The Origin, Evolution, and Demise of the U.S. Sea Turtle Fisheries

W. N. WITZELL

"While I gazed on the large one, I thought ofthe soups the contents of Early commercial sea turtle landings its shell would havefurnishedfor a 'Lord Mayor's dinner,' ofthe nu­ data were collected sporadically and merous eggs which its swollen body contained, and of the curious published in a series of U.S. Govern­ carriage which might be made of its shell,-a car in which Venus ment fisheries documents from 1890 to herselfmight sail over the Caribbean Sea, provided her tender doves 1930. From 1930 to 1974 sea turtle lent their aid in drawing the divinity, and provided no shark or hurri­ landings were routinely reported with cane came to upset it." all other commercially important fish­ ery resources. In this paper, I describe - John James Audubon, 1832 the U.S. sea turtle fisheries and sum­ marize the commercial sea turtle land­ ings reported in Federal fishery docu­ ments for the continental United States, Introduction Turtling was undoubtedly one of the Puerto Rico, and Hawaii. These impor­ first commercial fisheries in the southeast­ tant baseline fisheries data on threatened Fishing was America's first industry, em United States not only because sea and endangered species of sea turtles and turtling played an important role in turtles were abundant, but also because provide considerable insight into the the nation's developing fisheries. How­ of the relative ease of capture when lay­ sociology and economics of the U.S. sea ever, before the European settlers ar­ ing eggs on deserted beaches. Also, no turtle fishery. Additionally, these data rived in the New World, Native Ameri­ boats, nets, or other expensive equipment also provide basic biological informa­ cans had already developed spiritual and were needed, and the turtles could be eas­ tion, such as species composition, rela­ gastronomic relationships with sea ily kept alive until sold. turtles. There are indications that an­ tive abundance, and temporal and spa­ The commercial fisheries for the now cient Florida tribes had eaten sea turtles tial distributions. These factors are re­ threatened and endangered species of and then placed the skulls in burial quired to understand the ecology of mounds (Johnson, 1952). sea turtles in U.S. waters have been nei­ Sea turtle meat and eggs were also ther adequately described nor analyzed in detail. Descriptive historical accounts Table 1. - Published accounts of localized sea turtle important foods for the early settlers fisheries. of the southeastern regional sea turtle long before turtle soup became a favor­ Location Citation fishery were presented by True (1884, ite of European royalty, and captive 1887), Schroeder (1924), and Ingle and Florida De Brahm (1764) In De Vorsey (1971) turtles expedited the exploration and colo­ Audubon (1832) Smith (1949), revised by Rebel (1974). Smallwood (1842) In Tebeau (1981) nization of the New World by providing Also, many detailed accounts of more Collins (1887) larder for long sea voyages. Early explor­ Murphy (1890, repro 1987) localized sea turtle fisheries have also Smith (1896) ers were particularly thankful for the been published (Table 1). Many of these Brice (1898) turtles which "... often came as a God­ Wilcox (1898) articles, particularly those written near the Carr and Caldwell (1956) send in times of hunger and scurvy ..." Caldwell and Carr (1957) tum of the century, provide colorful com­ (Munroe, 1898). Ingle (1972) mentary on the lives of early Americans. Ehrhart (1983) Witzell (1987) Additionally, for a brief period at the tum Texas Stevenson (1893) of the century, a San Diego, Calif., fac­ Hildebrand (1981) tory reportedly canned an estimated 1,000 Doughty (1984)

green turtles per month (Cliffton et al., Puerto Rico Wilcox (1900, 1904) W. N. WitzeJl is with the Miami Laboratory, 1981). However, since those turtles were Southeast Fisheries Science Center, National Hawaii Hendrickson (1969) Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, 75 Virginia captured on Mexico's Baja peninsula, it Balazs (1980) Beach Drive, Miami, FL 33149. is not considered here as a U.S. fishery. Markrich (1983)

