© Jordi Martínez Callaghan and Marta gil laCruz edit: digiCopy FeCeM

Faculty of Business and economics. university of Saragossa gran Vía 2, 50005 Saragossa (Spain) www.digicopy.com.es graphic design: littera iSBn: 978-84-943387-9-3 legal deposit: z-1596-2015 this book was sponsored by the financial support of the european Social Funds and aragon government given to the research groups of the aragon autonomic government and university of Saragossa. indeX

aCKnoWledgeMentS ...... 10 introduCtion ...... 12

Chapter one | FraMeWorK ...... 17 PART ONE PRESENT DAY MIGRATION OF THE JAPANESE ...... 18 1 The History of migration between Japan and Europe ...... 18 1.1 Japanese emigration after the Meiji Restoration ...... 19 1.2 Social and cultural background in the second half of the XX Century 22 2 The Bases of the Japanese community in Europe: From the Sogo Shosha to the XXI Century ...... 29 3 Current Japanese migration factors ...... 31 3.1 Push and pull factors ...... 32 3.2 Current day migratory projects ...... 36 3.3 Institutionalisation of the migration phenomenon ...... 39 4 Japanese communities in the host society ...... 41 4.1 Types of Japanese communities found in the West ...... 43 PART TWO: MIGRATION AND SOCIAL NETWORKS ...... 48 5 The Migration path ...... 49 5.1 Pre-Migratory phase ...... 50 5.2 Installation phase ...... 51 6 Social support and prospective analysis ...... 57 6.1 Functional viewpoint ...... 60 6.2 Structural viewpoint ...... 62 7 The host society: support networks and their roles ...... 68 7.1 Support Networks among immigrants ...... 68 7.2 Support Networks between immigrants and the native population . . 70

Chapter two | Methodology ...... 77 1 Objetive and variables ...... 78 1.1 Objectives ...... 78 1.2 Variables and dimensions ...... 79 2 Universe and sample ...... 80 3 Methodological design ...... 85 3.1 Quantitative approach ...... 86 3.2 Qualitative approach ...... 87 3.3 Triangulation ...... 88 4 Data collection techniques ...... 92 4.1 The questionnaire ...... 93 4.2 In depth interview ...... 99

Chapter three | reSultS ...... 107 1 Background ...... 108 1.1 The profile of the Japanese immigrant in Spain ...... 109 2 Reasons for emigrating and attraction and expulsion factors ...... 116 2.1 Reasons for emigrating ...... 116 2.2 Attraction and expulsion factors ...... 120 3 Post-migration phase: preparation prior to departure and support networks 124 4 Migration strategies and arrival in Spain ...... 127 4.1 Migration strategies ...... 127 4.2 Arrival and settling in Spain ...... 129 5 Creating new social and support networks in the host society and their purpose ...... 132 6 Identity and feeling of belonging ...... 133 7 Outlook for the future ...... 136

Chapter four | ConCluSionS ...... 141 1 New trends in migratory flows towards Spain: The fourth wave ...... 142 1.1 The relation between attraction and expulsion factors and the new migratory profiles in the Japanese community ...... 146 1.2 New strategies for setting down ...... 150 2 The Japanese in Spain: a community in expansion ...... 152 3 Support networks during the settling down process ...... 155 3.1 Deinstitutionalisation of the migration process ...... 155 3.2 Characteristics and functions of support networks ...... 156 4 Feeling of belonging and new social identity ...... 161

Chapter five | aFterthoughtS ...... 165 1 Research limits ...... 166 2 Challenges for future research ...... 168 3 New lines of research ...... 169 reFerenCeS ...... 173 attaChMentS ...... 183 1 Questionnaire ...... 184 2 Arrival and future expectations of Japanese students in Saragossa ...... 188 3 Interview guidelines ...... 190 diagraMS indeX

Diagram 1. Characteristics of the different models of Japanese immigrant communities in the Western countries ...... 46 Diagram 2. Weaknesses, threats, strengths and opportunities of the immigrant Japanese depending on the type of community in which they are integrated into the host society ...... 47 Diagram 3. Outline of Japanese migration trajectory to western countries ...... 50 Diagram 4. Levels of interaction between the Japanese community and the host society . 63 Diagram 5. Evolution of Support Networks during the installation Phase ...... 68 Diagram 6. Participant distribution ...... 84 Diagram 7. Advantages and disadvantages of different methodological approaches . . . . . 91 Diagram 8. Comparison of the groups comprising both questionnaires (Student Visa/Work or Resident Permit) ...... 95 Diagram 9. Elements which are common and differ in both questionnaires ...... 95 Diagram 10. Questionnaire for students - Content Summary ...... 96 Diagram 11. General Questionnaire: Content Summary ...... 98 Diagram 12. Questionnaires handed out ...... 98 Diagram 13. Descriptive interview data by groups ...... 105 Diagram 14. Area of origin of the Japanese population resident in Spain in 2012 ...... 108 Diagram 15. Cultural and social differences between Barcelona and Madrid according to the Japanese before they immigrate to Spain ...... 112 Diagram 16. Support networks of the installation phase as identified by interviewees . . . . 115 Diagram 17. Reasons given by the Japanese population for emigrating to Spain ...... 119 Diagram 18. Countries where Japanese immigrants lived before moving to Saragossa . . . . 120 Diagram 19. Elements of attraction to Spain, identified by the sample ...... 122 Diagram 20. Expulsion elements of the original country identified by the sample ...... 123 Diagram 21. Basic characteristics of the Japanese migratory waves ...... 144 Diagram 22. Links between composition, propose and kinas of Japanese social networks . 156

8 taBleS indeX

Table 1. Japanese resident in Spain according to regime, and Autonomous Community of residency in 2012 ...... 82 Table 2. Interviewees’ Place of Residence by Autonomous Community...... 83 Table 3. Place of Origin of the sample...... 109 Table 4. City of destiny of the Japanese in the pre-migratory phase...... 111 Table 5. Reasons for choosing Barcelona and Madrid as cities of destiny during the pre-migratory project ...... 111 Table 6. Reasons for not immigrating to rural areas ...... 112 Table 7. Level of studies of the Japanese in Spain before immigrating...... 114 Table 8. Studies the Japanese wish to carry out in Spain...... 114 Table 9. The Spanish population as described by Japanese resident in Spain ...... 121 Table 10. Sources of support mentioned by those interviewed during the migration process 127 Table 11. Reasons why the sample would go back to Japan...... 138 Table 12. Reasons why the sample would not go back to Japan...... 138

9 We would like to acknowledge and thank all of aCKnoWledgeMentS those who, during the last four years, have helped and contributed to the culmination of this book. To Ph.D. Carlos Gómez Bahillo (University of Saragossa, Spain), for allowing us to begin this piece of research. For all the advice he gave us before we started out on this adventure, and for lending a hand whenever necessary. Thanks to this project we were able to collaborate with Ph.D. Chris Perkins from the University of Edinburgh (United Kingdom), for his interest in pro - moting this work on an international level and for allowing us to work in a very prestigious university. The scientific valuable expertise of Ph.D. Isidro Maya Jariego from the University of Seville (Spain) has enriched our study on the field of kind and support networks among migrants in Spain. His advice on how to approach the migratory network phenomena, has been crucial when trying to understand the situation of the migrant community. Our research has been evaluated in an international basis by Ph.D. Jussi Ronkainen from Mikkeli University (Finland). He has sheared his working experience with teenagers, and for reinforcing the role of social networks as the base for integration specially in times of crisis. We are in debt with Ph.D. Maria Victoria Sanagustin Fons from the University of Saragossa

10 (Spain). Her evaluation of our research was made To the president of the Asociación Aragón Japón, with commitment and effort. Her enlightening Mrs. Kumiko Fujimura for her priceless help and suggestions have helped to improve our project. personal example without which it would have In the same way, Ph.D. Ana Isabel Gil Lacruz been impossible to get to know the reality of the (University of Saragossa, Spain) guides us along Japanese community in Spain. the peculiarities of Asian culture and for her unconditional support. We cannot forget the invaluable disinterested collaboration of members of the Japanese Thanks to Ph.D. Päivi Harinen from the University community, especially Yuko Mori who shared her of Eastern (Finland) for showing interest in the vast knowledge of Japanese culture and helped developing process of this project and for the us overcome the cultural gap between the East support we have received from her. Needless to and the West. Not to mention her help as a say we would like to mention the support and translator when interviewing Japanese who were priceless feedback we have received from Ph.D. not fluent in Spanish. To Akemi Takahashi for Catherine A. Robinson (Bangor University, United allowing us to enter her home and meet her family, Kingdom) and Ph.D. Mariusz Granosik (University for sharing her impressions from the point of view of Lodz, Poland). of a Japanese woman resident in our country, for Our research on Japanese studies has been inspired her patience and endeavor she put into helping by Ph.D. Yuiko Fujita (Meiji University, Japan) “Cul - increase the sample size. tural migrants from Japan. Youth, media and migra - To Helena Amigo for introducing us to the Asian tion in New York and London” work. She had a world in Saragossa. To, Jia Cui, Tomoko Suzuki great impact on this book. Her altruism facilitate and everyone else who have always been at our us to get in touch with many young Japanese side during all these years. students and university professors who have helped us to better understand Japan and Japanese culture. Last but not least, we would like to thank all the people who through the whims of fate we have We cannot express how thankful we are to Ph.D. been lucky to meet. They are the true protagonists Yoshikazu Shiobara (Keio University, Japan) for of this project. To those who contribute to the crea - his endless patience, support, kindness and his tion of stronger and deeper links between cultures. inspiring work on the topic of Japanese migrants in Australia. To them all 本当にありがとうございました。

11 introduCtion The study of migration flow is gaining importance in the realm of social sciences. Research in this field is having an increasing impact on the implementation of public policies and the drawing up of resource guidelines both for social professionals and foreign residents. The need for these studies becomes clear when analysing the evolution and magnitude of the immigration process in Spain. Spain has gone from being a country of emigrants to that of a host country despite the fact that during the last this tendency is reversing because of economic crisis.

The annual report on immigration published by INE (Instituto Nacional de Estadística; Spanish Statistics Agency) in 2012 reflects the demographic consequences that the crisis has had on both the native and foreign population in Spain. Although since 2010 t here has been an increase in the number of Spanish emigrants, especially in the 20 to 35 year old age group, it is during this same period that the highest rate of Spanish nationality granted to foreigners in the last decades has been observed (2010, 123.847; 2011, 114.662 and 2012, 115.620).

The largest immigrant communities in Spain are those from North Africa and South America. However immigrants from Asian countries such

12 as China, India or Pakistan are characterised by Fortunately things have changed and today their dynamism because of their rapid growth public services such as hospitals, schools and and expansion throughout the whole of Spain. courts have professional support, such as Because of this, cities like Barcelona, Madrid, translators and interpreters or manuals for Seville, Valencia and Saragossa are undergoing professionals, which make it easier to work with great social-demographic changes as a result the Chinese community. of the arrival of immigrants in recent years. Obviously this is not the sole responsibility of However lack of knowledge and the aura of public administration. Because of the exoticism which surrounds the Asian characteristics of this group (the secrecy and communities, together with stereotypes and reserve shown by this community is largely due prejudice, have meant that most of the measures to the difficulties they face in becoming fluent designed to encourage integration are planned in Spanish and the strong support networks according to the requirements of the most existent among their members), their presence representative group, namely the Chinese. is barely reflected in public life (Beltrán, 2005).

The approach of these interventions is justified Ethnic diversity is also a feature of the Asian because the objective is to attend as many population in our country, and contrary to the people as possible. Nevertheless these measures case of the Chinese, the Japanese community did not reach such a high percentage of the in Spain has certain characteristics which make Chinese population as expected. This is partly them much more accessible. An example of due to the fact that their needs have not been this is seen in the high number of associations studied in the same depth as those of other relating to Japan and whose objective is to immigrant groups, such as those from Eastern provide knowledge of the culture and tradition Europe, Latin America or Africa. This is of the land of the rising sun. supported by the fact that until 2006 there were practically no official guidelines published in Likewise, these associations are characterised Chinese, and likewise, it was almost impossible by their participation and collaboration in to find social workers who could understand activities promoted by immigrant associations, or express themselves in the language. local authorities, etc. A good example of this is

13 Social and kind networks among Japanese migrants in Spain | Introduction

the fact that the Japanese community was one itself in a paradoxical situation because by of the first immigrant associations to offer flowers creating an image which is opposite to that of to the Virgin of Pilar in Saragossa or to take part the transnational immigrant means that the in local festivities such as those of the Mercé problems of their own migratory process are neighbourhood in Barcelona. Despite playing not recognised. In other words, we are facing such an active role in the host society, the a group of foreigners who are not considered situation of this minority immigrant group takes immigrants. a background seat in the research and study of the immigrant population in our country. One In order to present a coherent piece of research of the possible reasons may be a lack of which addresses the situation of this (Japanese) knowledge or awareness of the situation of the community, the following structure has been Japanese community. followed. First of all a theoretical framework has been set up around two main points: the When faced with this question, some of the migration phenomenon of Japanese to the West Japanese suggest that perhaps this is because and migration processes and structures. The the image projected to the outside world is not next part consists of a chapter on the totally correct. Others consider that cultural methodology used. Here the reason for using reasons make it difficult for them to express the triangulation method for data analysis is their needs or make them public, whereas some explained, together with the composition and believe that stereotypes and prejudice held by structure of the interviews and questionnaires the host society puts the focus on issues that do used to collect data. The results obtained are not correspond with their reality. given in the third chapter. When setting out the results it was decided to order them according Apart from these reasons, unfortunately to the different stages of the migration process transnational migration continues to raise certain as indicated by Chou (2009). Therefore a mistrust among the local population. At present, chronological order was followed, beginning the profile of the immigrant population is linked with pre-migration and ending with post- to poverty, delinquency, etc. No doubt this migration. The fourth chapter covers the encourages the immigrant population to be conclusions reached on analysing the results. stigmatised and at the same time makes their Worth special mention here is the use of support relations with natives more difficult. networks as key tools during the post migration Although the Japanese community does not stage and the impact they have on the new usually fall into this context of poverty, it finds feeling of belonging during the installation and

14 settling down phases. Finally, in chapter five, Thanks to reports like this, it is obvious that constraints, challenges and proposals for further studying the integration process of any research based on the results, are dealt with. immigrant community has to be regarded as an integral phenomenon and special attention must This piece of research aims at taking the first be paid to the impact of different social agents steps towards an empirical knowledge of the during the process. social reality of the Japanese who emigrate to Spain and at the same time approaches the Therefore it is hoped to observe the role of social migration phenomenon as a normalising process networks and their contribution in forming a far removed from the stereotypes which social and multicultural fabric, where co- stigmatises the immigrant population. In order existence and collaboration between people to meet this objective it is necessary to count becomes the best tool for personal and collective on the testimonies of Japanese men and women development. who have decided to start a new life in Spain. As stated by one of the persons interviewed “we I therefore consider that my work as a researcher are living in a society where you have to do is to study these topics in depth as it is through your part. If you limit yourself to going to work them we can obtain information which helps and staying at home, you will never by happy build a tolerant society, far from stereotypes, and will never enjoy life, so it is important for favouring the creation of multicultura l spaces the Japanese to help those who live here, in the and encouraging learning and cultural exchange same way that they help us”. between the original and host societies.

15

Chapter one FRAMEWORK part one 1 | the history of Migration between Japan and europe PRESENT DAY Japanese communities in Europe have been MIGRATION OF growing considerably in the last few decades. A good example of this is the fact that their THE JAPANESE presence in the West is no longer considered something unusual and they now form an important part in focus groups especially in the field of economics, technology and culture.

During the economic growth of the 1960´s, Japa n became a universal figure in the area of new technologies, and despite the recession of the 1980’s and the 1990´s remained one of the pioneers in science and technology. This was due mainly to the effort put into Research and Development. Tsutsui (2008) considers that this tendency came to an end during the last decade of the Twentieth Century, giving way to a period of cultural and social expansion towards the West. The boom in popular Japanese culture in Europe and North America was exploited not only by Japanese industry but also by many Japanese who saw cultural interchange as an opportunity to integrate and learn about new environments.

The dispersion of the Japanese has aroused the interest not only of western researchers but also that of Japanese sociologists, anthropologists, etc. Studies carried out in Europe and the United States, such as those by Beltrán (2005), Beltrán

18 1 and Saiz (2002; 2003; 2004), and White et al. place during the restoration of the Meiji Empire (2006) reflect the effect of the Japanese on host (1868-1912), that the first settlements of societies (for example demographic, labour and Japanese emigrants abroad are registered. economic changes) and the extent of their assimilation and integration. On the other hand, studies by Fujita (20041;2009) or Shiobara (2004; 1.1 Japanese Emigration 2005; 2011) study the Japanese population after the Meiji Restoration resident abroad, showing how the process of integration in the host society is carried out, and Relations between Japan and the West are paying special attention to factors such as cultural relatively recent. This is due to the fact that shock or the way in which Japanese customs during the period of colonisation by the are adapted to the Western way of life. Europeans (XVIII and XIX Century), unlike other countries in Asia and the rest of the world, Japan Although the phenomenon of Japanese migra - was not conquered. Although they were not tion started to gain importance at the end of the invaded, the first contact between the two XX century and the beginning of the XXI, Joaquín cultures took place at this very same time thanks Beltrán (2006; 2007) dates the first wave of Japa - to the Spanish and Portuguese Christian nese immigrants to Europe at the end of XVI missionaries and British and Dutch traders. century and the begi nning of the XVII century “.when an expedition of converted Catholics During the Shogun Tokugawa era, the go - led by Hasekura Tsenenaga, went to the Vatican vernment drastically cut back commercial to visit the Pope. During the journey Tsenenaga contact between Japan and the rest of the world, stopped in Spain. This led to the legend that a so much so that while neighbouring countries group of Japanese decided to settle in the Gua- such as China or India established commercial dalquivir valley where they could freely profess ties with Europe, Japan remained an outsider their Christian faith. It is said that this led to the (White, 2006). Furthermore, the shogun took “Japón” lineage, a surname that has its origin great efforts to isolate Japan from western in Coria del Rio (Seville), with 600 residents ideology which was gaining a hold in neigh - registered with this name in 2006 (INE, 2006). bouring countries. Bearing this in mind, it can be seen why at the end of the Tokugawa era, Nevertheless, despite this possible settlement the Shogun, in their desire to maintain the of Japanese some hundreds of years ago, it is country’s own cultural features, in the face of not until the liberalisation of Japan, which took the rise of Christianity, obliged the regime to

19 Social and kind networks among Japanese migrants in Spain | Framework

close the borders and thus isolate themselves system imposed by the shogun. As a result, two from these threats. During this period, a great of the most powerful clans in the south, the number of documents were published which “Choshu” and the “Satsuma” formed an alliance highlighted the superiority of the Japanese in 1866, known as Satsuma-Choshu domei, —because unlike their neighbours they had not which gave impetus to the samurai revolt which been invaded—and also on the importance of in turn revealed the weaknesses and political remaining true to their colours despite influential isolation of the shogun Tokugawa. ideas coming in from abroad. Both these events, the conflict caused by the During the last years of the shogun Tokagawa liberalization of the Japanese ports and an mandate, two events took place which threw uprising within the country, demonstrated the doubts over the measures used by the shogun vulnerability of the ruling political model and to defend Japan. the situation of Japan with respect to western countries (Buruma 2003). For this reason, the Firstly, in 1854 commodore Mathew Perry followers of Mutsu-Hito (the new Meiji emperor) obliged the emperor to sign the Treaty of expected that the Meiji restoration would lead Kanagawa, by which the Japanese regime would firstly to the elimination of the feudal system allow the free movement of North American imposed by the previous shogun and secondly ships in Japanese ports. Later, in 1862, the to the liberalisation of the country in order to Namamugi incident took place, whereby a attain the social and economic levels of British trader died and three other Englishmen European countries such as Great Britain, France were injured following the attack perpetrated and Holland among others. by Shimazu Hisamitsu, the “daimyo” (feudal lord) of Satsuma. In 1868, during the Meiji restoration, the liberalisation of Japan began. As part of this Following the threats and demands of the United process, the imperial government set up the States, and the British attack (on the British?), “Iwakura” mission in 1871 (Nish, 1998) whose the capacity of the shogun as leaders of the country was questioned. objectives were firstly to improve international relations and secondly to collect information Another conflict which took place during this on education, culture, technology, social and decade was the daimyo rebellion in South Japan. economic systems, etc. from the countries Despite their great wealth, the daimyos visited in order to apply them to the national considered themselves discriminated by the modernisation process.

20 1

The liberalization of Japan, not only led to Iwakura Mission. The first Japanese businessmen technological improvements, new philosophical (sogo shosa) reached Europe at the beginning ideas and an increase in business relations of 1930. This process was interrupted by the between the country of the rising sun and the outbreak of the Second World War. But once West, but it was also during this period that again, during the XX Century, the Japanese migration of Japanese to other countries first renewed their activity in Europe and set up the took place. bases of what can be considered as the origin of economic relations between Japan and the During this period 3 major migratory waves West (White, 2003). stand out. The effect of the shogo shosa was more than w First Wave just economical. The first Japanese emigrants The first great wave of Japanese migrants which to arrive in the West later set up Japanese took place in 1886 was made up of farm workers communities in countries such as England, from the southern regions of Japan who were France and Germany. forced to immigrate first to Hawaii and then to Although the three waves of migration took countries in Central and South America, place under different circumstances they all especially Brazil, Peru and the United States, possess a common denominator. They were all where today they still form a large community. backed up by government bodies that deemed w Second Wave these exoduses necessary to maintain national stability and considered them a contribution to The second wave of Japanese migrants occurred the country’s development as a whole. after the establishment of imperialism in Korea and other regions of the Western Pacific in the In view of this, authors such as White (2003; beginning of 1910. On this occasion the exodus 2006) and Saki (2003) consider the strict control was directed towards Korea, China and Taiwan, of the Japanese authorities during these three and formed part of the colonisation process waves of migration as the reason why, until the following the wars between these countries. end of the XX century, the model of Japanese migration was under excessive institutional w Third Wave control, either by the government or by The third wave of migrants started in 1930 enterprises who encouraged international (Shouwa period). However the basis which mobility of their workers as a step to promotion made it possible was set up in 1871 under the (Ben-Air, 2003).

21 Social and kind networks among Japanese migrants in Spain | Framework

1.2 Social and Cultural Background point of view. These magazines became very in the second half of the XX Century popular among young Japanese. However despite the interest aroused by the The transformation of the Japanese migration West, the social-political situation in Japan model is strictly related to the social and political (rebuilding the country in the aftermath of the changes of the last few decades. Japan opened war and the changing political system) made it its doors to the West at the end of the XIX century impossible for Japanese to emigrate and obtain when the Meiji regime came to power. first-hand knowledge of western countries. However, despite efforts to increase relations between Europe and Japan, this did not come Apart from these two factors (widespread media about until the end of the Second World War information and the domestic situation) there when relations between Japan, Europe and the is a third factor which helped create this United States improved. idealistic vision of the West, namely the North American military bases in Japan. In 1951 just The arrival of television and the first publications before the end of military occupation (1945- on western culture at the beginning of the 1950’s 1955), Japan signed the San Francisco Peace mark a change of direction and it is from this Treaty whereby Japan would become a time onwards that the Japanese people begin demilitarised country. A year later, in 1952, to become aware of the existence of other Japan and the United States signed a security cultures and ways of life. treaty and the American government undertook to protect Japan in the case of war in exchange The first myths and interest in western culture for setting up military bases in different parts of begin at this time. This is evidenced by the the country (Buruma, 2003). increasing publication in Japan of magazines targeted at young Japanese and specialising in The presence of these military bases in Okinawa European and American fashion, culture and and especially in Tokyo allowed the local society (Fujita, 2009). An example of this is the population to become acquainted with, and to Vogue magazine which appeared in Japan at take part in numerous events and festivals the end of the 1960’s and which was considered organized by the North American troops. This one of the most transgressive and liberal of its led to an increase in the popularity of American kind. A few years later Japanese magazines such culture (and sociology), and greatly influenced as Non-no (1971) began to publish articles on the young Japanese of the time. An example of American fashion and culture from a Japanese this is the effect of the “Camp Zama” military

22 1 base in Tokyo, especially in the Akihabara and and in less than 10 years, Japan underwent an Roppongi neighbourhoods. Akihabara was unprecedented economic, political and originally a market place for the buying and sociological transformation. selling of electronic material from the military base. During the 1950’s Ropppongi became the The 1947 Constitution marks the beginning of playground area for the American troops where the westernisation of politics. At the beginning of the 1950’s the two most important political bars and restaurants run by the Japanese were parties are born, the Liberal Democratic Party set up, with foreigners forming the bulk of their (LDP) and the Japanese Socialist Party (JSP), clients. which later, in 1966, changed its name to the The influence of western culture can be seen Social Democratic Party (SD) in an attempt to during the aftermath of the war and the renew its image and with an ideology more in reconstruction of Japan, and undoubtedly played line with European socialist parties (Tsutsui). an important part in the creation of a new Stability is the main attribute of Japanese politics. Japanese society and on the image that the The LDP has been the most voted party since Japanese had of the west. An example of these the beginning of Japanese democracy, except changing trends can be found in “manga”, the for short isolated periods such as 1947-1948 Japanese comic. Osamu Tezuka, one of the most and 2009-2012 when the SD was in power. outstanding authors of the time, began to incor - porate stories and characters based on European After the war, the main objective of the policies culture into his comics. Likewise writers such carried out by the LPD was the development of as Ryu Murakami (Almost Clear Blue, 1976) the Japanese economy and industry. Measures and Kenzaburo Oe (the prey, 1957) reflect the were taken to promote Japanese exports and to influence that western society has had on the boost domestic consumption. Authors such as evolution of the Japanese from the second half Tsutsui (2008) believe that, on their own, these of the XX century to the present day. measures were not sufficient to justify such economic growth and Tsutsui believes that At the beginning of the 1960’s, the rapid support provided by the United States was a westernisation of Japan and the first notions of key factor. what would later be known as “the economic miracle” led Japan to be considered the most First of all, the demilitarisation of Japan allowed developed country in Asia by the great European the government to reduce the defence budget. powers (Garcia de Rosa, 2005). At this time, This meant that even during the Cold War

23 Social and kind networks among Japanese migrants in Spain | Framework

between Russia and the States, Japan could 1964 was a decisive year for Japan. As concentrate on its economic policies despite previously stated, the Japanese borders remained having tense relations with Russia, as Japan open following the occupation of the country remained a protectorate (of the USA). Secondly, by USA troops. Despite that, there was only a the USA was an underwriter of Japanese small number of Europeans and Americans companies and made it easy for them to enter living in Japan, the majority of whom were the European and American markets. This was military personnel and politicians (Buruna, advantageous to the Japanese and provided a 2004). However this situation was to change great impetus for Japanese exports (Christian, when Tokyo was nominated to hold the Olympic 2003). Games in 1964.

It can be said that the 1960’s was Japan’s golden Most of the Japanese people considered the era. Its economy underwent historical growth. Olympic Games an acid test as the world would The new socio-political system imposed by the focus all its attention on Japan. The Japanese allied troops had been accepted by the majority government spent about 3,000 million dollars of the Japanese. Japanese industry was con so - (IOC, 2010) getting Tokyo ready for the games. li dated and considered one of the world’s Apart from the economic impact, Tokyo 1964 strongest not only for its economic benefits but represented a before and after in Japanese also for its outstanding advances in technology history for two reasons. and the quality of its products (Bustelo, 2009). First of all, Japan made a debut as a country Many experts in Japanese and Asian history which had lived in isolation even after the consider that Japan opened its borders to the Second World War and which considered the West on two occasions, once in 1869 after the West a role model for progress and development Meiji restoration, aimed at modernising the (Nombra, 2006). The Tokyo Olympics were full country, and again in 1945 following the of symbolism and claimed to demonstrate the occupation of Japan by allied forces after the strength of character of the country. As proof of Second World War. The common factor in both this, the organizers decided that the y9oung 1 these events is that foreigners arrived after a year old Yoshinari Sakai should carry the war. However, despite the pacific attitude of Olympic torch into the stadium. He had been the Japanese people in general, certain clusters nicknamed “the Hiroshima Baby” as he was remained who were against westerners coming born on the same day and in the same area as to their islands. the nuclear attack. They also inaugurated the

24 1

Shinkasen or “bullet train” (Tsutsui, 2008). Tokyo the strongest worldwide. Advances made in 1964 was considered “the first electronic education placed Japanese universities among Olympics”. They were the first to be televised the best in the world (Belloso de Santiesban, in colour and transmitted by satellite and to use 1994; Teichleer, 1999; Yamamoto and Briton, electronic devices such as slow motion cameras 2010). This, together with the first direct contacts and high precision chronometers. with European and USA citi zens, encouraged Japanese students to go to foreign universities. Secondly, the games allowed western civilians and young Japanese who had grown up under The fuel crisis of the 1970’s affected the Japanese the influence of western media, to come into economy, reducing economic growth in 1973- direct contact for the first time. This first 1974 to an annual increase of 5% which even encounter changed the westerns’ image of Japan so was remained as one of the highest ever. As and vice versa. By the end of the Olympic a result Japanese car manufacturers, which make Games the image of Japan as a barbaric race up Japan’s largest exports, were forced to make had changed drastically, partly as a result of technological improvements reducing fuel international media`s praise of the efficiency of consumption as well as introducing a new the games and of the friendliness and production model known as “Toyotism”. hardworking nature of the Japanese people. On “Toyotismo” replaced “Fordism” which till that the other hand, the large number of foreign time had been considered the best system to visitors attending the games, and the impressive implement in car production. The car results of USA and URSS athletes left their mark manufacturer Toyota changed the production on the Japanese who became much more process of its vehicles. The most important interested in the customs, traditions and ways changes were in group work, the quality circles of life of these peoples. (quality control?) of its products, production on Following the social, political and economic demand, and independent production modules success of the 1960’s, the 1970’s represent two which enabled mistakes to be corrected without things for Japan, the fuel crisis, which reduced having to shut down the whole production economic growth by 5%, and the success of process (Muto, 1996). the first Japanese companies to be set up in Changing from one production process to Europe (Garcia de Rosa, 2005; Tsutsui, 2008). another was the key to beating the oil crisis. At the beginning of the 1970’s, Japan was one Apart from the economic benefits, “Toyotism” of Asia’s leading economic powers and one of demonstrated that Japanese industry was

25 Social and kind networks among Japanese migrants in Spain | Framework

sufficiently mature and had the capacity to Another intrinsic change caused by social, innovate and compete with other western economic and political reforms was the family powers on the same terms. Proof of this can be framework. By the end of the 1970’s and the seen from the trade deficit between American beginning of the 1980’s the pre-war model of and Japanese products. At the beginning of the an extensive multigenerational family had 1970’s it was balanced, the value of exports disappeared, giving way to a reduced family and imports being roughly the same. However, group. These changes were the result of an by the mid 1970’s Japan sold more products to increased life expectancy and a new economic the USA than it bought (in 1976 the difference model which favoured the mobility of the was 4,000 dollars, reaching almost 10,000 Japanese population within the country. dollars by the end of the seventies). At the beginning of the 1980’s a typical Japanese During the 1970’s relations between Japan and family consisted of the father who was the bread the USA deteriorated due to the oil crisis and winner, the mother who looked after the home the onset of relations between the USA and and took care of the children and their China. At the same time, Japanese industry began education, and their offspring (Hendry, 1987). to gain prestige in Europe and cities such as Japanese economic expansion came to an end London and Dusseldorf became neuralgic centres. during the last 15 years of the XX Century. With the fall of the Berlin wall and the end of military Japanese society underwent great changes presence in some parts of Europe, industry in during the p eriod from the end of the war till Europe began to take off During this period, the late seventies. A special mention is given many eyes were set on Japan which was then to the exodus from the country to the cities. considered one of the world’s most prosperous Before the war only a third of the population nations. Many European companies therefore lived in urban areas and by the late seventies it tried to reach agreements with the Japanese in had grown to more than 75% (about 80 million order to obtain sufficient funding to set up in people) This demographic movement which business (Busstelo, 2009). was accompanied by political and social changes, such as progressive improvements in During the latter part of the 1980’s de mons - health and education systems, contributed to trations against the LDP government took place. an increase in life expectancy, which reached People demanded further commitment by the almost 80 years by the beginning of the 1980’s, government to improve social and health rights. one of the longest in the world (Cacabelos, 1996). At the same time, what had been previously

26 1 considered until then as a homogenous society Economic problems were not the only (90% of the population considered themselves characteristic of the lost decade. Protests and middle class) began to change and those disagreements with the government led to segments who had business dealings with numerous demonstrations and an overall feeling foreign companies improved their social status. of pessimism and social unrest never seen in This caused the first revolts to take place since Japan before, the Tokugawa shogun (Tsutsui, 2008; Inoguci, The education system which had been 2009). considered the mainstay of the Japanese miracle Another outstanding feature of the time was the began to show its weaknesses. At the beginning financial policies carried out by the Japanese of the 1990’s unemployment increased from government under USA pressure. The reva - 2% to 3.5% and university graduates no longer lorization of the yen caused a speculation spiral. had jobs guaranteed (Bustelo, 2009). This led The resulting economic bubble burst at the to generalized discontent among the young and resulted in an increase in juvenile suicide and beginning of the 1990’s causing Japan to enter psychological illnesses such as depression and a period of recession. hikikomori among others (Mathews, 2007). As a result of the economic situation, Japanese Likewise another pillar of Japanese society, the businesses began to relocate their factories in family, began to crumble; the divorce rate China and in south Asian countries. This period increased and family roles, especially that of coincided with the boom of the sogo shosha in women, were questioned (Christian, 2006; Europe and the increase in Japanese migration Takeda and Mathews, 2009). towards the West (White et al, 2006). In addition to this, there was an increase in The 1990’s will be remembered by the Japanese juvenile delinquency and violent demons - as the lost decade. Japan changed from being trations. One such example was the Japanese underground attack of 1995 which resulted in one of the most powerful economies worldwide 13 deaths and more than a hundred wounded. to being one of the first world’s countries with the highest domestic debts. This came about In that same year, Japan suffered the conse - firstly because money was injected into private quences of one of the worst earthquakes in enterprises and secondly because Keynesian history. The earthquake in the Kobe region type polices were adopted by the LPD (Tsutsui, resulted in more than 6400 deaths and 2008). uncountable material damage. The sum of all

27 Social and kind networks among Japanese migrants in Spain | Framework

these events highlighted the lack of capacity by decided to adopt a centre stand and reviewed the Japanese authorities to react quickly, and many of the policies previously carried out by this led to an increasing lack of confidence on the party. the part of the Japanese people in their political At the end of the XX century and beginning of leaders (Tsutsui, 2008). the XXI a boom of Japanese culture broke out The second half of the XX Century was marked across Europe. Authors such as Craig (2005) by both great advances and painful setbacks. and Tsutsui (2008) consider this the last element Nevertheless, the events of the 1990’s served to give form to the new Japanese identity. During to question a series of ethical and moral issues this period, anime and manga claimed to be an relating to Japanese identity (Tsuitsi, 2008). The alternative to American culture headed by the economical debacle together with the arousing film industry. In this way, Japan succeeded in of China led the Japanese to question their creating its own identity which differentiated supremacy in Asia and to investigate the errors itself not only from the West but also from other which had brought about this situation emerging Asiatic countries. (FUNDESCO, 1994; Craig, 2005). Together with the development of this new The attitude adopted after the Kobe earthquake identity, a strong nationalist sentiment was born. in 1995 became a model for the new Japanese At present, the Japanese society is proud of its identity. The reconstruction of the city united cultural identity, and proof of this is the large the population in such a way that criticism of number of Japanese companies that have the polarization of social levels was no longer exported their culture in the form of commercial in the limelight. Likewise, the various political products such as computers, fashion, art etc. powers united efforts with the population to together with intangible objects such as the Zen such an extent that they worked together in the philosophy, reiki massage or theme (Japanese) reconstruction of the affected areas. restaurants (Tsutsui, 2008). The success of Japanese culture both within and outside the Just as a new concept of national identity based country has served as an impulse to avoid on the homogeneousness and solidarity of the economic stagnation in Japan (Craig, 2005). Japanese population was forming (Takeuchi, 2012), conservative groups appeared that This new form of Japanese auto definition has blamed the current situation on a loss of reached all spheres of Japanese society. The traditional values. Therefore, the LDP go - young and changing social values were initially vernment, headed by Koizumi Junichiro, blamed for the situation during the recession.

