Social Cleavages and Political Parties in Botswana: an Account of A

CEU eTD Collection

Social Cleavages and Political Parties in Botswana: An account of a Pre of Anaccount inBotswana: Parties Political and Cleavages Social In partialIn fulfillment ofthe requirements for the degree Masterof Department ofPolitical Science Central European University dominant Party System dominant Party Supervisor: Zsolt Enyedi Budapest, Hungary By: Seabo Batlang Submitted to (2013)

of Artsof

- CEU eTD Collection characteristics a toconstitute cleavage. are that groups social the especially area this on research future for groups the from parties by received support evidence system. party dominant a in results which society the in embedded is party the which to extent the shows this and cleavages the across cut to tends BDP the for r cleavage least the is BPP The areas. rural in support their than areas urban in support more receive BCP the and BNF the while areas unemployed. the than employed th while people employed the than unemployed the among popular supp more has Front National Botswana the while south the in than region north the in support more has Party Democratic Botswana The cleavages of terms in analyzed be can the While Abstract

in favor of ethno of favor in socio

- economic history and political parties of Botswana reveal a social structure that structure social a reveal Botswana of parties political and history economic - linguistic cl linguistic

The BDP is supported more in the rural areas than in than areas rural the in more supported is BDP The elated party due to its small regional confinement. regional small its to due party elated

, parties are cleavage related only up to a limite a to up only related cleavage are parties , eavage and generational voting generational and eavage r i te ot ta i te nor the in than south the in ort . The The . i

findings of this work raise important questions important raise work this of findings e BCP is more a party of the of party a more is BCP e There seems to be no strong no be to seems There likely to share similar social similar share to likely

due to similar degree of degree similar to due th. The BDP is more more is BDP The th.

the d extent. d

Support

urban urban CEU eTD Collection this work. finish T to me gave you that encouragement and support the for Patkanova Patricia thank througho me gave you support the for Sartakova my Lyubov friend thank to like also would I politics. cleavage on knowledge his sharing for Kukec Marko work. thank this in I helpful was you. that information from the for acquired Maundeni I that knowledge the for grateful am this I throughout me research. guiding for Enyedi Zsolt Professor supervisor my thank to like would I Acknowledgements o all, I thank you!Io all, thank

I pay my gratitude to my friend friend my to gratitude my pay I ut the research period. Finally, I Finally, period. research the ut

rfso Z. Professor CEU eTD Collection Reference Appendix 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. List Figuresof ofList Tables Acknowledgements Abstract Table ofContent

5.5. 5.4. 5.3. 5.2. 5.1. 4.2. 4.1 3.2. 3.1. 2.4. 2.3. 2.2. 2.1. Conclusion Analysis: 4.2.1. Developmentpolitical of parties inBotswana 3.2.3. 3.2.2. 3.2.1. Socio 2.4.3. 2.4.2. 2.4.1. TheoreticalFramework Introduction .

...... Cleavages Socio Methodology Hypotheses The Conceptof Cl Dimensionsof Cleavages Discussion Age EmploymentStat Ethno Regionalismand Center PoliticalPartiesBotswana in Parties ata glance

......

- s Economic Backgroundand C

......

Ideological profiles of parties Employed Ethno Center Statistics Variables Data Source ...... Parties andCleavages - - Economic history

linguisticcleavage ......

...... - - linguistic Cleavagelinguistic

......

Periphery Cleavage ......

......

...... - unemployed cleavage ......

...... us ...... eavage

......

...... - peripheryCleavage ......

......

...... leavages

......

...... iii ......

......

70 65 62 57 55 52 49 45 45 40 36 35 35 32 29 25 24 19 19 18 17 17 16 15 11

iv iv

7 6 1 ii

CEU eTD Collection Figure 8: Support among unemployed (%) Figure 7: Party identification among (%) Tswana Figure 6: Party identification among Non Figure 5: Map Botswana of showing north Figure 4: Party support southin region Figure 3: Party support northin region Figure 2: Election trends Figure 1: dimensionalTwo cleavage structure Figures of List Table Party8: identification by urban rural, and semi Table Party7: identification by language Table 6: Variables Table Party5: identification by age group Table Party4: Table Party3: identification by ethnic group Table Party2: identification by region Table summari1: ofList Tables

identification by employment status

zes the origin parties of and their ideological profiles

......

...... - ......

Tswana ......

- ...... south dividesouth

......

...... iv - urban

......