8 Marine Fisheries Review these unique reptiles and to enable re­ were reportedly more palatable (True, ing coastal tropical seas and has a fairly source managers to formulate sound 1884; Munroe, 1898). True (1884) col­ common distribution adjacent to tropi­ management and conservation strate­ orfully stated: "The flesh of the adult is cal reefs. The hawksbill was not actively gies, as mandated by the Endangered leathery and oily, and smells very sought for food because, like the log­ Species Act of 1973 and subsequent strongly of musk; it is, therefore, not gerhead, the flesh was dark, oily, and amendments. The entire historical data generally eaten, although some pretend strong tasting. In fact, True (1884) set was only recently assembled and that they have partaken of it when fresh stated that the hawksbill meat in the published by Witzell (1994). without nausea." West Indies possessed distinct "cathar­ Loggerhead oil, while unfit for cook­ tic qualities in a high degree." The The Turtles ing because of its strong odor, was hawksbill, however, was eagerly taken Five sea turtle species (Fig. 1) com­ brushed on the bottoms of fishing ves­ when encountered owing to its valuable monly frequent U.S. coastal waters: sels to prevent worm damage and used "tortoise shell" used in the jewelry trade green, Chelonia mydas; loggerhead, as a leather softener. Large turtles, in (Witzell, 1983). The very light, or Caretta caretta; Kemp's ridley, Lepi­ the early 1800's, were reportedly salted "blond," shell was preferred, and a large dochelys kempi; hawksbill, Eretmo­ and fed to slaves in the West Indies hawksbill could provide 6-7 kg of shell chelys imbricata; and leatherback, (True, 1884). More recently, they were (True, 1884). The worldwide exploita­ Dermochelys coriacea. sold as "turtle balls" or "turtleburgers" tion of hawksbills for their shells has­ to tourists in the United States (Caldwell tened the decimation of this species. Green Sea Turtle and Carr, 1957). Although not the main The green is a large (90-136 kg) her­ target species, loggerheads became Leatherback Sea Turtle bivorous turtle that primarily inhabits more important as greens became The leatherback is the largest (450­ tropical waters. Juveniles, however, of­ scarce, and they were probably taken 635 kg) sea turtle. This turtle nests on ten frequent subtropical coastal bays whenever encountered. Loggerheads tropical Central and South American and lagoons. Commercially, the green are currently listed as threatened. beaches and ranges along the Gulf and was the turtle of choice. The meat was Atlantic coasts as far north as Canada. Kemp's Ridley Sea Turtle flavorful, and the fatty tissue found un­ The leatherback is unique because it der the shell, called calipee and The Kemp's ridley is a small (36-45 apparently feeds almost entirely on calipash, was dried and used to make kg) carnivorous turtle that primarily in­ large pelagic jellyfish, and because it is the turtle soup so popular with Euro­ habits tropical, subtropical, and temper­ able to maintain an internal temperature pean royalty in the 18th and 19th cen­ ate coastal waters of the Gulf of Mexico above ambient (Frair et aI., 1972). The turies. The name "green turtle" refers and the U.S. Atlantic coast. The Kemp's shell is soft and leathery and the meat to the color of this fat, not the shell. ridley is unique in that the entire nest­ is very oily and considered unpalatable. Because the green turtle could be car­ ing aggregation emerges together from Consequently, the leatherback was ried alive for extended periods, some the sea to lay eggs during the day. Also, never an important commercial species believe it may have provided the meat the species only nests at Rancho Nuevo in the turtle fishery, although the eggs needed to enable early sailors to ex­ in Tamaulipas, Mexico. The area was may have been collected and consumed plore, colonize, and exploit the New so remote that the nesting site was only locally in Puerto Rico. World on their extended voyages (Par­ discovered by scientists in 1961. sons, 1962; King, 1981). Islands with Although reportedly once the most Turtle Fishing Methods large numbers of turtles, such as the abundant turtle in the Gulf of Mexico The U.S. sea turtle fishery varied con­ Cayman Islands and Jamaica, became (Marquez-M., 1990), ridleys were not siderably and consisted of several di­ very important, and English, Spanish, sought commercially (True, 1884), but rected and nondirected methods. Di­ and French fleets vied for control of the apparent distaste was not explained. rected sea turtle fisheries consisted pri­ these important victualling stations. The However, although there are no ridley marily of gill netting, seining, harpoon­ U.S population of green turtles in landings recorded, Caldwell and Carr ing, diving, and turning-flipping Florida is currently on the endangered (1957) reported the ridley to be almost turtles on their backs on the beach. Gill species list. as important as the green in the west netting was the most common turtle Florida fishery and that it was not mar­ fishing method. These special nets var­ Loggerhead Sea Turtle keted but consumed locally. Today, be­ ied but were usually 60-80 m long, 4--5 The loggerhead, a large (90-180 kg) cause of historically intense egg exploi­ m deep, with heavy 30 em twine mesh, carnivorous turtle inhabiting subtropi­ tation and incidental captures in com­ and were often set in shallow coastal cal and temperate coastal waters, is the mercial fishing gear, the Kemp's ridley channels and lagoons (Fig. 2, 3). These most common sea turtle encountered in is the most endangered of all sea turtles. nets may have been actively fished by the southeastern United States (Thomp­ encircling an area suspected of contain­ Hawksbill Sea Turtle son, 1988). The loggerhead was appar­ ing turtles and then immediately retriev­ ently less desirable because of its dark The hawksbill is a small to medium ing them (runaround netting), or they oily meat, although smaller loggerheads (45-57 kg) carnivorous turtle inhabit­ may have been passively fished for sev­

56(4), 1994 9 LOGGERHEAD GREEN

LEATHERBACK

KEMP'S RIDLEY HAWKS BILL

Figure I. - The five sea turtle species commonly found in coastal U.S. waters.

10 Marine Fisheries Review Figure 2. - Turtle fishermen setting a typical turtle net. Photo courtesy of National Geographic Magazine.

eral hours (anchor or drift netting). Sev­ pens (kraals) indefinitely until process­ turtle. Copulating turtles were particu­ eral passive nets were sometimes fished ing, usually canning or shipping alive larly susceptible to harpoon fishing be­ simultaneously by larger sailing vessels on steamships to the New York, Phila­ cause of their apparent preoccupation (Fig. 4). delphia, and Baltimore fish markets with mating. Harpooned turtles were The fishermen usually remained near (Fig. 6). Until shipment, the turtles were primarily for local consumption, and the nets, sometimes for several days, fed "turtle grass, sweet-potato vines, less frequently for commercial purposes and periodically removed struggling and sometimes morning-glory vines and because the harpooned turtles would turtles before they drowned. True mangrove leaves" (Wilcox, 1898). The eventually die of their wounds and spoil (1887) aptly described this as "the net fisheries were historically localized while awaiting shipment to northern dullest of all fishing, and unending pa­ in areas with turtle concentrations: In­ markets. This method was most popu­ tience and considerable skill are re­ dian River Lagoon, Fla.; Lake Worth, lar in the Caribbean. quired to make it successful." Wooden Fla.; Key West, Fla.; Cedar Key-Crys­ Diving to capture turtles either by decoy turtles were often used to attract tal River, Fla.; and Aransas Bay, Tex. spear or by hand was a simple method hawksbills to the nets in Puerto Rico Harpoons using detachable spear­ that required little or no special equip­ (Wilcox, 1900, 1904). Seines typically heads or "pegs" were sometimes used ment. The spear was either a length of had finer meshes than turtle gillnets, and to capture turtles floating on the surface wood or iron, depending on the avail­ they were either fished from two small (Audubon, 1832). These "pegs," short able materials. This method was most boats in shallow water or fished directly steel barbs attached to aline, were de­ effective on smaller specimens and was off the beach using a small skiff to en­ signed to pierce the carapace but not to commonly used by native islanders for circle the turtles (Fig. 5). In addition to reach the turtle's vital organs and kill immediate local consumption. How­ turtles, these nets caught a wide variety it. The peg, loosely fitted on a spear ever, the more recent introduction of of commercially important fin fishes. shaft and then plunged into the cara­ inexpensive snorkeling and scuba gear, Turtles captured alive in nets were pace, would then detach from the shaft complete with an entire arsenal of high­ preferred because they could be kept in and the line was used to haul in the tech spear guns, has changed the nature

