with the male that had their tails and limbs quite vigorously. The fathered the litter. Since then the young, twen­ mother was still very active, leaving her nest ty weeks old at the time of writing, have been at dusk for food and water, and the exposed living together peacefully, sharing a nest of young were constantly being dragged along grass that they have constructed in a variety This the ground and squeezed against the sides of of sites such as hollow logs, beneath pieces of closeup narrow apertures as the mother moved about. bark, and in dark corners of the cage. They of a female shows the The amount of time she spent cleaning them change the position of the nest every few characteristic increased as they became bigger and more weeks. head shape of exposed. Two main positions for grooming species con­ Pygmy Both sexes of this nocturnal Antechinus, the the very long were seen. In one the female could stand on struct nests in which they sleep during whiskers and the all fours and turn her head back beneath her day. In the case of this litter, it is a communal large ears and eyes. nd body and between her forelegs as if about to nest, but in cases where the animals fight a uth ROBER: MORRISON is a lecturer in Biological Science at Sturt College of Advanced Education (So and Aus!ralla). �e has observed and photographed the development of litters of Antechinus maculatus Smmthops1s crass,candata._

164 RAL HISTORY AUSTRALIAN NATU - do not nest together, male and female animals open. The male adopted a defensive posture have been seen to construct separate saucer­ by curving his body sideways with his head shaped nests of grass, both animals changing toward the female, opening his mouth wide the sites of these from time to time. and, when the female approached too closely, The reintroduction of the mother t,o her lifting the doser forepaw. The male's eyes re­ former mate produced considerable fighting. mained fully open. The female was never ob­ They were introduced simultaneously into a served to attack the male from the front but new 'neutral' cage that had not previously circled around him until she could run in and housed an animal. This precaution was taken grip the fur of his back or the base of his tail. for fear that the male, which is larger and had This prompted the male to run at very great lived alone for twelve weeks, might treat the speed, with the female clinging to him with female as a territorial invader and injure her. her teeth, her forepaws on the fur of his back. These fears proved groundless, however, as it These brief and very energetic contests are ac­ was the female who turned aggressor, quickly companied by a sound, repeated quickly dominating the male. The form of these en­ several times, that seems to be made by both counters is interesting, being highly stereo­ animals and sounds like a very high-pitched typed. The dominant animal, which in this cricket call. Following these bouts, when the case was the female, approached the male animals have separated, each has exhibited a with her eyes half shut and her mouth half curious movement with the forepaws in which

VOLUME 18 NUMBER 5 165 This series of photo­ graphs by the author shows sequential stages in the emergence of a I itter of An­ techinus maculatus. sand is thrown with a quick flicking action both forward and sideways. This action is in­ terspersed with a good deal of rapid groom­ ing. Despite the frequency of these contests, neither animal appears injured in any way. When deprived of stimuli, animals in cap­ tivity seem to become bored, pacing back and forth. This is not only undesirable on humane grounds but also leads to loss of reproductive potential and atypical behavioural patterns. To try to overcome this problem these animals have been housed in large and diversely furnished aquaria fitted with stacks of plywood decks that fit the walls closely and are drilled with series of holes which allow the animals access from one deck to another. These decks greatly increase the floor space available to each animal and each is covered with sand, grass, leaves or bark, to provide adequate material and positions for secluded nesting sites. The clear glass wall of the

aquarium allows observation of activity on any deck and black paper is used to cover the side when observations are complete. These little creatures are extremely shy, venturing out of cover only with extreme caution. It is interesting, however, to note their reactions to a potential predator. A hand moved close to the glass wall of the aquarium on the same level as the animal provokes only curiosity; the animal comes right up to the glass and sniffs vigorously. The same hand, moved above the animal when it is foraging on the top deck, provokes an immediate alarm reaction, and the animal rushes for cover at top speed. The same sort of reaction is seen in relation to sounds, even if these are quiet. Presumably, danger to this animal in the wild originates largely overhead and their vision,

166 HISTORY AUSTRALIAN NATURAL - exception. Describing our marsupial fauna as marsupial forms of placental mammals is a bad habit as it promotes confusion, disguises their unique characteristics and leads to wrong assumptions about their behaviour. As is the case with so many of our native mammals, very little is known of these tiny beasts and most of the information about them has been obtained from captive specimens. A full description of their activities in the wild state is yet another project awaiting the attention of some naturalist.

FURTHER REAmNG Collins, L. R. Monotremes and Marsupials. A Reference for Zoological Institutions, Smithso­ nian Institute Press, Washington, 1973. Marlow B. Marsupials of Australia, Jacaranda Pocket Guides, Brisbane, 1962. Morrison, R. G. B. Housing Small Marsupials for Observation and Photography, South Australian Science Teachers' Journal, 743, 7, 1974. Ride, W. D. L. A Guide to the Native Mammals of Australia, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 1970. Thanks are due to Heather Aslin of the South Australia Institute of Medical and Veterinary hearing and sense of smell all seem acute. Science, Adelaide, for permission to use material Common names for our animals are often from her paper, Reproduction in Antechinus unsatisfactory, and the description of this maculatus (Dasyuridae) (in press), and to Peter species as the 'pygmy marsupial mouse' is no Aitken of the SA Museum. POTS AND PODE

Thick rolls of clay are then added in rings to form the walls. This is the only known in­ stance of ring building where spiral coiling is not initially used to start the pot. Paddle-and-anvil describes the technique by which a pot is shaped, thinned and smoothed by the impact of a paddle on the outside of the vessel against an anvil held inside. The an­ vil is moved firmly toward the paddle with each beat and is, with few exceptions, a he people of Papua New Guinea have, smooth spherical or round flat stone. The pad­ T for three thousand years or more, been dle is always a wooden beater, but not prolific potters though the potter's wheel is necessarily of paddle shape. Paddle-and-anvil unknown there and in the surrounding is essentially a finishing technique, mostly in­ Melanesian Islands. Western technology has volving the final shaping of the pot, but in had some influence on this and other village some cases it only completes the surface or industries, but traditional pottery-making is assists the joining of the coils and/or rings. still widespread. With more exact knowledge of language groups, it has become increas­ ingly possible to show how the language boundaries coincide with changes in pot styles. There are 750 different languages in Papua New Guinea, so it is not surprising that there is great variety in potters' styles and techniques. Two main techniques are used-coiling and the paddle-and-anvil method-but there are many variations within each. A coiled pot is built up by joining long rolls of clay. With spiral coiling, a roll of clay is fed spirally onto itself; in ring build­ ing one, or in some cases two or three rolls, complete a circle for each layer. The rolls The beating is carried out at a stage when the may be as thin as 4mm or as thick as 4cm. pot has been set aside to harden. The base of A combination of the coiling and ring­ the pot may be formed in many different ways building methods is used in most of the pot­ but is usually made from a soft ball of clay making villages in southeast Papua with some shaped by the hand or, in some cases, interesting and unique variations occurring pounded open with a long shaped stone. from village to village. On northern Many of the paddle-and-anvil potters flatten Goodenough Island, for example, the potters the ball of clay to a disc and then beat it into a lay down coils of clay in a circle on a board dish shape to start the pot. An unusual and build them up spirally, gradually working method is used in the Amphlett Islands where upward to form the base of the pot. At Aibom the pot is formed upside-down using slabs of in the Sepik, the base of the pot is formed clay which lean inward and are added to by from a squeezed-out lump of very soft clay. squeezing clay onto the top edge, the final