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But today these events are considered as just only option and it can be said that we are one more step, no more different than what has currently in the middle of a transition period happened in other European countries. where the image of women as minders and housewives is no longer valid and is An example of the unity and social homo - transforming into that of “salary women”. geneousness brought about by the new idea of what being “Japanese” represents, can be seen During the beginning of the XXI Century, the in the aftermath of the Fukushima disaster of aforementioned changes, together with the 2011. After a series of earthquakes and a nuclear phenomenon of globalization, has led to a slow threat, people from all over the country went but continuous exodus of Japanese who are to the disaster area to help in reconstruction now migrating toward the West in search of work. Likewise many had to abandon the other ways of life and new personal and Fukushima region and sought refuge in the south professional goals. For this reason, and following where thousands of locals offered them their the previous three waves of migration (South homes gratuitously. Simultaneously Japanese America 1885, China and Korea 1910, the West ex-patriots mobilized themselves to raise funds 1970), the first decades of this new century may for the disaster victims. mark the beginning of a fourth migratory exodus. Despite the unity and stability reached at the end of the 1990’s, two pillars considered as key factures during the “Japanese economic 2 | the bases of the Japanese community miracle”, social and family stability, and the in europe: From the Sogo Shosha education system, have also undergone to the XXi Century readjustment to fit in with the new social context. Japan continues to be one of the most One of the most widespread myths about the peaceful and safe countries in the world. Japanese community in the West is that it is However there are more and more protests and entirely made up of top executives and elite demonstrations about things like the care of the politicians. Although much research de - elderly, working conditions and environmental monstrates the contrary, this idea which is so conservation. established owes its origin to the Sogo Shosha, The family model ha s also changed. Japanese or Japanese business companies, which set up women are much more independent than in Europe during the second half of the XX before. For many of them, marriage is not the Century.

29 Social and kind networks among Japanese migrants in Spain | Framework

The first companies arrived towards the end of companies in Spain in 1962 but they had little the XIX Century and established themselves in effect on migration when compared to the two Paris and Lyon. In 1870 following their limited main neuralgic points of business in Europe success, they decided to move to the United which were Dusseldorf and London. Kingdom and Germany. This time, the Sogo Shosha, who set up in London, Berlin and Despite the rapid growth of Japanese multi - Bremen, obtained better results than previously. nationals, it was not until the end of the 1980’s In 1890 London was consolidated as the that the Japanese population began to gain European city with the highest Japanese protagonism in Europe. During the 1980’s and population and became a stepping stone 90’s the migration mode changed slowly from between Japan and Europe. that of individuals to the migration of whole families. In other words, the Japanese who came The outbreak of the Second World War, together to England, Germany, etc. no longer came alone, with the following reconstruction of the country and Japanese companies relocated their emplo - led to a considerable decrease in the number of yees abroad together with their entire families. immigrants. It was not until the end of the 1950’s and the beginning of the 1960’s that the Japanese Likewise at this time the large multinationals population in Europe began to increase again, began to have a “magnetic”(calling) effect and thanks to the reestablishment of the Sogo Shosha. attracted small companies and independent entrepreneurs whose businesses were oriented With this new attempt to set up Japanese in - to providing certain goods and services that the dustry in Europe, the Sogo Shosha decided to host country could not such as for example implement structural changes in both production restaurants, entertainment and advisors, etc. and organization which would enable the trans - formation of what had previously been small During the period 1985-1995 three events took businesses with Japanese capital, to extensive place that encouraged the migration of Japanese modern international corporations with to Europe. branches spread throughout the whole of Europe 1. Following the investment of Japanese capital The 1960’s was considered the golden age of in German companies during the 1970´s, a Japanese industry with headquarters and large proportion of Germany’s industry fell subsidiaries being set up in Russia, Hungry, into the hands of the Japanese, so much so Bulgaria, Australia, Italy, Ireland, Norway and that Dusseldorf became the Japanese capital Sweden. There were already some Japanese of Europe at the end of the 1980´s.

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2. The second event which attracted Japanese immigrant changes from the end of the 1990’s emigrants to Europe took place in the United onwards. Little by little the figure of the Kingdom. The Japanese received subsidies businessman begins to mix with that of other to set up new companies in so called “green Japanese who go to the West for other reasons areas” (areas with little industrial activity). and with other interests. Together with the creation of new compa - nies, the growth of the Japanese economic sector during the 1980´s made London an 3 | Current Japanese migration factors ideal place to carry out business and make capital investments. Thus London soon The push-pull factor is one of the most studied replaced Dusseldorf as the most important variables when analysing migratory pheno - city for the Japanese in Europe. menon because it can provide information on 3. In the mid 1990´s France once again became the motives which lead a particular group to an interesting place for the Japanese to emigrate, or the reason why a country attracts migrate to. However on this occasion the a large number of immigrants. main feature of the Japanese who arrived Pull factors are usually related to specific social, was that they were independent professionals political and economic conditions which make not linked to any company. They were mainly a country more attractive from an immigrant’s teachers, artists and small businessmen who point of view. On the other hand the push factors emigrated for personal reasons. Nevertheless are those which motivate the population to many ended up working in professions tied abandon their country of origin. As can be to Japanese multinationals such as translators, observed both factors make up the two faces Japanese teachers, etc. of the same coin, one refers to immigration (pull) and the other to emigration (push). This third wave (of migration) can be considered a first approximation to what would be the Normally pull factors are associated to living Japanese migratory model of the XXI Century conditions, better opportunities etc. which are because, apart from business men and pro - seen in economically developed countries fessionals, there was an increase both in the whereas the push factors reflect the social and number of Japanese students in foreign economic situation in underdeveloped countries. universities and of “cultural immigrants” (artists, However, this relationship has to be revised in intellectuals, etc.). The profile of the Japanese the case of the Japanese, because as will be dis -

31 Social and kind networks among Japanese migrants in Spain | Framework

cussed later, subjective variables such as the search an important part not only in the development for a specific lifestyle or personal interests may of Japanese society, but also in the shared social be considered more important than main taining representation of foreign countries in Japan a comfortable economic and social position. (Benedict, 1964; Goodman, Peach, Takenaka and White, 2003; Fujita, 2004; Shiori, 2006; One of the pull factors shared by the majority Goy, 2008). of immigrants is the social imaginary (or social representative) of the host society. This concept The press and the radio were very popular refers to the way in which the features of cultures among the Japanese during the war. However which are different from one’s own are perceived with the arrival of television (1950) and the and interpreted, and are usually generated by distribution of the first leisure time magazines, “actors” external to the society, such as the the Japanese began to receive news and media for example (Jodelet, 1991). This results information about western countries, mainly in the creation of mental structures shared by the USA, UK and Germany. the immigrant population in an attempt to Coinciding with, and parallel to the media understand and explain the behaviour of the boom, what was to be later known as the host society, and which in turn determines their “Japanese Miracle” was beginning to take form. way of understanding and interacting with it. Thanks to this Japan went from being a colony This is why knowledge of the push and pull with an almost feudal social structure to become factors, which influence the decision to one of the richest countries in the world in little emigrate, allow us to obtain more information over a century. which enables us to understand the migration During the period of maximum economic process and the way in which the immigrants growth (1955-1967), and with the help of media interrelate and organize themselves within the advertising, societies such as that of USA and host society. the UK became models to be imitated as they were considered the epitome of success and modernism (Hendry, 1987). Even today this idea 3.1 Push and Pull Factors still prevails in Japanese society. The idea they w Attraction (Pull Factors) hold of the West is that of a modern society full of opportunities. It is precisely t hese opportu - Since the invasion of Japan by the USA during nities that act as a lure and one of the most the Second World War, the media has pldaye important pull factors for those who search for

32 1 an alternative way of life away from the heart (2003) the re-siting of Japanese industry does of a society with very strict social rules and not follow the same pattern as that of the USA standards. and Europe. For Western multinationals, setting up a factory means only physical displacement The possibility of bettering one’s own human from one place to another, whereas for the capital and social position is one of the factors Japanese it requires both physical and structural which encourages the Japanese to migrate to displacement, that is to say it also includes the the West (Cornelius et al., 2003; Fujita, 2009). relocation of management, technical personnel The geography of Japan (forest and marshland such as engineers and maintenance staff, and form two thirds of the country) and the lack of production controllers. This is why many natural resources mean that the country’s companies look for Japanese who are already economics is based on the import of raw residents to occupy these posts or to act as materials and the export of goods from the car intermediaries or interpreters. industry and electronics. The result of this economic model is that the labour market values Lastly, for the Japanese, aspects such as quality people who dominate foreign languages, who of life, climate, tradition or culture, are included have lived or studied abroad or who have work among the pull factors. Traditionally those who experience in foreign companies. decide to emigrate for one of these reasons For this reason many of the Japanese who usually go to the USA or the UK basically want to emigrate with the mind of returning because of the influence of two factors, the first to Japan, centre their migration project en being the historical link between the countries learning another language, gaining experience, and secondly because English is the most knowledge and abilities that distinguish them widespread foreign language. Despite this, from the rest of their compatriots, and in fields countries such as Italy, France or Spain are relating to dealing with people from different becoming more popular among the Japanese, cultures. and more and more decide to emigra te there. However not all Japanese emigrate with the Although Spain has never been one of the most intention of returning to their country. For some popular destinations for the Japanese emigrant, of them, staying in a foreign country indefinitely the situation has been changing in the last few on a permanent basis ma y mean opening the years. The similarity between Spanish and door to Japanese companies with headquarters Japanese phonetics, together with the increase in the host country. As defended by Ben-Air in the number of Latin-Americans settling in

33 Social and kind networks among Japanese migrants in Spain | Framework

Japan, has caused Spanish to replace other the apparition of hikikomori (youngsters who languages such as Italian, French or German as retreat to their rooms to isolated themselves and the second most popular foreign western avoid contact with other people), futuko language studied. Apart from the language, (children of primary age who do not go to Spanish culture is another pull factor. People school) or ijime (extreme cases of bullying at such as Gaudi, Goya and Lorca, together with school) (Taylor, 2006). Mathews (2007) points modern day artists and emerging figures such out that this pressure is due in part to inter - as Joaquin Cortes or Ferran Adrià, attract the generational conflict in the heart of Japanese attention of many Japanese who imagine a future society. Mathews believes that Japanese social beyond the borders of their own country. order may eventually rupture due to the Likewise, the success and popularity that some generation gap between the young born towards Japanese have obtained in the field of flamenco the end of the XX century and those who made (Ishimitsu Takazuka) or bullfighting (Nono Taira), the “economic miracle” of 1960-1980 possible. have contributed to the image they have of Spain as a country open to the East and which offers The cause of this conflict is the change in sig - opportunities for personal development beyond nificance of certain concepts such as for exam - the labour market. ple “sekentei” (世間体, appearance), “gaman” (我 慢 , perseverance) or j “jōshikii” (常 識 , w Expulsion (Push Factors) common sense) amongst the young (Mathews, The image that the West has of Japan is that of 2007). A sector of the young Japanese consider a dichotomous society where geishas, samurais, these values part of the past, that they are no 3D TV and mobile phones that can programme longer positives elements of Japanese society a Blue-Ray device from one end of the country and that they now form a barrier which limits to the other, live in peace and harmony. their freedom, imposing a way of life which they do not agree with, Although it is true that this duality forms part of the charm that has led many from the West Nevertheless, these and other push factors which to become interested in Japanese culture, the influence the Japanese migratory exodus, such union between the past and the future has not as perceived status or future prospects, need to always been so beneficial. Excessive social be analysed from the point of view of gender, control or the internal conflict between Giri as noticeable differences between men and (moral duty) and Ninjou (personal desire) are woman have been identified (Beltran, 2006; some of the dichotomies that have influenced Sakai, 2003).

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One of the most significant changes among and family after having children, and others in Japanese emigrants in the last decades of the attaining posts that require a high level of res - XX century has been an increase in the number ponsibility despite their training and education. of women (Sakai, 2003). This is partly due to the fact that Japanese women in the 18-30 age The young male sector is also affected by these bracket see emigration as a way to personal push factors. They are expected to form a family improvement, something which would be and become responsible for their own economic difficult to achieve in their own country (Ono status. In this sense, authors such as White and Piper, 2004; Takeda and Mathews, 2009). (2006), Cornelius et al. (2003) and Hendry Various factors difficult a woman’s own (1987) consider that the social standing and development: first of all, the family expects a status of both men and their families are directly woman to fulfil the role of mother and wife, linked to the company for which they work. In doing housework, looking after children and other words, when the company is more also on some occasions the elderly. Although important and the higher the position held, the there has been an equal opportunity act since higher w ill be the social standing acquired by 1945, in the labour market, typically a woman’s both the employee and his family. For this reason work is limited to attending the public, and to many parents inscribe their children in backing up posts occupied by men (secretaries, extracurricular courses (学習塾, Gakushuujuku) simultan eous translation, etc.). to prepare them for admission to secondary school and university. In the Japanese education Another push factor to bear in mind, when system pupils sit exams to test their level of considering women, is social pressure. For a knowledge at the end of each academic cycle large proportion of the Japanese population, from primary school to university entrance level. living in a society which places value on These exams also determine their access to belonging to a certain sector, or to a privileged secondary schools and university. The most social position above one’s personal merit, is important exams are koukounyuugskushiken now becoming a recurrent push factor. Sakkai (高 校 入 学 試 験 ) in secondary school and (2003) mentions the testimonies of Japanese senta shaken (高校入学試験) and niji shaken women who consider themselves forced to (二 次 試 験 ) which allow entranced to the emigrate because they see their professional different Japanese universities. and personal future governed by the strict social norms that rule Japanese society. For example From this point of view, Ben-Air (2003) considers women find it very difficult to combine work the model of Japanese enterprise one of the

35 Social and kind networks among Japanese migrants in Spain | Framework

push factors to bear in mind when studying and by the expectations that this has generated Japanese migration. Ben-Air analyses the internal among possible future immigrants. functioning of Japanese multinationals and gives Based on these two premises, the social a special mention to advantages that the period imaginary and prospects for the future in the spent in overseas subsidiaries represents for host society, White (2003) divides the group of workers as it is a way of increasing social capital Japanese immigrants into two subcategories: both on a personal and company level. As an incentive for staff to spend some time abroad, 1. “Company men” made up by management multinationals offer workers higher positions and people in high positions within Japanese on their return, and this therefore becomes a multinationals, who for a perio d of time are way of promotion within the company. sent to subsidiaries in the West. Large cities such as Paris, London, Milan or New York Another push factor to bear in mind is the labour are the most frequent destinations. As the market (White, 2003; Fujita, 2009). In addition migratory project is short term, their ex - to the lack of job offers caused by the global pectations are based on gaining knowledge crisis and the economic recession that Japan and work experience. With respect to the has been facing since the 1990’s, working social Imaginary, Cohen (1977) believes that conditions (low wages, long working hours, as a result of the “environmental bubble” in etc.) also have to be considered. Many Japanese which this group lives (Japanese supermar - do not agree with them and more and more kets and schools) the difference in lifestyle people are considering emigration as a possible perceived by them is minimal as they have alternative. all the necessary services to maintain a lifestyle very similar to that of their country of origin. 3.2 Current Day Migratory Projects 2. “Voluntary emigrants” are those who The outlook for the future, not only from the contrary to the group of “company men” point of view of the migratory project of the decide to emigrate under their own initiative. Japanese, but also of that of other groups from Therefore both preliminary preparation (pre- countries such as Western Europe, South migratory phase) and the integration process America or even Africa (more individual (installation phase) are directly influenced freedom, new opportunities, etc.) may be by the idea that has been created of the host conditioned by the social imaginary of the West society. For authors such as Fujita (2004) or

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Ono and Piper (2004) this group of voluntary (children of Japanese immigrants who emigrants usually hold an idealistic vision undergo part of their education in Japan and of the host society, and therefore many of part in a foreign country) and has been those who experience the contrast between widely studied (Goodman; 2003). what they had imagined the situation to be and reality, decide to return to their country 2. Salary earners and self-employed. This group of origin and abandon their migratory project. is mainly composed of middle-class workers who reside in the host country on a To complement this, Fujita (2009) proposes five permanent basis, but who are geographically subcategories based on Japanese migratory mobile. Their economic activity is strongly strategies and their objectives: linked to Japanese companies either as employees of Japanese multinationals or as 1. Employees with high positions in Japanese self-employed professionals. The self- companies and civil servants. This subca - employed usually offer specialised services tegory is considered by Japanese immigrants that the indigenous population cannot supply as an elite group made up of people with a such as shops selling imported goods, bars, high level of training and who occupy specialised bookshops, consultants, etc. positions which gives them a high social (Nomura, 2006; White, 2006). status both in the host society and the country of origin. Apart from status, this group 3. Students. This is the most numerous and features two characteristics which distinguish geographically dispersed segment (Beltrán, them from the rest. First of all they have a 2003; 2005; 2006). This subgroup is perfectly structured migration project which generally made up of language and philology lasts between three and five years (in the students. However more and more are now case of civil servants it may be longer) and coming from other areas such as law, with very clear objectives and future business management, fine arts or health outlooks. Secondly, this project affects the related sciences. The majority of the students whole family nucleus (partner and children). are young 18-23 year olds from the upper- This immigration model has been studied middle class. In the last few years the number under different perspectives such as eco - of Japanese who arrive in the host country nomics, sociology and psychology, but with a student visa but with the intention of beyond any doubt the main interest in this entering the labour market is on the increase subcategory lies with the kikokushijo (Fujita, 2004; 2009; Shiori, 2006). In an

37 Social and kind networks among Japanese migrants in Spain | Framewo rk

attempt to obtain relative data, authors such group is that although they remain in close as Ono and Piper (2004), Walmsley and contact with the family nucleus during the Ahmed (2006), White (2006) and Dua (2007), whole of their migration project, via internet, propose various alternatives to distinguish telephone, etc., they usually enter into more between those who only want to use a relationships with the Spanish and other student visa to enter the country and those foreigners than do their fellow countrymen. who really intend to study. According to these authors the data which best reflects 5. Cultural Immigrants (Fujita2004; 2009). This reality are the official registers of Consulates subcategory of Japanese immigrants is made and Embassies together with the information up of young people in the 18-25 age group supplied by the Japanese foreign office. The who leave Japan to emigrate to countries latter provides the most reliable data as it such as England, USA or France for a double divides the emigrants, not according to their reason. First of all they want to widen their type of visa, but according to the time they knowledge and improve their abilities in the are resident abroad, and the reason why they field of music, dancing or acting. Secondly are in the country which may be: tourism, they want to gain experience abroad with short stays related to their job, posting to the aim of increasing their social capital so overseas subsidiaries, research, pre and post as to differentiate themselves from the rest university studies, training and work skills. of Japanese artists. One of the main diffe - rences between cultural immigrants and 4. Women. This segment has grown con si de - students is their level of training. The latter rably in the last decades. Authors such as Sato group is made up of university students or (1993), Ono and Piper (2004) and Takeda graduates who are specialising in order to and Matthews (2009) have called these gain a Master’s Degree whereas the cultural women “spiritual immigrants” or “lifestyle immigrants generally have middle grade im mi grants” as they consider their main education or come from schools of dancing objectives to be greater opportunities in the or acting. Education is one of the factors to labour market and reaching a lifestyle which bear in mind, as while university students would be difficult to maintain in their country enter relationships with their equals (other of origin. The majority are single middle-aged university students, qualified professionals, women with university degrees and stable etc.) and maintain a status similar to that employment in Japan inferior to their trai - which they held in Japan, the cultural ning. One of the main characteristics of this immigrants often feel they have lost power

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and status compared to their situation in Japan is considered one of the largest consumer Japan, as they often have to work illegally societies of the world, and from this point of or in jobs that require little or no skills such view, the migration phenomenon is no as in bars or “host clubs”. exception. Fujita (2009) emphasizes the commercialisation which has taken place with respect to emigration to the West. During the 3.3 Institutionalisation of the Migratory last two decades a large number of private Phenomenon companies have decided to focus their activity on possible future emigrants, as they consider As will be seen in Part Two “Migration and Social them new opportunities for both economic and Networks”, two of the main variables to bear territorial growth. in mind when studying migratory phenomenon are the push-pull factors and the various Proof of this are some of companies sub - migration models. Another aspect worth contracted by the sogo shosha which began to pointing out in the case of Japanese migration function as a bridge between Japan and the towards the West is the way in which it is carried West during the 1970’s and 1980’s, and the out. The migration process can be divided into small Japanese businesses who saw the two parts, the pre-migration phase and possibility to increase their market niche at the instalment (Chou, 2009) In the case of the end of the century coinciding with the boom Japanese the pre-migration phase is very of Anglo-Saxon culture in Japan. important as the majority of the immigrant population undertake some kind of preparation The franchise (chiyounoarukikata, before leaving the country. www.arukikata.co.jp) is a good example of this. During the 1980’s they began to publish In this section the role of private companies and European tourist guides. A decade later they public institutions during both the pre-migration increased their market, publishing books and phase and installation in the host country will guides for Japanese students interested in be studied, given that, according to authors such studying abroad. Today they have not only as White (2003) and Sakai (2003), throughout maintained this segment of the market, but they the history of Japanese migration to Europe and have jumped on the band-wagon of new the USA, these bodies have exercised great technology, offering software to Japanese social control over immigrants, conditioning resident overseas whereby they can find the the installation process in the host countries. latest information on services available to them

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in Europe, price comparisons for language these academies students receive training courses or leisure time activities available in similar to that which they will undergo in different cities. the host country and so apart from specific training, they also learn the language of the The self-teaching method is not the only option host country and slowly adapt to the available to prepare for leaving Japan. Fujita country’s customs. They also receive (2009) mentions the importance of agencies guidance on working abroad, etc. and government organisations as tools which help with previous preparation or the pre- 4. Official Institutions. Government agencies migratory phase. Emphasize is given to five such as the “Instituto Cervantes” or the different types: “British Council” also see potential immi - grants as a source of extra income. Apart 1. Travel Agencies. These companies no longer from services which are free of charge, such just offer tourism packages and have adapted as libraries offering didactic material or to the new demand for “cultural immersion” tourism guides, directors of foreign centres which, apart from offering tourism, include also give talks and seminaries in these other activities such as painting, language institutions on how to obtain work permits courses and dancing classes. and generally how to cope in the host 2. Training Centres. Schools dedicated to country. Likewise institutions such as the professional training such as hairdressing, “Japan-United States Educational Com - design or cookery are now offering the mission” offer translation services, document possibility to undertake part of their courses handling, inscriptions and matriculation for abroad. This option is becoming more those who are not fluent enough in the popular amongst the young especially as language of the host country. the centres organise permits and visas, 5. Sogo sosha. Even the multinationals have accommo dation, language courses, as well set up a network of goods and services for as assigning a reference person in the country of destiny who can orientate the student and those employees who are to be sent abroad. offer help if necessary. As in the case of government and teaching institutions, the multinationals offer services 3. Academies. As an alternative to professional to both those who have not yet migrated as training, centres dedicated to preparing for well as to those who are already in the host entrance examinations have sprung up. In country. For example there are Estate Agents

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who work for Japanese companies who offer foreign countries with the aim of providing the accommodation in the host country to same services as in Japan, and this ends up workers about to be transferred abroad. generating an economic and social structure which works in a similar fashion to that of Japan. The above are some of the examples that show A clear example is the construction of primary how the Japanese migratory phenomenon has and secondary schools where education based been able to generate new market niches within on the Japanese model is given exclusively in Japan. From a wider point of view, the benefits Japanese. of this sector can be considered more than just economic, as it provides its users (consumers) with solid support, while at the same time helping them with the preparation previous to 4 | Japanese communities in the host society the installation phase, something which may help avoid stressful situations, depression and Until the 1990’s the characteristics of Japanese isolation in the host society (Chou, 2009). communities in foreign countries were similar to those of the Industrial Revolution camps of In the same way, it can be shown how the the XIX century. However things have changed economic activity brought about by the since the end of the XX century with respect to migratory phenomenon does not only affect the their number, sex, age and interrelations with country of origin but it also has repercussions other groups. This is mainly due to the change in the host society (Bel tran, 2006). In the case in the new migration projects mentioned in the of Spain (Beltran, 2006), England and the USA previous section. (Fujita, 2009; White, 2003), the Japanese From a global point of view, Sakai (2003) community, faced with the impossibility of believes that immigrants can be divided into accessing certain goods and services in these two distinct types of community; a) those who countries, have generated their own market to are controlled by formal bodies (institutions, meet their demands which are mainly linked branches of companies from the home country, to leisure time activities such as bars, karaokes, etc.) and b) those controlled by informal bodies restaurants, food shops, etc. However what (ethnic enclaves, ex tended families in the host differentiates the Japanese immigrant is that country, etc.). apart from the individual integration process, they undergo a process of institutional isolation. Despite changes in the composition of the This occurs when Japanese bodies are set up in Japanese immigrant community, Sakai (2003)

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maintains that the control and influence of 1. The creation of a wide network of formal Japanese companies still play an important role, support which covers various fields such as especially in the installation phase as they offer fluency in foreign languages, looking for all types of goods and services to their employment, solving bureaucratic problems, employees. In fact this could be very beneficial accommodation searches, etc. at the onset as it reduces the effect of cultural 2. The opening of commercial centres, hair - shock, but in the medium/long term it can lead dressers, food shops, etc., supported by to the immigrant population becoming depen - Japanese companies and official institutions dent on them. helps slow down the installation phase, The Japanese government and related official reducing at first sight the differences between institutions form another example of the the home country and the host society. influence that various organisations have on the 3. New market niches are created for those Japanese immigrant population. Since the end Japanese who see emigration as an alter - of the 1980’s they have set up offices near large native to their situation in their home country. Japanese multinational companies. Examples As pointed out by Machimura (2003) it is are the Japanese Foundation, the Japanese more and more common to find leisure Business Association and the embassies or activities, travel agencies, lawyers’ offices in consulates who apart from their usual functions places such as Los Angeles, New York or (giving advice, helping with visas, etc.) also London, run by immigrants who target the keep a register of the Japanese population living Japanese population living in the host country. in the country, subsidise schools for Japanese children or act as a go-between for the Japanese Despite these benefits, Sakai (2003) and other in the host country and institutions such as the researchers such as White (2003) and Beltran Ministry of Education (MEXT) or the Ministry of (2004), warn about the negative consequences Work (Labour). which may result from this community model, especially for those who emigrated in search of Sakai believes that the strategic location of these a new way of life (cultural immigrants, women bodies offers a series of advantages to the and young people among others): Japanese who are already resident abroad and a source of opportunities for those who are 1. Social isolation with respect to the host thinking of emigrating. Among the benefits, the society as a result of the “environmental author gives special attention to: bubble” (Cohen, 1977). In the case of the

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Japanese community, this phenomenon the host society. A common case among requires special attention because apart from Japanese immigrants are those who come to isolation there is also a high index of Spain intending to work teaching Japanese, geographical mobility among the members and because of the difficulty in finding who make up ethnic enclaves (Takeda and students or a suitable teaching post, opt for Matthews, 2009). This supposes an additional going to work for Japanese companies as obstacle to the formation of help groups interpreters or secretaries. among fellow countrymen. This model hinders the formation of informal support networks, as on the one hand it impedes 4.1 Types of Japanese communities relati onships between the Japanese and the found in the West native population, and on the other long lasting relationships between the Japanese Some of the factors which have conditioned the themselves because of their short-term stays evolution of the Japanese overseas population in any particular region. are political and economic changes, relation - ships with the host society, second generation 2. It makes personal objectives hard to obtain. immigrants, etc. Today we can identify three White (2003) considers the road that the different types of Japanese communities in the Japanese migration phenomenon is taking West. and believes that it is presently undergoing a transition period in which there is a steady 1. Concentrated Communities. This model was growth in the number of people who established in the West in the middle of the emigrate because of personal issues with 1980’s with the arrival of the first Japanese respect to those who do so for corporative companies (sogo shosha). The main features or family reasons (for example, woman and of these communities are the high education their children who emigrate because their standards of their members and very poor husbands have been sent abroad). Never - communication with the indigenous popu - theless, the weight of Japanese institutions lation. In fact this sociological model is very and multinationals in the host society cause common today in Asiatic countries such as many immigrants to reconsider their China or Singapore, and although its objectives given that the opportunities they frequency is diminishing in the West, it can offer the immigrant to stay in the host country still be found in various places. Glebe (2003) are very much greater than those offered by cites Dusseldorf as such an example and

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refers to the high degree of homogeneity of brought up in Japan and who have returned the community and social isolation. As Glebe to the USA (kibai), employees of international points out, the majority of the group intend companies, students and cultural immigrants. to stay for a given period of time before Machimura (2003) points out that the returning to Japan. Thus their arrival in the coexistence of Japanese born in Japan and host country is marked by a lack of those educated in other countries has led to preparation and a poor knowledge of society conflict especially over issues relating to and area where they are going to stay. This education, values passed down to the second leads to a situation of mutual dependency generation, the lack of interest on the part between the company and their immigrant of both the Japanese and American employees. With respect to where they live, authorities with respect to the situation of Glebe specifically mentions their concen - immigrants who live in the USA on a tration in well off areas of the city and permanent basis (iman). Machimura likewise it has been normal to set up leisure describes the situation between both these zones, shops and other services (schools, groups in the city of Los Angeles as a Status health centres, etc.) there which target the Conflict between “pure” and “cross bred” Japanese population. This social model is Japanese. This is why in cities such as Paris clearly an example of what Cohen (1977) or New York one can find various sub-clusters describes as an “environmental bubble” of Japanese population in different areas, where the Japanese form a microclimate such as Little Tokyo in Los Angeles where whose features and lifestyle are as similar as businesses and services are run by the nisei, possible to those of the country of origin, residential areas in the North of Paris where and thus they margin themselves from the business men and government officials live, host society. or the suburbs of New York where the ninbei are trying to establish themselves on a 2. International communities. The extreme permanent basis (in the host society). heterogeneity of the Japanese forming this group differentiates it from concentrated 3. Communities in expansion. This model communities. They are usually found in large shares its origins with the communities linked cities such as Los Angeles or Paris. One of to multinationals. However in this case they the main features is the coexistence of were able to break the environmental bubble second and third generation Japanese (nisei, which in turn favoured relationships between sansei), descendants of American-Japanese the Japanese and the native population.