56(4),1994 11 Figure 3. - An entangled green turtle being removed from the net. Photo courtesy of National Geographic Magazine.

/2 Marine Fisheries Review of this fishery. Spear fishermen on tropi­ method was always exciting, but unfor­ nested in considerable abundance along cal coral reefs have increased the har­ tunately sometimes dangerous. It was not the U.S. southeast coast. This may have vest of juvenile turtles that were previ­ unusual for fisherman to suffer lacera­ been due to their poor marketability. ously difficult to get, particularly the tions, bruises, and even broken bones. Sea turtles were also captured inci­ valuable hawksbill. Turning female turtles on nesting dentally by various commercial fishing Additionally, to avoid injuring the beaches, particularly greens and hawks­ gears: Haul seines, gill nets, and shrimp turtle to keep it for live shipment, fish­ bills, occurred whenever possible. No trawls in the southeastern and Gulf ar­ ermen at the turn of the century devised special equipment was necessary and, eas, and pound nets in the U.S. north­ a unique capture method by tying the like net-caught turtles, they could be east and middle Atlantic areas. Although boat painter to their leg and diving onto held alive in kraals while awaiting sale. the turtle by-catch from these individual basking turtles (Fig. 7). True's (1887) Historically this was probably the pre­ fisheries varied considerably, the total caption for this figure reads "Diving for dominant harvesting method employed catch from all the fisheries combined was loggerhead turtle, Morehead City, North by fishermen around the world, and, significant. Shrimp trawls were particu­ Carolina," but the animal is clearly a leath­ combined with egg harvesting, contrib­ larly successful at capturing sea turtles erback. The diver would seize the ante­ uted significantly to the rapid decline (Fig. 8). With the exceptions of some early rior edge of the carapace with one hand, of sea turtle populations. However, there directed gillnet fisheries (e.g. Texas and the posterior with the other, and steer the is no evidence that large numbers of east central Florida), and the lingering turtle to the surface. This adventurous loggerheads were turned, although they fishery at Cedar Key, Fla., the U.S. com­ mercial sea turtle fishery probably con­ sisted mainly of turtles taken incidentally. Some evidence suggests that sea turtle eggs were collected in considerable abun­ dance whenever possible in the southeast­ ern U.S. and Gulf of Mexico areas and were considered a delicacy. Eggs were collected by intercepting females nesting on the beach, butchering reproductive fe­ males captured by net or harpoon, and by probing nest sites with "a light stiff cane or a gun rod" (Audubon, 1832). Schroeder (1924) reported that there was a great de­ mand for eggs, selling at $0.25/dozen, and Smith (1896) reported that loggerhead eggs in south Florida were harvested heavily by "fishermen and by predaceous animals, such as bears and raccoons, which walk the beach incessantly at night." Murphy (1890) reported that hunt­ ing turtles and eggs at Indian River, Fla., was dangerous because of the large num­ bers ofbears foraging that were " likely to display a pugnacious spirit " if dis­ turbed while eating turtle eggs. The only turtle eggs recorded as com­ mercial landings were for Monroe County, Fla., (Brice, 1898), where the 3,062 kg collected in 1895 were worth $810 (3,062 kg of eggs is equal to about 76,550 eggs at 40 g/egg). Neither the species nor the area of this egg harvest was given. Turtle eggs were considered aphro­ disiacs in some locations when eaten raw, but were probably better known for the moistness imparted to baked goods Figure 4. - A typical turtle schooner used throughout the southeastern U.S. and because the yolk did not solidify when Caribbean (Collins, 1887). cooked. True (1884) reported that green,