67 66 66 65 48 46 22 69 69 68 56 54 51 49 41

CEU eTD Collection organizationaland capability stem weakness electoral Such weakness. electoral i alternation no been decry parties opposition First a operates Botswana that noted dominance legislative continued BDP’s the to contribute behavior voting strategic a of domination persistent the of account of dominance sustained a for account w Those 2012. The top the in culminated that in Democracy Africa Southern of Institute Electoral of extensive An polit and 2005) Lekorwe 2012, Lotshwao, and (Maundeni parties of organization internal 2011), (Lotshwao, parties opposition of weakness Osei 2012, (Poteete, dominance party persistent and of terms in system been has effort less country, the of system party dominant D rgues espite the fact that research on parties in Botswana has attempted to provide an account of account an provide to attempted has Botswana in parties on research that fact the espite 1.

that Introduction o rt abo write ho ,

“

features of the electoral system, fragmentation of the party system, and obstacles to obstacles and system, party the of fragmentation system, electoral the of features ic of and parties elections was study Africa

the of political parties political of

t parties ut gvrmna power governmental n initiated an index for Assessing the Quality of Governance of Quality the Assessing for index an initiated

underlying social structure social underlying ulcto o a eot co report a of publication

favors the BDP. However BDP. the favors

ina

dequate financial resources financialdequate offer different and sometimes overlapping explanations which which explanations overlapping sometimes and different offer

the was carried out by Gloria Somolekae under the direction the under Somolekae Gloria by out carried was

- Botswana Democratic Party (BDP). For instance For (BDP). Party Democratic Botswana

Past ical party funding party ical the

given considerablecoverage. (EISA)

- ic idpnec bcue of because independence since The osaa eortc Party Democratic Botswana 1

. Recent litera Recent . - - uhrd y lxne ad aoags in Kaboyakgosi and Alexander by authored ,

ot majoritar Post

Osei n 2005. in fo, mn ohr atr, la factors, other among from, s - wd, 01 Mudn e al et Maundeni 2001, Hwedi, - Hwedi (2001) contends that there has has there that contends (2001) Hwedi

made to analyze parties and the and parties analyze to made (Osei

(Molomo and Se and (Molomo

oe eety te Ins the recently, More ture has focused on focused has ture - Hwedi, 2001). Hwedi, ian electoral system which which system electoral ian

oet (2012 Poteete budubudu, 2005). budubudu,

the

Yet others have Yet others .”

Botswana in factionalism opposition’s It should be be should It titute for for titute 2006 ,

ck of of ck

i party party n her her n :75 ) a ) ,

CEU eTD Collection explanation the of system party dominant the influence they how show not does but Botswana, in cleavages of presence attachments social their and parties However disparities infinancial resources. electoral among (2005) Sebudubudu and Molomo dominance, its for account Lotshwao,2012) of change smooth enabling rules, and factions rival mutualitybetween party to adhering of culture a to tied was Party BNF the to contrast In rivals. internal while successors own their choose to sought and power party the to tied primarily was (BNF) Front National Botswana opposition the within instability internal that argue authors has that conclude (2012) Lotshwao and Maundeni w have others Still 2005). (Somolekae, party one as elections contest to unity opposition of failure of issue the explored

rvne tfo ildigteicmet osaaDmcai at fo power. from Party Democratic Botswana incumbent the dislodging from it prevented

other things, a manifestation of deep of manifestation a things, other

system. Key, among these factors, is the uneven political playing field caused by by caused field playing political uneven the is factors, these among Key, system. plausible s

that have been country. .

While they recognize the popularity of the BDP as a factor that is often used to used often is that factor a asBDP the popularityof the they recognize While

the aforementione the ritten absence of clear party rules, and from and rules, party clear of absence

hs ok analyzes work This of organization internal the about advanced ”

safe for the work of John Wiseman who acknowledges the the acknowledges who Wiseman John of work the for safe mutual compromises between internal rivals between internal compromises mutual

d arguments are arguments d for the dominancefor the

internal instability in the ruling Botswana Democratic Democratic Botswana ruling the in instability internal - seated structural problems in Botswana’s polity and polity Botswana’s in problems structural seated

the 2 h sca struc social the

opposition has suffered internal instability that instability internal suffered has opposition , still not much attention has been paid to paid been has attention much not still , of the Botswanaof Democratic the Party.

incumbent leaders who personalized personalized who leaders incumbent argue that argue

oiia parties political

ture in order to complement complement to order in ture euig o c to refusing ,

“ i ts electoral strength is, strength electoral ts mrms with ompromise

Fr instance For . (Maundeni and and (Maundeni leaders, leaders,

The The ,

CEU eTD Collection question research the answer to seeks work this Therefore, Botswana. of system party dominant understandi further to contribute would with align they cleavages and structure social their ty the align parties or formation party cleavages objective main The party democracy sustained be to weak a from party in penetratingfrom andthe broader support drawing context this In Partie of thepolitics itself outin the country. r identify to come have parties and Botswana in parties political infiltrated have education and ethnicity, region, class, working age, to attempt Botswana in parties political and Botswana of economichistory parties, across cleavages overlapping of presence Bot Notwithstanding eligion swana in terms of social cleavages, either due to lack of overt conflicted cleavages or the the or cleavages conflicted overt of lack to due either cleavages, social of terms in swana . The B The . pe of party system of a polity. a of system party of pe s are s