ET MARGA� !UC�SON, an Ass T ?�iate_ of he Australian Museum, is herself a skilled potter. PATRICIA M�: an art historian,_ 1 s presently liv � _ ing in Port Moresby. They have spent several years doing collaborat_i research on trad1 1onal pottery-making g � in Papua New Guinea and are currently preparing a book presentin the results _of their w_ork. Two of T of uckson's research trips were assisted by grants from the Crafts Board the Australian Council for the Arts.

168 HISTORY AUSTRALIAN NATURAL RS IN PAPUA NEW GUINEA BY MARGARET TUCKSON AND PATRICIA MAY

believe that the smoke strengthens the clay. The map on the Traditionally, no kilns are used. In most areas overleaf summar­ izes present know­ the pots are stacked on a platform of thinly­ ledge of pottery­ split timber, sticks, or sago and coconut palm making in Papua fronds and then covered with more fuel. If the New Guinea. It shows pottery­ prevailing wind is strong, at the beach for ex­ making centres ample, extra fuel is stacked on the windward as either villages ,ide. In beach villages in the Madang area, or language groups, and shows kunai grass is piled high on top of the pots. basic techniques When ignited, fires quickly flare and are and whether the pots are made by men or women.

shaping and smoothing being done with a pad­ dle. The paddle-and-anvil technique is only used by women except in two areas where men use a paddle to finish the pot's surface. Coiling is used by both men and women. Generally, the form of the pottery is directly related to the technique used. A common feature of vessels made with the paddle-and­ anvil technique is that they are round­ bottomed, round-bellied shapes. Coiled pots burnt to ashes within twenty minutes to one range from pointed to rounded with a pointed, hour. Fire temperatures of as high as 918°C knobbed or _slightly flattened bottom. The de­ have been recorded. No glazes are used. coration also follows a general trend. On pad­ Instead, coatings of vegetable origin such as dle-and-anvil pots, it consists of comparatively liquid sago starch and banana skins are simple motifs of incised or punctated designs splashed or rubbed onto the pot while it is still confined to the upper area of the pot. The pat­ hot from the fire. terns are applied with simple tools, either In Papua, the women potters living in coasta1 or near-coastal regions produce all the bamboo or wooden implements, or finger­ The nails. The Motu people use the serrated edge pottery. In New Guinea, women produce pot­ pots of shells to mark their pots, and directly after tery along the coast and on islands, and inland shown along the Ramu and Sepik Rivers and their illustrate firing splash them with mangrove bark dye. some of the Yabob/Bilbil/Mindiri vessels are covered in the tributaries, in the foothills of the Torricelli and variations in leather-hard stage with a red clay slip. Sio/Git­ Prince Alexander Mountains, in the Marien­ shape and design berg Hills and on the Sepik Plains. A range of that are found in ua pots are decorated more elaborately around the traditional the neck and shoulder with applied nubbins functional vessels are produced: cooking pots, pottery of Papua and strips as well as with incising. Coiled sago storage pots, frying pans, small hanging New Guinea. pots, water carrying and storage pots, eating 1-Koiwat village, pots show greater variety in decoration and are Sawos, Sepik. often entirely covered with carved designs. bowls and serving vessels. Not all types of 2-Tubetube Pots are thoroughly dried before firing and pots are produced by every group, but they all Island, south-east make cooking pots. Papua. 3-Abelam are often hung or kept on racks inside the (Maprik), Sepik. house for many months. Indoor cooking fires Sago storage jars are confined to the sago­ 4-Rabundogum make the houses very smoky and the villagers eating societies. In New Guinea, sago storage village, Boiken, Se

VOLUME 18 NUMBER 5 169 0

ADMIRALTY ISLANDS

0 NEW GUINEA

AZER.I SiolQ eSincuina �,,- IAMARII * * AZERA • Namba

HUON PENINSULA

PAPUA

GULF OF PAPUA

1 Gona? POPONDETTA C OAOBAY Yule I • Sivepe 1 ? \] 1 E�;;E Sa1embeta? • ACI

0 50 100 150 km I ___: 1 ', 0 ,,:____5;;:;;,;------1100 miles

170 AL HISTORY AUSTRALIAN NATUR TRADITIONAL POTTERY OF PAPUA NEW GUINEA

0 Hand-formed - completed by paddle and anvil -Women • Spiral coiling - Men 'v Spiral coiling - Women

Spiral coiling - Men andwomen make or 9' women m�lce and men decorate

@ Ring building -Women. Men decorate certain poh

'CJ Spiral coiling, completed by ring building -Women

Spiral coiling (or slobs-Amphleth), 0 completed by paddle and anvil-Women • Spiral coiling, completed by paddle and anvil - Men ABHAM language groups IMAPRIK) Oialech

• Pot-making villages and small islands

Pot-making areas (spe

* Pot- making industries now def unct

More information needed

o Towns, administration centres and missions

,)

FAURO I

o· CHOISEUL I

BOUGAINVlllE ISLANDS STRAIT

B.S.I. P.

LANO BAY "'"'pt'lElT c11oup Gumawano I J I GOOOENOU,X H I o Kif Nabwageta 1• eWamea I • Rolnu /\ • • Orereson V • �Q watolto I COLLINGWOOD BAY [S FERGUSSON I CAPE � VOGEL ' V 0 .