56(4), 1994 13 The U.S. Fish CommissionlBureau of I Fisheries reports did not differentiate between turtle species from 1897 to 1930, and those landings data were lumped in the category "turtles," except 1928 for terrapins. The "turtle" data for that Turtle Gathering on the period were edited to avoid substantial Beach of Key Biscayne landings of freshwater snapping and softshell turtles by using only those turtle landings reported from coastal counties with gill nets and trawls. Con­ sequently, some sea turtle data were undoubtedly lost, particularly in the northeastern Uni ted States and on Florida's east coast. In 1930, the "tur­ tles" category was split into loggerhead, green, hawksbill, snapping, and soft­ shell turtle categories. However, from what we presently know about the dis­ tribution and abundance of sea turtles, the BCFfNMFS port agents responsible for the collection of landing statistics were probably unable to accurately identify sea turtle species, and there is a likelihood that many of the earlier identifications were incorrect. For in­ stance, from 1942 to 1978, the "hawks­ bill turtle" illustration in the statistical pictorial section of the "Fishery Statis­ tics of the United States" is clearly a Figure 5. - Successful turtle fishermen near Miami, Fla., who used a beach seine deployed Kemp's ridley turtle. by two skiffs. Photo from Scene magazine. Commercial sea turtle landings data were originally collected by interviews with fishermen and later directly from loggerhead, and hawksbill eggs were col­ These early reports described the dockside seafood dealers. Unfortu­ lected for the oil they produced that was coastal marine resources and fisheries nately, there may have been some re­ "used in cookery and the arts." Conse­ reported by the fledgling U.S. Fish luctance to report accurate landings in quently, although few egg harvest records Commission (USFC), originally an in­ the late 1800's because the fishermen exist, it appears that eggs from all sea dependent agency. In 1903 the USFC and seafood dealers may have been sus­ turtles were frequently collected and used was renamed the Bureau of Fisheries picious of goverrunent officials (Doughty, for local consumption. Additional sum­ under the Department of Commerce and 1984). It is probable that many addi­ maries with information on the harvest­ Labor and remained in the Department tional turtles were landed and directly ing and exploitation of hawksbills, log­ of Commerce after 1911. The Bureau consumed by vessel crews and not offi­ gerheads, and Kemp's ridleys are reported was placed under the Department of the cially recorded, particularly the less by Witzell (1983), Dodd (1988), and Interior in 1939, and finally became the marketable loggerheads and ridleys. Marquez (1994), respectively. National Marine Fisheries Service Therefore, while these figures should be (NMFS) under the Department of Com­ considered minimum harvest estimates, The Turtle Fisheries merce in 1970. Reports after 1939 dealt they do reflect trends in the fishery. mostly with fisheries statistics. These Also, the Kemp's ridley, or "bastard" Landings Data publications, titled "Fishery Statistics of turtle as it was called in the 1800's, The landings and values reported in the U.S.", were produced by the Divi­ seems to have fallen through the statis­ this paper are from U.S. Government sion of Statistics for the years 1940 to tical cracks. Although recognized as a fisheries publications. The earliest ma­ 1977, and summarized all of the indi­ species of little importance in the Gulf terial, generally titled "Fishery Indus­ vidual states' detailed landings into a of Mexico by True (1884), it is likely tries of the U.S.," was incorporated in single volume. Turtle data, however, that ridleys were landed as either greens, the annual reports of the U.S. Commis­ ended shortly after passage of the En­ hawksbills, or "sea turtle," or were con­ sioner of Fisheries from 1873 to 1939. dangered Species Act of 1973. sumed locally. All weights in this pa-

14 Marine Fisheries Review Figure 6. - The famous turtle "kraals" of Key West, Fla. Photo courtesy of National Geographic Magazine.

per have been converted from pounds of World War II, $0.20-0.30/kg through from the pound-net fishery. Most were to kilograms. the 1950's, and then steadily rose to loggerheads, although the data indicated Total sea turtle landings were consid­ about $0.50/kg in 1975 (Fig. 10). Al­ that some greens and hawksbills were erable (Fig. 9), and they often contrib­ though sea turtles may have com­ taken. Current life history data indicates uted significantly to rural coastal fish­ manded big prices in the New England that these species identifications were ing communities, both culturally and and European fish markets, the average probably incorrect, and the turtles were economically. Turtles were taken along price to fishermen seems pitifully low undoubtedly Kemp's ridleys, which fre­ their entire U.S. coastal range and un­ by today's standards. Many of the fol­ quent these waters every summer doubtedly provided local sustenance at lowing comments, particularly those (Lazell, 1980; Morreale et aI., 1992). an affordable price. Landings averaged regarding turtle landings by county, by New Jersey and Virginia were the near 10,000 kg, with obvious peaks at gear, and by month are supported by the major sea turtle producing states in the the tum of the century and at 1970, just data documented in Witzell (1994). northeast (Fig. 11, 12) but, because they prior to passage of the Endangered Spe­ were mostly loggerheads, their value The Northeast Fishery cies Act. The low during 1943 is possi­ was negligible. New Jersey and Virginia bly related to World War II, and the in­ Sea turtle landings have been re­ turtle landings were recorded from sev­ tensive German U-Boat offensive in the ported from Massachusetts, Rhode Is­ eral counties, with Monmouth and western Atlantic. land, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, Northampton being the largest produc­ Sea turtle prices averaged $O.IO/kg and North Carolina. Landings were lim­ ers, respectively. Many of these states from the tum of the century to the end ited and resulted primarily as by-catch still have active pound-net fisheries, and

56(4), 1994 15 ~ •, •'::: ~ -=-_::..'~.::_~-"------~ i

--=-- _. _.--' _.----~. ------­ --:-::=:.:.------..­ -_.-/ "----­ ..----­ ---. ------­ --­~-._-- -­ .._=--- ...