is generally held to be a private matter in Botswana, in matter private a be to held generally is

they align with. align they

associated with specific associatedwith nlz pltcl ate i trs f oil cleavages social of terms in parties political analyze DP has as a resu a as has DP and fragmented opposition. As a consequence, a As opposition. fragmented and ,

the Botswana Democratic Party DemocraticBotswana the n Botswana in

h lc o atnin o analy to attention of lack the

o ti wr teeoe s o nlz pris n em o ietfal social identifiable of terms in parties analyze to is therefore work this f

Lipset and Rokkan (1967) Rokkan Lipsetand

unabated lt dominated the elections the dominated lt

themselves with particular cleavages and this and cleavages particular with themselves with and represent some interests within the society. the within interests some represent and with

cleavages despi cleavages ”

Within

regardless of the fact that the country operat country the that fact the of regardless

this framework this

3 is the only party that has made significant strides strides significant made has that party only the is

ze te attempts to appeal to the broader electorate. electorate. broader the appealto to attempts te

ate ad h dmnn pry system party dominant the and parties society the write that write

antem ieaue bu te socio the about literature mainstream

and it has not faced any potent threat potent any faced not has it and

which explains the dominance explains the which of

church , a dominant party system continues system party dominant a

, the

“ give social .

analysis of parties in terms of of terms in parties of analysis oil hrceitc sc as such characteristics Social - s state cleavage does not play play not does cleavage state

the

cleavages either attend to attend either cleavages

impression that we can can we that impression

process

es a multi a es determines determines

Because ng

the the of - -

CEU eTD Collection rae hmgnu scey y saa lts fe te onr cae t b a British a be to ceased country the after elites Tswana by society homogenous a create discernible are that cleavages of discussion a follows then II Chapter two dimensional space this within given times at parties given behind alliances the locate to is task the systems: political that asserted Rokkan and Lipset extent. certain a to polities of systems party analyze Lipsetthe society languages and culture that groups nation structure cleavage dimensional Bo wor this Finally cleavages. parties political of development the about literature survey I Next structure. cleavage Lipset dimensional two Rokkan’s of light in emerged cleavages social what examine I Botswana, of history economic The in Botswana. cleavages social what of C hapter tswana taking into account tswana account taking into

objective - ulig ae ie o ertra ad ethno and territorial to rise gave building particularly the conflict between employers and workers. It should be should It workers. and employers between conflict the particularly

II - I Rokkan cleavage theory applies mostly to Western Europe, it provides a framework to to frameworka provides it Europe, Western to mostlyapplies cleavagetheory Rokkan

takes stock of stock takes resist assimilation into assimilation resist provides

of this work is threefold. Firs threefold. is work this of

and

attempt to examine to attempt

. The model also provides a framework to framework a provides also model The . a ”

(Lipset

the align with parties and contribute to contribute and parties with align

the or mks cs fr understanding for case a makes k tcl rmwr i acrac with accordance in framework etical

parties and social cleavages socio

. & Rokkan, 1967:11)

ihn hs framework this Within “

h mdl serv model the the - economic history economic

Tswana ethnic group and lobby for recognition of their their of recognition for lobby and group ethnic Tswana patterns of alignment between parties and parties between alignment of patterns t, on the basis of basis the on t, 4

s s gi i te oprtv aayi of analysis comparative the in grid a as es - . igitc laae o non of cleavages linguistic

This holds This

o f Botswana in order to provide context, provide to order in Botswana f , .

I .

The chapter shows how attempts to attempts how shows chapter The attempt to show how processes of of processes how show to attempt

sustaining a dominant party system system party dominant a sustaining a

literature review about the socio the about review literature

the dominant party system of of system party dominant the attempt a class analysis of the the of analysis class a attempt a

semblance of application as application of semblance

ist n Rokkan and Lipset

noted that while while that noted - saa tribal Tswana specific s two ’s

social social - - CEU eTD Collection dominant party system a to contributes which structure social the in cleavages different the across cuts BDP the for lan of analysis c In (BNF)and are Botswana Party (BCP) analysis. Congress inthis included ( Party s’ People parties new and parties small Botswana support on literature produced Protectorate guage, region and employment status employment and region guage, hapter hapter .

oee I ou o fu pris ht hav that parties four on focus I However

and ha and V Afro Barometer Afro

I omto of formation

make a connection between parties and cleavages and with the aid of aid the with and cleavages and parties between connection a make ve established a social niche for support. In t In support. for niche social a established ve BPP), the Botswana Democratic Party (BDP), the Botswana National National Botswana the (BDP), Party Democratic Botswana the BPP), .