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Examples of this type of community are to model. For example, in the case of be found in cities such as Barcelona (Beltrán, communities in expansion, there does not 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006) or London (White, seem to be any social class conflict, which 2003) where the first sogo shosha were in part is due to the fact that in Europe the established. Today the composition of the nisei are still a minority when compared to various subgroups of Japanese who make the number of Japanese in the multinational up this community is quite dispar. Whilst communities in the USA. those immigrants whose migratory project Each of the different types of Japanese is linked to multinational companies community in the West has evolved (employees in top positions, subcontracted independently depending on the political events self-employed) enjoy a comfortable position and social changes that they have experienced both within their own group and the host in the host society. society, others, such as students, cultural immigrants, entrepreneurs, etc. find them - Paul White (2003) considers that the expansion selves in an unstable situation as they are model observed in Europe needs special unable to legalise their situation or find it attention for two reasons. Firstly drastic changes difficult to get into certain jobs, etc. One of are taking place in its composition (arrival of the main differences between the trans - young people, a high proportion of women, national and expanding communities is work expectations not connected to Japanese (related to frequency.) the number of multinationals, etc.), and secondly because of Japanese members The first group (the the three, it is the predominant model observed Japanese population) is quite numerous in the West. Therefore its growth could have whilst the latter is formed up of relatively serious effects on demographic (population small clusters, although it is undergoing a rejuvenation) and political (new legislation phase of rapid expansion (White, 2003; governing immigration) levels, not to mention Beltrán, 2005). Likewise relationships Within the labour market (qualified and experienced the various groups varies according to the workers), etc.

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Diagram 1. Characteristics of the different models of Japanese immigrant communities in the Western countries

Concentrated International Communities Communities communities in expansion Influence of multinational business companies l High High Medium Economic situation related to business High High Medium Influence of Japanese institutions High High High Population’s homogeneity High Low Medium Japanese permanent residents High High Low Concentration of small Japanese business Low High Medium Sources of formal support High High Low Sources of informal support Low Medium High Conflicts within the Japanese community Low High Low Conflict outside the Japanese community Low Low Low Relationship among Japanese High Medium Medium Relationship among Japanese and locals Low Medium High

Own elaboration based on various studies compiled in the book Global Japan: The Experience of Japan’s New Immigrant and Overseas Communities (Goodman et al 2003.).

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Diagram 2. Weaknesses, threats, strengths and opportunities of the immigrant Japanese depending on the type of community in which they are integrated into the host society

Concentrated International Communities Communities communities in expansion Sources in developing formal support networks Social isolation (foundations, institutions, etc.) Weaknesses Dependence on a Ethnic conflicto Entering to the labor market Japanese Company Relation between Japanese multinationals and the developing of individual personal projects Reducing culture clash in the first phase Formal support networks Planning the migration of the integration process (embassy, consulates, process during the Strengths associations) Formal support networks pre-migratory phase (business) Entering to the labor market Social equality Social stratification within Difficulties in the integration the Japanese community process (language, customs, etc.) Threats Difficultie to creat solid support networks Isolation of Japanese Isolation of Japanese community itself community itself Higher opportunities to Bidirectional relationships create solid support networks between Japanese More likely to achieve and other groups Success of family migration Opportunities individual goals More likely to achieve project Heterogeneous population individual goals (more areas in which to Polyvalent informal support establish relationships) networks

* Own elaboration based on various studies compiled in the book Global Japan: The Experience of Japan’s New Immigrant and Overseas Communities (Goodman et al 2003.

47 part two The Real Academia de la Lengua Española (RAE) the official Spanish language authority, gives a fairly aseptic definition of immigration, "Action MIGRATION and effect (result of) of moving from one country to another to settle there (establish oneself), the AND SOCIAL geographical displacement of individuals or NETWORKS groups, usually for economic or social reasons". Although it is obvious that migration consists of the transfer of people from one place to another, the underlying framework of theories and concepts of this ever more frequent phenomenon, has made it a very interesting field of study and thanks to the application of a multidisciplinary approach, it is possible to get to know the true situation of both the people who emigrate, and the changes that take place in the host society.

The desire to address the migration process from a scientific point of view has led to research being focused more and more on specific objectives, such as "The integration of second generation immigrants in Almería: a case of fragmented pluralism" (Checa and Arjona, 2009). From an operative point of view this approach can offer significant advantages as it helps optimise available social resources, but even so, one must not forget that there are certain features common to all studies covering the broad field of migration. For example, regardless of origin or destination, the whole migration process follows more or less a

48 1 common path, starting with a project plan, the especially in the field of social sciences such act of migration itself, etc. as social psychology, sociology or anthropology among others. Not in vain is it becoming more The next step is to discuss the common factors and more frequent to find multidisciplinary in the aforementioned path, via literary reviews. groups who study immigrants from different To do this, we will follow the scheme proposed points of view such as gender, work envi - by Chou, Kee-Lee, (2009) in which the migration ronment, family reunification, etc. Nevertheless, process is divided into two phases: pre-migration although many recognise the need to carry out and installation (settlement). longitudinal investigation in order to study This model was chosen for several reasons. certain aspects in depth, such as the process of Firstly, as stated by Fujita (2009) and Chou installation, integration, or acculturation, etc. (2009), migration does not start when the person there are only a few papers published which arrives at his destination, but rather when have studied the migratory phenomenon from preliminary preparation takes place. This, a global point of view. together with one’s personal experiences in life and the conditions under which one emigrates, The very definition of immigration indicates that will influence integration in the host society. we are facing a two-dimensional dynamic These authors consider migration a dynamic process, and that we have to take these process involving a gradual adaptation to dimensions into consideration when studying different situations. Secondly, this model immigration, firstly because the conce pt has a highlights the versatility and simplicity with spatial aspect centered on those places where which this process is discussed. the integration phase is carried out, and secondly because it refers to a time span which The division into two phases, common to all goes from when a person decides to abandon groups (pre-migration and installation), allows his place of origin until he eventually settles the distinctive traits of each community to be down in some other locality. easily identified, by applying the same schematics. The first dimension is particularly important because often it is not borne in mind that the 5 | the Migration path integration process can be repeated in different places over a period of time and does not always The phenomenon of international immigration occur only in one spot. This occurs frequently in Spain is beginning to become very important in Spain, for example among farm labourers

49 Social and kind networks among Japanese migrants in Spain | Framework

who travel the country at different harvest times The installation phase is considered to take or those who work in the hotel industry who place ove r a very wide period of time (Ritsner, change their place of work according to the Ponizovsky and Ginath, 1997) and is divided season. Fujita (2009) points out that geo - into three subcategories: a) arrival, b) adaptation graphical displacement within the host country or settling down and c) co-existence. This is also very common among the Japanese who systematic framework helps the sequential emigrate to the USA or Europe, their first analysis of the key points of successful destination usually being a large city such as immigration. New York or London, before finally moving to other localities which are more in alignment with the objectives of their migration project. 5.1 Pre-Migratory Phase

Referring to a dynamic process obviates the The bases and objectives which will guide the importance of a time factor. However one of future development of the migration project, be the main difficulties facing researchers is its it of a single person or a whole family, are span.The migratory process does not last a given defined during the pre-migratory phase. period of time but varies with respect to one’s Paradoxically, and despite its importance, very own social and personal factors, etc. few studies have investigated its effect during the settling down or installation process in the host society. Diagram 3. Outline of Japanese migration trajectory to western countries Researching into the importance of planning the migration project and the effect it can have on the subsequent stages, Chou Kee-Lee (2009) gives a special mention to the number of families who have integration problems either on a personal or family level, precisely because they did not make a plan. The author refers to the difficulty in bonding with the host society or the friction between parents and children resulting from the difference in values and behaviour in the host society with respect to the country of origin.

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As Chou Kee-Lee indicates, knowledge of the lapping of these phases because from the onset social and cultural background of the host of their arrival they form part of a group of family society, before leaving the country of origin, or friends and thus the initial processes of settling greatly improves the possibility of a successful in and co-existence occur simultaneously. migration project. Authors such as Garcia Borego (2005), Portes (2006), and Ávila Molero 1. Arrival (2008) mention other equally valid alternatives such as counting on a person at their destination Ristner et al (1997) consider that this phase lasts or knowing about other people’s experiences, from the moment the person arrives in the host factors which can make the integration process society until a certain level of stability and easier and alleviate the stressful episodes which familiarity with their surroundi ngs is reached. occur during the settling down phase. This first sub-phase is very important because if it is completed satisfactorily, the possibilities of a successful migratory project greatly increase 5.2 Installation Phase and at the same time it helps avoid stressful situations. As previously mentioned this second phase of the migration process can be divided into three According to Markus and Kitayama (1991) and sub-categories: 1) arrival, 2) adaptation and 3) Chou (2009) the key factors for adequate co-existence. Although they are treated development of the arrival process are family independently, it is worth mentioning that they cohesion and social support. However these do not necessarily occur in sequence or causally, authors believe that there are cultural differences but may occur simultaneously depending on which may lead to a re-evaluation of the initial the situation. objectives in the measure that the contrast in values, ideals or the way in which the host An example can be found among those who society operates becomes more patent. For undertake an individual project without a example they indicate that immigrants from contact in the country of origin, before western types of culture tend to adjust their migrating. In such cases the sub phases may objectives on more individualistic or occur rather sequentially. On the other hand independent values, whereas those from Asiatic for those emigrants (e.g. family reunification) countries keep very close ties with their social who leave their country of origin with a contact networks and family. This means that in many in the host society there is usually an over - cases, the first group set their aims on achieving

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personal objectives, and that the latter centre 2. Adaptation their migration project on group-based objec - tives. For example immigrants from Eastern Europe Many studies are to be found in scientific and Latin-America when reconsidering their literature on the sub-phase of adaptation. For project, believe that they will have more chance authors such as Ritsner et al. (1977) the of success if they leave the rest of their family immigrant population goes through several in their home land, or, from the onset, opt for adaptation processes which may cause strain a temporary separation from the family group on a personal, family or social level. There are until they meet their aims. On the other hand, two periods which require special attention. groups such as the Chinese or Taiwanese usually The first takes place between 3 and 18 months have a more long lasting and defined project after arriving in the country and may last up to which include objectives such as the settling 3 to 5 years. The main characteristics are identity down of the extended family unit which usually problems, anxiety, demotivation, etc. and are includes second and third degree relations. caused by the expectations and the notions that existed about the host country before leaving Both these models have their pros and cons. In the country of origin (Chou, 2009). This problem the first place, those groups with a temporary occurs in the migration project of both migration project tend to show low levels of individuals and groups (family, friends, and integration and to create strong links with people chain migration). The second period begins after of the same nationality. This model also has its overcoming the problems of the first and advantages such as maintaining ties with the generally originates from problems within the family that remain in the country of origin or family, such as readapting to the lifestyle of the the development of one’s social and human host society as a family member, or adaptation capital. problems of some of the new arrivals to the On the other hand, those groups who arrive extended family group, etc. This second period with the intention of carrying out a long term is especially important among transnational project have various advantages over the short families who regroup adolescent family term group, especially with respect to adaptation members (Callaghan and de Pedro, 2010) or an and integra tion. However the main disadvan - immigrant who joins an indigenous family unit, tages which they suffer are cultural shock as in these cases both the roles and norms for related, for example, the loss of typical features living together have to be adjusted to new of the country of origin, identity conflicts, etc. circumstances.

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The relationship that the immigrant has with his 2004; Gonzálvez, 2007; Sáiz, 2007). Research environment during this sub-phase is not provides proof of this and shows that after constant and changes according to events that members of the same family have been occur. Molina (2008) points out that this separated for a long period of time, reunion is phenomenon can change in two directions, not always a simple process. Due to the absence regression or evolution. Regression refers to of the father/mother figure in the country of those groups that become progressively more origin, children often refuse to acknowledge “inbred”, incorporating more and more people their parents as such when they are reunited, of the same nationality in detriment to the mainly because during the period of separation indigenous population or immigrants from other the role of the mother/father was taken on by countries. This can result from the creation of grandparents, aunts, uncles, etc. restrictive ties with ethnic associations or groups of a strong ideological nature and is usually Among the Asiatic community and especially caused by events such as marriage, birth of a among the Chinese the term “ banana children” child or family reunification, a time when is used to refer to those children who have either support is often sought from those closest. been born outside China and have grown up among indigenous friends and companions, or The support network that evolves through time those who arrived in the host country very young is that which gains ethnic diversity, that it to and did not have time to assimilate the norms say, it becomes more heterogenic as people of and customs of their country of origin. different nationalities are included. Working outside the home, attending courses, certain An example of this phenomenon can be found leisure time activities and sport help a foreigner in the study carried out by Leuck and Wilson increase his circle of contacts as these activities (2010), where they defend the analysis of provide an opportunity to meet other people support networks as an integration indicator. who otherwise would remain unknown. These authors focus their work on the acculturation of the Asiatic population in the Many variables can influence the formation of USA. They identify four variables to be social support networks. However, most studies considered: a) level of fluency in the language coincide in indicating that time and distance of the country of origin, b) level of fluency in are erosion factors, especially in the case of the language of the host country, c) family transnational migration (Maya, Martinez y cohesion and d) context underlying the Garcia, 1999; Ariza, 2002; Camarero Rioja, migration process.

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The first two variables are very important for This is why it is important to distinguish between Asians, such as the Chinese, Japanese or Indians, fluency in the language of the country of origin as they act both as a barrier and a sign of identity and the language that is preferred for com - or belongingness. This is why those who are munication in day to day life. Lueck and Wilson fluent in both the languages of the country of (2010) consider that preference for one language origin and the host country will find it easier to or another is a result of socialisation and that form a heterogenic support network with various on analysing the degree of integration of a given interrelated clusters. community one must consider which language (country of origin or country of destination) is In the case of the Japanese, fluency has a double used in normal daily activities as the choice of function; on the one hand it is considered language may be used as an indicator of the (fluency in a foreign language) a practical skill level of acculturation. which facilitates relationships with people of the same nationality and at the same time 3. Coexistence increases human capital and on the other hand the level of fluency in the language of the Even after overcoming the language barrier, country of origin is considered an identity assimilating the norms of the host country, symbol (White, 2003). This is why many contacting institutions, etc. the migration process Japanese private companies and government cannot be considered finished. As was seen in bodies in foreign countries promote learning part one “Current Day Japanese Migration” Japanese language from an early age in social support is a dynamic process which can education centres financed with Japanese be influenced by multiple variables, both capital. Another example of the efforts made personal and environmental, that can condition by these institutions can be seen in the large its formation and development because it is a number of reading-writing exams which take constantly changing process. place periodically. In the field of migration, social support is a key Thus bilingualism can be considered a positive factor in both integration and adaptation to the factor. Within these groups the loss of fluency host society. Individuals set up their own support in the language of the country of origin can be networks from the onset of the pre-migration interpre ted as a denial of identity and lead to a phase with the aim of following a successful weakening of relationships within the family pathway to the fulfilment of their migratory and among their fellow countrymen. objectives. Relationships are formed all along

54 1 the way which vary in function of the life cycle, (2010) share this point of view but add that social situation or their own purpose It can situations of tension create a two-directional therefore be considered that the whole process force between immigrants and natives. In other and the variables which intervene in support words, in both phases, situations of stress or networks play a key role in migration phe - tension can become more pronounced or nomenon. diminish according to the position adopted by both parties (i.e. immigrant and native popu - Pantelidou and Craig (2006) maintain that during lation). the adaptation process and especially once coexistence on a daily basis with neighbours, When the host society adopts a negative attitude work companions, etc. has begun, conflicts towards immigration, bias can affect the arise because of possible cultural shock between integration process and also worsen personal both cultures. Traff developed the concept of and social crises. Lueck and Wilson (2010) also cultural shock in 1977 when he described the warn about certain discriminatory attitudes difficulties that American ex-patriots had when which nevertheless are accepted by society in they emigrated to Europe or South America in general. An example can be found among the the 1960’s and mentions six different aspects: Asian population living in the USA. As 1) tension during adaptation to the host society, mentioned by these authors, the Asian 2) a sense of loss, 3) role conflict, 4) a feeling communities are subjected to a series of of being rejected by the members of the new prejudices and stereotypes which North host society, 5) anxiety and a feeling of im - Americans consider to be true (for example they potence caused by adaptation problems/dif - blame the Asians for the increase in pirating ficulties and 6) problems arising from identifying electronics or accuse them of mafia related oneself as a member of a migrant group. violence). Through acculturation, the Asian community familiarise themselves with these Traff (1977) and Ritsner et al. (1997) propose ideas and see them as normal and even that it is during the sub-phase of living together assimilate them considering them to be a when support relationships between the local negative trait of their community. and immigrant population become more important. Cultural shock leads to stressful This same situation is now being observed situations and may on occasions lead to clashes among the Asian population, for example the due to differences in values and ideology Chinese, who live in Spain. Many Spaniards between the two cultures. Lueck and Wilson share innumerable rumours about the hygiene

55 Social and kind networks among Japanese migrants in Spain | Framework

conditions in Chinese businesses, the food in 4. Identity Integration. The universal acceptance their restaurants, exploitation of their elderly, of the right of any individual to identify the domestic violence their children suffer or himself freely with any ethnic group, mafias who exploit workers and blackmail their nationality, etc. families (Amigo, 2009). The integration process normally involves Concerning living together, there are many adopting beliefs, behaviour and values different different theories on cultural conflict. However from those of one’s own culture. It is therefore studies have also been undertaken that defend understood that this process is no longer an acculturation as a less aggressive strategy, and isolated event and that it has led to new theories consider the existence of certain dominant such as that of the “melting pot” which con - norms in the host society which have to be siders that integration, on all the previously accepted in order to carry out a peaceful mentioned levels, results in the creation of a cohabitation process. There are four different new culture. In other words, the customs and ways of interpreting the integration process culture of any society result from the fusion of (EFFNATIS, 2001): various nationalities and cultures which share the same living space (Adams, 1971). 1. Structural Integration: From a juridical point of view, everyone has the same rights and Therefore, bearing in mind the concepts and the same opportunities to access public processes which encompass the creation of systems and institutions (hospitals, schools, social support networks, and from a functional labour market, etc.). point of view, as proposed by Caplan (1976), a third function can be included (apart from its 2. Cultural Integration. This allows the use as a conceptual tool and intervention celebration and participation of the whole resource). Lubbers et al. (2010) suggest the society in activities such as religious analysis of support networks as an indicator of ceremonies or other cultural manifestations adaptation and integration of the immigrant imported by the immigrant community. population in the host society. This is restricted 3. Social Integration. The participation of only to longitudinal studies because support (or immigrant groups in social activities aimed interchange of support) is a dynamic process at the entire population, for example which is strongly tied to the changes in personal voluntary work, language courses, etc. networks, life cycle and place of residence, etc.

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6 | Social Support and prospective analysis during the last few years (the arrival of large numbers of immigrants to both rural and urban Immigration to Spain is a relatively recent areas, or the intake of foreign students in schools) phenomenon, the study of which has been have contributed to making the immigrant rapidly growing in importance due to social, population an object of research. At the same economic and political changes both within time there has been a growing interest in Spain and abroad during the last 10 years. investigating aspects such as the relations between the indigenous population and Since the onset of social research into immigrants, stigmatism among certain groups, immigration, Spanish scientific literature has or cultural conflicts, among others. shown a special interest in three main objectives: a) obtaining a social demographic profile of Interest in this type of research is not just foreign residents in Spain, b) a knowledge of philanthropically based and there is a greater migratory flows and their influence, and c) demand from policy makers who require these identifying ways which favour interrelations studies to help them draw up integration plans between the indigenous population and on local, regional and national levels, reform immigrants (Lueck and Kerstin, 2010). The first various social systems such as education, health, two objectives make up the bulk of social housing, employment, etc., prioritise resources research in this field but, although the trend in and develop lines of intervention. the last few years shows that the third objective Studying the interrelation of the native and is becoming more important, there is a tendency immigrant populations means that a large to limit studies to the Latin and African number of factors are involved and that these population. This means that research into the have to be analysed in order to study migratory population of Asiatic origin, such as the Chinese, phenomena in depth. For this reason concepts Japanese or Pakistani, is in its initial stages such as “belongingness”, “integration” or “social despite the fact that these groups make up a networks” have gradually been included. large part of the immigrant population. However one of the main difficulties facing Initially those studies whose objective was to researchers is the need to precisely define some analyse support networks and their function of the terms used because of their possible were limited exclusively to the native ambiguity. This leads to debates being centred population. However the demographic and on the specific meaning of each concept, and social changes that have occurred in Spain as a result debates on research work become

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more semantically orientated rather than prac - important during the first stages of the tical. It has been decided to make a generic use installation or settling down process, as it is of some of the concepts used in this piece of here that the first conflicts may arise when research work in order to facilitate reading and the immigrant realises that real life situations comprehension of the phenomena surrounding clash with the imaginary that had been the migratory process of the Japanese, which is created prior to initiating the migratory in fact the object of this study. project.

A clear example is the term “social support” 2. Apart from the imbalance between the which, because of the polysemic nature of the imaginary and reality, other events which term, con tinues without a common or shared cause anguish and stress, such as job loss, definition among social researchers. As a result difficulty in reuniting the family or of its heterogenic nature, some authors such as communication problems, may affect the Vaux (1988), de Miguel (2005), or Gil Lacruz prospects of a successful migration process. (2010) prefer to use the term “metaconcept” One must also bear in mind the perception because of the complexity of its dimension. that the immigrant has of his role in the host “Social support” can have various meanings society as reflected by the native population. depending on how social relations are set up This is a key point, because if foreigners or the area from which it is approached. perceive that they are not welcome or if the native population considers the influx of According to Vaux ( 1998) the metaconcept of immigrants a threat, then the relationship social support covers various basic aspects such between both communities will be almost as belongingness, involvement or commitment; non-existent. attributes concerning groups and relationships; social, conduct, cognitive and emotional pro - 3. It is important to point out that the contrary cesses. may occur and that immigrants may consider that there is no difference in their social From an operative point of view, Mansilla, Mayer, Pérez and Vegas (1993) consider three points: standing and that of the local population. This reduces the duality between both groups 1. Cognition, which refers to thoughts, attri - and in turn favours a more positive butes, expectations, the immigrant’s opinion perception of the host society and also of and the views of the native population on their migratory project. It is precisely from migration. Analysis at this level is especially this position of equality that the results of

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support become more relevant because those ciations or demands made by social groups, who receive support believe it helps their come about. Actions which take place on a development in the host society. behavioural level are especially important as they often have a great repercussion on 4. Affectionateness or emotion: This concept the media which in turn leads to the creation covers the sphere of relations and feelings of stereotypes and preconceived ideas about of a person as shown by demonstrations of the groups involved. affection or empathy, although it can also be manifested by less positive emotions such Caplan (1976) suggests using support as a as frustration, depression or anxiety. It is conceptual tool to analyse a person’s characterised by the way feelings are environment and as a powerful source of channelled and it is here that support intervention for both professionals and members networks pay a key role. The makeup and of the community. It is along these lines and function of the networks of the immigrant through a series of research work (Lin 1986; population are influenced by various factors Lyn and Ensel, 1989), that Lin draws up one of such as place of origin, their objectives or the most complete definitions, considering the type of project to be carried out. For social support as a combination of expressive example, among Asiatic groups such as the or instrumental (perceived or received) Chinese or Japanese, the networks they have provisions, provided by the community, social that offer support in times of frustration or networks and reliable people, adding that these joy are relatively few and hard to identify, “provisions” may appear both in every day and whereas in other groups such as the South in crisis situations. Americans, this type of support is shared openly among the members which form the Lin’s proposed definition of social support is network. very suitable for this essay as the analysis of the situation of the Japanese will be undertaken 5. Conduct: This refers to observable strategies from a systemic (ecological) point of view and used to deal with certain situations. It is for this reason special attention will be paid to especially interesting form the point of view the three levels to which Lin refers; the of community intervention in social work community (macro level), social networks because it is through interaction with other (namely those made up of neighbours, work people, whether they be immigra nts or not, companions, etc., meso level), and reliable that certain ideas, such as immigrant asso - people (micro level).

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Based on the definition of social support w The distinction between everyday support and proposed by Lin (1986), Lin and Ensel (1989) that given at times of crisis are important in and García, Herrero and Musitu (1995) determining the extent to which social summarise the most important aspects to be relationships can intervene in different measured in this metaconcept in 4 parts: circumstances.

w Two viewpoints: a structural viewpoint which García and Musitu (1993) consider that social refers to support networks and a functional support can be approached from a functional viewpoint which is centred on the content viewpoint (bearing in mind the usefulness that and use of relationships. the relationship may have) or from a structural viewpoint (in function of the elements which w Perception-reception of the subject. Support form the social support in question). In the latter, when understood as a communication process it is worth mentioning the analysis of social implies that both objective and subjective support from both an ecological or systemic dimensions are included. The first dimension standpoint. This gives priority to studying the refers to real exchange among members, for relationship between the person and his example at the moment when work or environment and is based on the understanding accommodation is found or looking after that this has a direct influence on the way the offspring, whereas the second refers to the individual acts and therefore conditions his perception that the person has of the support behaviour (Bronfenbrenner, 1976). received, in other words, the evaluation of the support received by the person who seeks 6.1 Functional viewpoint it. Continuing along the lines of the previous example, such cases would be the mother As previously mentioned, analysis of support who requests that someone looks after her networks from a functional point of view is child, a new immigrant who asks a fellow based on a series of parameters including countryman for help in finding work or personal and conceptual traits, as for example accommodation. a specific type of support, its source or its aim. w Fields of behaviour. Those which favour the Maya (2002) classifies support networks accor - feeling of belongingness. Some examples are ding to their functions, considering the avai - neighbourhood festive celebrations or help la bi lity of support in four different areas: given within the same family unit. psychological help in day to day situations, psy -

60 1 cho logical help in times of crisis, material help The usefulness of support varies according to in everyday situations and in crisis situations. the intentions that are made when relations are This criterion requires four types of networks: established (Martínez Noguiera, 1995; Maya, 2002). Therefore in function of the objective w Networks with a predominantly psychological sought after, one can differentiate between: function, where most of the support received is of a psychological nature, mainly during 1. Emotional Support: This is an end in itself isolated crisis situations. In this case family and results from the interrelation of two or and relations play an important role in giving more people. In other words, i t is the type advice, or when asked for help or advice on of support that shows itself through topics relating to cohabitation or norms expressions of affection, confidence, etc. regarding behaviour in the host country. 2. Instrumental support: This can be considered a means to an end. This type of support can w Networks giving help predominately on be given through material goods, actions or everyday matters. This is usually the widest services, for example a loan of money, or and most frequently sought network, and is the translation of documents from the primordially made up of people with which language of the host country to that of the one has most affinity or who are nearest, such country of origin. as parents, brothers and sisters, partner, etc. 3. Informative Support: The purpose of this kind w Non-specific networks. Their main feature is of support is to give the necessary their small size and as a result they do not information to help face a problem. offer a specific type of support. Independently of the type of support sought, the reference 4. Value Giving Support: Here relevant infor - people are always the same. mation is given for auto evaluation, leaving aside affective aspects as they would come w Functionally compensated networks are those under the category of “emotional support”. whose functions are well covered and in Rodríguez Marin (1995) mentions two different which each person is related to the type of functions of social support: help he can offer. As in the previous type of network, size is limited but the main difference 1. Primary functions which are designed to lies in that a specific type of support can be increase the personal aptitudes of its identified in each person who makes up the members and to promote achievement of network. their goals.

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2. Specific functions which according to Jung and micro or intimate level. At the moment of (1990), a) allow common problems to be providing support, the importance of each level shared, b) favour the formation of more is inversely proportional to its size. A community intimate relationships, c) prevent isolation, environment which gives context to these three d) define mutual abilities (competences), e) levels is necessary if they are to exist. supply reference points, and f) offer assis - García and Misitu (1993) mention two tance in crisis situations. approaches when analysing social support from a structural point of view:

6.2 Structural Viewpoint 1. The structure of social networks: which refers to the combined relations of a person, group From a structural point of view “social support” or community and pays more attention to emphasises the provisioning of social qualitative dimensions (Gil Lacruz, 2000). relationships that a person develops. “Social Analysis is centred on the properties of the network” can be understood as the sum of support network, and therefore the variables people with whom one maintains a relationship to be considered are: size, density, reciprocity and who may act as a source of support if and area of action. required. When referring to this type of support two main characteristics are worth mentioning, 2. Analysis of integration and social partici - firstly size and secondly diversity of the kind of pation (feeling of belongingness) based on support offered. Size varies in function of the a quantitative analysis of different relation - total number of people with whom one has ships and their nature. Here the availability permanent co ntact and diversity is defined by of relations is a necessary condition for the number of roles that each member is capable support to take place, but it is not sufficient of carrying out within the social network on its own as environment and surroundings (Pantelidou and Craig, 2006). also play an important role (Gil Lacruz, 2000).

The analysis of support networks from a These levels are very important from an structural point of view places each of the agents ecological point of view as the type of support who intervene in different dimensions according will be the result of the interrelation between to their relation within one’s own social network. two factors which are in constant change They can be analysed on different levels: com - namely: a) environment and b) agents munity or macro l evel, middle or group level (Bronfenbrenner, 1976).

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With respect to migration, studying support population cannot interact directly, but which networks from this point of view can offer even so influence their behaviour, for example advantages when examining the settling down traditions, values or social norms, to cite a few. process, because both the person and the The middle level is made up of the areas in environment are in a situation of mutual which the person generally moves, for example adaptation and constant change. work or the neighbourhood. Finally the micro level is made up of those people or systems From an ecological point of view, the relation closest to the immigrant and with which an between agents is analysed on three different intimate relationship is formed as for example levels; micro, middle and macro (Musitu, the family nucleus, close friends and partner. Herrero, Cantera and Montenegro, 2004). Although these levels have been accepted in scientific literature, the frontiers between the systems that make them up are not well defined. Diagram 4. Levels of interaction between Their content remains open to debate and each the Japanese community and the host society researcher can freely define them according to his objectives provided the systems adopt a solid structure which gives priority to the person, puts the areas in which he interacts in second place, and those with which he does not maintain a direct relation last. The laxity in defining the levels to be analysed is because the ecological approach originates in the field of natural science and therefore extrapolating it to social sciences requires a more flexible application. Bearing in mind the proposed objectives and the population to be studied, in this essay the systems which make up each level have been laid out in the following way: on the macro level it has been considered appropriate to include those aspects with which the Japanese

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Macro Level one’s social-economic situation in the country of origin. Nevertheless, Fujita (2009) considers In order to give a more detailed outline of the that many immigrants are not aware of the concept of social support, authors such as Gil difficulties which underlie beginning a new Lacruz (2000) or Lueck and Wilson (2010) lifestyle project in a foreign country. According defend the need to pay attention not only to to the author, ignorance of the social situation personal interrelationships but also to the at their destiny (high level of unemployment, community’s social environment, considering racial discrimina tion, violence, etc.) is one of factors such as the ideology or intrinsic values the main stress causing factors among Japanese of the host society. Social differences are immigrants. In her study of Cultural migrants observed in the distribution of resources, from Japan. Youth, Media and Migration in New behaviour, activities, values, etc., which means York and London (2009), Yuiko Fujita documents that variables such as age, sex or origin with the case of Japanese who emigrated to the USA respect to the place of residence or work and the UK, and who could not complete their environment are key factors as they can be migration project because they did not have the considered added difficulties when accessing support necessary to face such situations. public services or establishing social support. Informal support plays an import role in this In the case of immigration, the variables which level, especially at the beginning of their new directly influence this imbalance are much more life in Spain. Apart from the major impact that noticeable. Apart from one’s personal situation informal social networks plays, sometimes the sudden changes inherent to the migration narrow kind networks can have negative process are to be considered, for example the consequences, such as the creation of ghettos, social and psychological conditions under saturation of workers from the same which one arrives to the host country, a strange geographical area in a specific sector, such as environment governed by different norms to for example Africans in agriculture or Latin which one must adapt, etc. This process can Americans in domestic work. condition a person’s relation with his surroundings. Middle Level

The arrival of the Japanese in the host society Two support systems can be identified in usually takes place under favourable conditions, network creation: informal (or affective) support partly due to preliminary preparation and to and formal (or institutional) support.