The Turtle Fishery

Figure 7. - Diving on basking sea turtles was an effective, but sometimes hazardous, method of capturing live turtles (True, 1887).

sea turtles are still incidentally captured (Cedar Key) lasted the longest in Florida (Fig. 6). Early descriptions of the con­ in considerable numbers (Lutcavage and consisted of locally caught greens struction and operation of these kraals and Musick, 1985; Burke et aI., 1994). and unrecorded Kemp's ridleys. The were detailed by Park (1912) and green turtle landings from Monroe Schroeder (1924). The turtles were The Southeast Fishery County were originally from turtles cap­ roped around the flipper, pulled out of tured in the Florida Keys. However, as the kraal, usually by a swimmer, and Florida the turtles became scarce in the early assembled on the dock for live shipment The commercial sea turtle fishery 1900's, large sailing schooners fished or canning. If they were to be shipped was flourishing throughout Florida by in Costa Rican and Nicaraguan waters by steamer to New York, the flippers 1890 (Fig. 13). The green turtle was and landed the turtles at Key West, Fla. were often pierced and tied together originally the main target species, but By 1920, Key West turtle landings were with rope and the animals stored on there were also considerable landings predominantly imports (Rebel, 1974). their backs in the shade. Turtles stored of loggerheads as the greens became A pictorial account of this colorful and "right-side up" suffocated because the scarce in Florida waters. Landings were exotic fishery is presented by Duncan weight of the animal on the lungs pre­ recorded from all months, but May and (1943). Sometimes, according to Cald­ vented them from breathing. September were the most important. well and Carr (1957), the schooners A small cannery was started in 1896, Gill nets (anchor, drift, and run-around) would stop at Grand Cayman to allow and the turtles to be slaughtered were were the predominant gear for greens, the turtles to fatten in large kraals be­ lined up on the dock and the heads and while shrimp trawls were predominant fore returning to Key West. flippers quickly removed with an axe. for the loggerheads; Monroe and Levy The Key West turtle kraals were es­ The plastron was cut off, and the meat counties were the largest sea turtle pro­ tablished in the 1800's to facilitate live was then removed, cleaned in seawa­ ducers. The Levy County turtle fishery shipment of turtles to northern markets ter, hung on hooks overnight, and

16 Marine Fisheries Review Figure 8. - Loggerhead turtles captured in NMFS shrimp trawls in the ship channel at Cape Canaveral, Fla. Photo by L. Ogren.

canned into soup the following day. turtle", a name sometimes given to turtles were shipped by schooner to However, this was apparently not the green turtles because of their white plas­ New York or by steamship to New Or­ classical gelatinous soup made from the tron. These turtles were frequently leans, although some turtles were calipee (Schroeder, 1924), but some caught in shrimp trawls and taken home canned as meat or soup and shipped concoction of meat and broth. and eaten (Liner, 1954; Gunter, 1981). elsewhere for consumption. These can­ Landings were recorded year round neries also packed oysters, fish, game, Louisiana from Jefferson, Orleans, Plaquemines, and beef. Production, however, was in­ Louisiana turtle landings were fairly St. Barnard, and St. Mary parishes with terrupted by a devastating hurricane, the substantial, staying at or near 1,000 kg most of these turtles being landed in Civil War, and a yellow fever epidemic per year (Fig. 14), and showed a sharp April in Jefferson Parish. before starting up again in 1872. The rise in price from 1960 to 1975. These last cannery at Fulton operated until Texas turtles were primarily by-catch from the 1896, when the lack of turtles forced shrimp fleet and were recorded as The Texas green turtle fishery at the operations to move to Tampico, Mexico. mostly greens with a few loggerheads. tum of the century did not last very long, Puerto Rico However, from what we currently know but it was extremely intense (Fig. 15). about the ecology and distributions of The magnitude of the landings in such The commercial turtle fishery in sea turtles in the northern Gulf of a short time-span quickly depleted the Puerto Rico was neither extensive nor Mexico, these "green" turtles were un­ local stocks. Gill nets (anchor and drift) intense, consisting of greens and hawks­ doubtedly ridleys, the most common and haul seines were the most com­ bills (Fig. 16). The landings data indi­ species in Louisiana inshore waters monly used gears in seven Texas coun­ cate that the fishery did not gain finan­ (Viosca, 1961; Hildebrand, 1981). Con­ ties, with Aransas and Nueces being the cial importance until just before the U.S. fusion about which sea turtle species most important. Turtle kraals and can­ Endangered Species Act was passed in were landed (green or ridley) probably ning factories appeared near Corpus 1973. The fishery had, up until that resulted from the fact that the local Christi, Tex., in the mid-1800's (Hilde­ point, been artisanal, capturing the name for ridley turtles is "white sea brand, 1981; Doughty, 1984). Live turtles with reef-fish gill nets, spears,

56(4), 1994 17 1.000.000

100,000

(/) 0) 10.000 - C -0 C ~ ....J

1.000 -

100

Year Figure 9. - The total commercial catch of sea turtles by year, all areas and all species combined.

0.60 -,------,

0.50 -- Loggerhead

-Green

.• Both 0.40 .--.. Y7 '--" 0.30 / ill I U I 'C / / 0­ I ... / 0.20 \ / \ /

0.10 .

0.00 - H'V+-l--+-+-+-H--+-+-+-+-H--+-+--+-+-+-H-l--+-+-+-H--+-+-+-+-Y--+-+-++-Hc-+-+-++-H

Year Figure 10. - The average price per kilogram of loggerhead and green sea turtles. A 5-point moving average was used to smooth the graph.

18 Marine Fisheries Review 1,000 OJ ...... :::t:. (/) O'l C "0 C CO --.J 100

Year Figure 11 ,- Reported New Jersey commercial sea turtle landings (all species combined),

10,000 -,------,

1,000 OJ ---­.:::t:. (/) O'l C "0 C CO ....J 100

Year Figure 12, - Reported Virginia commercial sea turtle landings (all species combined),

56(4), 1994 19 1.000.000 ---,------,

100.000

(/) OJ 10.000 C -0 C CO -l

1.000 ­

Year Figure 13. - Reported Florida commercial sea turtle landings (all species combined).

100.000 -,------,

J 0.000

...... OJ ...... , ..ll::: (/) OJ C -0 C CO -l

100

Year Figure 14. - Reported Louisiana commercial sea turtle landings (all species combined).