ethno politi

round 4 round - . Specifically, in Specifically, . linguis a pris n osaa n te shows then and Botswana in parties cal

tic surveys . The analysis further further analysis The . n center and I ,

ascending 5

show

e had an impact on the the on impact an had e - eihr cleavages. periphery

at dniiaini trs of terms in identification party

orde r of date of formation, of date of r test his way I do not deal with very very with deal not do I way his s

the

hypothesi hpe IV Chapter hi sca base social their political process of of process political s that

descriptive descriptive Botswana ethnicity,

, support support , reviews Front Front

of CEU eTD Collection in later that parties to antecedent movements social no were there the instance for formation Europe. Eastern in parties communist party to attended typically class workers’ as such groups social Lipset growth. economic and centralization of phases subsequent the in and consolidation at and societies society the in actors different among interchange of channels and flows of representation schematic Europe. Western in systems party structure they how and develop cleavages how of account classical a represents perhaps alignments andsystems voter onparty Rokkan (1967) Lipsetand The of work behavior. af party influence that characteristics or attributes specific group to refer to democracies. Western socia degrees, sociology political in tradition strong T behavior inWestern Europe. background social of impact researchers. of attention the captured has that So e td o te eainhp ewe sca srcue n spot o pltcl ate hs a has parties political for support and structure social between relationship the of study he cial cleavages cial 2.

- Rokkan conception of cleavage is more rooted in history and focuses on how particula how on focuses and history in rooted more is cleavage of conception Rokkan . TheoreticalFramework

ndvlpn iesos of dimensions developing In However

l class, gender, age, race and religion have all been found to affect voting in in voting affect to found been all have religion and race age, gender, class, l ep t udrtn wa cevgs ae aietd hmevs ro to prior themselves manifested have cleavages what understand to tempt and voter alignment is an important component of research in voting behavior behavior voting in research of component important an is alignment voter and ist n Rokka and Lipset ”

Therefore political sociologists have come to use the concept of cleavage cleavage of concept the use to come have sociologists political Therefore

on voting especially by scholars who were who scholars by especially voting on

’ mdl oue o te nenl tutr of structure internal the on focuses model n’s

This is however not the case in the context of Botswana as as Botswana of context the in case the not however is This c

leavage Lipset and Rokkan built upon built Rokkan and Lipset leavage (Andersen, (Andersen, Research on voting behav voting on Research 6

2003) Adre pstd that posited Andersen . fluenced party formation. party fluenced

ior has focused on the the on focused has ior interested in electoral electoral in interested filiation and electoral and filiation

Talcott ,

However the the However “ to varying varying to

territorial territorial Parsons’

The The r

CEU eTD Collection Botswana. s in helpful two Rokkan’s and structure internal Lipset the of shows interpretation dimensional below figure The dimension. functional a representing repr A basic a in represented are dimensions two The dimension. functional the and dimension territorial the namely cleavages of dimensions paradigm Parsonian the on Building Botswana.societal conflicts in arose Lipset 2.1. snig trioil line territorial a esenting - Rokkan model of cleavage structure is only used for convenience purposes to show how show to purposes convenience for used only is structure cleavage of model Rokkan

Dimensions of Cleavages Dimensions howing how cleavages along e along cleavages how howing

f h ntoa cleav national the of

of societal interchanges societal of

mployment status mployment - G - 7 I -

prdg cnitn o vria L vertical of consisting paradigm L f Parsonian of g srcue n a oiotl A horizontal a and structure age , ethnicity and region developed in developed region and ethnicity , , Lipset and Lipset , qarn wih ol be would which quadrant I

Rokkan proposed two proposed Rokkan - G line line G - line I CEU eTD Collection policy alternatives of the whole society typified by competing elites for power and deep deep and power for elites competing by typified society whole the of alternatives policy of consists axis the of end g The elite expressly called t groups ethnic Tswana by dominated felt that minorities state the by standardization and of linguistic reactions regions, the lies here and bureaucracies their and elites dominant or aspiring instance structu cleavage of representation dimensional two this along spread are contrasts Social Source Figure : 1 , : Two dimensional cleavage: Twodimensional structure Lipset 1967 and Rokkan,

“ at

the I end of the territorial axis we find local oppositions to encroachment of the the of encroachment to oppositions local find we axis territorial the of end I the

minorities, and culturally threatened culturally and minorities,

for their forrecognition thecountry’s in laws. .”