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Informal support refers to affective surroundings increase in informal support through voluntary made up of family members and friends. García work or non-profit making organisations such and Musitu (1993) include certain groups of as neighbourhood associations, parent-student professionals such as waiters or hairdressers in associations etc. should not affect the budget this level, considering them a secondary support allocated to profess ional services just because source. On the other hand, formal support the former covers those aspects not covered by systems are made up of experts and professionals the government and that the government should such as doctors, social workers, psychologists, not shift its responsibility to informal support etc. who generally make their contribution from systems. areas such as social services and institutions. Sources of informal support form links with the The main difference between these two sources macro level, because they help in the of support lies in the type of relation between understanding of the functioning, codes of those who seek support and those who give it. behaviour and values of the host society. This In the case of informal support the relationship type of support is also basic on the middle level is based on esteem and reciprocity, whereas because the groups that make up this system, formal support tends to establish a unidirectional neighbourhood, work companions, friends, etc. user-professional relationship. are interrelated and this helps a person adapt In areas such as immigration, informal support to a new environment with which he will greatly outweighs formal support especially interact directly. It is important to bear in mind among groups of social dropouts or the poverty that because of the arbitrariness and flexibility stricken. This is largely due to the homogeneity of each level, systems such as the neighbour - of such groups and sometimes to their hermetic hood could be considered as part of the macro nature which makes it difficult for them to gain level, but in this essay it has been decided to access to public services and resources either loo k upon it as a system more in line with the because of unawareness or because they do not middle level because it forms a two-directional fulfil the criteria needed for such services. relation between the immigrant and those community agents which make up this level. Despite their apparent dichotomy, formal and informal support should be complementary to When studying the middle level, special each other and the promotion of one should attention should be given to the neighbourhood not act in detriment to the other. Looked at from because it provides a common space for various another point of view this means that the microsystems. The concept of the neigh -

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bourhood as a community causes a person to organised by the neighbourhood which in turn form certain expectations about the people who favours the formation of ties among neighbours. surround him, believing that they think, act and Acting as a common space is not the only func - feel like him. This contributes to a sensation of tion of the neighbourhood. It also serves as a belongingness (Sarason and Sarason, 1991) platform to launch civic initiatives such as asso - making him feel just like another member of cia tions of voluntary workers to look after his environment, allowing him to interrelate dependent people, sports clubs, etc. As can be with others and to join in with activities which clearly seen, and as far as the Japanese commu - take place in the community (Pons, Grande, Gil nity is concerned, the neighbourhood concept Lacruz and Marín, 1996). For example, in the is tightly bound to a feeling of belongingness. case of immigrants, relations with neighbours On this level (middle), apart from friends, work - and participating in neighbourhood events can mates and neighbours, an important role is also help share knowledge and at the same time played by immigrant associations in helping and strengthen relations between them. promoting integration. In cities such as Sara - The neighbourhood is one of the most important gossa where foreigners are not grouped in areas areas to be analysed when studying the level according to their nationality, associa tions such of integration attained by immigrants, not only as ASACHI (Asociación socio cultural de China) because of their participation in community or Aragón-Japón act as point of union between activities and celebrations, but because it is in fellow countrymen, the indigenous population this area where they carry out their day to day and other foreigners, which brings them all activities such as going to work, shopping, etc. closer together and facilitates the understanding and inevitably leads to forming relationships and interaction of people in a shared space. with natives, fellow countrymen and other These associations contribute to increasing the immigrants. number of sources of informal support and at the same time provide formal support. In the case of the Japanese, the neighbourhood requires special attention because in Japanese Micro Level society it is considered one of the most important sources of informal support (Hendry, 2003). In The micro level is made up of the space in which Japan certain activities such as looking after a person maintains his most intimate rela tion - young children, leisure time activities for ships. In the case of immigrants and especially housewives or the upkeep of public spaces are during the first phases of the settling down

66 1 process, the two most important agents of the One must not forget that these relationships microsystem are partners and near family, but may also exercise less positive functions such as the process advances new sources are incor - as social control (de Miguel, 2005) or coercive porated such as those formed by close friends. pressure (Molina, 2008). Therefore forming social networks outside the family environment Both the family and partner can be considered sources of informal support, although their func - is necessary in order to reduce the stress levels tions can vary according to the life cycle in which that immigrants are subject to, especially if they the person finds himself. Traditionally these two are pioneers in the host society. agents fulfil the role o f providing affective and Reflection on this point, and irrespective of the motivational support especially when migration level on which it is given, has demonstrated occurs because of work related reasons. that support does not always lead to positive Nowadays and as a result of the new laws on results. Scientific literature in the area of family reunification, labour regulations con cer - psychiatry or clinical psychology differentiates ning immigrants, etc., the role played by the between positive and negative support, family and partner has been developing and no considering that positive support is beneficial longer do they supply only affective support, to the person whereas negative support hinders economic resources (sending money to their or prevents his progress. This same difference country of origin, maintaining grandparents and can be extrapolated to other areas of social children), material resources (for example pro - sciences as for example migration. Until now vi ding accommodation to other family members) it is mostly the advantages of support that have and information (related to work, health, been pinpointed, although in some cases it has education, bureaucratic paperwork, etc.). been suggested that both formal and informal These agents allow a person to assume new support may become an obstacle for integration roles, establish interpersonal relationships and in the host society. For example in those cases carry out various activities, in other words they where family and friends exercise excessive open a door to the new society and facilitate control, it makes it difficult for a person to enter the settling down process. This process is not other environments and meet people from other limited only to an intimate sphere and these places. This is also seen within the macrosystem sources of support form the basis for the creation and occurs for example when urban planning of new strong ties in the other systems (middle creates housing areas for certain immigrants or and macro). minority groups.

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7 | the host Society: 7.1 Support Networks Support networks and their roles among Immigrants

From an ecological point of view, the relation In the field of migration, informal support is between a person and his surroundings can considered the most important form of support, provide information about the degree of inte - especially during the early stages of the settling gration and the difficulties encountered when down process (García Ramírez, 2001; Matia, interacting with different social agents. As indi - 2002; Maya, 2004) because, as mentioned ca ted above, there is a link between type of previously, it is the easiest for foreigners to support (formal and informal) and the levels on approach. From this point of view, Maya (2002) which the relationship of a person with his envi - identifies two types of support networks among ronment (macro, middle and micro) are analysed. immigrants. With respect to the person, the most concentric levels are those with most sources of informal The first is based on the family and ethnic nature support, whereas the most distant are those of these support networks, and the author uses dominated by sources of formal support. four indicators to classify them (number of fellow

Diagram 5. Evolution of Support Networks during the installation Phase

68 1 countrymen, number of Spaniards, number of members so that sources of support and ties family members and number of non-family are sought among people of the same members who give support). Using these criteria, nationality or from a similar geographical or the following networks are identified: cultural background. w Ethnic networks, predominately family in The second type of support network is based nature, with a high incidence of family ties on the structure of personal networks. Three independent of their place of residence. An indicators are used to classify them: size, variety example of this type of network would be that of ties, and the proportion of them which have made up of large families, or those with specific functions. Within this second type, multinational families whose members reside Maya (2002) identifies four support networks: both in the host country and that of origin. w Extensive and well-balanced (or integrated) w Ethnic networks of family and friends based networks. Their main features are size, on relationships with family members and moderate variety and specific use. In these fellow countrymen. The people who make up networks each member undertakes a certain this type of network are usually young function combining specific actions and immigrants who begin an individual migratory polyvalence. This type of network can be seen project and on their arrival have limited among second or third generation immigrants sources of support. It is usually made up of who count on the help of their fellow family members such as uncles, cousins, etc., countrymen and on the relations hips formed and their fellow countrymen. with people from other groups as well as with w Mixed networks which are predominately the native population. made up of friends, and whose members are w Intermediate networks with specialised (or from both the host country and that of origin. dispersed) ties. These networks have the These networks tend to be extensive and well- highest levels of specificity but also the lowest balanced. levels of variety. Each person can be identified w Ethnic networks which are predominately as giving a specific type of support. Such an made up of friends but with a high incidence example is the case of white collar workers of ties with fellow countrymen. The difference who, because of the nature of their migration between this network and the ethnic network project, consider their support network limited of family and friends i s the absence of family to those in the same field of work.

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w Small polyvalent (or concentrated) networks. process. Together with assimilation, three other Their main characteristic is their high degree types of settling down strategies have been of effectiveness, as a person can obtain all identified: a) ethnic enclaves whereby one’s the support needed from a small number of own cultural traits are introduced into the host individuals. Polyvalent networks are often society, b) transnationals, characterised by found among small minority groups such as relations among members from different the South Korean or the Iranians and especially countries whose cultures may or may not be in situations where cultural shock between similar, and c) multiple or adaptation networks the host country and that of origin is greatest. where relations and behaviour patterns of both These s upport networks tend to be made up the host society and the country of origin are of people from the same country of origin. to be found. It can be appreciated that the strategies proposed by Molina are quite w Intermediate polyvalent (or synergic) networks. complementary to the models for immigrant These offer a lot of variety but have low levels networks suggested by Maya (2002), and of specifics, quite the contrary to disperse depending on the characteristics of the agents networks. This type of network can be seen that make up each netwo rk, one type of model among Latin Americans and, because of the or another can be identified. similarity in culture, their integration process tends to be more rapid. Furthermore, this group (both men and women) usually share 7.2 Support Networks between their place of work with immigrants from other Immigrants and the Native Population countries, especially Latin America and Eastern Europe, which in turn foments the Irrespective of the point of view (measurement, creation of support networks made up of both purpose, relation between the person and his locals and immigrants. environment) from which support is analysed, on many occasions the interaction process is In the field of migration, Molina (2008) points perceived as being one-directional and this in out that regardless of assimilation (a process turn implies a difference in status between those which we have already analysed and which giving and those receiving support. Despite this means learning and adapting to the values and tendency, authors such as Rook (1987), and princ iples, etc., of the host society), members López Marín (2009), have emphasized the of these groups use other strategies to form importance of maintaining a state of equilibrium support networks during the settling down between the support given and that received,

70 1 because an excessive imbalance can lead to stable than those formed by immigrants whose counterproductive results such as resentment, cultural features are more in align with the host and feelings of blame and shame. country.

This difference is even greater in the field of In the case of the Japanese, the hypothesis put international migration where attention is forward by Pantelidou and Craig remains open centred on the ties between locals and the to debate, as although it is true there are great immigrant population. De Miguel and Trammer cultural differences between Japan and the West (2010) believe that social support is based on which result in cultural shock, it must be the principle of reciprocity, or as said in other remembered that certain features of the Japanese words, in fair exchange, and that the following migration project (preliminary preparation, high points should be considered when analysing incidence of marriage between Spanish and support networks as part of the migration Japanese) together with the interest of the native process: the environment in which they take population in Japanese culture, may indeed place, the social situation, and the features of favour forging closer relationships between them both the native and immigrant population. (Japanese and locals) in such a way that the functionality of their relations enters another Their work is based on the fact that this inter - dimension. change takes place among fellow countrymen, The authors also point out that for some im - other foreigners and Spaniards and shows that migrants, forming a relationship with mem bers its function differs according to the composition of the native community is a way of escaping of the group. The main objective of support from the pressure which may be put upon them among foreigners is to obtain information or by their fellow countrymen, and also helps them accommodation, whereas the relationship improve their future prospects of entering those between locals and immigrants is based on fields where there is a limited presence of things related to work or in obtaining material immigrants. An example would be those jobs objects. Pantelidou and Craig (2006) believe where there are few foreigners, the integration that there is an inversely proportional relation - of second generation immigrants in education ship between the degree of cultural shock and centres or in other leisure time activities. the quality of suppo rt given or received. That is to say, those foreigners whose culture differs Unfortunately not all foreigners have the same most from that of the host country tend to create opportunity of establishing ties with the local fewer ties although these are stronger and more population. De Miguel and Trammer (2010)

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point out that people with a high predisposition 1. Gender: The possibility of a foreigner for establishing support bonds with those of including a person in his support group is other nationalities tend to share a series of traits. completely opposite to that observed among In the case of the Spaniards, the following three the Spanish. Foreign women tend to have a variables are considered the most influential: higher disposition than their male counter - parts (Pantelidou and Craig, 2006). Therefore 1. Advanced academic studies. This study it is not surprising to find a higher incidence points out the relation between a high level of marriage of Spanish men with foreign of education and little or no prejudice in women (17,325), than Spanish women with forming a relationship with a foreigner. In foreign men (11,955), as shown by statistical the case of the Japanese, the type of edu ca - data (INE, 2009). Pérez Grande (2008) tion is somehow related to Japan, for example considers that this occurs especially after a through language, art, technology etc. foreign woman arrives in the country as a 2. Gender. Gender is an important variable as result of family reunion. Often she feels men tend to be more propense than women dependent on the family because of legal at relating with foreigners. ties with her father or husband. Furthermore Pérez Grande suggests that those women 3. Age. De Miguel and Trammer (2010) also who arrive in Spain from countries where point out that the younger the Spaniard, the sex equality is almost non-existent see greater the predisposition to include marriage to a local as an opportunity of per - foreigners in their support networks. Here it sonal improvement. This would allow them is important to point out that the influence a higher level of independence which would of the Japanese on the Spanish goes hand in help maintain or improve the social standing hand with video games, cartoons and that they would have had in their country technology in general, and it is no surprise of origin. Together with this, Fujita (2009) that users/consumers of these products, considers that the distorted image that both generally the young, feel more affinity Japanese men and women have outside their towards the Japanese than older segments own country, as well as their differing of the population. objectives, tends to make it easier for women to relate with the native population. As far as the immigrant population is concerned, those features which increase the probability 2. Age: There seems to be a certain degree of of establishing ties with the Spanish are: parallelism between immigrants and the

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native population as far as age is concerned, 4. Fore-runners or Pioneers of the Migration that is to say, the younger the person the Phenomenon: The first immigrants to arrive more likely he is to include someone of in the host country have to look for support different origin in his support network. As sources among the native population, unlike pointed out by Beltrán (2006), the Japanese the second generation, or those who form community in Spain is mainly made up of part of a more extensive migration chain, students in the 19 to 25 age group. On the who benefit from the networks set up by the other hand, White (2003) points out that pioneers. In many cases, because they have their changing composition (increasing the information and know about available numbers of women, changes in objecstive resources, it is the pioneers who inform their and migration projects) foment a reduction newly arrived fellow countrymen, in substi - in the age group of the Japanese who migrate tution of the native population and insti - to Europe. tutions.

3. Cultural Features: The most important are 5. Human Capital: De Miguel and Trammer language (Lueck and Wilson, 2010), tradition (2010) establish a relation between human and religion (de Miguel and Trammer, 2010). capital, density and diversity of support net - It is worth mentioning that cultural proximity works among foreigners. However they warn may on occasions be a decisive factor in that this tendency may be overturned in those establishing relationships (Lubbers, Molina, cases where: a) human capital is high, becau - Lerner, Avila, McCarthy, 2010). De Miguel se as a result of education in both the host and Trammer (2010) mention four types of country and that of origin, the immigrant has networks classified according to the social a certain knowledge of how the institutions and cultural features of their components: work, and therefore tends to seek support a) those made of members who share through these formal systems; b) in those country of origin and residence, b) those cases where there is no official recognition who share the same country of origin but of the merits obtained in the country of live in a foreign country, c) those made up origin, support is sought informally. of people who are born and reside in the country of origin, d) those based on Apart from these personal features, de Miguel international relationships. The composition and Trammer (2010) consider that there are two of these networks is tightly related to that external factors which play an important role proposed by Maya (2002). when establishing exchange of support.

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First of all they point out that the interaction of to receive better education and learn about immigrants and local population will more likely other lifestyles, etc. to lead to success if both parties have equal Japanese immigrants may be seen as isolated conditions or if they are perceived as having cases in Spain and even though they are greatly the same social status. Secondly, concentration outweighed in number by certain communities of residing contemporaries is considered a such as Ecuadorians or Moroccans, this is not negative factor especially in cases of high reason enough to neglect their needs and density. demands, or indeed those of any other minority One must not forget that migratory phenomena groups. Experience sho ws that in cases like the are dynamic processes which are constantly Chinese (Beltran, 2002; Wallace, 2009) this way changing and can be affected by factors which of acting, far from promoting multicultural appear to have little in common such as war, cohabitation, leads to sectorial isolation and natural disasters, economic crises, etc. Whilst the formation of ghettos (or the concentration the first immigrants who came to Spain in the of these peoples in certain neighbourhoods). 1960’s and 1970’s were men whose objectives All being said and done, in order to better the were to set up companies in Europe (White, situation of immigrant communities, it is 2006), studies have shown that in latter years necessary to increase efforts to widen the there has been a higher incidence of women knowledge of what happens within the country and a shift in objectives, which have changed (Spain) and also of events abroad. from being purely economical to being related to cultural interest, education, or a change in For this reason, research, such as that carried life style (Beltrán, 2002; Fuita, 2007; Takeda, out by Chou (2009), de Miguel (2010), Fujita 2009). No doubt this change is conditioned by (2009) and González (2008), whose objective the development of the social economic was to investigate the situation of the immigrant situation in Japan. During the period of population before their arrival in the host society, economic expansion, the objective was to set should be treated as an example of how to avoid up subsidiary companies abroad but during the risk situations during the first phases of the years of recession the Japanese population have installation pr ocess of international immigrant been leaving the country for personal reasons groups.

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Chapter two METHODOLOGY 1 | objective and variables b) Establish different social-demographic profiles within the Japanese community The objective of this study is to analyse the based on age, gender, level of education, characteristics of Japanese migration to Spain. work situation, etc. To do so, a series of overall objectives is pre - 2) Describe the attraction and expulsion factors sented relating to the conditions of the members considered by Japanese immigrants which make of this group, their situation with respect to the them choose Spain as a destination for their different social agents with which they interact migration project. Studying in depth the in the host society and the way in which they dynamics of these strategies requires knowledge assimilate and familiarise themselves with of the life experiences of the members of this certain norms and behaviour patterns peculiar group and their relationship with the social to the host society. media to which they belong. Examples of the objectives are: 1.1 Objectives a) To find out about the social-labour situation of the Japanese immigrant in the country of The overall objectives of this study are: origin. 1) Investigate the evolution and contemporary b) Examine the hopes the sample has for the migration strategies of the Japanese community future; for example the possibilities of in Spain. Migratory flow is a dynamic pheno - achieving a certain post in a company, menon influenced by social, political and forming a family or having a specific lifestyle. economic changes which occur in both the c) Discover the reasons why Spain was chosen countries of origin and destiny. Literature on as a country of destiny. these movements suggests that economic crisis d) Consider the image of Spain in Japan. coupled with social-demographic changes in e) Determine the elements or situations in the both countries is generating a new migration country of origin that the interviewees are model of the Japanese in Spain. no t happy with; for example social norms, economy, social rights, etc We propose the following operative objectives: f) Identify the requirements of the members of a) Revise existing bibliography on Japanese this community on their arrival to Spain and migration flow towards Spain during the settling down phase

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3) Analyse the importance of support networks cause internal conflicts, such as for example a for Japanese immigrants during the settling hybrid feeling of belongingness or identifying down period in the host society. The way these oneself as a foreigner and not as an immigrant. networks function may prove to be an essential factor in accomplishing a successful migration The overall objective revolves around the project. An attempt will therefore be made to following operative objectives: investigate the strategies for creating and a) Detect possible differences in the image of consolidating these networks and their impact the host society prior to immigration and during the settling down phase. that which develops once the immigrant In our case th e operative objectives are: forms part of that society. b) Identify the positive and negative elements a) Identify the social agents which favour the of the host society from the immigrant’s point creation of social networks in the country of view. of destiny. For example, the role of official Japanese institutions in Spain such as the c) Point out those elements of the host society embassy or consulate, associations and/or that the person identifies with and those with ac tivities promoted by Spanish, Japanese and which he does not. or other immigrants, labour relations, etc. d) Observe the impact of social networks when b) Analyse the incidence and impact of these defining oneself, for example the duality of social agents during this process. being a foreigner and immigrant, or Spanish and Japanese. c) Discover the social-demographic charac - teristics of the social networks of the sample, bearong in mind ethnic and labour diversity, 1.2 Variables and dimensions age and gender of network members, etc. The dimensions and variables developed from 4) Point out the cultural and social elements the objectives of the study are detailed as peculiar to the host society which have caused follows: the members of the Japanese community to reconsider their own national identity and w Social-demographic characteristics of the feeling of belonging. Phenomenon such as Japanese population resident in Saragossa and cultural shock , or integration and assimilation the metropolitan areas of Barcelona and processes during the settling down phase can Madrid: age, gender, marital status, place of

79 Social and kind networks among Japanese migrants in Spain | Methodology

residence, residence duration, level of edu - linked to Japanese culture, immigrant asso - cation and labour environment. ciations, associations and/or clubs dedicated to leisure time activities, institutions and w Context and procedure of arrival in Spain: private foundations of Japanese origin. Support given by family and friends, work or host institution, regrouping of family members, w Number of associations, quantity and type of settling down in Spain, experience prior to activities carried out, nationality of participants living abroad, interest in the host society. and their purpose. w Background in the country of origin, the area from which they come from, characteristics of the original family, work experience in the coun - 2 | universe and sample try of origin, training and level of education.

w Migration project and future expectations: The universal set contains 4,886 people of reasons for emigrating associated with work, Japanese origin (residents in Spain with a tourism, education, short term stays and registration document or valid residence permit permanent residence, establishing a trans na - in 2012). In the case of Aragon, the number of tional family, settling down in the host society. Japanese amounts to 37, but if the number of Japanese students is taken into consideration w Departure from the country of origin: criteria the figure reaches 102 (data obtained from the for choosing a country and host city, work, municipal register for 2011 and the Centre of education and family expectations. Modern Languages of Saragossa University for w Relations between Japanese citizens, other the same year). The other two autonomous migrant communities and the indigenous communities chosen for this research both have population: friendship, partner, host family a larger number of Japanese. The Community and work. o f Madrid has a Japanese population of 1,307 w Integration strategies: the workplace, leisure and that of Catalonia 1,921 (Ministry of and free time activities, social networks, formal Employment and Social Security, 2012). support and informal support. The reasons for choosing the Autonomous w Groups and associations connected with Communities of Aragon, Catalonia and Madrid Japan: Embassies, consulates, association are as follows:

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In the first place, Catalonia and Madrid, and 2) Because of its geographical location, as especially the metropolitan regions of both Saragossa is strategically situated and is well communities, have the following characteristics: communicated with Spain’s two largest economic nuclei (Barcelona and Madrid), it 1) Approximately 67% of the Japanese com - has become a key location for Japanese munity resident in Spain lives in these areas. companies and immigrants. 2) The Japanese communities living there are stable. The first waves of Japanese immigrants 3) New migration models. As proposed by at the end of the XX century settled in the Martinez-Callaghan and Gil-Lacruz (2012), Barcelona and Madrid metropolitan regions. the new Japanese migratory model has It also should be noted that the most relevant changed from being a model based on public institutions and organisms (embassy, economic and business interests to individual consulate, Japan Foundation, etc.) together project centred on personal interests. with interest in the heritage and culture of Despite the number of Japanese registered both these regions, have served to attract Japanese willing to emigrate to Spain. in Saragossa being significantly less than that of other large cities, the reference population Due to social-demographic characteristics and is very heterogenic. This diversity allows the historical context, the data obtained in the observation of how both migration models Autonomous Communities may provide (business and voluntary) converge in the same representative information on the Japanese space. population in Spain. Although other cities such as Seville, Salamanca The Japanese community resident in Aragon, or Valencia have more numerous Japanese and more specifically, in Saragossa, was chosen populations, information obtained in these areas because of: could easily be weighted by the large number 1) Accelerated growth in the residence index of of Japanese students in comparison with those the capital of Aragon, which increased from who emigrated with the idea of residing 12 registered Japanese in 1999 to 29 in 2010. permanently in Spain.

81 Social and kind networks among Japanese migrants in Spain | Methodology

Table 1. Japanese resident in Spain according to regime, and Autonomous Community of residency in 2012

Autonomous Community General regime Community regime Total Andalucia 292 274 566 Aragon 20 17 37 Asturias (Principality) 28 14 42 Balears (Islands) 48 54 102 Canaries 75 44 119 Cantabria 12 8 20 Castilla and León 52 63 115 Castilla-La Mancha 23 34 57 Catalonia 1.381 540 1.921 Comunitat Valenciana 124 127 251 Extremadura 189 Galicia 33 52 85 Madrid (Comunity) 856 451 1.307 Murcia (Region) 34 20 54 Navarra (Comunidad Foral) 51 21 72 Vasco Country 52 63 115 Rioja 033 Ceuta 000 Melilla 011 Not available 9110 Total 3.091 1.795 4.886

Source: Ministry of Employment and Social Security: foreigners resident in Spain (2012)

The sample is made up of 44 Japanese who were interviewed, 4 of whom lived in the were resident from 2010 to 2012 in Saragossa, capital, 1 in Alcala de Henares and 1 in Leganes. and the metropolitan areas of Barcelona and In Catalonia contact was made with 18 Madrid. 20 people were interviewed in Aragon, Japanese; 11 in Barcelona, 2 in Sant Joan Despi, all of them resident in the city of Saragossa. In 2 in Girona, 1 in Mataro and 1 in Hospitalet the Autonomous region of Madrid, 6 Japanese del Llobregat.

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With the aim of obtaining significant data on completing their studies in Spain and those enter the Japanese community in these areas, the the education system as a migration strategy. participants were selected using criteria to limit The selection criteria for the sample were: the sample size and exclude Japanese with short term migration projects, such as exchange 1) Participants must have resided in Spain students, or companies based temporarily in continuously for at least a year. Spain. As literature on the Japanese migration 2) People of Japanese origin whose migratory movement suggests, in these cases social networks object was to stay in Spain for at least 2 years. and relations with the place of destiny are redu - This allows us to include in the sample ced to workmates or fellow students. In a similar immigrants who legalised their situation manner, it is intended to distinguish between through a student visa but who centre their those students who plan to return to Japan after migratory project in looking for work,

Table 2. Interviewees’ Place of Residence by Autonomous Community

Interviewee’s Place of Residence Autonomous Work or City of Residence Student Visa Total Community residence permit Catalonia Barcelona 3811 Sant Joan Despí 022 Badalona 011 Mataró 011 Hosp. Del Llobregat 011 Gerona 022 Madrid Madrid 134 Leganés 101 Alcalá de Henares 011 Aragón Saragossa 9 11 20 Total 14 30 44

Source: Ministerio de Empleo y Seguridad Social: Foreigners resident in Spain (2012)

83 Social and kind networks among Japanese migrants in Spain | Methodology

maintaining or beginning a relationship with enables them to have firsthand knowledge of someone who is legally resident in Spain. the situation of their fellow countrymen in Spain (2 heads of cultural associations, 2 teachers in Of all the people interviewed, 9 were consi de - Japanese schools in Spain, 1 au pair, 1 translator). red key informers because they supplied generic information on the Japanese community as well During this research, the participation and as their own personal experiences. It is worth support of the population studied was a key mentioning that 4 of these Japanese have a element to bear in mind when initiating data university degree relating to this study (2 social collection. Collaboration was particularly workers, 1 sociologist and 1 doctor in Spanish important when it came to increasing the size language and culture) and they also showed a of the sample. Word of mouth was one of the special interest in collaborating at much as possi - most efficient resources, because in many cases ble. Furthermore 6 of them hold posts which it was the Japanese themselves who, after talking

Diagram 6. Participant distribution

84 2 to a friend about the project, were interested in future expectations, etc.), thus allowing a global participating. Furthermore, some of those image of this phenomena in our society to be interviewed offered to act as translators in a developed. disinterested manner for those friends who, The debate on the different social disciplines because of their level of Spanish, did not of veracity, utility and representativeness of the consider themselves capable of providing phenomenon studied and the results obtained information in the interviews. using prevailing methodological methods Thanks to disinterested cooperation, this piece (quantitative and qualitative) are still valid today. of research can be defined as psychosocial in Rubio and Varas (1999) and Orti (1986) consider the widest sense of the word. We social that in order to study any social aspect in depth, researchers cannot forget that our work depends it is necessary to study the factors involved on on other people and that they should occupy a two different levels or dimensions: a) real or preferential position in research projects. factual level, and b) discursive or significant level. Both these levels are closely related. The former (factual level) tries to present social reality 3 | Methodological design as a group of quantifiable actions, whereas the latter (significant level) aims to study symbolic content in depth through dialectics. This research has been approached using systematic logic, because as upheld by Rubio Lueck and Wilson (2010), in consonance with and Varas (1999), social reality is not the sum pluralistic methodological models, state that of its different parts, but is rather the conse - research in sociology has to establish a tie quence of different intertwining elements that between the object of the study, the sample and result in a new system which has its own specific its environment. In other words, social studies meaning. have to connect what is being studied (field of knowledge), how it is carried out (metho do - Following the guidelines of Rubio and Varas, logical approach), with whom (universe) and methodological pluralism was used to study the where it takes place (physical and social context). situation of the Japanese immigrant population. This approach allowed us to identify the The object of this research is to study the relations between the different phases of the Japanese migratory process in Spain. To do so, migratory process and the elements which make attention must be paid to the nexus formed by them up (integration process, support networks, the members of the group and their context.

85 Social and kind networks among Japanese migrants in Spain | Methodology

Approaching this phenomenon professionally Scientific models are characterized by following and with precision requires that both methods a logical and coherent process, making quanti - (quantitative and qualitative) be combined, tativeness the paradigm of science, by carrying because the facts and events which take place out empirical studies of what can be perceived in host society and the society of origin (factual by the senses, what can be experienced, and level) are relevant to, and have an effect on what can be verified. those who experience them (significant level). For example, after the Fukushima nuclear From this point of view, quantitative metho - disaster, a large part of the Japanese community dology acts as a base for carrying out all types resident in Spain organized and mobilized of social research, as it allows other researchers themselves, demonstrating support to the victims to corroborate results following the same As a result of citizen activities such as these, process, avoiding bias because of ideological new mixed associations of Japanese, Spanish questions, sentimentality, etc., and at the same and other nationalities have been formed, and time censures judgment issues. An example of even the support networks between the Japanese this can be found in the work published by and other members of the host society have Goodman et al. (2003): “Global Japan—The been strengthened. experience of Japan’s new immigrants and overseas communities” which presents a comparative analysis of urban emplacement 3.1 Quantitative approach trends of the Japanese communities in Germany and Great Britain. The study takes into consi - The effort to obtain veracity in humanistic deration aspects such as gender, age, the average research equivalent to that found in natural number of Japanese in a given area, the relations sciences, has resulted in an attempt to quantify, between businesses of Japanese origin and the in the most objective way possible, those immigrant population, etc. questions relating to people and the way in which they interact. For example in the case of The quantitative method tries to avoid all bias migration, special emphasis is placed on caused by subjective elements such as ideology, detailing as precisely as possible the percentage values, prejudice, etc, through the description of the immigrant population living in a specific and explanation of outwardly manifested social geographical area, their presence in different events. For this reason, attention was paid to fields of work, the average number of offspring the collection of data that is perceivable and per family, etc. can be registered, bearing in mind the number

86 2 and frequency of events which occur. If we enables each of them to relate to certain restrict ourselves to the division of social reality situations. proposed by Orti (1986) (factual and significant levels) it can be said that the quantitative model These variables have been crossed with others centres on compiling events on a factual level. which are eminently quantitative, such as the length of time of residency in Spain, year of Despite the apparent simplicity of this model, arrival in the country, time taken to learn the quantitative analysis requires elaborate language, or different work activities in the host preparation and data coding before results can society. be presented. The first step consists of creating a measuring device that allows us to quantify subjective data. This process pretends to “count” 3.2 Qualitative approach those elements considered relevant. However this is not its only function. The reason for Qualitative methodology is becoming more and carrying out this process is to cross and more important in the field of social research. interrelate the different variables which have However the precision of results, data collection been quantified. The aim is to describe and techniques and analysis, are still not accepted explain the way and the reason why this by part of the scientific community. interrelation occurs and generates a certain Doubts surrounding the qualitative approach pattern. centre on subjectivity, both in the interpretation One of the main aspects shared by the results of the data and the choice of the techniques obtained using a quantitative model are the and tools used for data collection. Thus it can results. These are presented statistically, based be seen that both processes (interpretation and on probability (Rubio and Varas; 1999). choice of techniques and tools) require exhaustive justification regarding the benefits In order to obtain and analyse the data of this and advantages of their choice, when it comes study, different a priori qualitative variables were to analyzing the situation and presenting results. categorised, for example the reason for going to Spain was classified into: studies, work, Another characteristic of this approach is that partner, family and tourism. Also this has served data collection is not a separate component of to cross them with other data such as age, the research process but that it constitutes a gender and place of origin, which in turn has continuous dynamic process in itself. This is permitted the creation of specific profiles and because the researcher begins to perceive and

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collect useful information from the time he qualitative analysis is used to study in depth commences field work until the research is personal aspects such as the opinions held of completed. the indigenous population, or the role which These intrinsic peculiarities of qualitative family and friends have played in the process. research make it very flexible because con cep - One of the advantages of using this approach tual maturity is reached as the project develops. has been obtaining information about “why”. From this point of view it can be said that the It has been possible to obtain information qualitative model favours the development of regarding beliefs, opinions and impressions of data analysis because the researcher gains this group thanks to the use of techniques such experience and knowledge as the research as in depth interviews. Likewise, being able to project advances. Parallelism between both tackle these subjects directly with the informers processes (conceptual maturity and research development) allows strategies and metho do - has allowed hypothesis, based on their logy to be adapted to new vicissitudes. Put in testimonies, to be formed. This means that the another way, it allows continuous and critical participants pass from acting as collaborators analysis of the data collected, and perception to playing a leading role as protagonists, as it and modification of those aspects which are is they, who through their own discourse, have shown not to be particularly useful. pointed out the links and interrelations between the various elements which have taken place Therefore, analysis of social reality, using a during their migratory project to the West. qualitative approach, forms a circular path when inductive and deductive procedures are com - bined. Right from the onset, the flexibility of this 3.3 Triangulation model allows particular to general analysis (inductive) by using different techniques such as Nowadays the conflict in the scientific nature interviews or participant observation. However, (or not) of sociological knowledge has evolved. as research progresses, one’s own theories (induc - The first disputes were centred on the precision tive-deductive) are developed and these need to of the results obtained using scientific models, be reviewed again (deductive) in order to ratify but nowadays discussion is focused on the their validity and reliability (Rodriguez; 2005). validity of the achievements reached by using During this piece of research, when dealing alternative models such as triangulation with the situation of the Japanese community, (Hernandez Cardona; 2000).