20 Marine Fisheries Review and by hand while diving. These turtles commercial importance (Fig. 17). A.D., and Native Hawaiians would cap­ were usually butchered and sold to vil­ Green sea turtles were most frequently ture then alive and hold them in special lagers on the beach. Unfortunately, landed, and they were taken with an fish ponds until needed. Turtle landings commercial fishery landings data of lo­ impressive array of methods ranging were reported year round from the five cal catches were not reported in detail from gill nets (anchor and drift), seines main Hawaiian Islands, but Maui was by the NMFS until 1971. The south and (haul and common), spears, traps, mis­ the most important island and Septem­ west coasts were the most important cellaneous undetermined gear, and by ber and October were the most impor­ turtling districts. hand. Early on, sea turtles played an tant months. important role in Hawaiian cultural his­ The Hawaiian Fishery Fishery Declines tory and were depicted in native song The Hawaiian turtle fishery was also and dance (Markrich, 1983). Turtles Sea turtles are slow growing, long­ artisanal, but, unlike Puerto Rico, it were also an important source of pro­ lived animals that reach sexual matu­ eventually achieved considerably more tein for Polynesians since at least 600 rity between 15 and 50 years (National Research Council, 1990). They are ex­ tremely difficult to manage, particularly as a sustainable resource. A stage-based population model for loggerheads indi­ c;; cated that rapid declines in subadults :::.. "000 ~ g> would adversely impact the population -g 6.000 to a greater extent than would a similar j decline in eggs and small juveniles (Crouse et aI., 1987). Unfortunately, it was these large juvenile turtles that were often commercially harvested (Table 2) Year Year because the directed turtle fisheries fre­ quently concentrated on those turtles Figure IS. - Reported Texas commercial Figure 16. - Reported Puerto Rico com­ sea turtle landings (all species combined). mercial sea turtle landings (all species readily captured in lagoonal areas (e.g. combined). Mosquito Lagoon, Fla., and Aransas

100.000 -.------,

10.000 ­

en 0> 1.000 C '0 C co --l

100

Year Figure 17. - Reported Hawaii commercial sea turtle landings (all species combined).

56(4), 1994 21 Table 2. - Average weights1 of commercially caught sea turtles. would remain so. With the exception of the small targeted fishery at Cedar Key, Species Location Weight (kg) Citation Fla., the fishery existed almost entirely Green Beaufort, N.C. 4 True (1884,1887) Green Charlesfon, S.C. 2-7 True (1884,1887) as by-catch in other, more important, Green St Augustine, Fla. 9-11 True (1884,1887) fisheries. Green Halifax River, Fla. 16 True (1884, 1887) Green Indian River, Fla. 23-27 True (1884,1887) Green Indian River, Fla. 16-23 Wilcox (1898) Summary, Current Status, Green Cedar Keys, Fla. 272·363 True (1884, 1887) and Outlook Green Crystal River-Cedar Keys, Fla. 20 Ingle (1972) Green Key West, Fla. 18-45 True (1884,1887) Commercial fisheries, habitat de­ Green Biscayne Bay, Fla. Smith (1896) Inside 11 struction, and pollution has had a dev­ Outside 27-34 Green Aransas Bay, Tex. 122 Stevenson (1893) astating impact on both U.S. and world Green Hawaii 7 Cobb (1905) sea turtle populations. The U.S. Endan­ 14-45 Hendrickson (1969) Loggerhead Beaufort, N.C. 23 True (1884,1887) gered Species Act of 1973 and subse­ Loggerhead Biscayne Bay, Fla. 136 Smith (1896) quent amendments has provided the leg­ Hawksbill Mona Island, P.R. 11-34 Wilcox (1904) islation needed to prevent the extinction 1 Weights were converted from pounds to the nearest kilogram. of these magnificent animals in the northwestern Atlantic Ocean. The NMFS Southeast Fisheries Science and Matagorda Bays, Tex.). These la­ sailing vessels, and he suggested that Center (SEFSC) is presently conducting goons appear to be important develop­ protective measures be passed to save research to determine growth, migration, mental habitats for green, loggerhead, them from extermination. and developmental habitats of sea turtles and Kemp's ridley turtles (Ehrhart, The disappearance ofjuveniles from in the southeastern United States. The 1983), and it is not surprising that har­ Florida waters was also noticed by SEFSC is also developing methods to vests exceeded recruitment and that Munroe (1898), who believed that this mitigate the incidental turtle catch in com­ these slow growing populations were was not due to excessive fishing pres­ mercial trawl and pelagic longline fisher­ rapidly depleted. sure, but to the gradual captures of adult ies. The turtle excluder device (TED) was Additionally, not only were these ju­ females that nested on Bahamian and developed by the SEFSC to reduce the venile turtles readily available, they may Central American shores. He suggested capture of turtles in shrimp trawls, and is have been more valuable than adult turtles that a captive breeding and hatchery constantly being modified to operate ef­ when captured far from distant northeast­ program was necessary or, failing that, fectively in different trawl fisheries un­ ern markets with no transportation readily the importation of eggs from foreign der various conditions. These TED's are available (Audubon, 1832; Collins, 1887; rookeries. Brice (1898) reiterated now being developed for use in most Latin Schroeder, 1924). This is because very Munroe's opinions, but went even fur­ American countries and in the some Indo­ large turtles were undoubtedly more dif­ ther by suggesting that nesting females Pacific countries. ficult to handle, transport, and keep alive and eggs should be left undisturbed and International conservation efforts are than smaller turtles. Audubon (1832) that there should be a legal minimum aimed at preventing the extinction of sea found that "the smaller the turtle, the weight in order to protect the commer­ turtles and helping populations to re­ dearer they were, and I could have pur­ cially important subadults. cover. Sea turtle recovery plans have chased one of the loggerhead kind that The turtle fishery in Indian River, been developed and are now being weighed more than seven hundred pounds Fla., had declined since 1886 (Wilcox, implemented, and the NMFS is respon­ for little more money than another ofthirty 1898), and that was attributed to the sible for research and management of pounds." Apparently these very large increased presence of steamboats, sea turtle populations in U.S. waters. In turtles soon spoiled without refrigeration which supposedly frightened off the spite of these efforts, however, it is un­ or ice unless quickly consumed. Several turtles, and to a 1894-95 cold-stunning likely that there will ever be another smaller turtles could be kept alive and event. Egg harvesting was blamed for turtle fishery for any sea turtle species enjoyed one at a time. the overall decline in turtle abundance in the United States. The decline, however, was attributed in Florida by Townsend (1900), who to several reasons. The Texas canneries also believed that these eggs should be Acknowledgments experienced sharp declines in turtle sup­ protected and never harvested. The I would like to thank J. Fernandez for plies by 1895, that were attributed to Texas green turtle fishery decline in the his efforts in setting up the sea turtle the capture of nesting females in Cen­ later 1800's was blamed on a combina­ landings data files and generating the tral America. Thus, Texas enacted mini­ tion of overfishing, jettying of the la­ summary tables and figures. T. Martinez mum weight and closed season regula­ goonal passes, and the severe freeze of assisted preparing the summary graphs. tions in 1895. Smith (1896) noted that 1894-95 (Hildebrand, 1981). D. Owens and J. Schmid provided his­ the green turtles in Biscayne Bay, Fla., Whatever the reasons, it was obvious toric materials. This paper was made had already disappeared because of in­ that the U.S. commercial sea turtle fish­ possible through a grant from the Earth tense fishing pressure from Bahamian ery was in serious trouble by 1900, and System Data and Information (ESDIM)