NORMANBY I O EAST CAPE C7 eDawson I

c,\Nlf A CR OIJ l� p Olamomanla Tubetub• I

•? �,,...... , •eskoletonlelewatewal? 111::) --...S CJ• Kworolwo I • Anagusa I Panaeatl IIJ> D • Bonaruo I? 0 'CJ Q Pananlu I • eWarel e MotOf'lno I? O 0 Brooker I• 171 0 VOLUME 18 NUMBER 5 ing and food preparation the cook pottery and the water jars. Men are responsible for the de­ some of the vessel coration of _ s made by women and for producing a�d decorating any ceramics used for ceremonies or rituals. At Aibom, women make large fire-hearths for use in the house. A smaller fire-hearth is made to carry burning embers on the canoes during fishing trips for heating food, repelling mos­ quitoes and lighting cigarettes.

jars are made by women along the coast at Above: A potter of . the Boiken group, Kaieprferebu/Samap, Vanimo, Tumleo, and in­ Paliama village, land at Aibom, the Sawos villages and the Sepik, rolls a clay coil. Right: A Yuat River villages. The Rao potters of the woman at Koiwat Ramu Valley are sago-eating people, but in­ village, Sepik, stead of using pots, they dry and store their bonds the coils of an eating sago in hanging bags of finely split sago palm bowl. Elaborate leaves. decoration will be carved by Male potters inland from Madang, the Agar­ a man on abi men from the eastern highlands and the the smooth, men of the Watut River Valley produce every­ finished surface. Kwoma day cooking vessels although very little man at pottery is still made by the Agarabi. The Meno village, Azera men of the Markham Valley produce a Sepik, adjusts a coiled cooking variety of cooking pots, sorcery pots for pot for a woman making soups and mixing herbs, and a fired Margaret Tudtson potter. Men make clay drum called a kundu which is unique in the ceremonial Aibom men model a three-dimensional vessels and con­ Papua New Guinea. In this region, cooking representation of a human head or a seated sider the women pots are left with the dead in the burial caves. figure with a bird perched on its shoulder onto second-rate potters. In the Sepik area, there are districts where In this incident, the base of an upside-down pot which has the woman got up both men and women in the same society been made by the women. The bird and walked away. make pottery. In general, the women produce represents the great fish eagle and is a symbol Ma,garct Tuckson of the men of the village-the fighting force of the clan. The completed pot, placed over the main post on the roof of the Haus Tamberan, or Spirit House, is partly decorative and partly of ritual significance. It also protects the end­ grain of the post from weathering. In the Maprik area, two or three pots with holes in their bases are lowered over the central roof post of the Spirit House to deflect the rainwater. Men and women from the Yuat River pro­ duce a variety of pottery animals-frogS, tortoises and other curious shapes-which are thought to be only recent in origin and are mostly for sale to tourists. The women from this area make domestic ware as well. In the y Mayo/Kwoma area, men model hollow cla heads with eyes and mouth cut out, givin� the es pottery a very life-like expression. So metim or a hole is made at the top in which leaves

172 HISTORY AUSTRALIAN NATURAL human hair is placed. At Kwoma, these heads play an important role in rituals associated with yams, the staple root crop of the area. The heads, painted red, yellow and white and often with feathers stuck on the chin, are placed on the 'altar' at yam ceremonies.ochirina, A clay wind instrument called an a round, hollow, fired clay ball with two holes is made by the men of ochirina,the Wosera and Yuat villages. A sun-dried often in the shape of a pig's snout, is produced by men from Sina-Sina in the eastern highlands. These are sometimes called pig whistles. The Motu of the Port Moresbywith area trad­ itionally made voyages to trade people in the Papuan Gulf and exchanged newly-made pots for sago. Unfortunately, this is one of the areas where pot-making has virtually stopped because of a breakdown in the trading system. hun­ few Thousands of pots were once produced an­ lific potters in the Sepik, still trade pots Above: A Kaiep viii now make nually by eight Motu villages, but only a dreds of miles up and down the Sepik River. age woman, Sepi women from Boera and Porebada coast, shapes a po Potters in the Markham Valley are extending with paddle an their pottery. industry because other nearby anvil. The pot i groups have stopped making pots and the de­ rested in a mat covered hallo mand for Markham Valley ware has increased. in the sand� Interestingly, some groups that had stopped Left: An Abela using day· pots in favour of the products of (Worsera) ma� at Saragu Western technology have started using clay village, Sepi vessels again as they prefer the flavour of carvesj food cooked in earthenware. ceremoni cooking p In 1967, the International Labour Organisa­ with a fl tion employed a pottery expert from Denmark ing fo to introduce 'better' techniques on a cottage An bon unusual industry level. At Yabob and Bilbil near form of Madang, men, who were not traditionally pot- firing at ters, were taught to use potter's wheels and Malu village in inland kilns. The women were encouraged to carry Madang. The on with their paddle-and-anvil method, but to pot is supported try the simple wood kiln. The women are still on a square frame- work of fuel. The producing good pots, but the men's cottage fire is lit at the industry has not been very successful. top of the frame- Margaret Tuck.son Perhaps three thousand years' experience work, 45-60cmabove the ground, and the has shown that for the potters of Papua New pot slowly sinks pottery. The people of the Papuan Gulf no Guinea, their way is better. as the fire burns. longer need traditional pottery as they can now buy aluminum saucepans from the trade stores, and the Motu no longer eat sago, in­ stead buying rice and other staple foods from the trade stores and in Port Moresby. Though some groups no longer produce pots because of the increased use of metalware or because of changing social and economic conditions which have affected traditional trade, some industries are thriving and extending the marketing of their pots, either to neighbouring peoples or to collectors and tourists. The Aibom people, the most pro- VOLUME 18 NUMBER 5