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Although triangulation shares its origin with the because it aims to approach a specific quantitative approach (both descend directly phenomenon from different points of view and from natural sciences), it emerges as an to carry out continuous analysis over a broad alternative route which claims to integrate span of time. Therefore triangulation should not positions found in the two main approaches be understood only as a validation process, but used in humanistic disciplines (quantitative and also as a way to extend the limits of knowledge qualitative) (Rodriguez: 2005). and understanding of the phenomenon under study. Reasons given by many researchers to justify the use of this method are easily understood. Although the use of triangulation in the field of Nowadays we are facing a dynamic society in social-humanistic research is relatively recent, constant evolution and which is affected by a many researchers in this field have tried to multitude of internal and external factors. For structure and give order to the various criteria example the study of the Japanese immigrant which form part of this approach (Denzin, 1970; community in Spain cannot be limited Oppermann, 2000 and Morse and Chung, exclusively to quantifying the number of 2003). Thus, Rodríguez (2005) highlights five immigrants or the reasons why they left their basic types of triangulation: country. If the aim is to analyse their situation in the host society in depth, social reality must 1. Triangulation of data with three sub-types: be approached from a multidisciplinary point time, space and person (which in turn are of view. Overlapping results obtained from divided into three levels: aggregated, different fields such as psychology, sociology, interactive and collective). education and economics enable a more 2. Triangulation of researcher: This consists of detailed vision to be formed and emphasise observing various researchers with the aim different aspects which, if approached from only of obtaining different points of view on a one discipline, would be difficult to understand, common subject of study. explain or justify. Triangulation allows the combination of results obtained using different 3. Theoretical triangulation: Based on the methodological models. combinations of different perspectives.

From this point of view it can be said that one 4. Methodological triangulation: This may of the principal advantages of triangulation is implicate the use of different models and that it provides the study with a holistic vision, triangulation of methods.

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5. Multiple triangulations: The objective is to this level are: family support during the efficiently combine the four previously pre-migratory phase and informal mentioned types in order to obtain a number networks in the host society. of results which allow the study to be Collective analysis: This is carried out using a approached with greater precision. structural-functional perspective. Various 1. The analysis of the data obtained can also methods are used to collect data, such as in be approached from different levels: depth interviews and life experiences, and the data is centred on the group. This level contains 2. Aggregate analysis: Aggregate analysis various sub-levels: consists in compiling the characteristics of a phenomenon, keeping it separate Ecological analysis: Here spatial explanations from its social context. At this level no of a certain institutional phenomena are sought. relations are established between the data collected and external observations or Institutional analysis: This is used to study the impressions. An example of aggregate ties between formal structures such as analysis would be the composition of associations, political institutions, etc. Japanese families in Spain, or, by using a) Cultural analysis: This considers norms, indicators, knowledge of the level of values, customary behavior and ideology integration in the host society (celebration and a clear example of this is cultural shock of Japanese traditions, language profi - between the original and host cultures. ciency, participation in local events, etc.). b) Analysis of social units: Here the objective 3. Interactive analysis: In this case the unit is awareness of the relations between the of observation, more than the person or distinct social agents that intervene in the group, is the interaction between them. process, which in this case is migration. An Existing social networks between indi - example would be the relation between the viduals and groups, as well as their Japanese immigrant community (considered functional nature are taken into account. solely as one group) and parent and teacher During the present study, special attention associations (in Spain AMPTA) in schools. was given to the ties between the Japanese community and the social The sum of these levels of analysis in data agents which intervene in their migration triangulation provides research with a precise process. Examples of data analysed on methodology which helps reduce the bias which

90 2 would occur if only a single strategy approach As can be seen from the above table, (quantitative or qualitative) were used. Likewise, triangulation helps overcome the disadvantages instrumental and methodological diversity and shortfalls of both the quantitative and during analysis facilitates the formation of a qualitative approach. In the opinion of social- working hypothesis. In short, triangulation of humanistic disciplines with respect to the methods allows the opportunity to develop quantitative point of view, there is too big a systematic research, and at the same time difference between the population under study improve diagnosis by summing up the results and the way in which results obtained are using multiple methods which permit them to presented. A clear example of this is found in be interpreted coherently. studies of people at risk of social exclusion.

Diagram 7. Advantages and disadvantages of different methodological approaches

Qualitative Quantitative Triangulation Greater proximity with Rigorous methodology Various points of view the population studied Greater data collection Valid and representative Flexible and dynamic flexibility data process Advantages Explorative-inductive- Allows the possibility Combines data collection deductive of comparing data with (subjective and objective) other studies Dynamic reality Generalizable Systematic analysis of facts Low data Static data Costly data analysis representativeness High risk of bias because Categorisation of Risk of collecting of ideological and moral subjective variables unnecessary information reasons, value Disadvantages judgements, etc. Naturalistic data collection Impersonal results with Needs thorough and (no control) little criticism rational justification of the processes carried out

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After participating in the study, they feel comes into play, namely the techniques for data frustrated on seeing how their problems and collection. anxieties are transformed into numbers and From a quantitative point of view, the tables which do not reflect the way in which questionnaire is considered to be the basic they perceive the reality with surrounds them. technique for obtaining information about the On the other hand, those contrary to the universe being studied. Nevertheless the concept qualitative approach often consider that the of “questionnaire” has been growing and methodology and data collected are submitted acquiring new dimensions in function of the to such a level of subjectivity that this questions needs of researchers. Likewise, qualitative the va lidity and reliability of results obtained. techniques have also adapted to new situations. As proposed by Valles (2007) it is becoming Despite the advantages of triangulation, it must more and more difficult to define the term be pointed out that this is not the solution to “interview” in such a way that it is accepted by the debate on methodology. The main difficulty the majority of the scientific community. of triangulation lies in the necessity to justify in These techniques for collecting and analysing a detailed manner each of the decisions made data have evolved through time. New tech - during the study. The flexibility and liberty of nology, recent social and economical events this approach make it two sided, because if and the changes in personal habits has obliged each of the philosophical decisions is not them to be revised. Therefore it can be said that explained in a concise and coherent manner, nowadays the use of each of the technique is there is a risk of ending up with a great quantity no longer directly linked to a specific research of unconnected data which gives no answers model, either because it has become obsolete nor helps explain a given situation. (for example questionnaires sent by regular post) or because the method of application is no longer possible (for example observing prisoners 4 | data collection techniques in concentration camps). Therefore an appropriate way of relating Once the subject of the study, the objectives techniques to the subject of research consists and the proposed methodology have been in rational reasoning, which has to bear in mind defined, one of the most important decisions not only the subject of research but also the when it comes to designing a research project environment and the objectives pursued

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4.1 The questionnaire contact with the population to be studied using a more impersonal technique which Rubio and Varas (1999: 251) defines a would allow us to know to what extent they questionnaire as: “research carried out on a were prepared to be interviewed. In this representative sample of a larger group, using respect, the self administered questionnaire standardised interrogation procedures with the does not require direct contact with the aim of obtaining quantitative measurements of interviewee. a large variety of objective and subjective features of the universe in question”. 3. Eliminate those who do not fulfill the requirements for forming part of the sample. It was decided to use a self-administered Despite the increase in the Japanese questionnaire in the first stage of this study as population in Europe during the last decade, the technique for data collection for the this community is characterised by under - following reasons: going a migratory process linked to large 1. Reduce the language handicap. As pointed Japanese companies and multinationals out by Lueck and Wilson (20210), the level (Beltran and Saiz, 2002). As pointed out by of language proficiency is one of the Glebe (2003) and Beltran (2005) the inte - variables to be considered when studying gra tion process in the host society is very migratory phenomena. The difference much limited to certain areas (for example between Spanish and Japanese language can businesses or translation services). Thus, by be a barrier when collecting information. using the self administered questionnaire it For this reason it was decided to use a self was hoped to separate those whose objective administered questionnaire (in Japanese, was to establish themselves in the host English and Spanish). society, and those who came to Spain under the protection of a multinational company 2. Knowing the degree of interest of the sample. and whose objective was to return to Japan One of the main features of Asians is that after spending a brief period abroad. they appear to keep their distance from social agents. At first, it was decided to use the in 4. Obtain information for the guidelines of the depth interview as the technique to approach interview. As has been previously mentioned, the migratory process. However this tool a lack of knowledge and information about required a high level of participation. the group under study is one of the major Therefore it was decided to make initial difficulties of the research project. It was

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therefore considered worthwhile to collect mentioned that authors such as White (2003; some initial quantitative data in order to 2006) and Fujita (2009) warn of a changing identify the worries and anxieties of this tendency in the makeup of the Japanese community during the migration process. community as more and more people leave Japan with the idea of establishing permanent With respect to the subject of this thesis research, residence in a new environment. there is no doubt that the evolution of the dias - pora of Japanese has obliged researchers to adapt When designing and distributing the ques - their techniques and way of collecting data to tionnaires, the divisions set out by Beltran and this new situation. For example, more and more Saiz were taken into consideration, as were the Japanese arrive in Spain without knowing the changes in the composition of the Japanese language, or having a stable support network community as cited by White and Fujita. It was during the pre-migratory phase. This means that therefore decided to use two self administered tools, such as the questionnaire, have to be questionnaires—one for students and the other adjusted to their reality. Thus qualitative data for those Japanese whose migratory objective collection techniques ought to try to delve into is to reside in Spain indefinitely. more personal aspects such as level of satis - faction, their needs during their stay in Spain, The aim of both questionnaires is to collect data etc. Combining objective data collection, such on the migratory process of the different groups as social-demographic data, and compiling of Japanese living in Spain. In order to get the subjective aspects, such as those previously men - most precise and detailed information possible, tioned, gives more depth and enriches the data it was necessary to adapt the questionnaires to obtained using tools such as the questionnaire. the research objectives, because even though the end result is the same (knowledge of the Beltran and Saiz (2003; 2003; 2004) create migration process), the characteristics of both different profiles of Japanese residents in Spain, groups (Japanese with a student visa, and those dividing them into three main groups; firstly with a work or resident permit) make it that made up of business men and public necessary to centre the questions on different officials; secondly, students, and thirdly, self- phases of the process. For example in the case employed workers, small business owners, of students, and bearing in mind that they reside mixed couples of Japanese and Spanish, etc. As in Spain for a short time (between 4 and 20 pointed out by these authors, the largest group months) it was considered especially important is made up of students, although it should be to know how the transition process occurs and

94 2 how they adapt to the new host society as well housewives, salary men, etc.) the questionnaire as the roles played by support networks (formal centres on collecting data relating to the settling and informal) during this period. down process. Special interest is placed on the study of creating new support networks and the To approach the situation of those immigrants interrelation with the different nuclei which whose objective is to settle permanently in the make up the spheres in which the universe society of destiny (self employed workers, under study moves (macro, meso and micro).

Diagram 8. Comparison of the groups comprising both questionnaires (Student Visa/Work or Resident Permit)

Self-administered questionnaire for students General self-administered questionnaire Section 1 Situation of student in country of origin Section 1 Social-demographic data Section 2 Pre-migration process (strategies) Section 2 Ties between Japan and Spain Section 3 Outlook for the future Section 3 Residence in Spain

Diagram 9. Elements which are common and differ in both questionnaires

Common elements Differentiating elements Student Visa Work or Residence Permit Situation prior to leaving Japan Pre-migration phase Integration phase Arrival in the host society Integration strategies Settling down strategies Support networks in the country First contact with different Forming and consolidating of origin social agents solid support networks in Spain Current situation Prospects of returning Prospects of returning to Spain to Japan

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Self administered questionnaire for students 10 open. This set of questions was divided into 3 sections. The aim of the first was to get basic The aim of this questionnaire is to become aware information on the student’s situation in the of the current situation of students and their country of origin. The second referred to the medium term (one or two years) outlook for the pre-migration process (strategies for preparation, future. By the use of this tool it is hoped to objectives and motivation) and the third tried distinguish between the Japanese who have to col lect information on the student’s outlook come to Spain with the intention of widening for the future. their knowledge and those who use this excuse as a migration strategy to stay legally in the host country, at the same time identifying those Diagram 10. Questionnaire for students - whose future plan is to stay in Spain once they Content Summary have finished their education, as proposed by the selection requirements of the sample. Self-administered questionnaire for students Section1 Situation of student in country 60 questionnaires were distributed amongst of origin students in public education centres such as Personal details (age, sex, place universities and language institutes as well as of origin) in the private sector such as teaching academies. Studies carried out in Japón Of the 60, 42 questionnaires were returned, 14 Studies completed at the time of which fulfilled the necessary requirements of emigrating for interviews. After receiving the questionnaires Reasons for emigrating Choosing where to settle and with the aim of correcting possible errors, an attempt was made to contact the 28 people Section 2 Pre-migration process (strategies) Preparation prior to arrival who did not fill in the questionnaire. Of them, Document processing 9 said they did not have enough time, 5 thought Sources or formal and informal that the study was of no consequence to the support Japanese community and no reply was obtained Section 3 Outlook for the future from the remaining 4, as they could not be Residence in the host society contacted. Returning to country of origin Motivation for making decisions The questionnaires presented to the students Family and job expectations, etc. had 16 questions of which 6 were closed and

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Self administered questionnaire for Japanese not answer the questionnaire were businessmen who intend to settle in Spain permanently or workers in multinational Japanese companies in the Barcelona and Madrid areas. Of the 34 The purpose of the second self administered people who answered the questionnaire, 30 questionnaire was to collect information on the were later interviewed. rest of the Japanese population resident in Spain and whose main activity was not studying Various social agents, both formal and informal, (business men in multinational companies with were used to contact the members of this group. long term residence, civil servants and emplo - 60% of the questionnaires were distributed using yees, small business men, housewives, artists, institutional resources such as associations and etc.). This questionnaire had a double objective. entities related to the Japanese world (Aragón- First of all, to get closer to the relevant aspects Japón, Asia House, Association of Japanese of the social context in which the universe under teachers, Association of scholars of the Japanese study finds itself, and secondly to identify those Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science people whose social and personal characteristics and Technology (MEXT), Kimono Club Bar- would enable reliable and representative celona, Association of language exchange information to be obtained on the general Barcelona, Faculty of language and translation situation of Japanese immigrants in our country. of UAB, Department of Asian Studies of the Likewise, the results obtained would be used Universidad Complutense of Madrid, etc.). to design the script for the in depth interview. Teachers of Japanese language and culture in specialist centers such as the university, language A total of 64 self administered questionnaires colleges, or academies and Japanese schools were distributed, out of which 34 were in various cities were also asked to participate. answered. As with the students, an attempt was The questionnaires were distributed using made to find out the reasons why 30 of the various social networks (Facebook, Mixi and questionnaire were not filled in. 4 people Tweeter) and e-mail. Contact with the remaining considered that because they did not have time 40% was done through informal channels for the interview, they were not interested in (friends and colleagues). The self administered filling in the questionnaire. Another 8 said they questionnaires were also distributed by e-mail did not have time to answer it and 2 thought in Spanish and English. that their level of Spanish or English was not sufficient to answer the questions correctly. It It should be noted that the highest level of is worth pointing out that 14 of those who did participation was found among those who had

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been contacted using informal channels (only one of them did not return the questionnaire). Diagram 11. General Questionnaire: Content Summary The second model of the self administered questionnaire was made up of 27 questions of General Self-administered questionnaire which 20 were closed (5 dichotomous and 15 Section 1 Social demographic data multiple choice) and 7 open. The questionnaire Age, sex, place of origin was divided into 3 sections, the first of which Family composition (marital status, children and family was made up of a set of questions aimed at in country of origin obtaining social demographic data; the second and destination) was designed to collect basic data on the Place/time of residency (before interrelation of the person of Japanese origin and after coming to Spain) with their immediate environment; and the third Profession (before and after in finding out what impressions the interviewee coming to Spain) had of their stay in their current city of residence Section 2 Ties between Japan and Spain and their near future. Adopting new customs in the host society Conserving norms and patterns of Japanese culture Transnational relations Relations among Japanese/Spaniards/Other foreigners Diagram 12. Questionnaires handed out Section 3 Residence in Spain Participation in local activities Student Residence or Total Opinions and evaluation of the Visa Work Permit social environment Questionnaires Outlook for the future (family, 60 64 124 handed out personal, work, etc.) Questionnaires 42 34 076 returned Valid 14 34 048 Questionnaires

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4.2 In depth interview As pointed out by Urraco Solanillas (2007), the main difference between the in depth interview The interview has been established as the choice and life history lies in the fact that the former tool for qualitative data collection, as it allows centres on collecting information (personal or researchers to obtain first hand information from otherwise) which is related to the subject being direct sources studied, whereas the latter aims to collect data relating to the life experience of the interviewee. Apart from the interview, there are other Despite subtle differences, these techniques are techniques (life history, observation, discussion not mutually exclusive given that they share the groups, etc.) that enable data to be collected same tool for data collection, namely direct on lived experiences, opinions and outlook for communication. the future. This wide range of possibilities gives researches the opportunity to consider different For this reason it was decided to write a script alternatives when collecting information. for the interview which covers a large span of However having such a wide range of possi bi - time (from the time of leaving Japan to the lities has made it necessary to look for a specific present day) and in this way establish a use for each of the techniques mentioned. relationship between events lived and the current situation. This would allow the possibility When it came to choosing the most appropriate of studying both phenomena (pre-migration technique for approaching the Japanese process and current situation) at the same time migratory phenomenon, this same debate arose. and obtain more specific and interrelated data. On the one hand, the subject under study is considered as a dynamic process extending in The interview, understood as such, consists in time, thus suggesting that life history would be the interaction of two or more people. One must the best option as it would be centred on distinguish between two major elements which collecting data on facts and experiences first play a major role during the exchange of hand. On the other hand we want to know information in an interview, namely internal about the current condition of the interviewees elements (those which have a direct reper cu - as participating members of the host society, ssion on the interviewer-interviewee relationship and from this point of view the in depth and on those who take part) and external interview would be an ideal technique a s the elements (those which intervene indirectly and aim is to collect data about a given situation. which are difficult to control or foresee).

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w Internal elements: where the interview is carried out. From a 1. People: Two individuals can be identified in personal point of view, positive and negative the research interview, namely the inter - experiences in both the country of origin viewer and the informant. The role of the and in the host country, may condition the researcher is to direct the conversation informant’s discussion, thus making it neces - towards themes related to the subject under sary for the researcher to approach the same study. The informant undertakes the role of topic from different angles in order to contrast interviewee and his function is to supply information. For example, if the interview information about certain aspects in which takes place with a person who has just begun he is considered to be an expert, either a sentimental relationship with an indigenous because of personal experience or direct person, the informant´s opinion on the contact (in the case of experts, institutional treatment received from Spaniards is most representatives, etc.). likely to be positive. In this case it would be advisable to approach the topic indirectly 2. Topic: The topic or subject under study is the by asking about relations with workmates, cornerstone of all interviews. Although it is neighbours, etc. In the same way that per - presumed that people act freely and volun - so nal situations can condition the inter - tarily, the attitude or way of appro aching viewer/interviewee relation, surroundings certain delicate topics (for example the reason can also affect the meaning of both the for abandoning the original family, or personal questions and answers. For example, when difficulties encountered during the integration discussing disagreements between Japanese process), may create a dis tan ce between both and Spanish workers, if the interview is parties, thus making com munication difficult carried out in the workplace, the information and likewise data collection. obtained is most probably biased and condi - w External elements: tioned through fear of being listened to by 1. Situation: The progress of an interview is co-workers or by tension experienced at work. influenced by the context in which it takes 2. Rules of interaction between people: When place. There are two levels to bear in mind carrying out an interview, a series of norms when talking about the situation. On the one are established which help understanding hand there is the psycho-social situation of and fluidity and avoid misunderstanding and both the researcher and the interviewee and stressful situations for both the interviewer on the other hand, the physical situation and the interviewee. Therefore the rules for

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interaction are tightly linked to social-cultural researchers, because it may be an added aspects. For this reason, and especially when difficulty when accessing information. For dealing with foreigners, the researcher has example, Fujita points out that when carrying to bear in mind two important items. First of out an interview, the informant forms his own all he has to be aware of cultural differences expectations concerning the researcher. and the different protocols adopted by each Sometimes these young people expect the culture, and secondly he has to try to find interviews to provide them with additional out to what extent the interlocutor is familiar information on institutional resources, the way with the standards of conduct of the host of life in the country of destiny, etc. Likewise, country. For example, in the case of Asians, Fujita collects the testimony of many Japanese such as the Japanese, where there is little who have doubts or are not sure about being physical contact between people (for exam - able to relate with foreigners, especially if they ple, in certain situations it is not correct to are not Asiatic. Therefore, the origin of the look a person in the eye), the way in which researcher may be an additional obstacle when the interviewer presents himself, or excessive trying to sustain a feeling of confidence (between gesticulation during the interview, may the researcher and the interviewee), which condition the interview and make the inter - allows both parties to deal with different aspects viewee feel uncomfortable or even ill at ease. of the migratory process in a normal fashion.

These basic elements, which intervene in the Following the indications of Fujita (2009), the course of an interview, give an idea of the main objectives of the phase prior to the complexity of this tool. To maximise reliability interview were: and validity, previous preparation has to be made before writing the interview script. 1. To study in depth aspects related to Japanese behavior patterns. There is a lot of prejudice To do this, the thoughts of Yuiko Fujita on the and rumours about immigrants, and the complexity of carrying social research on Japanese community is no exception. In their Japanese immigrants have been taken into study on “Japanese women; reality and account (Fujita; 2009). In her study, “Cultural myths” Barlés and Alamazán (2008) refute migrants from Japan: Youth, Media and some of them such as for example the false Migration in New York and London”, Fujita myth that Japanese women are submissive warns about the importance of this process, and that female Japanese immigrants are especially in the case of non-Japanese nursemaids. An analysis was carried out on

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the different life styles and activities carried increase the size of the sample and to collect out by models of the Japanese society both testimonies. In accordance with this in the country of origin and different host principle, the first informants to be contacted countries. As an example of the relevance that were the heads of cultural associations, or behavior patterns have during the interview, people who held significant posts (professors, Shiobara (2004; 2005; 211) and Fujita (2004; company managers, etc.), After speaking 2009) highlight the versatility of the Japanese with them, interviews were then held with immigrant’s dialogue depending on the topic, the Japanese who resided longest in Spain the person or group of people to which one and those whose professional background is referring. For example, throughout the or work experience would be a source of research, those informers who preferred to both general and personal information on carry out the interview in Japanese, accom - the situation of the Japanese community. pa nied by an interpreter, answered the ques - Finally, interviews were arranged the Japa - tions in a very brief and general fashion. Des - nese who had no close connection with the pite language difficulties, the Japanese who previously mentioned group (for example, underwent the interview on their own tended artists, students and self employed). to give much more detailed information. 3. Choosing a venue for the interview: As men - 2. Choosing informants: One of the most tioned earlier, the environment or situation important challenges when preparing where the interview is carried out is one of research it to find reliable sources of the key elements for obtaining information. information. The premises suggested by Manuals and reference books on qualitative Benedict (1964) and Hendry (1987) were research techniques recommend that adopted during this phase. Both authors interviews take place where the informant consider that the inflexibility of Japanese feels comfortable and far from noise and social structure is a determining factor when interruptions (Valles, 2007). The most contacting members of this community. Thus recommended places are in the interviewees’ they suggest that the first informants with home, researchers’ offices, etc. However whom a relationship is established should Fujita considers that the atmosphere in which have a higher status within the Japanese the interview is carried out is more important community, otherwise disagreements many than the venue. For example, this sociologist occur among the members of the group, comments that, during her research on which in turn would make it difficult to Japanese immigrants in the United States

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and Great Britain, most of the interviews took 1. The situation prior to deciding to immigrate: place in bars, coffee shops and other public The aim of this set of questions is to obtain places chosen by the informers them selves. in-depth knowledge of the work, private and According to Fujita, being familiar with the family situations, etc. of the interviewee surroundings increases the confi dence and before considering the possibility of emi - self assurance of the person being intervie - grating. This section is especially important wed and this is reflected in the way they because it helps empathise and understand speak. During this study, it was decided that the reasons behind the decision to leave the Japanese themselves should pick the time one’s country of origin. For example, not and pla ce for the meetings. It is worth poin - feeling integrated in the place of origin, or ting out that most of them chose places they considering that a strict social structure may frequently visit such as bars, coffee shops, hinder professional or personal development, civic centres or even their place of work. can be an added incentive when it comes There is no double that this led to a pleasant to making the decision to emigrate. and relaxed relationship between both parties. 2. The pre-migration phase: This section aims As previously mentioned, sometimes the to find out how the idea to emigrate gains borderlines between the different techniques momentum, and its effect on the individual for collecting data are not well defined, or do and his immediate environment (family, not suit t he requirements of the research being friends, work, partner, etc.). Likewise, it takes carried out. For this reason it was decided to into consideration the preparations made use the term “in depth interview” from a generic before leaving the country. As pointed out point of view when preparing the script of the by Chu (2009), this process can condition interview. This allowed other techniques to be the outcome of the migration project and included such as the biographic interview or for this reason it is interesting to know the interviews for specialists. priorities and objectives of future immigrants.

The objective of the interview was to learn about 3. Settling down phase: The object of this third the life experiences of the participants during section is to collect the testimonies of the pre-migratory and installation phases. members of the Japanese community in the Therefore the proposal was for a standard non- host society. The focal points of this section programmed interview (Valles, 2007: 187). The are the re-socialisation processes and interview was divided into 4 sections: adapting to the social norms and behavior

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of the host society. Cultural shock is With respect to the outlines for the interview, considered to be one of the biggest it was decided that following a brief introduction handicaps when it comes to setting down on the research to be carried out, the informant in another environment. Therefore, apart would be asked to tell his story starting with from information on relationships with the what life was like for him before considering indigenous population, interest in links emigrating. Starting the session with this kind maintained with family and friends who of question allows the level of the interlocutor’s stayed behind in the country of origin are involvement to be determined and to establish also considered important. a strategy for continuing the interview. Likewise, giving the initiative to the interviewee to express 4. The current situation and outlook for the himself makes him feel the main character of future: This last section deals with the analysis his story and increases his confidence. of the immigrant’s current situation. The informant is asked to evaluate the develop - As the interview develops, the researcher’s role ment of his migration project, and, as active is one of orientation and making sure that the members of the host society, to evaluate his narration follows some kind of order.Three open own personal situation and that of the questions are used to do this: Japanese community in Spain in general. 1. Clarification: The object here is to clear up Apart from getting to know his impressions, any doubts and get a more details concerning it is interesting to find out to what extent certain aspects. This type of question is also carrying out certain tasks prior to leaving used when approaching events relevant to Japan (pre-migration phase) or maintaining the respondent. ties with the country of origin, is beneficial or not to the migratory project. 2. Proof: To check that the account given by the interviewee is perfectly understood. This By setting the questions out in this way it is type of question often allows certain subjec - hoped that the interview follows a chronological tive aspects to be dealt with in more depth, order. This type of script has two advantages: such as opinions or assessments given by on the one hand it allows the informant to the informant. An example, when relating present different events in an orderly and se - to topics dealing with the family in Japan, quen tial fashion, and on the other, it enables the could be “So, did you get on well or not with researcher to identify the most relevant moments your father?” This gives the researcher the and facts during the course of the interview. opportunity to corroborate what has been said

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and at the same time permits the inter viewee in the research showed a high degree of invol - to provide more information on the subject. vement and participation during the data collecting process. In most cases the interviews 3. Projective: The aim of these questions is to took longer than two hours (the maximum make the interviewee put into the mouth of time recommended by experts in qualitative others opinions which he would find difficult techniques). Likewise, more than half of those to express or which would make him feel interviewed (27 out of 44) showed interest in uncomfortable. These questions are essential having another meeting to continue their story. when dealing with the Japanese community, because very few of them are able to express Eventually 44 people were interviewed (out of their ideas or opinions regarding third parties the 48 Japanese contacted, 4 cancelled the during a first interview. interview) of which 14 were students and 30 were engaged in other tasks (businessmen, salary The interviews were predominated by these three men, housewives, artists, etc.). A total of 68 in - types of open questions. Given that the terviews were carried out, lasting an average of communication process is not lineal, it should between 90 and 115 minutes. Approximate be mentioned that other types of questions such 90% of the interviews were held in Spanish, as suggestions or generalizations are not as effec - 6% in English and the remaining 4% in Japanese tive. As proposed by Hendry (1987), cultu ral (with the help of a Japanese interpreter). differences between Japanese and Wes - terns may be the reason why a po si tive response is not given by the inter viewee. Diagram 13. Descriptive interview data by groups What is considered in western society Interview Data to be a simple direct question may make Student Residence or Total the Japanese feel under pressure. Visa Work Permit Faced with this added difficulty, the best Number of people interviewed 14 030 44 option is to readjust the tools available Number of interviews held 17 051 68 to suit the characteristics of group being Average time of interview (in minutes) 87 120 - studied as well as the research ob jec - tives. Considering these options, the Interviews in Spanish 13 024 37 cultural difference between participants Interviews in English 01 003 04 was not an insurmountable obstacle. Interviews in Japanese 00 003 03 For example the Japanese who took part

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Chapter three RESULTS 1 | Background knowledge of the basic characteristics of the pre-migratory phase can help understand the As in all migratory projects, the exodus of the situation of this community in the host society. Japanese towards the West has its roots in the society of origin. The migratory project of each As Diagram 14 shows the areas from which the of the members who form the Japanese com - Japanese currently residing in Saragossa, and munity in Spain was shaped in Japan. Therefore the metropolitan regions of Barcelona and

Diagram 14. Area of origin of the Japanese population resident in Spain in 2012

Source: self research

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Madrid come from. As can be seen, the majority island of Honshuu. The two most representative of the population originates in two well defined regions are Kantou with 20 participants and areas, namely the regions of Kansai and Kantou. Kansai with 15, followed by Chuubu with 7 and Touhoku with 2. In other words, of the total These are the two most heavily populated areas sample 9 out of 10 immigrants were from the in Japan and needless to say their capitals, Osaka Kantou or Kansai regions. and Tokyo, are considered to be among the most densely populated cities of the world. Table 3. Place of Origin of the sample Even the Japanese consider this normal, because they say that within Japan, the Japanese who Absolute Relative Value do not live in capital cities tend to migrate there. Value (n) (%) People who live in metropolis very rarely decide Akita 1 2,27 to move to smaller cities, and if they decide to Aomori 1 2,27 migrate they usually go abroad. Tokio 13 29,55 Yokohama 3 6,82 Saitama 1 2,27 “It is normal for people who live in small Kanagawa 3 6,82 towns or villages to go and work or study Osaka 12 27,27 or whatever in cities, but where does Kobe 1 2,27 someone from Tokyo or Osaka go? They Nagoya 5 11,36 know that if they want to improve their work Kyoto 2 4,55 or lifestyle they have to buck up or else leave Nagano 1 2,27 the city. It’s very rare for a city dweller to go Toyama 1 2,27 and live in a village or even in a smaller city.” Total 44 100 Hideo

1.1 The profile of the Japanese We are dealing with a group of people from immigrant in Spain urban areas. The two cities with the largest number of emigrants are Tokyo (capital of Japan) Place of origin and Osaka (the second most populated city). According to the 2011 report by the United Those who took part in the research come from Nations, both of them figure among the world’s 4 areas of Japan, all of them situated in the most populated cities.