22 Marine Fisheries Review program of the U.S. National Oceanic Gunter, G. 1981. Status of turtles on the Missis­ Parsons, J. 1962. The green turtle and man. Univ. sippi coast. Gulf Res. Rep. 1:89-92. Fla. Press, Gainesville, 126 p. and Atmospheric Administration. Hendrickson, J. R. 1969. Report on Hawaiian Rebel, T. P. 1974. Sea turtles and the sea turtle marine turtle populations. In Proceedings of industry of the West Indies, Florida, and the Literature Cited the working meeting of marine lUrtle special­ Gulf of Mexico. Univ. Miami Press, Miami, ists, p. 89-96. lUCN Publ., N. Ser. 20. Fla., 236 p. (Rev. ed. of Ingle arid Smith, Audubon, J. J. [1832] 1926. The turtlers. In De­ Hildebrand, H. H. 1981. A historical review of 1949). lineations of American scenery and character, sea turtle populations in the western Gulf of Schroeder, W. C. 1924. Fisheries of Key West p. 194-202. G. A. Baker & Co., N.Y. Mexico. In K. Bjorndal (Editor), Biology and and the clam industry of southern Florida. Balazs, G. H. 1980. Synopsis of biological data conservation of sea turtles, p. 447-453. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish., App. XII, Doc. 962, on the green turtle in the Hawaiian Islands. Smithson. Inst. Press, Wash., D.C. 68 p. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. Ingle, R. M. 1972. Florida's sea turtle industry Smith, H. M. 1896. Notes on Biscayne Bay, NMFS SWFC-7, 141 p. in relation to restrictions imposed in 1971. In Florida, with reference to its adaptability as Brice, J. J. 1898. The fish and fisheries of the Summary of Florida commercial marine land­ the site of a marine hatching and experiment coastal waters of Florida. Rep. U.S. Comm. ings 1971, p. 55-62. Fla. Dep. Nat. Resour., Mar. station. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish. 21(1895): Fish. 22(1896):263-342. Res., Lab., Tallahassee, Contrib. 201. 169-188. Burke, V. J., S. J. Morreale, and E. A. Standora. __.,-~ and F. G. W. Smith. 1949. Sea turtles Stevenson, C. H. 1893. Report on the coast fish­ 1994. Diet of the Kemp's ridley sea turtle, and the turtle industry of the West Indies, eries of Texas. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish. Lepidochelys kempii, in New York waters. Florida, and the Gulf of Mexico, with anno­ 17(1889-1891):373-420. Fish. Bull. 92:26-32. tated bibliography. Univ. Miami Press, Miami, Tebeau, c.w. 198 I. The story of the Chokoloskee Caldwell, D. K., and A. Carr. 1957. Status of the Fla., 107 p. (rev. by Rebel, 1974). Bay country, with reminisces of pioneer C. S. sea turtle fishery in Florida. In Trans. 22nd Johnson, W. R. 1952. Lepidochelys kempii and "Ted" Smallwood. Banyan Books, Miami, N. Am. Wildl. Conf., p. 457-462. Wildl. Man­ Caretta caretta from a south Florida Indian Fla., 88 p. age. Inst., Wash., D.C. mound. Herpetology 8:36. Thompson, N. B. 1988. The status ofloggerhead, Carr, A., and D. K. Caldwell. 1956. The ecology King, F. W. 1981. Historical review of the de­ Caretta caretta; Kemp's ridley, Lepidochelys and migrations of sea turtles, 1. Results of cline of the green turtle and the hawksbill. In kempi; and green, Chelonia mydas, sea turtles field work in Florida, 1955. Am. Mus. Novit. K. A. Bjorndal (Editor), Biology and conser­ in U.S. waters. Mar. Fish. Rev. 50(3):16-23. 1793,23 p. vation of sea turtles, p. 183-188. Smithson. Townsend, C. H. 1900. Statistics of the fisheries Cliffton, K., D. O. Cornejo, and R. S. Felger. Inst. Press, Wash., D.C. of the Gulf states. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish. 1981. Sea turtles of the Pacific coast of Lazell, J. D. 1980. New England waters: Critical 25(1899): 105-169. Mexico. In K. Bjorndal (Editor), Biology and habitat for marine turtles. Copeia 1980:290-295. True, F. W. 1884. Useful aquatic reptiles and conservation of sea turtles, p. 199-209. Liner, E. A. 1954. The herpetofauna of Lafayette, batrachians of the United States. In G. B. Smithson. Inst. Press, Wash. D.C. Terrebonne and Vermilion Parishes, Louisi­ Goode et al. (Editor), The fisheries and fish­ Cobb, J. N. 1905. The commercial fisheries of ana. Louisiana Acad. Sci. 17:65-85. ery industries of the United States. Sec. I, pt. the Hawaiian islands in 1903. Rep. U.S. Bur. Lutcavage, M., and J. A. Musick. 