s e e e e e n study of the physic of th ph nom na wh Overleaf: Omega e with the arli st know ich oc­ stronomy b gan_ on the turbulent surface of the sun Centauri, a spherical A esop tamia Egypt cur . Through civilisations--m M � ' s and through the e cluster in the Mi!kY gists have u ed solar wind mission of solar contains ' exico Peru-and archaeolo � e e e e Way Galaxy, M ical cosmic rays, th s ph nom na affect about a million stars e e e e e ment of astronom many th l v l of d v lop activities-for e e and is believed to be e on of of man's xampl , communic study as a measure of th soph i. s ticati a­ some ten thousand om h ad tions--both on Earth and in the regions . e cultures. In the past, astron y ac­ million years old. anci nt _ cessible to manned spacecraft, and (Photo: Mount e fulfil. Now physics 1s solar a pract1ca. 1 ro1 to hope to learn Stromlo Observatory) physicists to predict these phenomena. In the past twenty-five years, the develop- ment of optical astronomy in Australia and elsewhere has been influenced by work being done by physicists in exploring the sky in other regions of the electromagnetic spectrum available to our detectors. Australia was an early leader in radio astronomy and since then, the spectrum accessible to astronomers has widened to include the far in­ frared at wavelengths in the sub-millimeter range, the near infrared, (rocket) ultraviolet, x­ ray astronomy and recently, gamma-ray astronomy. All these disciplines have interact­ ed and the astronomer now studies celestial objects at many different frequencies in the electromagnetic spectrum. In the first half of the twentieth century the only initiative in optical astronomy in Australia was taken by the Federal Government in 1923 when they established the Commonwealth Solar Observatory on Mount Stromlo near Canberra. Until 1950 the Observatory worked mainly on problems of solar physics and con­ tributed at an international level. The amount of stellar and galactic astronomy done was small. The largest telescope was 30-inches in aperture and its auxiliary instrumentation was limited. It was built during World War I and subsequently donated to the Commonwealth. Immediately after World War 11, the Director of the Observatory, Dr. R.v.d.R. Woolley, de­ cided to change the mainstream of the Observatory's activities to stellar astronomy e e Commonwealth Mount Sllomlo Observatory and propos d that th e e - In This cluster near the purchase a larg tel scope for this purpos� applied e Southern Cross con­ to optical astronomy to lucidate the 1955 the Observatory acquired a 74-inch tains only several origin and e e e volution of th 'Univ rse. Planet­ aperture refle equal in size to a similarly­ thousand stars e ctor, ary obs rvations, which would e e e and is quite young hav b en, designed telescope in South Africa. Th even sixty e e by the stellar y ars ago, a major part of optical Observatory also purchased for £300 th time scale-­ astronomy, have le today been left to space scrap remains of the Great Melbourne T� - about ten probes. There e for , what was properly a major e . the optical million e e scop of 1868 and by changing int r st of astronome e e years rs last c ntury has now design and components and refurbishing 50'.11 old. become the subje e g ct uf geoch mists and geo­ of the telescope drives, extended the workin physicists. The e e . e e sol r maining link with the life . e e some t w nty y ars. of this t l scope by e practical status of optical e e p astronomy li s in the There are now major defects in th telesco ALEX RODGERS r N tional is Professorial Fellow in the Department of Astronomy at the Austra ian a University. His research si·fon. 1 interests are centred in spectroscopic astrophysics and stellar cornpo

ALHISTORY 176 AUSTRALIAN NATU R bearings, affecting its stability when auxiliary instruments such as spectrographs and photometers are attached, and this is limiting its scientific usefulness. Professors Twiss and Brown conceived the idea that the correlation of the intensity of light received from each side of a star's ap­ parent disc by well-separated telescopes could be used to measure its apparent diameter. A single-purpose, two-telescope array was set up at Narrabri, NSW by the University of Sydney and has resulted in the measurement of the apparent diameters of thirty bright blue stars in the southern sky. As early as 1953, three years before the con­ trol of the Mount Stromlo Observatory passed to the Australian National University, Dr. Woolley and the ANU physicist, Professor Marcus Oliphant were aware of and planning for the construction of a large telescope in Australia. The aperture envisaged was 200 in­ ches, similar to the magnificent telescope at Mount Palomar in California. The subsequent observatory Director, Professor Bart Bok tion of this opportunity will be the manner in The Mount Stromlo which the AAT is administered; there must be Observatory, near realised the necessity for choosing the best Canberra, is the site in Australia for the new large telescope maximum feedback from the AAT to every un­ largest in the and for an alternative site for future Mount iversity and government research group in Southern Hemi­ sphere. Stromlo telescopes due to the increasing Australia. Because it is bi-national, it will be night-sky light pollution by the city lights of all too easy for the AAT to become isolated as a centre of massive technology from which growing Canberra. Over a period of ten years, Siding Spring Dr. A. R. Hogg and the staff of Mount Stromlo no one in the rest of Australia benefits. Observatory Observatory surveyed potential astronomical Astronomy shares with the other environ­ in the mental sciences, such as geology and Warrumbungle sites in Western Australia, South Australia, Mountains of Victoria and NSW checking freedom from meteorology, the inability to make direct ex­ NSW is the field cloud, atmospheric stability and accessibility. periments upon its subject matter. Experimen­ station for Mount tation is replaced by surveying or sampling Stromlo Observ­ The Warrumbungle Mountains of northern atory and the site New South Wales was chosen as the field sta­ classes of stellar objects for regularities upon of the Anglo-Aust­ tion for Mount Stromlo and was afterwards which hypotheses can be based, and the role ralian Telescope. adopted as the site of the 150-inch Anglo­ Mount Stromlo Observatory Australian Telescope. In 1968 the dreams of Woolley, Oliphant and Bok were realised when Prime Minister John Gorton agreed to the proposal that a large telescope be built. Unfortunately, the telescope operation and its costs were to be shared with the UK. Whether the extra size of the telescope-150 inches as opposed to 120 in­ ches-available because of the cost sharing is ._ worth the fifty percent of time lost to Australia is quite debatable and there is no question that the telescope, because of its bi-national character, has cost more than it should and has many built in compromises. Still, Australian optical astronomers now have a l. powerful observational tool, which using, they �ave the opportunity to maintain their good international reputation. The key to the realisa-