“ (Lipset & Rokkan, 1967:10) Rokkan, & (Lipset clashes over the control, the organization, the goals and the the and goals the organization, the control, the over clashes

populations to pressures of centralizing centralizing of pressures to populations hat constitute the majority of the of majority the constitute hat

s I As show in chapter 3, ethnic 3, chapter in show

peripheral peripheral re. For re.

ruling

CEU eTD Collection this within given times at parties given behind alliances the locate to is task the systems: political A the governingperceived partyas rulingthecountry tobe pursuing was they it policies. capitalist Bot as losses. or gains about much so not and conceptions moral about just is here conflict the and community surrounding The participated strike. inan industrial gover uni of establishme the and bargaining rational through solved be to tend conflicts the and specific are the that claim authors The found. are others among owners and tenants employers, d the of end ‘a’ the at is It acrossBotswana. theterritory of non of associations cultural of coalition a establi of solidarity the undermine to tend and localities of ranges wide over households and subjects oriented or situated similarly of alliances of formation the in result they and nation the of units that contend Rokkan and Lipset parties by dissatisfie those who were of establishment to led protectorate a be to ceased Botswana after country the governed elites conce the in differences crig o Lipset to ccording

i end of the axis consists consists axis the of end i nment against trade unions over wage and salary increase and dismissal of workers who workers of dismissal and increase salary and wage over unions trade against nment shed territorial communities territorial shed swana National Front were born out of dissatisfaction among some people with the way the with people some among dissatisfaction of out born were Front National swana eslsi rls f allocation of rules versalistic

” n Rka te model the Rokkan and

For instance, parties that were formed in post in formedwere that parties instance, For ption of nationhood. of ption imension that imension ,

of differences of of differences of “

” tha conflicts

(1967:10). d. ”

(1967:10).

“ - conflicts between producers and buyers, workers and workers buyers, and producers between conflicts Tswana tribes is illustrative in this context for it cuts it for context this in illustrative is tribes Tswana ”

Disagreement with the manner in which the ruling ruling the which in manner the with Disagreement “

t occur along the a the along occur t The Multicultural coalition of Botswana which is which Botswana of coalition Multicultural The evs s gi i te compa the in grid a as serves 9

“ I show later later show I religious or ideological movements to the the to movements ideological or religious - i axis cut across the territorial the across cut axis i h cnlc ta pte the pitted that conflict the - independent Botswana such such Botswana independent rative analysis of of analysis rative “ alignments nt

CEU eTD Collection conflict the between state thepoliticalchurch outin and has processBotswana. played the not the itself of matter, private a largely remains and politics and state the of sphere the outside church the and state the between conflict The do nothave chief inthe form representation and thesource ofparamount is this conflict. of tribes Tswana Non tribe. respective his/her representing chief paramount a have tribes Tswana institution provide latter The Act. Chieftainship the they as issues these politicized opposition especially Parties society. the from marginalized felt who groups Tswana non among feelings seated deep some left language to national the as leading Setswana institutionalizing period the in fe recognizing elites instance national for by independence society homogenous a creating tribes. at several of Attempts consists that group ethnic Tswana non majority from resistance linguistic st independence post and talks constitutional independence center as to referred summarily peripheries, the in residing communities distinct from resistance religious or nation central the between drawn is line conflict first The national refers revolutiontoprocesses which ofnation that Europe. Western to specific mostly is theory cleavage that fact the despite contexts different in parties wor this for two dimensional space could be analyzed across various polities. various across analyzed be could

On the b the On

to parliament on laws dealing with custom, and only eight constitutionall eight only and custom, with dealing laws on parliament to k because it serves as a as serves it because k - periphery. asis of this A this of asis

persistently called for constitutional amendment as well as the amendment ofamendment the as well asamendment constitutional calledfor persistently ”

(Lipset s I As hw n ae catr, rcse o nation of processes chapters, later in show - G

& Rokkan, 1967:11). In isespecially& veinthe relevant this model Rokkan, 1967:11). - I - L model Lipset model L framework s for a House of Chiefs which serves as an advisory advisory an as serves which Chiefs of House a for s tia gop a te an saa rus and groups Tswana main the as groups tribal w represent

The 10

tool in analyzing social cleavages and political political and cleavages social analyzing in tool

first two conflict lines are conceived through through conceived are lines conflict two first and Rokkan proposed four lines of cleavages of lines four proposed Rokkan and - building. s the second cleavage. Because religion is religion Becausecleavage. second the s -

building culture and ethnic, ling ethnic, and culture building ate formation resulted in ethnic and and ethnic in resulted formation ate

- ulig uig pre during building y recognized yrecognized

uistic uistic

- CEU eTD Collection and their impactstructure onsocial theother and change on h one the on behavior, its political and and institutions on stratification impact social of that sociology: political of approaches main two the between that note They identityreflects and which socio organized 2006). (Knutsen, transmitted is structure social of impact the which through variable intermediate an as deep as cleavages see researchers Some (2008:288). a an indicate operationalization and meaning its surround that Enyedi Th the affluentgoverning andthe class between relationship the and parties opposition and unions workers’ between alignment hand laborers tenants, and hand one the on employers and owners between conflict then and entrepreneurs industrial of class rising the and interests landed the between conflic further Two e meaning of the concept itself has been contested with no agreement reached amo withreached noagreement contested concepthas itself e the been meaning of 2.2. ”