1985. Aspects 2., p. 137-I 62. U.S. Comm. Fish., Gov. Print. Fish. 32(1904):433-512. of the biology ofsea turtles in Virginia. Copeia Off., Wash., D.C. Collins, J. W. 1887. Report on the discovery and 1985:449-456. _.,-__ . 1887. The turtle and terrapin fisher­ investigation of fishing grounds, made by the Markrich, M. 1983. The turtle question. Hono­ ies. In G. B. Goode et al. (Editor), The fisher­ Fish Commission steamer ALBATROSS during lulu Mag., Sept.:62-65, 86, 91. ies and fishery industries of the United States. a cruise along the Atlantic coast and in the Gulf Marquez-M., R. 1990. FAa species catalogue. Vol. Sec. 5, vol. 2. pt. XIX, p. 493-503, U.S. ofMexico: with notes on the Gulffisheries. Rep. II: Sea turtles of the world. An annotated and Comm. Fish., Gov. Print. Off., Wash., D.C. U.S. Comm. Fish. 13(1885):217-311. illustrated catalogue ofsea turtle species known Viosca, P. 1961. Turtles, tame and truculent. Crouse, D. T., L. B. Crowder, and H. Caswell. to date. FAa Fish. Synop. 125(11),81 p. Louisiana Conserv. 13:5-8. 1987. A stage-based population model for log­ _--,-....,-,,_. 1994. Synopsis of biological data on Wilcox, W. A. 1898. Commercial fisheries of gerhead sea turtles and implications for con­ the Kemp's ridley turtle, Lepidochelys kempi Indian River, Florida. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish. servation. Ecology 68:1412-1423. (Garman, 1880). U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA 22:249-262. De Vorsey, L. 1971. De Brahm's Report [1764] Tech. Memo. NMFS-SEFSC-343, 91 p. _----;,-;::-.,-. 1900. Foreign fishery trade and lo­ of the general survey in the southern district Morreale, S. J., A. B. Meylan, S. S. Sadove, and cal fisheries of Puerto Rico. Rep. U.S. Comm. of North America. Univ. S.C. Press, Colum­ E. A. Standora. 1992. Annual occurrence and Fish. 25(1899):1-35. bia, 325 p. winter mortality of marine turtles in New York _-=-__ . 1904. The fisheries and fish trade in Dodd, C. K. 1988. Synopsis of biological data waters. J. Herpetology 26:301-308. Puerto Rico in 1902. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish. on the loggerhead sea turtle Caretta (Linnaeus Munroe, R. M. 1898. The green turtle, and the 28(1902):367-395. 1758). U.S. Dep. Inter., Fish Wildl. Serv., BioI. possibilities of its protection and consequent Witzell, W. N. 1983. Synopsis of biological data Rep. 88(14), 110 p. increase on the Florida coast. Fish. Bull. on the hawksbill turtle, Eretmochelys imbri­ Doughty, R. W. 1984. Sea turtles in Texas: A for­ 17( 1897):273-274. cala, (Linnaeus, 1766). FAa Fish. Synop. 137, gotten commerce. Southwest. Hist. Q. 88: Murphy, J. M. [1890]1987. Turtling in Florida. 78 p. 43-70. In F. Oppel and T. Meisel (Editors), Tales of 1987. Commercial sea turtle land­ Duncan, D. D. 1943. Capturing giant turtles in the old Florida, p. 75-81. Repr. by Castle Publ., ings, Cape Canaveral, Florida. In W.N. Witzell Caribbean. Natl. Geogr. Mag. 84(2): 177-190. Seacaucus, N.J. (Editor) Ecology of east Florida sea turtles, Ehrhart, L. W. 1983. Marine turtles of the Indian National Research Council. 1990. Decline of the p. 75-78. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. River lagoon system. Fla. Sci. 46(3/4):337-346. sea turtles: causes and prevention. Natl. Acad. Rep. NMFS 53, 80 p. Frair, W., R. G. Ackman, and N. Mrosovsky. Press, Wash., D.C., 259 p. _-.,..--~_. 1994. The U.S. commercial sea turtle 1972. Body temperature of Dermochelys Park, B. 1912. The turtle market at Key West. landings. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. coriacea. Science 177:791-793. Brooklyn Instit. Arts Sci. 7:73-74. Memo. NMFS-SEFSC-350, 130 p.

56(4), 1994 23