VOLUME 18 NUMBER 5 177 to hypothesise that within the aggregate they by the This wide-angle of the 'crucial experiment' is replaced are of the same age. Two deductions follow. run photograph shows of stars or objects which the huge complex of observation First, they should be homogeneous in com­ gas in the constel­ counter to a hypothesis. . . position (formed from the same gas cloud) . my exists in a lation Carinae sur­ Australian optical as trono and their evolutionary status should depend rounding an ag­ . . her e, due to clou d gregate of young meteorological climate w . on the rate at which hydrogen has burnt to is avallabl . This massive stars. 5000 cover limited telescope time � helium. We know from physics that the burn­ light years distant in a in South Af 1ca or situation does not hold � ing rate, which is equal to the stars luminosity, spiral arm of our in part, the different galaxy. The red col­ America and explains, depends on the total mass and the central our of the gas is due optical astronomy has direction Australian temperature. The second deduction, then, is to the effect of the time is abundant_ there cominant red radia­ taken. Where telescope that the more massive and luminous stars are tion of hydrogen aris­ to survey a class of_ sta in the is an incentive � more evolutionarily advanced than the less ing from the re­ at the very least, one will discover combination of pro­ heavens; massive ones. Surveys show that these deduc­ they share. When telescope tons and electrons. the properties tions, generally, are correct. Exceptions have, however, been noted and it was recently REFRACTING TELESCOPE found at Mount Stromlo by Dr. K. Freeman and the author that at least one massive ag­ gregate is not chemically homogeneous. The next step is to hypothesise that in massive ag­ gregates not all stars form at once from a col­ �: �OBJECTIVE�+-'rr'L:=-=:l LENS lapsing gas cloud. A new hypothesis taking �' � the total mass of the gas cloud into account These diagrams show the light paths must be formulated which will then suggest in refracting and reflecting tele opes. The 5:e future crucial observations. It is not only a size of a refracting telescope is limited by the size of gl�ss lens that can be ground and polished. The aperture of reflecting matter of external influences such as telescopes can be made larger because transparency of the glass telescope availability, that have determined does not matter and the mirror can be supported at its back. When astronomical photographs are taken, the p�oto­ this emphasis in optical astronomy in graphic plate is placed at the focal point of Australia. Astronomy is a science with a small the telescope. (Drawings by the author.) number of practitioners and individual in­ REFLECTING TELESCOPE fluence still counts. Its foundations at Mount Stromlo were laid in the early 1960s by the brilliant astrophysicist Dr. Leonard Searle and have been carried on with the observational analysis of stars with surveyed kinematics by Professor Olin Eggen, currently the Director of EYEPIECE the Mount Stromlo and Siding Spring FOCAL POINT Observatory. Australian optical astronomers contributed PRIMARY MIRROR more than their share of technical expertise to The nearest external galaxies to our own the Anglo-Australian Telescope. Professor are the two Clouds of time is restricted, the long survey approach Sidney Gascoigne played a decisive role in the Magellan. They are becomes unviable observable only from and it is most profitable to optical design of this giant telescope, and the Southern Hemi­ examine closely 'crucial objects' which will other Mount Stromlo astronomers defined the sphere and can be support or modify the hypothesis according seen with the naked to star acquisition systems, the guiding systems eye in early summer know physics. This has, in general, been the (to track the star during the course of an ob­ as faint detached role of Australian optical astronomy. The out­ used for patches of the Milky servation) and the computer systems standing work Way. The photo­ on the foundations of radio automated control of the telescope auxiliary astronomy graph shows a part of carried on in Australia since 1945 instruments such as spectrographs and photo­ the Large Magellanic has been mainly of Cloud containing a the survey kind; as a meters, and for processing their data outputs. young subject, the regularities huge complex of had first to be The amount of telescope time (by definition, stars, gas and inter­ found. Because optical astronomy stellar dust known as in Australia smaller than one half) available to Australian is, in contrast, concerned with 30 Doradus. The Qas detailed studies, astronomers will have to be most efficiently the two disciplines in the complex has a have had relatively little high in­ mass of over one used if Australia is to maintain its impact upon one another. A brief, million times that of simplified ternational standing in optical astrono my . example of the method used in . our Sun. 30 Doradus optical If the practice of astronomical research Is to is 150 thousand light astronomy may illustrate its operation. Stars enrich way it �as years away. are often our Australian society in the found in aggregates. The first step is done in the past then the total astronomical 178 HISTOR AUSTRALIAN NATURAL K. Bern and V. Ford/Moun! Stromlo Observatory effort, especially that of Australian radio­ night surveillance programs, and on the astronomers, must continue to be well amount of access we have to the US space­ funded. The large, high-resolution radio shuttle program. telescope arrays in England and Holland are Thus, the future holds promise for interna­ producing radio-astrophysics which has out­ tional collaboration beyond the limits of gr_own its survey origins. In so doing, a much national borders. more fruitful interaction is occurring there Mount Suomlo Observatorv between optical and radio astronomers than is yet possible in Australia. In the opticai astronomers' view, the construction of a large­ aperture synthesis radio telescope should be among Australia's highest scientific priorities. In this way the value of the large investment in the 150-inch telescope will be enhanced and there will be no opportunity for the hundred­ year-old fiasco of the Great Melbourne Reflec­ tor to be repeated. The future of optical astronomy in Australia appears bright, provided that any Australian astronomer has adequate access-based pure­ ly on the scientific merit of the research- to the 150-inch telescope. It is also necessary for Australian radio astronomy to be equipped for complementary research. In our universities, there is a first-class system for the training of the physicists, mathematicians and engineers needed in our observatories, and Australian postgraduate students in astronomy have proved themselves to be the most productive in the world. Australian astronomical optics and its mechanical and computer technology is also equal to the world's best. In the future however, we will grow increasingly dependent upon detector technology, which is largely a product of the US military aerospace and

VOLUME 18 NUMBER 5 179 rom the time of its discovery, Peripatus specimen is known. This is Aysheaia pedun­ F has been regarded as something of a culata from the Middle Cambrian deposits of biological oddity. Because of its unusual com­ British Columbia. The structure of Aysheaia bination of anatomical characteristics, its af­ does indicate however, that peripatids have finities with other invertebrate groups have, in changed comparatively little over their known the past, been confusing to say the least. 550 million years of existence. Peripatus has Consequently, the peripatids, have been now been placed in the phylum Onychophora, variously included in most of the higher in­ thus separating it taxonomically from all other vertebrate groups over the past two hundred groups. The phylum includes some seventy­ years. More recently, Peripatus has been five described species from Africa, Asia, Cen­ labelled as the 'missing link' between the tral and South America, and Australasia. The ne segmented worms (Annelida) and the jointed­ common name 'Peripatus' is derived from � fi e legged invertebrates (Arthropoda). of the South African genera. The � in Regrettably, the fossil record tells us little described Australian species are included s P. about this controversial animal as only one the genus Peripatoides and are named � iden- undisputed and well-preserved fossil oviparus, P. insignis, P. /euckarti,� P. occ

ensive ROBERT HARDIE is a Teaching Fellow at the University of New England (NSW). He has done ext research on Australian peripatids.

AL HISTORY 180 AUSTRALIAN NATUR THE RIDDLE OF PERIPATUS

BY ROBERT HARDIE

ta/is and P. gilesii. The Australian forms occur mainly on the eastern coastal fringe, in Tas­ mania and in southwest of Western Australia. Regardless of its accuracy, the 'missing-link' reputation of Peripatus is understandable once the animal's peculiarities are taken into account. To obtain some idea of what a peripatid looks like, think of a squat, velvet­ covered earthworm about five centimetres long, then add fifteen pairs of stumpy legs and a pair of soft, flexible antennae with a small, Sketch beady eye at the base of each. The body of the shows superficial, wormlike segmentation east-coast peripatus and, internally, has features of both the an­ (P. /euckartii) nelids and arthropods. Peripatus has a simple showing the ex­ bi-lobed brain to which are connected two ternal features of long ventral nerve cords that run for the whole the group. The body length of this in­ length of the body. The excretory organs are dividual, excluding arranged segmentally down both sides of the antennae, is 23mm ..