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Another of the main characteristics of these two Mariko this is because of the stereotypes and regions is both their national and international popularity of these two cities in Japan. economic and commercial importance. A good example of this is the fact that most important “In Madrid you can find everything relating airports in Japan are in these regions, namely to Spain. No? For example I know bars here Narita international airport in Tokyo and Kansai where they dance Flamenco and there are international airport in Osaka, as well as the always a lot of Spaniards there. Also the two of the world’s busiest ports (Hansin in Osaka football teams from Madrid carry the Spanish and Keihin in Yokohama). flag. I have read in many articles that because it is the capital of Spain, Madrid As mentioned by some of the interviewees, these has everything a foreigner can hope to see two administrative regions open the door in Spain... I think that Catalonia does not between Japan and the West. represent Spain I have only been there once... the people are more open, there are “Tokyo (Kanto) and Osaka (Kansai) are the a lot more foreigners and. the attitude of the two most modern cities in Japan. You can people is very different from that in Madrid. find anything there, from typical Japanese Obviously there are exceptions, but gene - goods to the latest in clothes, electrical rally speaking I think that Barcelona is more household appliances or engineering goods, like Paris or Amsterdam. There are not so not only from Japan but from all over the many typically Spanish things. For example, world. Many people think that the first step they have prohibited bull fighting, haven’t in getting to know Europe or the United they? That’s just the same as if they were to States is to go to Osaka or Tokyo. There are abolish sumo wrestling, karate or something language schools there, all kinds of clubs like that in Japan.” and in Osaka there is also “la casa de Mariko Cataluña” Makoto The main reasons why Japanese immigrants choose these two cities (during the pre-migratory Preconceived ideas and stereotypes phase) are: a) cultural interest and b) recom - men dations of a friend, teacher or family When it comes to deciding where to settle, member. However, it should be pointed out that Barcelona and Madrid were the two options although there is a certain degree of homo - preferred by the sample. As mentioned by geneity when recommending these cities as

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places of destiny, when it comes to cultural Table 4. City of destiny of the Japanese interest, each city is associated with very specific in the pre-migratory phase standards and issues. First Option Second Option Those participating in the study consider that Fr.* % Fr.* % Barcelona is a modern dynamic city of great Barcelona 25 56,8 14 31,8 architectural value and its landscape is very Madrid 16 36,4 21 47,7 different from other Spanish cities. The works Saragossa 1 2,3 1 2,3 of Gaudi, the port and the gothic neighbourhood Valencia 0 0,0 2 4,5 are worthy of special mention. Contrary to other Salamanca 0 0,0 4 9,1 Bilbao 1 2,3 0 0,0 towns like Madrid or Seville, before emigrating, Sevilla 1 2,3 2 4,5 Barcelona is perceived more as an ideal European metropolis rather than as a traditional Total 44 100,0 44 100,0 Spanish city. * (Frequency: number of times mentioned) “I think that I cannot say that Barcelona is like Tokyo or Kyoto. I think it is smaller. But Table 5. Reasons for choosing Barcelona I can say I have seen things there that are similar to what we have in Japan. For and Madrid as cities of destiny during example a lot of people work but do not the pre-migratory project live in Barcelona. It is just like in Tokyo, they Fr. live in the outskirts. The price of land is very Barcelona Cultural reasons 20 expensive here. You can see a lot of people Recommendation 15 who dress oddly, the same as in Tokyo. They No alternative 3 also preserve some old things, as they do in Others 1 Kyoto. For example the “Sagrada Familia” Madrid Cultural reasons 19 the cathedral and the “Parque Guell” (park) Recommendation 11 are like the Golden Palace or the Guion No alternative 5 neighbourhood. But I think there are more Others 2 differences than similarities.” Junko

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Diagram 15. Cultural and social differences between Barcelona and Madrid according to the Japanese before they immigrate to Spain

Likewise the sample highlights that the Table 6. Reasons for not immigrating stereotypes of people from Madrid (open, to rural areas friendly, funny, fun lovers) can be extrapolated to the rest of Spain. From this point of view, the Frequency Spanish capital becomes a point where different No Spanish courses for foreigners 36 national stereotypes converge and this results Cities are more convenient 32 in a representative image of what the Japanese I do not know anyone who could understand as traditional Spain. help me there 27 No work opportunities 22 Although a high number of those participating There is not much to do 21 I cannot find Japanese products 16 consider themselves cultural immigrants (nearly I do not know any small towns 80%) none of them contemplates the idea of or villages 14 immigrating to a rural region. This is because People are not as open as in the city 11 of: a) ignorance or lack of information, b) less

112 3 opportunities for spare time activities and c) showed me photographs of the Pyrenees incompatibility with the migratory project, as and the mountains in Aragon. I was deli - for example more difficulties in entering the ghted with them and there and then I labour market or less training opportunities. decided that if ever I went to Spain I would Another point to bear in mind is that very few have to go there.” Spaniards from rural areas immigrate to Japan, Tomoko and therefore those Japanese who immigrate to Spain with a Spanish partner, or, on the recom - During the preparation phase, before leaving mendation of Spanish friends, choose their Japan it is observed that the interests of those places of origin as places of destiny. who want to immigrate to large cities are more However not all Japanese immigrants live in generic and their future plans more spread out. the large metropolitan cities of Barcelona and Madrid. More and more of the Japanese “I imagined Barcelona to be the “New York” community are settling in cities such as Bilbao, of Spain... After living in the United States Seville, Valencia or Saragossa. and meeting Spanish people there, I decided to travel and become acquainted with the Various common characteristics are found among country. Barcelona appears in so many films those who live in big metropolitan areas and and cartoon series. Before I met my those who settle in smaller cities. Even so, the boyfriend I always thought that I would like main difference between them is that those who to find a job there and enjoy the urban want to immigrate to smaller cities have a specific landscape, the lifestyle and things like that.” interest in some peculiar aspect of that area. Akino “I did my minor thesis on the Mondragon coo perative in the Basque country. I thought Level of formal education it a very interesting subject and I contacted The Japanese residents in Spain are well edu - peo ple there to see if I could stay with them cated. Of the 44 people interviewed, 32 had a for a while in order to get firsthand know led ge of the subject I had studied with such interest.” university degree when they went to Spain, 6 had a master’s degree and 2 of them had docto - Yu kino rates. Only 4 of them did not have university “Mountaineering is one of my pastimes. In education. However 3 of these had finished Nagoya I met a boy from Saragossa who apprenticeships (FP level 2) before immigrating.

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Spain, 61% had the intention of studying Table 7. Level of studies of the Japanese Spanish by attending a course of Spanish for in Spain before immigrating foreigners, either in universities or Official Frequency Schools of Languages or in other public or University degree 32 private centres. Master 6 Apprenticeships 3 Social networks and type of support: Secondary Schooling 1 family and friends Doctorate 2 Total 44 Social networks have played an important role in both the pre-migration and installation phases. In the original context, family and groups of One of the main characteristics of this friends were identified as the main types of key community is that besides the qualifications support networks. obtained in Japan, they are interested in continuing their education in the host society. Family When it comes to choosing what to study in In the stage prior to the post-migration phase, the family nucleus (made up of parents and Table 8. Studies the Japanese siblings) is considered one of the most important wish to carry out in Spain sources of informal support. Approximately 75% considered they responded to their affective Level of Study Fr. % requirements by offering support when making Masters 9 20,45 decisions related to work or studies, or when Doctorate 1 2,27 asking advice on how to resolve conflicts for Middle level job training 1 2,27 example at work. In these cases, the family Higher level job training 2 4,55 Spanish 16 36,36 took charge of looking after basic economic No studies 2 4,55 requirements (for example, lending money to Diploma 2 4,55 pay for studies, helping to get accommoda- Official Language School 11 25,00 tion etc.) and also those related to work (for Total 44 100,00 example, finding a job, continuing with the family business).

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Diagram 16. Support networks of the installation phase as identified by interviewees

Friends

In the selected sample, the most extensive For 3 out of 4 of the participants it was through support network is found amongst friends. these groups that they had their first contact Within this dimension there are three subgroups: with western culture. Thanks to them, they met friends at work, friends at university and friends westerners for the first time, as well as other related to free time activities such as clubs and Japanese with whom they shared interests and associations. It was considered that they all concerns. provided both affective and instrumental support, because they shared common interests As pointed out by Sakura, for many Japanese, and experiences, and exchanged advice on how these groups were the first steps in initiating a to travel to Europe or the United States. migration proces s towards the West.

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“In fact I met my husband thanks to a Barcelona and Madrid were identified. These Spanish cookery group. The teacher was his are detailed as follows: sister and he was on holiday. As I liked Spanish cookery very much I learnt a few a) Cultural reasons words of Spanish, so she (the teacher) asked take them on a guided tour of Osaka. We For those who immigrate for cultural reasons, had a great time. Not only did I meet them, the purpose of their migration project is closely but also other Japanese women who were related to an interest or desire to learn some interested in Spanish culture. Some of them were married to Spaniards and they also specific aspect peculiar to the host society. Two came to the classes. There were also two main subgroups have been identified within Chinese girls and a Russian who had Spanish this group: first of all, those who show a wide boyfriends who came to the class to interest in Spanish culture and secondly, those show us some dishes from their part of the who are attracted to a somewhat more specific country.” characteristic, such as the works of a particular Sakura artist or some special architectural style. The segment which show ed a generic interest 2 | reasons for emigrating and attraction in Spanish folklore lived in Saragossa and the Madrid metropolitan area, whereas those who and expulsion factors stayed in the Barcelona region were attracted by Catalonian artists (such as Salvador Dali or Before examining in detail the relation between Miro) and cultural expressions originating in the sample and social agents during the the Autonomous Community of Catalonia, as installation phase, it is necessary to know and for example the gothic and modernist art styles understand the motives the sample had for going of Barcelona, or an interest in Mediterranean to Spain. cooking.

2.1 Reasons for emigrating “At first I didn’t know if I wanted to go to Madrid or Barcelona. To be true, both were With respect to the decision to leave Japan, a good options, but I finally decided to go to series of causes common to the majority of the Barcelona. Barcelona has a seaside and I sample, as to why it was decided to settle in like that, and also it’s great to have so many Saragossa, and the metropolitan regions of different places to go to in the same city

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Depending where you go, you get the tools) but that their desire to come to Spain was impression of being in a different town. Also motivated by changes in working environment here there are an awful lot of theatre and life style. performances and concerts by artists from all over the world.” Likewise, those who emigrated looking for the opportunity of a job difficult to find in Japan Rioko (for gender reasons, family pressure, etc) come to Spain motivated by the possibility of entering One of the characteristics of cultural immigrants a labour market which offers them more is that they join local associations or organi - opportunities. sations related to the cultural aspect which motivated their migration project. Cultural “I worked as a manager in a chain of associations related to the country of origin and American coffee shops, in Tokyo. Although the country of destiny play an important role. my post was not very high I always had to work a lot of overtime and I could not b) Labour and professional reasons arrange to go out with my girl friends because I always left work late and had to People who arrive in Spain for labour or start again early in the morning. I felt I was professional reasons come with a clear idea; losing my youth, so I began to think about that of working in a specific profession or of a job that would give me more spare time. finding a job which would allow them to But I think that does not exist in Japan.” combine work and personal life (less working Mariko days, more time off, less pressure, etc.) or of entering a post in a sector which is inexistent c) Labour and academic training reasons or poorly developed in the country of origin. This group refers to those who emigrate with These professional workers have very different the intention of gaining specific competences profiles. Among them are to be found language to improve their future professional careers teachers, salary men of the tertiary sector, self independent of their place of work. employed, translators, clerks, etc. However they all coincide in that their decision to leave Japan Within this group we find university students and emigrate to Spain was not conditioned by who aim to increase their knowledge in a the hope of finding better working conditions specialised field previously studied in Japan. (higher wages, better equipment and working Likewise it also includes those who move to

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Madrid, Barcelona or Saragossa to undertake into two subgroups. The first is made up of those some specific professional training which will Japanese who come to Spain as part of a family improve their skills. Examples include sports - project which is already consolidated. This is people, those interested in working in the the case of business men and workers who are catering and hotel sector, workers in multi - sent to our country by their company. The national companies who want to gain expe - second group is made up of Japanese who rience in higher posts, etc. emigrated to Spain with the intention of starting or consolidating a relationship with someone “When I was 16, my football team’s coach of Spanish origin. This group is mainly made told me that I had to think about my future. up of women (approximately 76%) aged I had very good grades at high school but between 25 and 40 years with a university my team was in the Japanese second education. All of the Japanese interviewed who division. Everyone thought that I would have formed part of a mixed couple relationship with a better future as a salary man than as a children born in Spain, considered that except football player, but my father’s friend, who for circumstances beyond their control (work lives in Madrid, mentioned to a friend who or health reasons of a family member in Japan) had a football team in Madrid that I wanted their intention would be to rear their children to play football. In the end I decided to play in Spain. for Saragossa B football team. Although it is not in the first division, here I can learn and dedicate my time to playing football, “I came to work in Spain for various reasons. which is what I like most. If I had stayed in One of them was that when I lived in Japan I would probably be working for Kanagawa, I met my husband (Spanish) Honda, Panasonic, or something like that.” there. We both worked but he wanted to go back to Spain and as I had studied Ibiki Spanish at university we thought it would be a good idea to try luck here (in Spain). d) Family or partner reasons I agreed in coming because I wanted to The family nucleus, partner, and the intention teach Japanese and not work for a company of forming a new family are some of the reasons and coming to Europe gave me this oppor - highlighted by participants when deciding to tunity.” emigrate from Japan. This group can be divided Totoko

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Diagram 17. Reasons given by the Japanese population for emigrating to Spain

Once the reasons why the members of this group “Generally speaking it is easier for the decided to emigrate are known, the next step Japanese to emigrate to English speaking is to identify the main places of destiny and the countries... The reason is very simple; we determining factors which influenced the study English from childhood and therefore decision to settle in the host society. These it is more convenient for us to go to the aspects have to be taken into consideration in United States or England because we don’t order to find out which of them favour the have to bother too much about the language migration process, during arrival and the course and so we can think about other things.” of the settling down phases. Musume

As diagram 17 show s the countries where the All the interviewees who had moved to western interviewees had lived before settling down countries before settling in Spain considered definitively in the host society. 19 of the 44 their experience to be positive.The main reasons interviewed had lived in other countries before for considering stopping over in another country coming to Spain, the most popular being English as positive are related to acquiring social skills speaking countries such as the United States and life experience. (9), Great Britain (7) Canada (2) and Ireland (1). Likewise other countries were also identified “Although Spain was my favourite country, but these were less relevant when considering I think that living abroad helped me to the number of Japanese who had lived there, understand the Spanish and their community but needless to say they share certain cultural in a different way. A lot of young people traits with Spain (Italy, France, Peru and Brazil). who go to Spain do a lot of things because

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they think they are experiencing something 2.2 Attraction and expulsion factors “very” Spanish. They also put up with a lot of unpleasantries because they want to live Atraction and expulsion factors provide here and they think their problems may be informaion on what makes people emigrate or caused by cultural differences. But some - the reasons why a certain country seems more times it is because they are dealing with bad attractive for certain groups of immigrants. people or they don’t like a particular person. I think that if you live abroad or have Normally atraction factors are associated with relations with other foreigners you can tell living conditions, better opportunities, etc. if culture is to blame for the things that which prevail in developed countries, whereas happen or not.” expulsion factors refer to the social and Mariko economical situation, etc. found in more

Diagram 18. Countries where Japanese immigrants lived before moving to Saragossa

Source: self research

120 3 underdeveloped countries. However, in the case times). These ideas developed from media of communities like the Japanese these assump - information, especially after the Second tions need to be revised, because, as will be World War, the Tokyo Olympics and Spanish shown, subjective variables, such as searching sporting achievements in recent times. for a particular life style or personal interests, may be considered more important than 2. Academic training is cheaper than in other maintaining social status or a comfortable European countries and there is more safety economic situation. and political and economical stability than in South America.

Attraction 3. When compared to the Japanese model, 1. Before emigrating, one of the most important working conditions in the European labour attraction factors when considering the market offers the possibility of reaching a migration flow of Japanese to the West is the higher level of specialisation, promotion and collective imaginary of Spain. During the in many cases more freedom for workers. pre-migration phase, the most widely used 4. Increased social capital. In this sense the terms to describe what they thought Spanish social imaginary of Spain is very important society would be like are: a country of very as it is considered that entering social open minded people (45 times); easy to make relationships is easier in Spain than in other friends (40 times) fun loving people (32 countries. Likewise, making ties with foreigners may prove beneficial both perso - nally (make friends, find a partner) and Table 9. The Spanish population professionally (open new market niches, as described by Japanese resident in Spain meet new business associates). Words used by the simple Frequency to describe the Spanish 5. The affinity or interest in certain cultural aspects such as language and historical and Very open minded 45 artistic heritage etc. is also considered an Easy to make friends 40 Fun loving 32 important attraction factor. Although until A little/very lazy 23 recently Spain was never considered one of Attractive 19 the most popular destinations for Japanese Sincere 12 immigrants, this situation has been changing in later years. The phonetic similarity of

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Spanish and Japanese, together with the in - and bull fighting (Nono Taira) have helped creasing influx of Latin-American immi grants form the idea that Spain is open to the East to Japan has helped make Spanish the second and that it offers opportunities for personal most studied foreign language in Japan. development beyond the labour market.

6. Cultural capital is another attraction factor of Expulsion this group. Historical figures such as Gaudi, Goya and Lorca together with artists and 1. Pressure and social control together with emerging figures, such as Joaquín Cortés and internal conflicts between what one ought Ferran Adria, act as an enticement for many to do and what wants to do are the two most of the Japanese who imagine their future in common expulsion factors found among the another country. Also the success and popu - Japanese. For example, for many women, larity which some Japanese have attained in staying in the country of origin means that areas such as flamenco (Ishimitsu Takazuka) they have to accept a certain life style where

Diagram 19. Elements of attraction to Spain, identified by the sample

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the family’s interests and outlook for the 3. An expulsion factor to bear in mind is the future may prevail over their own. Japanese business model. Ben-Air (2006) analyses the inner workings of Japanese 2. Lack of incentives for personal progress at multinationals and highlights the fact that work. For groups such as women or young spending time in the company’s offices people, the lack of personal acknow - broad is a way of increasing social capital ledgement in the country of origin is an a added difficulty when it comes to accessing both on a personal and business level. certain posts or getting promotion. Likewise, Furthermore, the multinationals, as an individual initiative, especially in young incentive, offer their workers a higher post people and women is stifled by social on their return to Japan. Thus the option of pressure which sets standards, values and leaving Japan can be considered an clear behavior patterns that have to be investment for the future, especially for the adhered to. This is why more and more young who otherwise would have difficulties emigrate to Spain and other European in accessing more responsible posts. In the countries looking for opportunities for same way, strengthening of social networks promotion or to develop a professional and the increase in social and human capital career or indeed simply to look for a lifestyle which this may mean, also become an which is not accepted in the original society. incentive to emigrate.

Diagram 20. Expulsion elements of the original country identified by the sample

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4. The situation at work is another expulsion During transition from the post-migration to the factor to take into consideration. Apart from settling down phase, the main concerns mentio - the shortage of jobs brought about by the ned by the sample revolve around three points: global crisis and the economic recession 1. Receiving education in the host society: One that Japan has been suffering since the of the priorities is to enroll in a post graduate 1990’s, one has to contemplate working course or Spanish for foreigners, amongst conditions that do not impress the Japanese others. (low wages, long working hours, etc.). As a result, more and more people consider 2. Entering a more flexible labour market: emigration a possible alternative. During the phase previous to heading to the country of destiny, all the interviewees, However, the expulsion and attraction factors except for the students, had a stable job in mentioned show us that we are dealing with a Japan. During this phase, this group of salary diverse group with differing profiles. men chose companies or work environments that they would like to join once they settled in the host society. 3 | post-migration phase: preparation 3. Saving money in order to have a certain prior to departure and support networks degree of economic stability in the settling down phase: This strategy was common to The sample shares some degree of similarity the whole sample during the pre-migration when addressing the point in time when it was phase. Savings were made for between 6 and decided to leave Japan. Almost 70% of those 18 months depending on the profession interviewed said that the idea of leaving Japan and/or social economic level of the partici - occurred when they were university students, pants. The reasons for saving money for the and to be more precise, during their final years. installation phase were: a) to pay enrollment 4 out of 5 had spent some time abroad as part fees, b) to travel across the country and Euro - of their training, 23% considered the option of pe, and c) to balance the difference in the emigrating after meeting foreigners in Japan, standard of living between the two countries. and the remaining 7% considered the idea either During the interviews, apart from the afore - because the company they worked for asked mentioned interests and concerns, the informers them to go abroad or because their partner also mentioned s ome factors they did not bear wanted to go back to their own country. in mind during the post-migration phase and

124 3 which hindered integration. Some of the main Japanese want. If I wanted to work for Toyota obstacles are the difficulty in entering the labour or Mitsubishi I would have stayed in Tokyo... market (because there is no bilateral agreement But for many of us the only solution is to between Spain and Japan and a special visa is work for them for a while and then, if we required because they are not citizens of a are lucky, we can look for work in a Spanish European Union member country), changing a or European company. student or tourist visa for a work or residence Akino permit, authenticating and standardising degrees with European legislation. As some Japanese remark, apart from this type of The participants pointed out that the excessive setback one has to bear in mind the lack of know - bureaucracy and paperwork required, together ledge shown by public organisations such as with the time necessary for competent authority NGOs and this forces them to readjust their approval causes the Japanese to think about migration project and their settling down strategies. returning to their homeland. “In my class of Spanish for foreigners there “After doing a university course for almost were girls from China, Korea, Brazil and a year, I was offered work as a Japanese Africa. When we finished the course some teacher in an academy. ...however, as I did of them found work in Spain and so they not have a work permit they could only give stayed here. I don’t know why, but the girls me a few hours work a week It is a big from Africa and Brazil didn’t have any problem for us who come as students or problems. They told me they contacted their tourists. As we can’t work, we can’t live in embassies and some NGOs for advice and Spain, and work is almost impossible if you they didn’t have any problems with their are Japanese. Your degree is useless and as visas. It was more difficult for the Chinese you are not European no-one wants to give girls, but in the end they also managed to you a contract because they do not know find work in Madrid. I went to the Japanese how to go about it and it takes a long time.” Embassy and Casa Asia (Asian house) for Toshi help, but no one knew how to go about the The best option for Japanese is to go to paperwork for a visa... finally a friend of my Barcelona or Madrid. There the Japanese boyfriend (Spanish) explained me what to companies are willin g to do the paperwork do and eventually I got a work permit. for you. But that is not what most of the Noriko

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As observed through the testimonies given by transnational family. This is particularly the case the participants, social support becomes one among women in the 21 to 35 year old age of the key factors of the migration project group. As they themselves state, although their because, in many cases, success in the initial families did not directly say so, they felt that stages depends largely on help received during sometimes their decision to leave Japan was the pre-migration phase and in the first steps of understood as way of abandoning nuclear family settling down. obligations (looking after their parents). In that respect, the sample unanimously agrees that the greatest contribution is made by the “Almost two years went by before I could nuclear family, giving second place to support speak to my family. They didn’t say anything received from extended family members and to me when they knew that I was going to friends. Third place is given to the bosses, Spain. When I arrived here, I used to teachers and work companions who helped telephone them once or twice a week and during the phase prior to arrival in the host they didn’t answer... A friend of mine told country. me that they were a bit sad and angry because I had left my job and obligations Despite family being the mainstay for the person behind in Japan. When I went to Japan on who wants to emigrate, it is important to point holiday, they didn’t come and collect me, out that the proposed migration project is not and they didn’t appear very happy with the always accepted or automatically approved. idea of having me a home for a few days, but eventually we spoke and through time Those interviewed, who believe that family was they have come to terms with it.” not one of the most important sources of support, claim that the reasons given by family Sakura members who were sceptic about the migration project were tightly related to the workplace. Independently of whether the nuclear family Sometimes parents do not understand the reason agrees or not with the decision, the majority of why someone with a good job wants to start a the members of the sample consider that support new life from scratch in a foreign country. given by the family is useful when beginning a Likewise, another of the reasons why families new cycle. However, and contrary to what is do not support the de cision to emigrate during found in other groups, the support given by the the initial stages of the migration project is family is usual of an affective or moral nature, closely related to the role of an immigrant in a rather than economic.

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(which coincides with the anniversary of Table 10. Sources of support mentioned Japanese arriving in Spain), even today there by those interviewed during are no agreements which facilitate the the migration process movement of people between the two countries. Sources of Support Frequency This therefore forces Japanese immigrants to Nuclear Family 13 implement a series of migration strategies, Extended Family 10 which, according to literature on international Friends 10 migration, is usually associated with migrants Bosses/Supervisors 04 who come from more underdeveloped countries Workmates 04 than the country of destiny.

4.1 Migration strategies The only cases where the family contributes economically to the migration project are found Four different strategies have been identified among young students who are going to study which enable this group to obtain a Spanish at a Spanish university. Here the family provides residence permit. These are: tourist visa, student sufficient funding to cover basic needs such as visa, marriages between Europeans and maintenance, accommodation, fees, studying Japanese and work permits. material and a small amount for unforeseen circumstances such as health matters, extra fees, 1. Tourist visa: Approximately 16% of the school taxes, etc. sample traveled to Spain on a tourist visa before settling down. 5 of them used the journey to visit universities, look for 4 | Migration strategies and arrival in Spain accommodation or to contact people who lived in Spain and could serve as a first As previously mentioned, as Japanese foothold during the installation phase. These immigrants are not EU members and as there people were usually Japanese friends who is no bilateral agreement between Spain and already lived in Spain for some time, or Japan, they need to get a visa which allows Spanish friends they had met in Japan. Most them to enter and/or stay in the country legally. of those who arrived with this kind of visa Although there are some economical and were middle aged women with a degree and cultural agreements, such as those of 2013 a stable job in Japan.

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2. Student visa: There are two types of immi - but now, thanks to “these silly things” I have grants who come to Spain with this kind of been able to make a lot of Spanish friends visa. On the one hand, 66% of the total and understand my own culture better.” sample arrived in Spain with a student visa Nene and regularly attended the planned courses. However, 62% (18) of them used the visa to 3. Marriage between Europeans and Japanese: stay in Spain and at the same time gain work Because of the delicate economic situation experience outside their country of origin (6 which has scourged the West in recent years, Japanese) or to start a relationship (12). In many immigrants find it impossible to this group, wo rk experience was usually in legalise their situation in Spain. The Japanese the black market, such as teaching Japanese community has been no exception. As it has and looking after children. The profile of been impossible to get a job which would those who arrived with a student visa is that allow them to legalise their situation in the of a young person under the age of 35 with host society, many of those who entered the jobs in the country of origin which bear little relation to their academic qualifications. country on a tourist or student visa have seen marriage as the only option to settle in Spain permanently. As has been mentioned “When I came to Spain nobody wanted to previously, having a Spanish (or other employ me as an English teacher because I could not prove my qualifications , but on European nationality) partner is one of the the other hand I could teach Japanese reasons for emigrating and makes it a lot without any qualifications. At first I couldn’t easier to enter the labour market. In this understand this, and in fact I didn’t want to respect it is worth highlighting that only 2 teach Japanese language because this meant of the sample married a partner different to I would have to study it again. One day a the one they had during the pre-migration friend told me that they were looking for phase. Likewise, the sample declared that someone Japanese for an origami workshop, having a residence permit increased the and because I was very fond of it when I possibilities of entering the labour market. was young, I applied... I have been in Spain for 4 years now and my work has always 4. Work permit: Only 5 (11%) of the sample been related to Japanese culture. To be left Japan with a work permit when they honest, when I was in Japan I thought that came to Spain. 3 of them belonged to a origami was just an old fashioned silly thing, Japanese company who sent them to Spain

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and 2 were taken on while they were in their It has also been explained how the Japanese own country by companies who had themselves declare that, with few exceptions, branches in Spain. It is worth mentioning the support normally given is of a moral nature. that at the time of the interview 4 of them Therefore the migratory path of the sample has no longer worked for the companies which two different routes; on the one hand those brought them to Spain. However the fact Japanese who come directly to Spain and on that they arrived with a work permits made the other, those who arrive after spending some it easier for them to join the labour market time living in one or various other foreign in the host society. The profile of these countries. Japanese is that of a 35 to 50 year old , who, after arriving in Spain, holds a post similar to that held in Japan. 4 of them undertook Japan · Spain a family migration project which included Or their partner and children. Japan · First host country · Spain

4.2 Arrival and settling in Spain It is worth pointing out that a significant percentage (57% approximately) of those Until now the process considered has covered Japanese who lived in another foreign country the period from coming up with the idea of returned to their homeland before settling in leaving Japan to arrival in the host society, paying Spain. In these cases the return visit to Japan attention to the relevant factors with influence served to make the necessary preparations prior the pre-migration pha se and the beginning of to the installation phase. Therefore it can be the settling down phase. said that one of the options quite well used by the Japanese resident in Spain can be described At this point we must return to the question of as foll ows: how the installation phase develops for those Japanese who come to Spain with student and Japan · Host country/countries · Return tourist visas, work permits or family ties to Japan · Installation in Spain (regrouping families). As has been previously mentioned, 43% (19) This return to Japan after living in Spain or of those who make up the population studied, another country temporarily and having decided lived in other countries before coming to Spain. to start a new life project abroad is not usually

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a short stopover—in fact quite the contrary. The The other task relating to activities undertaken time in returning to Japan and initiating the prior to arriving in a new city, namely language, installation phase is between 5 months and 4 is not only limited to learning or improving years. During this period everything that is written and oral language skills but often considered necessary for a new project in the includes looking for places to learn the language host society is prepared. Two important activities in the host society. This procedure is very stand out: on the one hand academic prepa ra - common not only among students but among tion, which usually centres on learning Spanish those interested in other things such as art and or a post graduate course, and on the other, history. Workers in Japanese companies in Spain savings, so as to provide certain financial and their families also show an interest in taking guarantees when starting this new stage. part in Spanish or Catalonian workshops (in the case of geographical areas near Barcelona) for “My first seven months in Saragossa were foreigners. great. I lived like a playboy: I didn’t work, I Bearing this in mind, it can be said that the didn’t study... I could live like this because, before coming, I worked very hard to save Japanese carry out a series of prior activities money and live here for a time to see if life that help reduce or prevent the impact of going with my current wife would work out or not.” to a new city with which they are not familiar. Hideo “When I decided to go and live in Spain, I “After meeting my friend I went back to Spain. had to go back to Japan to prepare I knew I wanted to go to Spain so I made a everything. I had the experience of having great effort to study Spanish and work to save lived in Ireland and I knew that if I made money... I worked in various coffee shops at the same mistakes I would have a very bad the weekends and during the week I gave time. So I decided to return to Osaka and English lessons to secondary school pupils.” studied Spanish, worked like crazy and with Midori the help of my boyfriend looked for information on universities and Spanish These savings act as a cushion, enabling the courses.” Japa nese person to live abroad for a relatively Yuko lengthy period of time with a student or tourist visa, without having to work to support them - Therefore it can be said that this “preparation” selves. complements many of the public policies aimed

130 3 at integrating immigrants. It has to be added home, or what I needed to get a job or go that a large segment of the sample already had and see a doctor... When I arrived here no some kind of support in the host society (only one showed my anything and well... When 3 went to Spain without having any contacts in I arrived I didn’t speak any Spanish and so the country). During the initial stage, most of I didn’t know what to do. In the end I had the sources of support were informal (mainly to look for information in a forum of Spanish friends, family, and partner) although Japanese living abroad and they helped me.” the group of students and workers in branches Rei of Japanese companies in Spain stated that formal support sources (university, teachers, Once they are more accustomed to the situation superiors) were most important during the first in Spain, informal support sources overtake installation stages. formal support sources. By attending Spanish courses and cookery classes, the Japanese The most frequent requirements and demands manage to form a new social network. during the first stages are related to everyday activities such as buying a mobile phone, However, a certain group within the sample opening a bank account, renting accom - found it difficult to establish ties with the modation and other bureaucratic tasks such as indigenous population. These were businessmen registering with the council, health cards, etc. and university students. Once they had settled in the host society, the latter considered it There are two main reasons why those who necessary to redefine their migration objectives made up the sample were unable to do these because as a result of their level of language things on their own. First of all they considered proficiency and cultural differences, relations that their level of Spanish was insufficient for with Spaniards were few and far between. them to deal with these matters on their own, Normally the support networks of this group and secondly because they considered the are made up of Japanese classmates and other paperwork very expensive and that they foreigners in the same class or people with information they were given was sometimes whom they share accommodation. ambiguous and incomplete. “I arrived here 3 years ago with the idea of “You need a lot of information to live in mixing with Spanish people and learning Spain. For example I didn’t know where the more about their culture. I knew it would doctor’s was or the nearest library to my be best to share a flat with Spaniards, have

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private tuition or work for a Spanish In the case of those participating in the research, company... My (Spanish) boyfriend intro - two different mechanisms were identified: du ced me to all his female friends, but I couldn’t make friends on my own. I think 1. Having a Spanish partner opens the door that all the friends I had during my first two not only to the host society but also helps years here were foreigners.” establish contacts with the indigenous Soryuu population. This is especially significant for those Japanese who arrive in the host society “I’m a bit sad because it is very difficult to without a work or residence permit. For make Spanish friends. I see a lot of people example, a lack of knowledge on how to at the university but I don’t know how or enter the labour market or the availability of where I can talk to them.” free time activities in the area turns the Ayumi autochthonous partner into a source of support and resources.

5 | Creating new social and support 2. Going to Spanish courses, post graduate courses or spare time activities encourages networks in the host society Spanish and other immigrants to form part and their purpose of their support networks. For the Japanese who come to Spain as students, attending Interest in certain cultural characteristics of the classes and having to work with other country of destiny has been identified as one students boosts relations with other people. of the points around which the Japanese It is worth noting however that in the case migration project revolves. Their interest in of 19 to 24 year old students studying carrying out a process of cultural immersion Spanish, sharing the classroom with Japanese favours the creation of social and support did not help them mix with classmates of networks made up of Spaniards. Also being a other nationalities. Although it was observed minority group facilitates the formation of ethnic that, independent of age, those Japanese enclaves and encourages relations with other who attended courses or workshops related immigrants with whom they share status as a to free time activities (such as cookery or foreigner and/or personal interests. dancing) found it easier to create multiethnic One of the most important aspects when ana - social networks than those who did not lysing support networks is how they are formed. participate in these kinds of activities.