Lpe ad okn 1967:12). Rokkan, and (Lipset hs work This aptly

The Concept ofCleavageThe

stated that stated - structural units that have a set of values and beliefs which provides a sense of of sense a provides which beliefs and values of set a have that units structural “ the problem with the concept of cleavage lies in its intermediary location location intermediary its in lies cleavage of concept the with problem the

adopts adopts lns r br ot f nutil eouin te is big the being first the revolution, industrial of out born are lines t “ still much ongoing research relies on this concept but the uncertainties uncertainties the but concept this on relies research ongoing much still

atln ad Mair and Bartolini the self

BDP - consciousnes .

The latter cleavage would be relevant in analyzing the the analyzing in relevant be would cleavage latter The -

seated, persistent affairs, and include value orientations orientations value include and affairs, persistent seated, s eiiin of definition ’s 11 s of the social groupsof thesocial involved s

” and, and that of political institutions political of that and and,

(p.215).

cu laae as cleavages te lack of academic consensus academic of lack te

, and workers on workers and , ,

“ ” conflicts between between conflicts

( 1990:215). ng scholars. ng scholars. the other the “ conflict conflict

”

CEU eTD Collection 1 guiding the be should them to belong who individuals the unite organizationally which bonds politicaland social of kind the andthese groups, in membership accompanymay reactions which divisions. possible all of realm the exhausts that concept a is cleavage a that mean to misconstrued be not should person a of behavior the t and normative/cultural refers to backdrop this Against part of thecleavage of set the is as develop which parties, that political as such organizations, and institutions, interactions, individual element, behavioral organizational/ an and involved; (s) group social the and element, empirical the to role and identity of sense the is level next The betweengroups. tribal context this def be can terms” which structural and concept the of referent empirical the identifies which th would cleavage of concept the Therefore purely a as considered be not descriptive ata concept the identification aimed particularreality of should class, of concept Marxist the as way same the much social links which concept a as cleavage of definition formulating suggest Mair and Bartolini problem the address To

Ibid

a combination of all of the three. The fact that the three elements of social of thatthethree elements fact allthree.The ofthe combination of a

that 1

is a source of conflict which could be perceived in social structural terms terms structural social in perceived be could which conflict of source a is Language or culture of a people for instance is such a such is instance for people a of culture or Language ”

(Bartolini &(Bartolini Mair, 1990:215). “ normative element which is the set of values and beliefs which provides a provides which beliefs and values of set the is which element normative the concept of cleavage should indicate should cleavage of concept the

he political/organizational mutually influence each other in determining determining in other each influence mutually political/organizational he

Instead the nature and intensity of the emo the of intensity and nature the Instead en 12 “ incorporate three levels: an empirical element, element, empirical an levels: three incorporate

structure and political order and which, in which, and order political and structure which reflect the self consciousness of of consciousness self the reflect which

a dividi a ” “

tertcly autonomous theoretically a (p.215). ng line in a polity which which polity a in line ng n empirical referent in referent empirical n

nd n social in ined - structural, the tions and tions CEU eTD Collection inev Botswana in diamonds stratification classes. of society into of discovery the with by particularly about urbanization brought were that divisions of capitalism. and result industrialization a as developed cleavage class instance electoralof m politicization, those with processes these of coupling the by emerges latter the industrialization; and capitalism processes the former from the phenomena: emerges historical different of products are itself cleavage the and cleavage that argue they and account historical the identify they First differences thoughareevident that key three are there that proposed who Mair and Bartolini of work the from draw further I task, based class and class a to referring between difference a is there reli and religion instance for between difference a is there is That itself. cleavage the and cleavage a forms that structure social between difference the understand varying a propens and background cultural specific a creating involved, individuals the beyond and entrenched ingroup termstheimagea position cleavage whichbecoming of produces stable over positi these achieved, Once led them unite and associations to through form theycall and which recognition. for inclusion non of feelings of intensity and nature the was it instance cleavage. of conception our in principle ity to collective action (Bartolini & Mair, 1990:216). Mair, & (Bartolini action collective to ity obilization and democratizationobilization ons become firmly established, and it is the endurance of this this of endurance the is it and established, firmly become ons f tt ad ain omto ad rm h dvlpet of development the from and formation nation and state of

n hs ntne t ol b age ta idsraiain and industrialization that argued be would it instance this In they differ in degree per cleavage.they indegree differ per

hr i evidence is There 13

- recognition of non of recognition ”

“ (Bartolini and Mair, 1990:216). (Bartolini and ht ons o hs bevto for observation this to points that the social the