VOLUME 18 NUMBER 5 181 The colour patterns body wall and the main body cavity is filled some peripatid groups. The legs, which range among peripatids with a circulatory fluid called haemolymph. from fourteen to sixteen pairs in Australian are highly vari­ able--1:lven within The thin,walled, tubular heart lies above the species, are not jointed, but are tubular ex­ a species or a straight intestine and serves to circulate and tensions of the muscular body wall. Like the single lot of maintain the pressure of the haemolymph. antenn young.The ae, the legs can be moved in any dire c­ species Among peripatids, there are distinct male and tion by the action of muscles working against shown is female individuals. The reproductive system the internal pressure of the haemolymph, the P. /euckartii. of the male consists of a single testis, connect­ combined action forming a sort of hydrostatic ed to the genital aperture by a long sperm skeleton. Each of the legs ends in a small, duct. The single ovary of the female has a pair triangular foot, complete with two strongly of oviducts connecting it with the outside. curved claws. Peripatus breathes by means of Both systems have one or more pairs of ac­ a number of fine respiratory tubes, or cessory glands. tracheae, which open to the surface of the While the eyes are similar to those of a pre­ body in small pits. daceous polychaete "'!Orm and the casual, The nature of the peripatid respiratory ambling gait is much like that of a millipede, system exerts a strong influence over the Peripatus has many features peculiar to itself. sorts of places in which these animals can live. The soft, dry skin is densely covered with tiny The tracheal tubes which transport oxygen papillae, which give the animal its velvety ap­ directly from the atmosphere to the inter�al pearance. The colour patterns formed by the tissues are similar to those of insects, but w1th papillae are often elaborate and tend to be one important difference. The tracheae of in­ highly variable within a single population, or sects have closing devices, or spiracles, over even a single lot of young. This characteristic their external openings to prevent the loss of alone has caused much confusion to vital body-water to the atmosphere. Spiracl�s biologists involved in the classification of are not present in Peripatus, so if the animal is

HISTORY 182 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL exposed to hot, d"":' conditions, it will quickly has not been completely worked out, but it is dessicate and die. Therefore, at least possibly related to an increase in the concen­ theoretically, Peripatus is restricted to areas tration of certain chemicals in the body fluid. where the humidity is high and the risk of Another, more behavioural, aspect of sur­ dessication is minimized. As an added precau­ vival is connected with the fact that peripatids tion, peripatids are largely nocturnal, seeking are very sensitive to daylight and will always food at night when the air is cool and moist, tend to move rapidly back under cover when and remaining under rocks and logs during exposed. Also, in the presence of daylight, a the daylight hours. It is to be expected then, reaction is initiated that causes these animals that the peripatids are found mainly in the to 'need' much body/surface contact. Thus, warmer, tropical and sub-tropical parts of the during the daylight· hours when the risk of world. dessication is highest, both the tendency to With regard to the distribution of the On- move away from light and to make as much cychophora, there are some interesting excep­ contact with the substrate as possible, will tions. In South Africa, Australia and New ensure that the animal is in the most moist Zealand, Peripatus is found in some very cold part of the habitat--in a crevice of some sort. regions. For example in Australia, specimens Another unusual aspect of the Australian have been found above 2,000 metres in the Oncychophora is the method of reproduction Mt. Kosciusko area and above 1,700 metres on of some species. Although in some ways the New England Tableland. In such areas, the unusual, the life cycle of peripatids is fairly winters are exceptionally severe with heavy simple. The only verified means of sperm frosts and snow, and the summers are often transference in this group is the deposition of hot and dry, particularly in the New England packets of sperm, or spermatophores, by the region. In the coldest part of winter, there are male onto the outer body wall of the female. records of peripatids active when the air tem­ Where the spermatophore is deposited, perature is below freezing and the tem­ changes take place in the structure of the body perature beneath rocks where Peripatus lives wall which enable the sperm to penetrate into is as low as 4°C. At these temperatures, most the haemolymph. The sperm then travels 'cold-blooded', or poikilothermic, animals are through the haemolymph to a pair of small either very sluggish, completely inactive, or storage sacs near the ovary; this journey dead. At the other extreme, peripatids have through the body fluid is probably assisted by been found alive under drought conditions specialised haemolymph cells. As the ripe when the humidity is very low and the air and eggs are released from the ovary, they are ground temperatures are around 38°C. How fertilised by sperm from the storage sacs. In does Peripatus, an animal which to all most species, the eggs then remain in the purposes is adapted to moderately high tem­ main reproductive tube, or uterus, and the peratures and high humidity, survive such young undergo embryonic development in- harsh conditions? Part of the answer is that some Australian species are able to crawl into fine crevices and slow down all body pro­ cesses, becoming torpid for up to three months. Thus, under dry conditions, food reserves and precious body-water are used sparingly to keep the animal alive. It is also possible that water may be generated by the chemical breakdown of some of the body tissues. When rain wets the ground, Peripatus revives and returns to normal activity. In addi­ tion to this state of torpidity, the posture adopted by Peripatus in its place of hiding ensures that as much of the body surface as possible is in contact with the solid substrate. This means that many of the tracheal open­ ings are sealed off from the atmosphere and unnecessary loss of water is dramatically cut down. The means by which Peripatus can re­ main active under extremely cold conditions •Oviparous O Viviparous VOLUME 18 NUMBER 5 441