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During the installation phase, the composition and they would accept me with no problem. of the support networks of this group was seen In rea lity it was very different it is also difficult to evolve. In the earlier stages these networks to make friends here. Perhaps because of lan - were basically made up of family members (in guage or cultural differences... by luck a group the case of family roots/family regrouping), of my boyfriend’s friends where were a bit partners and work or classmates. However as “otakus” and as they love amine, manga and the migration project advances, social networks Japanese language, etc., they always wan ted become more ethnically heterogenic and me to go along with my boyfriend and thanks functionally diverse. For example in the case to him I made my first Spanish friends...” of Japanese who had lived in Spain for more Mayumi than 4 years, the members of their networks “There were students from China, Korea, had an average of 4 different nationalities. Africa and Europe in a Spanish language As mentioned by the participants, not all social class for foreigners. My level of Spanish was networks perform the same functions. For fairly low and just like my fellow Japanese example, sources of support, such as one’s part - classmates I was shy about talking to the ner or other Spaniards, are considered to be a other students. Through time I made friends source of functional support, that is to say, the with a Chinese girl, and I discovered that help received or expected from them is oriented she understood me really well. We shared the same problems and had gone through towards dealing with matters relating to under - similar things. I could explain the problems standing social norms and behavior or how I had in Spain to her, because I knew that society, public bodies or other institutions work. although we were from different countries, On the other hand, networks made up of Japa - we have more in common than with people nese and other foreigners, especially when they from Europe or Africa.” are considered to be close from a cultural point of view (for example Koreans or Chinese), usually Makoto provide affective support, and as mentioned by the interviewees, it is often easier to empathise with others who are in a similar situation. 6 | identity and feeling of belonging

“When I came here I thought everything was The objectives to be achieved by the Japanese going to be very easy. The idea I had of the during their migration project revolve around Spa nish was that they were open minded three main aspects: changes in lifestyle, social

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norms and behavior patterns. Meeting these In the case of the Japanese, proficiency in the objectives often brings about an implicit conflict language of destiny has helped reinforce the between one’s own values and those of the new feeling of belonging to Spanish society. As host society. mentioned by those interviewed, during the 1970’s and 1980’s Spanish was a minority The importance of this conflict and its impact language among Japanese students and so being during the installation phase was noticed while able to communicate in a language different collecting data. The results of this research from Japanese or English distinguished them suggest a direct relation in the makeup of from the rest of their fellows. Likewise, speaking multiethnic social networks and the favourable Spanish implies a connection between them, development of a sense of belonging to the host second and third generation Japanese who had society by the Japanese community. emigrated to Latin American countries such as First of all, the interviewees said that during the Bolivia and Peru, and immigrants from South post-migration stage they identified somewhat America and Spain. with Spanish culture. In this respect the social imaginary promoted by the media (television, Secondly a personal interest in emigrating to a Internet or written media) together with specific area adds to the social imaginary. Unlike discontent or rejection of certain aspects of the other migrant communities, whose objectives original society (social pressure, lack of freedom, (or place of destiny) are determined by other etc.) contribute i n generating a positive image factors such as the economic development of of the host society. an area, or the possibility of entering a specific sector of the labour market, the Japanese cultural “One day I saw a programme called immigrant’s decision to settle in a particular “Spaniards around the world”, I think, and region is determined by criteria such as training some Spaniards gave their opinion on life opportunities, or spare time activities dominated in Japan. When I heard their comments I by their interest in local culture, etc. realised that we thought in a similar way. They also mentioned the things they liked “My boyfriend (Spanish) was offered the about Spain and what they couldn’t do here possibility of going back to Spain or to in Japan. At that moment I felt I was more Uruguay. After thinking about it a lot, I told Spanish than Japanese. We also have so him that I would go with him only if we many other things in common.” went to Spain... I wanted to go to Spain, Yuki because that meant going to Barcelona and

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there I would have more opportunities to In this way, participating in cultural activities carry out my personal projects. I wanted to has lead to the unification of these two key study looking after the elderly with mental elements (migration objectives and creating health problems and I knew that some multiethnic social networks). courses were available in Barcelona. They also speak Spanish in Uruguay but I know “To be honest, if I was offered a good job some girls (Japanese) who lived there and in Japan, I don’t think I would take it. I have they were not very happy. Anyway I believe had the opportunity here to dedicate myself that training is not very good there, and as to what I really like. Coming to Catalonia I am Japanese I don’t have so many has been the best option. I have the life I opportunities to study what I want to in dreamed about when I was living in Japan, Montevideo.” and a family... Obviously family is not an Megumi excuse for not going back. My husband would love to go, but,.. I have met a lot of There is no doubt that the combination of these people here from different countries and I two variables (social imaginary and interest in have made some good friends. I am Japanese local culture) helps in adopting a favourable on the outside but I think I now feel more attitude when it comes to creating new social and more Spanish and I would prefer to stay networks in the country of destiny. Likewise the here for many years.” interest our society has in Japanese culture also Nana helps smooth the relations between the members of both communities. Likewise a clear distinction has been observed The metaconcept of social support includes between the feeling of belonging and the basic factors such as belonging, implication and national identity of the Japanese community in commitment. With respect to the feeling of Spain. Although the results show that the feeling belonging to the host society, those who of belonging to the host society is very high, a participated in the research consider that they very pronounced feeling of Japanese national are capable of fulfilling the objectives set during identity has been found to remain. the post-migration stage, and that having the opportunity to form multiethnic networks has “Yes, there is no doubt that I am Japanese. helped them develop a greater feeling of I was born there, I was brought up there but belonging to the society which received them. after living in Saragossa, I feel that my place

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is here... of course there are things that I With respect to the identity process, relations miss, for example my school friends, but I between multiethnic networks promote have found other things which more than awareness of what one’s own national identity compensate for this. Although some of my means. Encountering a different culture also friends and family say that I am no longer a encourages finding the meaning of one’s own hundred per cent Japanese, I can never say culture using distance and contrast comparisons. I am Spanish. I can say that I am Japanese and I love life in Spain, even more so than in my home country, but that doesn’t make me Spanish, does it?” 7 | outlook for the future Takashi Migration phenomenon is a process consisting “I want my son (born in Spain) to learn of two stages: pre-migration and installation. Japanese, but I know that will not make him Each of them has a series of objectives and Japanese. I think his situation may be the characteristics which once fulfilled allow the opposite of mine. He will be Spanish be - immigrant to move on to the next step. cau se he was born here and he will be Sometimes because of personal or social brought up here. But I am Japanese and circumstances, these objectives have to be have values instilled since I was young, and readjusted to new life situations. A clear example although in certain circumstances they are of adapting the objectives proposed during the not always the best, I can’t avoid thinking initial stages of the migration project is found “OK I am Japanese and I have to do this”. towards the end of the settling down period. Of course this doesn’t mean that I always do things in a Japanese way. Sometimes I Approximately 3 out of 4 of those interviewed think this can’t be, and then I tell myself that considered their priority was to get a residence I am in Spain and the people here will not or work permit in Spain before setting long term think badly of me if I do this or that. So objectives such as a family, having children, or despite these difficulties I think that I am finding a stable job. happy to be here. To tell the truth, when I go to Japan to see my family and I do some - It was noted that the outlook for the future varies thing which is not correct, I think “I want greatly in function of gender and age. For to go home”, referring to Spain of course.” Japanese under the age of 24 who have secured Yukino their migration project, future objectives include:

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1. Finding a stable job in accordance with their one or more offspring during this period. training: Young Japanese, whose level of The objective of couples with children, Spanish does not allow them to access jobs or those who intend to have children in in the same conditions as the rest of the local the host society, is to remain and raise population, opt for working in Japanese com - their children here. Of the total partici - panies or in private schools teaching Japanese pants who had children born in Spain, language, or other areas related to Japanese 10 considered that both their future and culture such as calligraphy and origami. that of their children would be in Spain. On the contrary, 2 did not discard the 2. Continue studying: As mentioned by part of possibility of returning to Japan and 1 the sample, one of the advantages of immi - had not considered the matter. gra ting to Spain is the possibility of combining work and spare time. In this respect, one of 2. Developing a professional career: For the future prospects of this subgroup is to con - those Japanese who had managed to get tinue studying or to practice some of their hob - a job which tied in with their initial bies such as painting or music. Because of visa aspirations, their future is aimed at being problems many of these youngsters are not successful at work in those areas where able enroll or take part in training be cau se it it is difficult to do so in Japan. Their is directed exclusively at the unem plo yed or objectives are to: combine work and because they do not meet certain re quire - personal life, occupy more responsible ments such as having a residence permit. posts, and carry out work which satisfies both their interests and personal concerns. On the other hand, the future objectives of those Japanese over the age of 25 are: A minority of those interviewed mentioned the possibility of returning to their country, especially 1. Forming a family in the host society: As the Japanese who were sent to Spain by has been previously mentioned, a large multinational companies and whose migration number of Japanese come to Spain with project was limited to a certain period of time. a partner (or with the intention of starting a relationship with a Spaniard). During For the rest of the sample, going back to their the installation phase, many of these homeland in the short or long term future does relationships are consolidated. Proof of not form a part of their life project. However, a this can be demonstrated by the fact that series of variables which do condition returning out of the 44 people interviewed, 13 had to Japan was identified.

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“Everyone emigrates for a specific reason Table 11. Reasons why the sample would and we think that going from one place to go back to Japan another will make life easier. This is why I Frequency think Japan is not a bad country. The people are very kind and respectful, and it looks as If partner was sent to Japan if they never want to bother you, everything by employer 21 is very clean... but after living in various If a close family member became ill 18 If work and social conditions countries and cities, I think that success in improved in Japan 05 emigrating does not depend on the place, Others 05 but on the people. The truth is that if I had met the friends I have in Spain (foreigners and Japanese) in Japan, perhaps I would In conclusion, and as can be deduced from never have come here. Or if I had met them in another country I would have stayed table 11, there is no intention of going back to there... It is not that I don’t want to go back Japan unless there are any unforeseen cir cums - to Japan or that I prefer Spain because it is tances. The reasons given bear a certain relation a better country, no. It’s that I have a very as to why the sample would be prepared to stay good circle of friends and a husband whose in the host society. family helps me, I have a son. Now all of this is more important than the idea I had Table 12. Reasons why the sample of studying and learning when I first came here.” would not go back to Japan Ino Frequency My family is in Spain 30 I have a lot of friends where I live 23 Life in Spain is easier 12 I like life in Spain better 09 Others 03

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Chapter four CONCLUSIONS Multicultural society, ethnic diversity and work the concepts and theories relating to the pluricultural environment are concepts which forma tion of social networks and the biblio - are becoming more and more widely used in graphy on the migratory flow of Japanese to the the media and in everyday conversations. West with the results obtained from a sample Although it is extremely difficult to find a of Japanese residents in Spain. Thus the ideas put common definition for these terms, they all refer forward can be considered as a continuation of in some way or another to the relationship the proposals of other researchers such as Miguel between different cultures which share the same and Tranmer (2010) on the importance of the space. Nevertheless, from an academic point relationship between immigrants and Spaniards, of view it is surprising to find that part of the and the theories on changing migratory ten - literature, which specialises in the development dencies in Japan, as suggested by White (2005). of contemporary societies, views these concepts as a unidirectional process in which the minority Likewise, with the aim of ratifying the migratory group usually has a greater cultural impact on phenomenon as a dynamic process in which the host society rather than the reverse (Kim, time and space play an important role, con - Laroche and Tomiuk 2004 and McKay 2010). clusions will be presented following the schema proposed by Chou (2009). First of all those Whilst considering the migratory phenomenon aspects relating to the pre-migratory phase will from a unidirectional point of view creates an be analysed, namely attraction, expulsion and image of social isolation (which in many the new migratory flows towards the West. This instances does not correspond with reality), will be followed by a presentation of the approaching the situation of different immigrant elements related to the installation phase such groups as elements which interact with social as the creation of social networks in the host agents provides a global vision which empha - society, new strategies for settling down and the sises not only negative aspects (marginalisation, feeling of belonging. delinquency, conflicts, etc.) but highlights the benefits and the way in which different groups who share a common space create a new 1 | new trends in migratory flows towards community based on exchange and relation - ships between people. Spain: the fourth wave

For this reason, the conclusions reached in this As pointed out by White (2003) notable changes thesis research aim to unite in a theoretical frame - can be identified in the migratory trends of the

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Japanese in Spain. The economic miracle of the where transition from one migratory model to 1960’s and 1970’s led to what White calls the another has been gradual and progressive, in third migratory wave. This exodus is made up Spain this sequential process has not been of senior executives in business and the political observed and both models (the elite and young elite (ambassadors, diplomats, etc.). However, people, or as to what White refers as company the economic recession of the 1980’s, social men and voluntary immigrants) coincide in the changes, such as the emergence of the “lost same time and space. generation” or the first claims made by citizens, As mentioned in the first chapter of this study, and the boom of Western culture in Japan, nowadays there are various authors who encouraged this elitist migration to give way to highlight the convergence of various migratory a generation of young emigrants with different models in a single area: Machimura (2003) in migratory objectives. They went to Europe with the United States, Fujita (2009) in the United the intention of educating themselves in order States and Great Britain; Magat (1999) in Canada to obtain an added value which, on their return and Suzuki (2006) in Bolivia. to Japan, would enable them to gain access to the labour market which was becoming more On analysing the characteristics observed in and more demanding and difficult to enter. these societies and comparing them with the data obtained in this study, certain common Likewise, the changing trends of migra tion to aspects can be identified which suggest that we the West formed the basis of what Fujita (2004; are facing what could be called “the fourth 2009)) calls cultural immigrants. This new wave” of Japanese immigrants to the West. The concept refers to those who emigrate from Japan attributes which characterise it are: because of their affinity towards a culture different from their own, or those who seek a 1. Preparation of the migration project during society model which allows them to combine the pre-migration phase their professional career with certain activities 2. Feminization of the migratory phenomenon found in the host society. 3. An increase in the number of “voluntary” immigra nts compared to stagnation in the The data obtained during this research project group of “company men” coincides with the evolution of the Japanese migration phenomenon as described by White 4. Deinstitutionalization of the migratory (2003). However, unlike other European process countries such as Germany or Great Britain, 5. Choice of the host society

143 Social and kind networks among Japanese migrants in Spain | Conclusions

Diagram 21. Basic characteristics of the Japanese migratory waves

1st wave 2nd wave 3rd wave 4th wave Period 1885 1910 1950-1970 2000 Place of Destiny South and Pacific Asia Central Europe Eastern Europe Central America and USA and North America Reason Japanese authorities want Allocate occupied Economic expansion Interest in getting to know for Migration to reduce overpopulation territory following the of Japanese companies new cultures and different and the differences wars in China and Korea in the West life styles between the north and to the military and fighters south of the country Basic Migration flow Migration flow promoted Migration flow promoted “Voluntary° immigration characteristics promoted by the by the Japanese by Japanese companies Japanese government government and military and upper-class families Family migration Family migration Individual and Individual migration model model family migration model model Low level of education High ranking Japanese Political elite, high Middle class Japanese with military and upper ranking businessmen medium to high level of class families and university students education with an interest in the host society Place of destiny The Japanese Japanese companies The place of destiny assigned by the government and army assign displaced workers is determined Japanese authorities place the population to branches according according to according to their social to their requirements individual interests standing and war merits and experience. Students matriculate in prestigious universities Migratory objective: Reestablish political Obtain experience Settle in the host society, work related to agriculture and social order outside Japan and then play and active role there and raising livestock in occupied territory return to the country and get to know of origin the local culture Closed communities Closed communities Closed communities Communities in expansion

144 4

6. Individual migration project Secondly, as indicated by Beltran (2002; 2005), 7. Long term migration projects in the host during the third migration wave, students form society the most important group within the Japanese community in Spain. As is the case with the 8. Mixed couples of Japanese and locals migration of the elite during the 1990’s, this 9. Geographic and work mobility group is mainly composed of males. However 10. A high degree of interaction with social by the end of the 1990’s and the beginning of agents in the host society 2000, this tendency reverses itself (Martinez- Callaghan and Gil-Lacruz; 2012). The results obtained during this research provide testimonies which are supported by the studies Feminization of this fourth wave is partly justified of authors such as Tsutsui (2008), Nomura by both events. Worthy of mention are the (2006) and Ono and Piper (2004) and help changes in the role of women in Japan (gradual explain the transition toward this fourth wave. insertion in the business world, marriage, birth The specific social demographic characteristics of children and emancipation, etc. at a later of this fourth wave, such as feminization, the age) which give them the opportunity to emi - average age of its components or Japanese who grate. Nevertheless, whilst the role of women come to Spain as adults, can be related to the has tended to become more “westernized”, the boom of Japanese companies and to the role of men in Japan has remained almost increase in the number of students who attend stagnant since the end of the Second World War Spanish universities. (“socially obliged” to join the labour market, occupy the position of household head, etc.). At first the number of Japanese companies in Spain was relatively small, and they did not These changes in Japanese society have led to establish themselves there until the end of the two other peculiarities in the new Japanese 1980’s, beginning of the 1990’s. Thus the migration phenomena; a) deinstitutionalisation difference in gender in our country, Spain, was of the migration project and b) formation of not as great as that in other places where the long term migration objectives in the host third wave had already taken place, and where society. On the one hand, the global economic the indications of change in the migration crisis means that many Japanese multinationals model, from one of individual males to that of have opted to move their headquarters to families, had reinforced the stereotype of the developing countries such as South America or Japanese male immigrant. South East Asia. This means that those Japanese

145 Social and kind networks among Japanese migrants in Spain | Conclusions

who decide to emigrate to Spain do so on their The results obtained with respect to mixed own initiative, and they centre their migration marriages, the composition of the social project on fulfilling personal objectives which networks of Japanese immigrants, together with are usually related to some particular aspect of the large number of officially registered Spanish- the society to which they emigrate, such as lear - Japanese associations are clear examples of the ning the language, improving or acquiring abi- interest in Spanish culture and the degree of lities in other fields, forming a family with so - integration achieved by Japanese immigrants. meo ne from a country other than their own, etc.

From this point of view, the fourth wave, as it 1.1 The relation between attraction is dissociated from corporate interests, presents and expulsion factors and the new a much more flexible structure in such that it migratory profiles in the Japanese allows its members to consider their migratory community project not as a mere piece of paperwork but as something which acquires a personal touch, As can be observed, one of the most significant allowing them to establish long term objectives changes in this new migratory wave is the which may be reformulated in function of the “voluntariness” or “freedom” shown by the development of the installation phase. No doubt immigrants when they make the decision to this has contributed to a high index of geo - migrate, as is the election of the host society graphical mobility within Spain of this immigrant and their proposed migratory objectives. Although community, allowing them to obtain work it is possible to identify certain common traits experience in many different fields such as among the third and fourth waves, on analysing teaching Japanese to Spaniards, secretarial work the relation between the attraction and expul - in national companies or activities in the service sion factors cited by the participants and their sector dealing with the public such as hostesses, migratory objectives, the results suggest a waitresses, translators, etc. classification of the Japanese community which combines the proposals of authors such as White Lastly, unlike previous episodes, the voluntary (2003; 2005), Ono and Piper (2006), Takeda nature (as opposed to the compulsory nature and Matthew (2009) or Fujita (2009). imposed by multinational companies who send their workers abroad) of this fourth migratory One of the great challenges facing social wave, encourages its members to show a special research, especially when studying postmodern interest in establishing ties with the host society. societies characterised by the dispersion and

146 4 diversity of its members, is establishing market. These improvements cover a wide classifications which respect the individual range of possibilities, especially promotion, diversity of the elements studied, and which at reduced working hours or working in the same time avoid generalisations which can companies with less hierarchy, amongst distortion perception. Despite the challenge, it others. is inevitable and at the same time necessary in order to understand how a social entity works, 3. Lifestyle migrants: made up of Japanese to set the framework for the different elements immigrants whose main attraction and which in function of certain common charac - expulsion factors are related to the search teristics, or parameters help to identify and/or of a new lifestyle and living conditions understand the role they play within the whole. different from those of the country of origin. Faced with this tessitura, it has been decided 4. Mixed couples: who view the opportunity to opt for a hybrid classification model, con - to begin or consolidate a relationship with sisting of four categories or subgroups based a person of a different nationality as the main not on common factors observed among the reason for leaving Japan. Japanese community (and which would therefore be mutually exclusive from the Although these categories have certain remaining subgroups) but rather on the degree similarities with those proposed by the authors of impact of the attraction and expulsion factors mentioned above, it is important to mention described by those participating in the research that two new elements have been incorporated. during the pre-migration and installation phases. First of all, the introduction of a new group; immigrants who have a Spanish partner. The proposed categories are indicated as Secondly, as it can be observed in the results follows: of this study and from data obtained from official 1. The political and business elite or white sources (INE, census, etc), the number of mixed collar workers: the common factor being the marriages between Japanese and a person of weight that the company or public body had different nationality has increased during the when choosing Spain as a destination. last decades. 2. Salary men or blue collar workers: this During the data collection process, a large subgroup is made of those Japanese who proportion of those interviewed considered one saw emigration as an opportunity to improve of the most influential attraction factors to be themselves as individuals within the labour the fact that they had a Spanish partner or that

147 Social and kind networks among Japanese migrants in Spain | Conclusions

their partner was normally resident in Spain. line between the different subgroups is not as This subgroup was mostly made up of women clear as it was when the Japanese emigrated with an average age of 32, university education during the 1970´s and 1990’s. and a stable job in their country of origin. It is also worth noting that those participants who In this thesis research, with respect to the highlighted a partner relationship as an attraction attraction and expulsion factors, a certain degree factor also showed a certain interest (but to a of homogeneity was noted in the comments lesser extent) in the host society, together with expressed by the participants whilst data was expulsion factors shared with other subgroups being collected. Despite the different degree of such as lifestyle migrants, which are related to impact that cultural attraction may have, its social and working conditions in Japan. The presence was apparent in completely opposing concurrence of certain attraction and expulsion subgroups such as the political and business factors is the second outstanding element of elite and lifestyle migrants. In the same way, this new approach. the majority of those interviewed consider that certain attitudes pertaining to the culture of the As pointed out by White (203), during the third country of origin are important expulsion factors wave it was possible to establish a clear to bear in mind, as for example social pressure, distinction between “voluntary immigrants” perceived and expected roles, and certain (those who came to Spain under their own aspects of the Japanese labour market such as initiative and had no connection with Japanese extensive working hours or excessive hierarchy. companies) and “company men” (workers of Japanese companies sent to occupy posts As an example, and especially in the Barcelona abroad). During the transition from the third to and Madrid metropolitan areas, we can cite the the fourth wave, authors such as Fujita, Ono testimonies of various women, who after being and Piper, and others identified new migratory sent to Spain by Ja panese companies, did not profiles within the group of the so called fulfil their migratory objective (promotion to “voluntary immigrants”. However this fourth posts of greater responsibility) and decided to wave is characterised by a voluntariness which abandon their jobs and continue their profes - differs from the concept used by White, and sional career in foreign multinationals in Spain. may result in misleading conclusions if these new profiles are pooled together under the “I joined the company just after I left group of voluntary immigrants. As will be seen university. I spent the first few years as a later, the reason is that nowadays the dividing secretary to one of the sales managers. I

148 4 looked after his agenda, booked meetings, Thus it can be concluded that changes in com - and looked for possible clients among other pany strategies when appointing new posts to things, but I was always assigned to a secon - workers, together with social changes in the dary role in meetings. As I had studied Spanish country of origin, such as women joining the at university the company offered me the labour market, or the new family models, provide opportunity to go to Ecuador as head of the a degree of “liberty” to those who decide to leave sales department, but I refused the offer as Japan. As a result, the reasons, and the attraction I think Ecuador is not a very safe country. and expulsion factors mentioned by the One day my boss called me to his office and participants of this study are not unique to any made things clear. He said that if I wanted particular subgroup. In other words, with respect to progress within the company I would have to the fourth wave, the figure of the Japanese to leave Japan and that it would be best to immigrant who comes to Spain with the intention accept the offer. I finally decided not to of learning flamenco (cultural immigration) or accept the offer but a few months later that of a top executive (company man), has given another opportunity came up, this time from way to a new profile of immigrants, who now another department. The job offered was take into consideration other factors when personnel manager in Madrid. I called my choosing their place of destiny apart from the boss and told him I would accept the post. main objective of acquiring abilities in a When I arrived in Spain I discovered that my particular field. For example, the Japanese work was not as head of the department but entrepreneur who offers translation services to once again as the boss’s secretary. He had Japanese multinationals (immigration of salary 2 years left before he had to return to Japan...I men or blue collar workers) does not make his had come to Spain to progress, but now I decision on where to go and work depending could no longer trust the company. So I only on the number of Japanese subsidiaries in looked for another job in Madrid and when the area, but he also considers the possibility of I found one I resigned. This other company combining work and free time (typical of lifestyle exports ham, wine, oil and other items to migrants), forming new social networks (cultural Europe and Asia. Now my situation has immigrants) or even the option of forming a improved. I have the opportunity to travel all over Spain, to get to know the culture family (migrants with a local partner). and I have also managed to become some - This connection between the factors which thing more than the boss’s secretary.” influence the decision to emigrate and on where Mariko to settle, make it difficult to differentiate the

149 Social and kind networks among Japanese migrants in Spain | Conclusions

various subgroups which make up the Japanese 1.2 New strategies for settling down community in Spain. However, using the triangulation method to process data has helped The fourth wave of Japanese migration to the to pinpoint the importance which each of these West, and especially to Spain, presents a third elements has for every individual and, thereby element which differentiates it from previous facilitates classification. migration flows, namely the development of new migratory strategies during the settling As upheld until now, migratory phenomena are down phase in the host society. dynamic processes. They are not static and are subject to multiple variables which can affect This change is closely linked to the shift in their outcome. The triangulation method has attraction and expulsion factors and to the new allowed an insight into these changes and the profiles of the Japanese who go to Spain, as opportunity to monitor how different elements, mentioned previously. The fact that within each such as culture, the search for better social subgroup there are different reasons (personal conditions, or interest in artistic heritage, become interests, partner, work) for settling in Spain has more or less important during the pre-migratory had repercussions in the way that the Japanese phase. For example, during the first stages of the have used various resources to generate new pre-migratory phase for some of the people settling down strategies. As will be explained interviewed, improving knowledge of a foreign below, for example, obtaining a student visa is language was the main reason for emigrating, not always linked to academic interests. During ho we ver the use of multiple triangulation (Rodri - guez; 2005) has shown how this factor is dis pla - the interviews, testimonies were obtained from ced by others, such as having a partner rela tion - Japanese who said they had benefited from this ship in Spain or experiencing a different life style. option in order to gain work experience abroad, or simply to stay in Spain for a longer period of Also, establishing new subgroups within the time than would have been allowed with other Japanese community acts as a basis for contex - types of visa, such as for example a tourist visa. tualisation, and for creating an awareness of the new migratory strategies which have been Given that one of the characteristics of this new identified during the settling down process, as wave is the proposition of long term migratory well as how this process develops within a host objectives in the host society, one step towards society scourged by economical, political and achieving this is by getting a residence permit. social crises. Results have shown that there are four ways of

150 4 doing so, namely: a) a tourist visa; b) a student becomes more and more complicated with time. visa; c) getting married; and d) a work permit. As mentioned by the interviewees, prior to the crisis, Japanese companies helped to prepare It is worth noting that although there are good all the documentation necessary for a work diplomatic relations between Spain and Japan, permit. However during the last decade less agreements in the field of immigration are and less Japanese subsidiary companies are practically nonexistent. This means that those prepared to take care of the necessary Japanese who come to Spain are obliged to do paperwork. Therefore those who belong to the so under a regime that puts them at risk from fourth wave have fewer resources. exclusion and which at the same time becomes a barrier that hinders them from fulfilling the For this reason, many mixed couples (Japanese proposed objectives of their migration project. with partners of a different nationality, especial As results show, and as in other similar studies, Spanish or European) resort to stabilising their members of the Japanese immigrant community, situation through marriage. It should be pointed who are unable to get a work permit which out that although this is not a widespread allows them to legalise their situation, are more practice among the Japanese community, it is and more likely to resort to submerged becoming more common amongst younger economies as a means of survival in the host couples. Accordingly, some of the university society. Therefore Japanese students, who are students interviewed do not abandon the looking for a new lifestyle, and Japanese possibility of doing so, especially if they find a entrepreneurs are forced to accept sporadic stable partner in the host society and have no jobs, for which they are not usually trained or other way of staying in Spain legally. have to look for opportunities to enter the labour As can be concluded from the results and tes ti - market through jobs related to the activities of monies gathered during this piece of research, Japanese multinationals in Spain. This may result legally residing in the host country is one of the in internal conflict because their search for a main challenges facing the Japanese immigrant change in lifestyle and different living conditions community. As upheld by Chou (2009), prior pre - is subject to th e possibility of them being able paration during the pre-migratory phase increases to stay indefinitely in the host society. the chances of a successful migratory project. Ho - Likewise for those Japanese who went in Spain wever, external factors such as changes in le gis - after the onset of the current economic crisis, lation, new social-economic situations, etc. which the possibility of them legalising their situation are difficult to foresee, condition this process.

151 Social and kind networks among Japanese migrants in Spain | Conclusions

Nevertheless it is surprising to see that, despite that they try to legalise their situation through how difficult it is to stay in the host society, student visas, mixed marriages or working as none of the people interviewed, or indeed any intermediaries for Spanish and Japanese other Japanese in their social network has had companies, makes it easier for them to mix with to return to Japan because of lack of a job in Spaniards when compared to those who use the host society.This is largely due to the integrity ethnocentric strategies, such as setting up small with which the Spanish regard Japanese culture. business to meet the requirements of their fellow Interest in the language, traditions and culture, compatriots such as telephone centres or together with a l imited number of immigrants supermarkets, etc. has created a market niche for those Japanese immigrants who find it difficult to access other jobs because they have to complete with the indigenous population or with people from other 2 | the Japanese in Spain: a community countries. Unfortunately, teaching Japanese in expansion language and other subjects relating to Japan are generally found in the submerged economy With respect to the role of the immigrant sector. As mentioned previously, this puts their community in Spain as an agent of social members at risk, as they have no guaranteed change, researchers such as Camarero and income, access to aid, unemployment benefits, Borrego (2004) and Beltran and Saiz (2004) public health, etc. have carried out in-depth studies which reflect the internal features of the most representative Despite the obstacles, there are certain out - communities in our country. However, Miguel standing features in the above mentioned and Tranmer (2010) put a special emphasis on migration strategies which favour the fulfilment the difficulty in evaluating the real impact that of migratory objectives. The interest in Japanese immigrant communities have on the society of culture in Spain together with the interest shown origin if they are not considered inherent ele - by the Japanese community in mixing with the ments that interact in a direct way with the other native population have placed the Japanesen i social agen ts which make up the host society. a privileged situation with respect to other more populous immigrant communities who do not The vicissitudes of the fourth migratory wave share the same popularity, such as for example have influenced the relationship between the the Chinese, immigrants from Eastern Europe Japanese and the indigenous population in such or indeed Latin-Americans. Likewise, the fact a way that it is not only a typical objective of the

152 4 migration project but also an incipient requi - of eastern culture has grown exponentially rement for tackling the settling down phase in in Spain. As pointed out by the informers, Spain. Using the nomenclature proposed in the cul tural interests such as language, calli gra - first part of the first chapter to denote the different phy or Japanese decoration has helped types of Japanese communities in the West, the relations between the Spanish and the Ja - results of this thesis research suggest that the Ja - panese. pa nese community is currently expanding in Spain. As is shown in figure 1 (section 4.1 Types of The data obtained point to three reasons which Japanese communities in the West) one of the have favoure d the development of this type of characteristics of communities in expansion is community in Spanish society. that they frequently tend to relate with people of different nationalities. Thus the high level of 1. The simultaneous arrival of different mi - popularity which Japanese culture reached in gratory flows to Spain: The reduced numbers Spain during the 1980´s may be considered one of Japanese, together with the diversity of of the key elements in understanding the reasons the migratory projects which have been why the Japanese community has been able to identified, prevent the Japanese community establish ties between its members and those from being divided into sub-communities in of the host society, This does not occur with function of their social standing, workplace, other immigra nt groups. origin, etc. as occurs with transnational and concentrated communities. Tsutsui (2008) regards the export of Japanese culture as an intangible asset which contributed 2. Migration projects which consider interaction to the economic development of Japan in the with the indigenous population a priority: latter part of the XX century. Similar to what During the installation phase, the principle happened in Japan with the boom of North of “voluntariness” which prevails in the American culture, the commercialisation of the fourth wave encourages a predisposition of brand “Japan” in the West has also had social Japanese immigrants to participate in acti - repercussions. vities which encourage inclusion such as attending workshops, courses or parti cipating From the perspective of the Japanese migration in local activities. flow towards Spain, wide scale national television broadcasting of Japanese series, 3. Interest of the host society in Japanese together with the arrival of advanced tech - culture: In the last few decades the impact nological products targeted at leisure time

153 Social and kind networks among Japanese migrants in Spain | Conclusions

activities such as video consoles, televisions, China. After completing the courses, they music players, photographic cameras, etc. all returned to their homeland, rather sadly contributed to the creation of a positive social because they did not get to know Spanish imaginative of this group especially among people. On the other hand, in a short time younger generations. I got to know a group of Spaniards who were studying Japanese, and through them Although it is necessary to study in greater depth I now have a boyfriend... When we met, he the factors which have contributed to the and his friends wanted to talk and know all favourable reception of the Japanese, results about the cartoons they used to watch when suggest that the export of Japanese culture seems they were young, and the same with to be one of the most successful integration videogames... Sometimes I felt rather policies. Proof of this is the large number of surprised. They used to ask me things about mixed marriages, or the significant number of what they had seen or heard on the Spaniards who appear in the social networks television or internet and I realised they of the sample studied when compared to other knew things about my culture that I didn’t... more traditional migrant groups in Spain, such When talking to a Japanese friend, she told as Arabs or South Americans (Maya; 2009). me that she had had a similar problem. One day I went to have coffee with some Spanish This idea becomes more consistent when friends. My friend asked for tea, and when bearing in mind the testimonies given by the they brought her the tea, she served it interviewees and the age of the members Japanese style. Then her friends, who were making up the social networks (average age Spanish, started to talk about the tea 34.7 years). For those Spaniards born in the ceremony and Japanese customs. My friend 1970’s and who tend to form part of Japanese felt rather uncomfortable and from then social networks, their childhood and adolescent onward has tried to avoid all these “very Japanese attitudes” years coincide with the penetration of Japanese culture in Spanish media (for example, anime). Noriko

“I think that the fact that I am Japanese is Although, in order to validate this hypothesis it not sufficient for us to be together, but I am is necessary to study with greater precision the aware that it helped me to know him... role that the Spanish play in the Japanese Whilst attending a Spanish course I made migratory process, testimonies, such as that of friends with people form Ghana, Brazil and Noriko, demonstrate the proposal of Miguel

154 4 and Tranmer (2010) that migratory phenomena companies. With the coming of a new migration should be approached and considered as an model, informal support sources now play a interaction between the group being studied prominent role during the arrival and settling and the local population. In the same way, the down period in the host society. results of the interviews show that despite the cultural differences between the Spanish and The diversity of profiles identified within the the Japanese, in those cases where there is a Japanese community in Spain and the change common interest, cultural shock does not in the course that Japanese companies have become an obstacle when forming ties. These taken when transferring personnel, together with results show a tendency contrary to the theory the role of both public and private institutions supported by Pantelidou and Craig (2006) which (financed by the Japanese government) with considers that the soundest networks are formed respect to Japanese immigrants in the host by people who share common cultural traits such society, have all contributed to the deinstitu - as language, tradition, religion, life styles, etc. tionalisation of this migratory phenomenon. Despite the fact that towards the end of the XX century, the group formed by the political and 3 | Support networks during the settling company elite slightly outnumbered the others, down process the environmental bubble described by Glebe (2003), Toyokawa (2005) and Suzuki (2006) in In the case of the Japanese, a warm welcome which Japanese immigrants formed an isolated in Spain, together with their long term migratory community, recreating the characteristic norms objectives in the host society has favoured the of the country of origin, did not consolidate in creation of social networks of great ethnic and Spain. This means that the fabric of formal sup- functional diversity among its members. port described by Glebe (2003) in concentrated communities did not become as prominent as 3.1 Deinstitutionalisation in other European cities such as Dusseldorf. As of the migration process mentioned by those participating in this study, whilst the Japanese companies for which they Saki (2003) and Fujita (2009) indicate that the worked provided private medical insurance, third migratory wave of Japanese towards the nursery facilities and free transport to their West is characterised by the support that the workplace in countries such as Germany or immigrants received from institutions and large England, these services were cutback in Spain.