It is at this point fundamental to fundamental point this at is It - cleavage. To accomplish this accomplish To cleavage. gious

- structural reference of a of reference structural - based cleavage just as just cleavage based - Tswana tribes that tribes Tswana tby e to led itably

For For CEU eTD Collection institutio an are but class social the of organizations not are unions trade as such cleavage class a of agencies instance For cl among difference key third The be aware shared identity oftheir andas orwhatever. interests farmers, workers, Catholics, must grounded is cleavage the which on groups the that sense the in involved, identity collective Mair. and Bartolini observes groups,” some imply which cleavage the by constituted that than flu more much normally are which relationships of set a represents therefore basis social the change; to bound are that characteristics certain by defined is cleavagecertain a to them attaches t is difference important second The they how become and as organized cleavagesdevelopments such as especiallywithpolitical democratization. emerge groups social different how of account an provides therefore History language. recognizin and constitution, the in tribes major as tribes Tswana non dominate to group ethnic minority ethno along developed 217). 1990: opposition Mair, & organize Bartolini to ( available and become dissent express to opportunities the when and standardization, deve state and migration, ethno Similarly, o i rsos t mdr nation modern to response in lop

- linguistic - “ boundary creation and specific cleavages of an ethno an of cleavages specific and creation boundary ee o etra coue hc i mr pronou more is which closure external of level - igitcdvsosi Btwn rsle fo atmt by attempts from resulted Botswana in divisions linguistic nal component of the cleavage. For instance, the Botswana Federat Botswana the instance, For cleavage. the of component nal

cleavages eavages is that the social basis of a cleavage is not organized. not is cleavage a of basis social the that is eavages

hat an individual’s belonging to a social basis that typically that basis social a to belonging individual’s an hat emerge out of the long process of linguistic differentiation, linguistic of process long the of out emerge

itself. However cleavages are a set of social relationships social of set a are cleavages However itself. Here Mair (2006) adds that adds (2006) Mair Here - - ules atmt t efc clua ad linguistic and cultural effect to attempts builders’ Tswana ethnic groups by recognizing only certain certain only recognizing by groups ethnic Tswana 14

I hw o isac ta te cl the that instance for show “ there must be a clear sense of sense clear a be must there g Setswana as the national national the as Setswana g cd hn ht f social of that than nced - linguistic nature only only nature linguistic

the aae that eavage

Tswana ”

ion i

d CEU eTD Collection ethnicity. that: states hypothesis alternative that: hypothesisstates ethn and identification party between relationship the on is hypothesis second The between and region. identification party states: hypothesis alternative The region. and identification party states: hypothesis null The region. and identification party is test to seeks research this that hypothesis first The eventuall they how and developed have societies in cleavages different the how understanding as far so phase politicization the of patterning organizational developme the from leading process the disentangle to simple not is it reason this For country. each to according varies other each influence and interact cleavages different the which in manner the that realize to important is It preciselynot depend because t exclusively itdoes on specific country and historically is form, organizational and membership social its of terms in that contend Mair and Bartolini vein, this In partFront, of aninstitutional canbetheworkers cle as perceived National Botswana mainly parties opposition with align to come have and workers the of interests represents that unions sector public of body umbrella main the Unions, Sector Public of 2.3.

y influence partyspecific orcome howparties formation cleavages. toidentify with

Hypotheses Ho : there is no relationship between party identification and ethnicity.and The betweenparty norelationshipidentification thereis :

Ha : there is a relationship between party identification and and identification party between relationship a is there :

t f tutrl rrqiie t te dooia and ideological the to prerequisites structural of nt “ the institutional nature of the class cleavage, both cleavage, class the of nature institutional the 15

. This therefore means that context matters in matters context that means therefore This . he social class whether there is a relationship between between relationship a is there whether Ho : There is no relationship between relationship no is There : avage. ”

Ha (p.218).

: hr i a relationship a is There

icity. The null null The icity.

CEU eTD Collection examine whetheridentifycan we cleavage. a withaparticular party S cle specific association and of parties between patterns establishing in helpful be would which profiles party and formation their showing parties political Botswana’s on literature the survey I Then existence. into came socio B in cleavages thereof lack or existence the about assumptions theoretical test to data survey uses that study quantitative a is research This party and identification agegroup. Alternatively, group. age and identification party between identification. party and group age concerns hypothesis last The Alternatively, identification. te I Next Alternatively, that: states hypothesis the on is hypothesis third The urveys of 2008, I run contingency tables contingency run I 2008, of urveys 2.4. - economic history of Botswana in order to demonstrate h demonstrate to order in Botswana of history economic

st whether there is evidence of a relationship between employment status and party party and status employment between relationship a of evidence is there whether st Methodology Ha Ha Ho : there is arelationshipparty: there between is and identification arelationshipparty: there between is and identification language. : there is no relationship between party identification and employment status. employment and identification party between relationship no is there : Ho

tee s o eainhp between relationship no is there : relationship between party identification and language. The null null The language. and identification party between relationship vgs Uig uvy aa rm h rud Ar Barometer Afro 4 round the from data survey Using avages.

between party identification and cleavages in order to to order in cleavages and identification party between otswana. First otswana. 16

I briefly survey the literature on the the on literature the survey briefly I Ha ow certain group specific conflicts conflicts specific group certain ow at ietfcto ad language. and identification party tee s rltosi between relationship a is there :

Ho tee s o relationship no is there : employment status.