Two particular aspects of reproductio side the female parent. When development . . n are spec,a I . interest. F1rst I y, the nu has reached a set stage, the young are born of mber f g produced per batch varies consid alive as miniature adults; this is termed youn erab�y north to south. The females viviparous development. In some Australian from fr om the north of Queensland have produced species, this development can take as long as . . up to six young over a period of thr thirty weeks. The young, which are about five seventy- ee day southern forms from NS millimetres long at birth, grow by shedding while the W and Vii: produce only fifteen the outer skin (moulting) at regular intervals. toria usually or so youn While this can be expla After about eighteen months, growth is com­ per batch. ined partl� e in size of the adults plete and the animal is mature. There are by the differenc , northern around eight three known species in the world which forms being centimetres long southern ones about three employ an alternative system-they lay eggs and the to four cen­ that have a tough, sculptured 'shell', or timetres, this great difference in numbers of by the same specie chorion. These species are P. oviparus and P. young produced s is un­ in both cases insignis (Syn, Ooperipatus oviparus and 0. in­ usual. The young are about the signis) from Australia, and P. viridimaculatus same size. (Syn, 0. viridimacu/atus) from New Zealand. Secondly, although a given number of The females of these species have an egg­ young are produced, there may be many more laying tube, or ovipositor, arising from incompletely developed young retained in the between the last pair of legs. Following oviduct. In connection with this, the young fertilisation, the eggs do not remain within the which appear to be developed almost to the uterus but are laid via the ovipositor in the leaf point of birth can be retained within the parent Dorsal litter and left to hatch; this is termed if external conditions are unfavourable-if it is view of oviparous development. After hatching, the too wet or too dry. Thus, it seems that some reproductive young grow in the same way as the" iviparous sort of biochemical mechanism can be system of oviparous female (P. oviparus). brought into action to decelerate or accelerate the development of embryos. The precise nature of this mechanism has not yet been de­ -----Ovary termined. Peripatus is a nocturnal hunter, and feeds on a range of small invertebrates such as springtails, termites, insect larvae and nymphs. A number of specimens have also been observed to feed on larger, dead insects and even rotten meat. The amount of liquid in the diet is important for, as the skin of peripatids is impermeable, any body-water which is lost must be replaced orally, either in food or by sucking on damp moss or wood. The method of food capture used by Peripatus is unique. On either side of the soft, circular mouth are two small protruding struc­ tures called oral papillae. Within the body is a pair of elongate, multi-branched slime ducts which produce large quantities of viscid mucous. These ducts open to the outside via the oral papillae. When confronted by a pos­ .: · ···Ripe ova in oviduct sible meal, Peripatus raises its head and, with the oral papillae pointing towards the prey, quickly contracts the muscles of the body wall and emits two streams of the sticky secretion from the papillae. On contact with the air, the substance thickens and falls over the victim like a net, holding it helpless. The peripatid I Geo;tal atd,m then moves in and by means of two pairs of small chitinous jaws within the mouth, cuts a hole in the body wall and sucks the prey dry. Aobcr1 Hard,o

184 HISTORY AUSTRALIAN NATUR AL made The sucking process is possible by the lose application of the mouth to the body of �he prey, thus forming a seal, and the Slime duct········ rhythmic contraction of the pharangeal muscles. Soon, nothing is left of the victim but a hollow shell. The jets of sticky fluid employed in food capture are also used for defence, acting as a · ------Salivary gland deterant to other predators such as ants or assassin bugs. The holding power of the hardened secretion is unbelievably strong. The taxonomy, or classification of the Australian peripatids has been the subject of a number of scientific papers but little attention /"m d,ct has been paid to the group since 1922. Even today there are problems associated with the description of new and already existing species. The current approach to classification is based largely on measurement of the -;.;:·- -Spermatophore characteristics of a number of individuals. This ensures that the range of variation within a species has been taken into consideration. However, Peripatus is soft-bodied and has (Spe,m doct only claws and jaws as hard parts; accurate measurement is therefore extremely difficult. Almost every other characteristic, includiny width, length, colour, number of antennae segments and so on is so variable as to be of little or no taxonomic value. The present situation is, then, that only five

valid species have been described from Robert Hardie Australia, and the basis of these descriptions rests on the number of pairs of legs, whether teristics are divided between the annelids, Dorsal view of ali­ the animal is oviparous or viviparous and, to a arthropods and Peripatus itself. As Ayshae/a, mentary canal and lesser extent, the locality from which it was male repro­ 550 million years old, looks much like the ductive collected. modern onychophoran, it might be argued system. The simple key below will assist in the iden- that the peripatid stock arose from similar, or tification of Australian species: the same stock that gave rise to the modern 14 pairs of legs ...... PERIPATOIDES INSIGNIS annelids and arthropods, but separated from the main line sometime in the Cambrian and 15 pairs of legs ovipositor present in female ...... P. OVIPARUS continued on a solitary and undemanding track to the present day. Few obstacles were 15 pairs of legs presented; the animal was apparently well ovipositor absent in female adapted and had little need to modity its basic locality----€asternAustralia ...... P. LEUCKARTII form to any great degree. 15 pairs of legs Concerning the problems of classification, ovipositor absent in female I oca I ity---southwest Western the answer is almost the same. As only very Australia ...... P. OCCIDENTAUS minor anatomical changes were required, particularly once the animal was established 16 pairs of legs ...... P. GILESII in a home base, such as Au�tralia, good tax­ If you happen to find only a male of P. onomic characteristics have just not de­ oviparus or P. leuckartii, good luck! veloped. The question which ultimately arises regard­ The problems mentioned may be more fully . ing Peripatus is: why do the problems sur­ understood once detailed biochemical rounding this animal still exist? Concerning analyses have been carried out on a com­ origins and affinities, there is little fossil parative basis. Until such time, Peripatus will evidence to help out. The anatomical charac- undoubtedly carry on, just being what it is.

VOLUME 18 NUMBER 5 185 RY TURALHIS TO AUSTRALIAN NA < IN REVIEW THE FIGHT FOR THE FORESTS · REVIEWED BY STEPHEN S. CLARK

THE FIGHT FOR THE FORESTS by R. and V. and recreation may be practised on the same Routley, (Second Edition) Research School of area. The concept of multiple use is a sound Social Sciences, Aust ralian National Uni­ and useful one but its proper implementation versity, Canberra, 1974; 407 pages, ii/us., depends on a detailed understanding of -the $4.95. community needs which can be met by forests and the ways in which use for one purpose The Fight for the Forests is a landmark in can affect use for other purposes. / the growing literature on Australian re­ Australia is embarked on a programme of so urces and how they should be used. It intensive forestry in which large areas of re­ represents the type of analysis of alternatives maining eucalypt forest are to be converted to which should be undertaken before any major pine plantation or harvested for woodchips. resource use is planned. Unlike environmental The Routley's book is a critical evaluation of impact studies, which so often degenerate into the justifications given for undertaking such a a justification of a particular project in a programme, and. the implications for the en­ partic ular area, this document considers the vironment and alternative uses of forests. whole range of alternatives for our forests and Australian self-sufficiency in wood produc­ the economic, social, and environmental costs tion, and balance of trade considerations are and benefits of each. usually given as the major justifications for a · In this time of rapidly increasing world programme of intensive forestry. Crucial to population, one of the most important ques­ the thesis presented in the book is the fact that tions any society can ask is 'what are the most Australian forestry has never been a profitable appropriate uses of the resources at its dis­ activity. According to the Routleys most state posal'. It is of crucial importance to realise that forestry authorities have operated at substan­ this is ultimately a question of values, and it is tial losses and figures are presented to in­ the right and obligation of every citizen' to dicate that this is likely to continue to be the participate in the formulation of an answer. case for more intensive forestry practices such Scientists and technicians can provide much as establishing pine plantations and harvest­ help ful information on alternatives and their ing for woodchips. This might be justifiable if implications in the short and long term but, in multiple-use (the Routleys suggest the term the end, it is for society as a whole (hopefully multiple0value) management were practised, on the basis of informed opinion) to decide but as wood production is, at the moment, the how it will use scarce and valuable resources. over-riding consideration in forest manage­ Australian forests are such a resource. For ment, the Routleys conclude that: "Forestry Not a climatic reasons, Australia has never been ex­ losses ... can only be explained on the battle- ten field, a sively forested. Now only four and a half hypothesis that forest services are prepared to view of the percent of the continental land area remains treat the forests not as a public resource to be Eden woodchip under forest cover; about a third of the land exploited with restraint for total public benefit project Such fore woodchip pro- sted wh en European man arrived. At the but as a cheap or even loss-making source of jects have been same time, forests lend themselves to a raw material for private industry." described by vari.ety of uses including timber and wood It is argued that Australia's need for wood government prod uct officials as 'pre­ production, watershed protection, soil products will become increasingly urgent in serving and conservation, recreation, wildlife conservation, the future; however, the population figures improving the and landscape aesthetics. projected_ by forestry interests represent only environment'. This These project will 'improve' . uses are not necessarily. incompat­ the highest of a series of possible projections, over half a million ible . For example; selective-, cutting of timber, and projected. consumption figures depend acres of coastal forest