155 Social and kind networks among Japanese migrants in Spain | Conclusions

Regarding official institutions financed by the with immigrants so that they can talk about Japanese government, except in isolated cases their experiences and explain what life is such as Japanese educational centres (although like for them in Spain, as well as the things their main objective is to meet the needs of the that their community does so that Spanish “kinkokushijo” or children who are going to go people can get to know them and relate back to Japan), the requirements of Japanese with them better. I have been here for more immigrants were not considered a task to be than 12 years and I have never heard of taken on. them asking any Japanese to do this.” Hidetoshi Together with the lack of support given by these Japanese institutions, one must also bear in mind the limited resources and poor knowledge Because of the lack of formal support, the that Spanish authorities had of this immigrant Japanese community has had to look for alter - community. These factors place the Japanese in natives. As pointed out by Fujita (2009), private an exclusion situation when it comes to companies in Japan, for example language receiving direct social benefits (subsidised schools, schools of dancing, tourist agencies, school diners, medical assistance, access to the etc., have seen in the lack of resources an labour market, etc.) and social integration opportunity to widen their market. Apart from planning policies (specific Spanish language more traditional things, these companies offer courses, labour workshops, etc.). activities such as immersion in Spanish culture, carried out and supervised by Japanese resident “After coming to Madrid, I decided to in Spain, thereby guaranteeing on-going support. matriculate at the university. What most surprised me was that although I had already Although those who participated in our research graduated from a Japanese university, I could knew about these services, they all agreed that not go to university in Spain because there the quality and quantity of the activities available was no agreement between Japan and were not comparable with those in English Spain. However, a girl I met in a Spanish speaking countries, and therefore they cannot class was able to matriculate no bother and be considered a migratory strategy or a formal without having to do any paperwork” source of support during the settling down phase. Isshi García Ramírez (2001) and Maya (200s; 2004) “There are many activities for foreignersn i defend the importance and effectiveness of culture centres and they even get in touch informal sources of support during the early

156 4 stages of the settling down phase, because they fabric their support networks in the host society: are more easily accessed by the immigrant a) courses and/or cultural activities, b) Spanish population. In the case of the Japanese, the lack partner and c) Japanese fellow countrymen who of formal sources of support makes informal have already settled in Spain. From the sources even more important. functional point of view of social networks, it is worth mentioning that, because of the characteristics of each line of action, those 3.2 Characteristics and functions participating in the study relate each group to of support networks a specific type of support.

The results of our research show that there are Regarding attending courses and or cultural three main ways in which Japanese immigrants activities, two main types of support networks

Diagram 22. Links between composition, propose and kinas of Japanese social networks.

157 Social and kind networks among Japanese migrants in Spain | Conclusions

have been identified which are closely related partner, facilitates the creation of a multi-faceted to migratory objectives and to a particular support network which has both affective and interest in cultural activities. instrumental functions.

1. Multiethnic networks predominated by friends: The figure of a partner, or sometimes the partner This type of network comes into being be - of a close Spanish friend can be identified as cause of the interaction between the Japanese an integration element. During this research it and people of other nationalities during has been observed that the figure of a partner activities organised by multicultural asso - often serves as a bridge between a Japanese ciation such as Spanish language courses and person, the partner´s family and a group of workshops. These networks provide an active Spanish friends. type of support mainly because the members, who attend these events, share common Insertion in a partner’s social network also has experiences and feelings, such as coming to a price to pay. Cultural shock is one of the most a foreign country, language difficulties or important aspects when it comes to integration belonging to an international family. These in a host family. This has been observed in mixed networks tend to be small and are made up couples with a long term relationship. However of people who have common cultural traits. the impact on relations between a Japanese man and a Spanish woman has been seen to 2. Local networks: These networks are formed be greater than that which occurs when the by immigrants taking part in activities genders are reversed originally targeted at the local population. Thanks to the participation in these kinds of The relationship with my wife’s family courses or activities, there is a widespread (Spanish) is good although there are things relationship between the Spanish and the which I don’t understand. For example my Japanese. Furthermore, the Japanese consider wife and her mother spend all day together. attending such activities one of their They call each other at least once or twice migratory objectives. The common interest a day if they do not meet up. We also have which results from these relations is to go to her parents’ home every weekend... considered a source of functional support. something which I now try to avoid, but These networks are small, but very specific. sometimes I don’t know if she is married to The second mainstay which allows ties to be her mother or to me.” made in the host society, namely a Spanish Tosh

158 4

Despite the cultural differences during the first Apart from the characteristics mentioned by stages of the settling down process, the partner’s Miguel and Tranmer, another aspect has to be family is seen as a source of affective and considered, namely the added value that this operational support. new person adds to the rest of the group. In the case of the Japanese community, this added “From the moment I arrived in Madrid, I felt value is knowledge of Japanese culture. as if my mother-in-law was like my second mother. At the beginning I didn’t speak “My boyfriend’s friends accepted me in the Spanish very well and I didn’t know anything group right from the outset. Some spoke a about the city, so every morning we went little Japanese and we spoke Japanese to have coffee together and then did the whenever we could. Others wanted me to shopping. She taught me where to buy present my Japanese friends (girls) to them, different things and how to get around on and things like that...Yes, like I said before, public transport... She also managed to get his friends were a bit “otakus”, and perhaps me my first Spanish lessons... and later when because I am Japanese we always had our son was born, she offered to look after something to talk about, although obviously we didn’t always talk about Japan, but yes, him if the both of us had to work.” it was a topic of conversation when I first Erin met them.” Noriko The second function of a couple is to include the Japanese person in their group of Spanish In the case of the Japanese and, regardless of friends. Features are to be found in these new the impact that migratory objectives may have social networks that Miguel and Tranmer (2010) when on the formation of support networks consider favourable indicators (amongst the between immigrants and foreigners, as proposed indigenous population) of the predisposition to by Lueck and Wilson (2010), knowledge of the mix with people of other nationalities. language is another key element when it comes to understanding the successful relationship of The support networks resulting from partner the Spanish and the Japanese. relationships are generally made up of men of approximately the same age as the Japanese As the results show, during the preparation person and with a high level of education, phase, prior to arrival in the country of destiny, mainly university graduates. learning the language is one of the charac -

159 Social and kind networks among Japanese migrants in Spain | Conclusions

teristics of this immigrant group. Fluency in the low level of association membership. As results language of origin as well as that of the place show, the members of this immigrant of destiny increases the possibility of founding community participate in activities promoted and consolidating support networks both within by local citizens and not in those lead by multiethnic groups and groups of their own Japanese. Secondly, as pointed out by Tsutsui nationality. In the case of the Japanese in Spain, (2008) Japan has treated its culture as a product this is especially important for second generation for export, and this together with the interest Japanese, because, as was analysed within the shown by Spain in eastern cultures, has led to theoretical framework, the number of marriages Japanese associations being orientated towards between Japanese and Spanish exceeds that of meeting the requirements of the host society Japanese only couples. and not those of its compatriots. Thirdly and lastly, it is difficult to consolidate this type of Relations among fellow countrymen in the host support because of territorial dispersion and the society lead to a third type of informal support small number of Japanese immigrants. networks. As upheld by García Ramírez (2001), Maya (2004) and Lubbers, Molina, Lerner, Despite this, the Japanese population has come Brandes, Avila and McCarty (2010), the compo - up with a number of resources which allows sition and functions of support networks among them to establish informal support networks people of the same nationality vary greatly. made up of their fellow countrymen. In the case of immigrant groups, apart from 1. Japanese cultural associations in the host individual support, it is possible to identity small society: As mentioned previously, Japanese sub-groups, such as for example immigrant participation in these types of associations associations, or cultural activities, which despite is very scarce. However the demand for being considered formal organizations, because Japanese to give courses or do workshops of the way they function and a lack of resources, related to Japanese culture is an ideal their role is often limited to giving the same scenario for them to meet other people from kind of support as informal networks. their country who have similar interests or pastimes. These sources of support are small, The situation of Japanese Associations in Spain polyvalent and respond to both affective and presents a series of characteristics which affect operative requirements. the way in which networks are established among fellow countrymen. First of all, the 2. Virtual social networks: The use of tech no - Japanese community stands out because of the logy can also be considered a tool for

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establishing support networks. Although This small difference when analysing support participating in social activities vis-a vis is networks throws a new light on the strategies anything but common among the Japanese, used and the different types of support that are new technologies have provided the means sought (and provided) in each category. Apart for them to access a large number of resour - from these results, analysing support networks ces created and managed by the Japanese in function of their ethnic diversity can inspire community abroad. Such an example would new thoughts for study. As shown below, during be the website Discovery Nikei (site for this research a direct relation was observed descendents from all over the world which between the ethnic makeup of the networks helps pioneers and second generation and the way in which those interviewed regard immigrants), or www.arrobaspain.com themselves and the community they represent where Japanese with permanent residence as part of the society of origin. in Spain or those who wish to emigrate can share experiences and resources and discuss the situation of their compatriots in the 4 | Feeling of belonging country of destiny. Although these networks do not encourage interaction in physical and new social identity space, they are important for participants as As proposed by Ahnellen et al., (2006) the they are considered to be among the most feeling of belonging is a complex and subjective efficient when it comes to obtaining affective process which is which is shaped by important or operative support because they can create experiences and the constant negotiation which a broad spectrum with specialised connec - takes place between the individual and his ting links. environment.

As results show, there are various strategies and One of the key points in the transition from the spaces that favour the creation of support third to the fourth migratory wave is the contrast networks. Maya (2004) classifies networks between the social changes in the original among immigrant groups and emphasises the society (women now working in responsible importance of ethnocentric networks. However positions, changes in values and social norms, as shown in this research, this classification can etc.) and the social imaginary of the host country be extrapolated to minority immigrant groups (Martínez-Callaghan and Gil-Lacruz; 2013). The where multiethnic networks predominate. results obtained show that in the case of

161 Social and kind networks among Japanese migrants in Spain | Conclusions

voluntary immigrants, the conjunction of these oneself as an active member of the community two variables, generates a feeling of belonging of destiny. to the country of destiny even before the migratory project begins. One of the key issues for foreigners which make them feel they form an active part of the host Personal interest in emigrating to a particular society is their knowledge of the language of place is another element to bear in mind. Unlike the host society. Lueck and Wilson (2012) other migratory phenomenon, the Japanese have propose use of the language of the host society a series of migratory objectives which are and the degree of fluency when communicating directly related to a change in lifestyle and a as an integration indicator. Throughout the tacit interest in settling down in a specific region. analysis of this study it was noted that, apart This means that during the pre-migration and from theory of these authors, the level of installation processes, they develop a predis - language knowledge plays an important role po sition towards accepting norms, social within the immigrant group, namely because patterns and the lifestyle of the country of those with a higher degree of fluency in the destiny, which in turn alleviates the stress caused language of the host society are considered to by cultural shock. have a higher status within their own group and can act as a nexus between the Japanese and During the installation phase, a direct relation the Spanish. between the composition of multiethnic social networks and the fulfilment of migratory As indicated by various participants of this study, objectives has been observed and this in turn learning Spanish is a ´personal and voluntary acts favourably in developing a feeling of initiative, motivated by their interest in Spain belonging to the host society. Among the and Latin countries. For this reason proficiency Japanese immigrant society in Spain, there are in the language of the host society allows many cases where migratory objectives include foreigners to communicate and make contact forming social networks with people of different with Spanish speaking people both in their home nationalities and/or participating in activities country and in the country of destiny. Likewise, that would be impossible for them to carry out being proficient in the language of the host in Japan. These facts support the position of society grants a degree of self sufficiency which Sarason and Sarason (1991) and confirm that enables migratory objectives to be achieved the feeling of belonging to a host society is and facilitates the settling down process in the linked to the capacity to participate and consider host society.

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“Beyond a doubt, being able to express language of the host society) contributes to myself in Spanish made me feel like a adopting a favourable attitude when it comes member of this society. Being able to speak to forming new social networks in the country Spanish better than other foreigners such as of destiny. Likewise, the interest in Japanese the Chinese, Africans and those from other culture in our country also has to be seen as a countries, means that people accept me and key factor which helps to smooth relations that I can also participate in the things that between members of both communities. happen round about me and which affect me as a citizen.” Although the feeling of belonging is fairly Sayouri widespread among the Japanese community, the results also show a clear distinction between “In Japan we are made to study English. A the feeling of belonging and the national identity lot of people like the USA or Great Britain, but some people do not, or simply they don’t of this group. care. Therefore they don’t feel they belong As far as the identity process is concerned, to these countries, but in the case of those interrelations in multiethnic networks encourage of us who have studied Spanish, Italian, etc. awareness of the significance of one’s own things are different. We decided to study national identity. Meeting different cultures helps the language for some special reason. Some one find the meaning of one’s own culture, by want to go and live there, others like the culture, and there are even other people using distance and contrast (Martinez-Callaghan who want to learn the language so that they and Gil-Lacruz; 2013). This evaluation is not can get a Spanish partner... The most without conflict. Despite the peaceful co- important thing for us is that when we are existence of the feeling of belonging to Spanish in Japan we want to meet Spaniards and society and the feeling of national Japanese have a group of friends, or when we come identity, researchers such as Green (2008) and here, I think the first thing that all Japanese Machimura (2003) mention certain difficulties, do is to look for a Spanish person with whom which are referred to in literature, regarding to exchange ideas.” assimilation of national identity in the two most Aka important Japanese migratory phenomenon, (the case of Latin America and North America) Without doubt, the conjunction of these three namely poor relations with multiethnic networks variables (social imaginary, interest in the culture and an insignificant feeling of belonging to the of the country of destiny and proficiency in the host society.

163 Social and kind networks among Japanese migrants in Spain | Conclusions

Although the Japanese community is a minority defend that the use of the mother tongue group in Spain, the formation of small commu - (Japanese) in different spaces (macro, meso and nities of second generation Japanese, or racially micro) also has an impact on these new mixed offspring supposes another reason when communities. it comes to consolidating or creating a new concept as to the significance of what being Although the impact of these parameters cannot Japanese means outside the country of origin. yet be evaluated in Spanish society, results of Green (2008), Suzuki (2006) and Machimura research, on immigrant communities as pafrt o (2003) consider that the social status of these the host society, suggest that there is a strong groups within the host society conditions the link between the way in which a community way in which this new national identity is evolves and the feeling of belonging and formed. Likewise, Lueck and Wilson (2010) national identity developed by its members.

164 Chapter five AFTERTHOUGHTS The results and conclusions of this thesis that a larger sample could throw light on more research are aimed at analyzing the situation finer points which would help us understand of the Japanese in Spain. As has been pointed the situation of this community in Spain. Like - out previously, this community presents a series wise, a large number of participants would help of characte ristics (economic stability, a reduced eliminate bias when interpreting results. There - number of ethnic enclaves and mixed marriages, fore, increasing the sample size in future studies among others) which diverge from the concept could imply finding new results which reinforce of “immigrant” found in handbooks for social or complement those found in this study. scientists and in specialist dictionari es such as Various strategies could be used to increase the for example “Dictionary for Social Studies” sample size in the future. First of all, establishing (Marshal 1998), where the definition is linked laxer selection criteria would allow regrouped to risk factors such as segregation, exclusion, etc. Japanese, second generation or immigrants with For this reason, and bearing in mind the a short term migration project to be included. globalised context of the present day, we have Likewise, the option of selecting Japanese who to bring up to date our knowledge on the subject once lived in Spain but who have now settled in order to overcome this type of definition and elsewhere, or have gone back to Japan could contribute to the development of social- be considered. humanistic studies. Therefore, carrying out an Working with an immigrant community and exercise of reflection and self criticism may be even more so in the case of minority groups, considered one of the steps to follow in research always implies an added difficulty because of given that the limits of a study, far from being the perceived risk of lack of anonymity In the considered as something negative, should be case of the Japanese community, although a viewed as opportunities to commence new lines large number of participants with multiethnic of work. support networks were contacted, some of the informers appeared self-conscious and avoided giving personal opinions that could contradict 1 | research limits those of their fellow countrymen. This extreme caution could be overcome by holding indi - One of the limits of this study is the size of the vidual interviews with specific questions on sample. Although a qualitative approach permits personal experiences, thus avoiding genera - working with a small sample, there is no doubt lisations.

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Hierarchy within the community also had an Therefore, not having native Japanese in the impact when approaching the interviewees. research team may mean that certain infor ma - Sometimes those candidates who had been tion could have been misinterpreted, or that contacted through cultural organisations, certain fine points may have been missed companies or associations, gave the interview through the use of a common working language request forms to people who occupied higher such as English or Spanish. In order to get more positions or to those whom they considered precise information in future research, it would “experts”. From the point of view of limitations, be worthwhile to have a Japanese member in this made the selection process more bu - the team, or to spend some time in training and reaucratic. In the same way, in those cases where carrying out research in Japan in order to two or more people of the same group were become more fluent in Japanese and improve contacted, only one of them agreed to be knowledge on the workings of social patterns interviewed. Bearing in mind this way of acting, and behaviour. it would be advisable for future research to make direct contact with those in higher positions Another item to bear in mind is how social and and ask for their help in contacting fellow economic circumstances may have influenced countrymen within the company. the results. The global crisis has been a difficult obstacle both for the sample and the research Cultural shock with the sample has been another team. During data collection, situations occu - external feature which influ enced the research rred when the participants had to cancel the process The difference in cultural patterns, for interviews because of work or because they example the way of expressing oneself or non- had to travel within Spain. Likewise, lack of verbal communication has been a key factor financial support for the project meant that often both when contacting associations and infor - the interviewees had to pay their own travel mers, and during data collection. The research expenses to attend the interviews, and in no team’s lack of communication skills in Japanese cases could they or those who acted as inter - has also put limitations on this study. In some preters be compensated for their collaboration. cases support was given by a native who offered to act as a translator during the interviews. Not Cutbacks in grants and aid for research in the mastering the language denied access to those public and private sectors meant that this Japanese who only speak their native tongue, research project was carried in combination and most likely this is also why they form part with sporadic work in order to finance data of smaller support networks. collection in various autonomous communities.

167 Social and kind networks among Japanese migrants in Spain | Afterthoughts

Thus some of the interviews arranged with countrymen who live legally in the host society. Japanese or with representatives of entities linked In this thesis study we have tried to approach to the Japanese were cancelled because of high the situation of those Japanese who use student travel expenses. or tourist visas to gain access to the labour market or some other kind of permit which allows them to settle legally in Spain. However, 2 | Challenges for future research many of the informers preferred to avoid this type of question during data collection.

One of the major challenges of this study has Nevertheless, challenges in futur e research are been to narrow down the focus. In the first not only limited to the data collection processes. chapter “theoretical framework”, a variety of From an academic point of view, certain theories definitions and uses made by experts were such as the concept of social identity (Tajfel and described, as for example terms like integration, Turner, 1986) or certain aspects relating to the support networks, social support, among others. use and composition of the social networks of No doubt, because of continuous social changes immigrants (Maya; 2002; 2004) could be and the way in which society evolves, it is extrapolated to immigrant communities such difficult to give exact definitions. Nevertheless, as the Japanese. Therefore studies like the present in future research, the adequate use of indicators could help clear up the differences and may help determine more precisely what is similarities between the social and cultural meant by “migration project” or “full integra - patterns of the East and West and create a more tion”. Thus we believe it would be interesting universal point of view on theoretical issues to pay attention to other variables relating to such as the concept of identity and the feeling integration such as the time of residence in a of belonging to a group. particular area, the type of education system chosen for immigrants’ offspring, or work related Regarding future projects, it would be interesting environments. to study in depth the perception that immigrants have of the host country and its impact during Research on social integration forces us to devise the settling down phase and indeed on the new strategies for the future which enable us migration project in general. As defended by to get closer to the social reality of those Dense Jodelet (1991), a person’s attitude and immigrants who, because of their legal situation, values are not always accepted or shared by are at a disadvantage with respect to their fellow those around him. In the case of the Japanese

168 5 in Spain there has been a certain “idealisation” In the case of Japanese immigrants in Europe, of the host country. In future research, com - the limited production of academic material paring immigrants who arrived in the country makes it a field still to be explored. As with a positive impression of the host society mentioned in the results, the role of Japanese with those who had a negative one, may be a women is completely opposite to that of their step in the right direction when it comes to male counterparts. However, certain stereotypes identifying the variables which influence the are still present in the social imaginary that process of integration and settling down. eclipse the migration project of those women who leave their country in search of a new Finally, with respect to the methodology used, model of society that allows them to face although it was decided to use triangulation, as personal challenges in areas which are so this allows the combination of qualitative and diverse, such as work, education and family. quantitative foci, making a decision on which perspective to use to approach certain data may Likewise a new model for Japanese migration lead to dispersion. Therefore it is necessary to towards the West (fourth wave) raises new issues esta blish which criteria help determine the such as the arrival of Japanese with long term methodological strategies that provide the most migration projects. More and more Japanese relevant data from a qualitative point of view decide to educate their children in Spain. This and likewise from a quantitative viewpoint. This poses new questions such as “How can two practice will help lay the groundwork for new education and cultural models which are so lines of research for in depth studies on the social inherently different coexist in the same space?” reality of certain collectives as well as the impact Segregation and isolation in the United States, other communities have on the host society. as mentioned by Machimura (2003), is a prime example of the impact the arrival of a Japanese migration model, not composed of political and business elite, has had on Californian society. 3 | new lines of research The evolution of migration projects is one of After identifying the limitations of this research the fields open to future research. The integration and observing the new challenges that they process does not only affect the first generation present, several new lines of research appear but will also have its consequences on the that could help widen knowledge and second and third generations, as has been seen understanding of migration phenomenon. in the United States.

169 Social and kind networks among Japanese migrants in Spain | Afterthoughts

The features of the Japanese community in Spain activities aimed at the Japanese also increases. put them in a special position. On the one hand, In contrast to the tendency to form endogroups, the large number of mixed partners suggests Fujita (2009) suggests that the new “cultural that the integration process of future generations immigrants” try to avoid these types of networks will be less abrupt than in the United States, because they feel attracted to the host society because it will straddle two cultures. However, and express an explicit desire to form part of it. the lack of formal support networks and asso - Given the discrepancy in the development of ciations of Japanese immigrants may result in Japanese communities in the West, it would be the creation of new subcategories within this interesting to analyse the role that the host community, such as for example children of society plays in helping or hindering the mixed parentage, or direct descendants of achievement of migration objectives. Japanese. The situation of Japanese who return to their Attention should also be paid to the role of homeland after having lived in the West should educational institutions. With the current econo - be considered. The socialisation process and mical situation, and with more and more cutbacks assimilation of Western social and behavioural in education (especially funds for students with patterns could once again cause cultural shock special needs) the presence in the classroom of when returning to the country of origin. transnational students or those with behaviour Knowledge of the situation of the Japanese and social problems can be challenging for community in Spain opens new horizons for teachers, educationalists and professionals research into other immigrant groups, which to linked to the education of young people. date have been the subject of few studies, as is the case of the Chinese or those from other Another line of research suggested by this project Asian countries. The Spanish social and econo - would be the creation and the processes through mic situation contrasts with the rise observed which ethnic enclaves come into being. in countries such as China, South Korea, Although the data obtained in this study show Thailand and India, and the arrival and settling that the Japanese community has support of new migration flows may have an economical networks made up of people of different and cultural impact on the host society. nationalities, cases such as that of the Japanese community in Australia (Shiobara, 2011) suggest In the same way, dealing with groups whose that as the number of Japanese in a given area social and economic position does not put them increases, the number of associations and in a situation of “social risk”, incites reflection

170 5 and reconceptualization of terms such as There is no doubt that the globalization process exclusion and isolation, which as previously in which we find ourselves has helped us to get mentioned are not tied exclusively to economic to know each other better. However the disap - conditions, and that aspects such as social skills, pearance of borders and the ease with which cultural shock and proficiency in the language we can communicate with people thousands of the country of destiny can affect the outcome of miles away is not an excuse for hiding our of the installation process. It is therefore ne - cultural, ethnic and ideological diversity. In cessary to establish new indicators that avoid view of this, and after carrying out this research stereotypes and value judgments wh ile identi - work, I am aware that the world around is as fying the risk situations of immigrants. unique as the people who live there.

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181

ATTACHMENTS attachment 1 QUESTIONNAIRE

1) How old are you? n 18-24 n 25-34 n 35-45 n 45-55 n +55 2) Sex n Male n Female 3) Marital Status n Married n Single n Other 4) Number of Children n None n One n Two n Three n More than three 5) In which county were you born?

______

6) In which county did you study?

______

7) Before coming to Spain, did you reside in any other country apart from where you were born? n Yes, in the EU n Yes, in North America n Yes, in South America n Yes, in Asia n No

184 8) Have you lived in any other city in Spain before coming to Zaragoza? n Yes n No 9) Where do the following members of your family live?

Other country In Spain In Aragon Country Zaragoza Not Spain or Not Not Other Of Origin Capital Country of Origin Aragon Zaragoza Father Mother Elder sibling Younger sibling Other close family members

10) How long have you lived in Spain? n Less than 3 months n Less than 8 months n Less than 1 year n 1–3 years n 4–7 years n 8–10 years n More than 10 years 11) For how long have you been living in Zaragoza? n Less than 3 months n Less than 8 months n Less than 1 year n 1–3 years n 4–7 years n 8–10 years n More than 10 years 12) Actually I am... n Studying n Working n Looking for work n Other 13) If you are working, what type of contract do you have? n Temporary n Indefinite n Other 14) Why did you come to Zaragoza? n To study n To work n On holiday n Family reasons n Other

185 Social and kind networks among Japanese migrants in Spain | Attachments

15) For how long did/do you plan to stay in Zaragoza? n Less than a year n 1- 2 years n More than 2 years n Don’t know 16) In which neighbourhood of Zaragoza do you stay? n Old Quarter n Miralbueno n Centre n Oliver–Valdefierro n Delicias n Torrero–La Paz n University n Actur–Rey Fernando n Casablanca n El Rabal n San José n Santa Isabel n Las Fuentes n Casetas,Utebo n La Almozara n Other 17) Do you maintain any of the following customs of your native land? n Food n Religion n Cultural Norms n Festivities n Others 18) Do you share these customs with... n Friends of the same nationality n Friends of other nationalities n Family of the same nationality n Family of other nationalities n I don’t share them with anyone n With everyone irrespective of nationality 19) What do you like best about Zaragoza?

______

20) What do you like least about Zaragoza?

______

21) Do you belong to any association related to Japanese culture? n Yes n No 22) Do you belong to any association which is not related to Japanese culture? n Yes n No

186 23) Since you have been living in Zaragoza, how often have you used public services? n Never n Once n Twice n Three times or more 24) Generally speaking, with whom do you have most contact? n Only Japanese n With Japanese and others with whom I share traditions and customs although they may not n be Japanese (other Asian countries) n With everyone from any country n No answer 25) Do you take part in any local (Zaragoza) or Spanish festivities or traditions? n Yes n No 26) How do you think that Spanish people in Zaragoza treat the Japanese? n Very well n Well n Normal n Badly n Very badly 27) In the near future would you like to... n Continue studying in Zaragoza or Spain n Continue studying in Japan n Work in Zaragoza or Spain n Go back to Japan n No answer

What is a public service? Those services offered by public administrations to meet the needs of the public. For example services related to health, work, education... Sometimes other institutions or companies offer these services, such as in the case of public transport (buses) or dealing with the elderly.

187 attachment 2 ARRIVAL AND FUTURE EXPECTATIONS OF JAPANESE STUDENTS IN SARAGOSSA

大切: 答えはスペイン語で書いて下さい *のついている質問には答える。詳しく書いて下さい。

1 性別 ______

2 年齢 ______

3 どこで生まれましたか。______

4 日本の大学では何各部ですか。______

5 日本の大学では何年生ですか。______

6 あなたの大学はどこにありましたか。______

7* 外国へ来たのは今回が初めてですか。初めてではない人は何回目の海国ですか。また、 それそれの渡航の目的は何でしたか。

8* スペインにきたのは今回が初めてですか。

9* いつスペインへ来ると決めましたか。

10* どうしてサラゴサで勉強しょうと思いましたか。

188 11* 他のスペインの街で勉強することも考えましたか。どうしてその街を選ばなかったので すか。

12 サラゴサ大学で勉強するにあたって、入学願書やアパート探しは日本で済ません来まし たか。誰かに手伝ってもらいましたか。手伝ってもらった方は誰に手伝ってもらいまし たか。

13* サラゴサの滞在に何を期待しますか。 14* 日本ではなく外国で勉強することは何か有益はことがありますか。 15* 将来できれば以外の国に住みたいと思っていますか。それはどこのくにですか、またど うしてですか。

16* サラゴサ滞在中にもし、スペインの恋人が、またどうしてですか。スペインに住みたい と思いますか。

サラゴサにいる日本人留学生に関する研究をしていますので、私のインタビューに応じてく れる学生を探しています。もし興味がよれば下に名前とメールアドレスを書いて下さい！ス ペイン語を勉強するキャンスですよ！

名前: Ｅメールアドレス:

どうもありがとうございました

189 attachment 3 INTERVIEW GUIDELINES

1. Situation prior to deciding to emigrate Place of birth. Place where grew up. Type of family Professional and social position Official education and unregulated studies Impression held of Japanese society

2. Decision to undertake a migration project The moment in life when it was decided to leave the country Support received: by whom and what kind Reason for leaving

3. Preparation prior to leaving country of origin Emigration objective Where to go Expectations Difficulties encountered during the process

190 4. Arrival in the host society Why it was decided to go to... Personal situation during the installation/settling down phase Difficulties encountered Relations with the local population Support given by Japanese, Spaniards and foreigners

5. Current situation Ties with the city Social and labour situation Family and social situation Relations with original family Relation with people in the same situation/with peers???

6. Outlook for the future Family Social and labour related Going back to Japan Leaving Spain or going to another city

191