VOLUME 18 NUMBER 5 187 · of wood pendent on these and on a variety ouraging p ublic use Of tr Greater Glider upon heavily enc · species for food and shelter ee The advertisi· ng. In ef- may ev e oinobates volans), prod uc ts through . ntua11y (Sch and paper ubsidizing disappear. Reserves and corridors h which is capable of cont en d , .we are s · av e b een 180 feet, the Routleys provided , b · hut wit out prior surv gliding as far as . production of something ey th e regularly dis­ in dus trie · s' se, ade feet, is private and , ·I n the qu�cy of the or even k_nowledge o throughout convince us we need f Which tributed they must . Y animals are end angered, 1s mor eastern Australia timber �roduct1on th e specul a r scramble to increase � established fact. ion in montane forest. a variety of va lua b e than A hollow tree are making impossible species may _foreSts h Some be favoured for dweller, it is alternative uses fo�, our . a t·1 me virtually goo d :;r !h: by the new set o f environmental con Routleys sum up: What is ditions eliminated and paper cor:n­ These may e�e_n_ reach pest proportio by clear­ timber industry, sawmilling ns (� for Australia. very real poss1b1llty for some insects felling. panies is not necessarily good ) and re­ the value� quire control measures-further While softwoods can be imported, indicatio n that an unstable situation has bee being destroyed with native fores_ts c�nnot. n produced fully . Phytophthora cinnamoni, a root-r Once the cost of ignoring alternatives is ot fungu� as that attacks many native plants, appreciated, the ventures are seen presents an especially alarming prospec economically unsound and environmentally t. Its spread is by intensive disastrous. favoured management practices Forests are a potentially renewable re- such as roading (and increased surface runoff) source, though this is certainly not the case i_n and it could result in the devastation of all forms of exploitation. Indeed, great skill eucalypt stands over large areas. Fire presents This must be exercised for it to be true at still another hazard. Young, even-aged stand stand of and care s Messmate all. Forests, like all ecosystems, are complex, are particularly susceptible to mortality fro m (Eucalyptus dynamic entities in which an impact on one or fire. If this occurred before they reach obliqua) in the a few components is likely to have ramifica­ reproductive age no viable seed for regen Tallaganda State era­ Forest is soon to tions throughout the system. Disruption or tion would be available. be bulldozed to disturbance may be temporary, the system re­ The question of national parks versus in­ make way for a pine turning to its previous state; or degradation tensive forestry plantation. This fine is dealt with at length in the forest has, in its may be progressive and irreversible. Such final chapter. Arguments about the insuf­ present form, a evidence as exists in Australia and overseas ficiency of Australia's wood supplies are far high value for recreation, indicates that the latter is a very real possibil­ from convincing and the inadequacy of aesthetic and ity in the case of the most intensive forestry Australia's national parks, both as public other purposes practices now being planned. in an area recreation areas and as reserves for flora and of rapid Clearcutting to establish a pine plantation or fauna, must be recognised. True multiple­ population to harvest for woodchips carries with it value managment would provide for this type growth. serious environmental problems. Heavy rain of alternative use and would, as the Routleys while the soil surface is unprotected by contend, be more socially responsible and en­ vegetation may result in extensive loss of sur­ vironmentally advantageous as well as face soil and valuable nutrients. Consequent economically sensible. siltation and enrichment of coastal waters Though we have a long way to go, the carries the problem still further afield. Pines means exist for the realisation of true themselves lead to further progressive multiple-value use of our forests. In this re­ changes in the soil such as increased leaching gard, Chapter Eight is the most valuable part of nutrients and soil impermeability, thus in­ of the book, for it presents a detailed coSti crea�ing impoverishment and soil losses benefit analysis of alternative uses of forest· through erosion. Attempts to correct this areas, ta:king int�- account all values-not juSt situation through the use of fertilizers will wood production values. While this is a cause even more pollution of aquatic necessary condition for sound resource-use ecosystems; just one example of how dis­ planning is sufficient one. turbance can spread. it not, of itself, a Forest ed as 'for �he Cons­ The replacement s must come to be regard of mixed eucalypt forest truct�ve ervation by a_ monoculture people' in the broadest and most cons activity, of pine or a single native t realise species favoured sense. For this to happen people mus Bondo State for woodchip production ha future of Forest. The further the role they have in determining the biological consequences. sts s pine program has Many specie: their The fight for the Fore �a of u�derstorey plants forests. actually been hailed may be eliminated, ard making especially under made a valuable contribution tow as a fine example of pines (or where actively e._ - conservation-'cons- dis­ us aware of what needs to be don couraged to prevent competition). viron­ ervation of softwoods'. mammals, Birds Stephen S. Clark, Department of En and other less obvious animals de� mental Studies, The Australian Museum.

188 HISTORY NATURA L AUSTRALIAN - 1;9�c,�' ··•,.J,, :i.'''1 j • .••• • ., • � -:��it • -� .., I '!I,,.,,;�'1/��..·-·-�,. . . . .,.·,,•• ··, · .. ,,�,- .�., -� ' , '""''t.. ,,,.• .,· '