CEU eTD Collection http://afrobarometer.org/files/documents/summary_results/bot_r4_sor.pdf 3 2 groups inthesociety mainstreamon parties inBotswana. by the literature pe their of basis the on chosen were parties the and analyzed table).for appendix analysis(see T variableethnicity, whileclass and language, are age theindependent variables. test test to order In generational voting. is there whether examine to age add I this To cleavages. such and identification party between center socio the from evidence the of basis the On team basedBotswanaUniversity at the languages: and intwo of Setswana. English Face citizens. Batswana adult 1200 sample probability stratified random, representative, nationally a surveyed Afrobarometer the Africa. in atmosphere economic and political, “

h Arbrmtr is Afrobarometer The 2008 ROUND 4 AFROBAROM 4 2008 ROUND http://afrobarometer.org/ able 2.4.2. 2.4.1.

f independence of

- 6 periphery, ethno periphery,

shows how the variables were measured from the survey and how they are recoded in the inthe are recoded they thesurveyand themeasured how from variableswere shows how

Data Source Variables

hypotheses about association about hypotheses

ih h cniec lvl f 5. at ietfcto i te dependent the is identification Party 95%. of level confidence the with -

linguistic and class based cleavages, I test for evidence of a relationship a of evidence for test I cleavages, based class and linguistic an independent, nonpartisan research project that measures the social, social, the measures that project research nonpartisan independent, an ETER SURVEY IN BOTSWANA: BOTSWANA: IN SURVEY ETER

With respect to the dependent variable, four political parties areparties political thedependent variable,four respectto With - to - ae neves ee odce b te Afrobarometer the by conducted were interviews face - between parties and cleavages and parties between 2 cnmc itr ta po that history economic 17

‘

Between 28 September and 16 October 2008, October 16 and September 28 Between cie ascain ih certain with association rceived

i nts to the existence of of existence the to nts

, I run a chi square square chi a run I ,

” 3

of of CEU eTD Collection generations. both fallon can becauseit generations two line between participat for age minimum the is it also and Botswana 4 chi a use I age. and unemployed employed, language, group, ethnic regions, percenta the determine to obtained are tables Contingency 35 whethe investigate to s employment employed about question survey the use I cleavage, class affluent versus class working for test to color white and workers color blue identifying differentiates that question survey speaking. Tswana non into languages the of rest the and speaking Tswana into speaking Tswana map). divide south north for appendix (see south and north into categorized were districts 25 all region, of terms In has tobe analyzed alone. dropped be cannot it but party, regional small a to reduced been has party the that fact the given corrected alone let avoided be cannot that limitation a is This condition. this satisfy not does that case only the satisfy to order in variables categorical runconditions chi to square test. into recoded were variables independent the All

h ae ru 18 group age The - 2.4.3. 80. 4

- Statistics unemp loyed cleavage. loyed - 35 was decided upon taking into account the fact that 18 is the minimum voting age in in age voting minimum the is 18 that fact the account into taking upon decided was 35

or merged with any other party because for purposes of this work each party party each work this of purposes for because party other any with merged or

Next I categorized the 8 Tswana spe Tswana 8 the categorized I Next r there is generational voting. I recoded age into two age groups, 18 groups, age two into age recoded I voting. generational is there r

non Tswana. The same is done for language, with Setswana recoded into into recoded Setswana with language, for done is same The Tswana. non

In mi of the 5% terms

Age is not treated as a cleavage but it is analyzed in this work this in analyzed is it but cleavage a as treated not is Age employment by occupation, which would have been helpful in helpful been have would which occupation, by employment ion in Afro Barometer survey. 35 years is used as a dividing dividing a as used is years 35 survey. Barometer Afro in ion 18

nimum ofexpectednimum frequenciesBPP is the aking tribes into Tswana and the non the and Tswana into tribes aking

ge of support for each party among among party each for support of ge au t ivsiae vdne for evidence investigate to tatus Because there is no no is there Because - square statistic to statistic square - 35 and and 35 - -

CEU eTD Collection 5 developments. (200 parties history. its including context, country any in developments (2005 Somolekae history. within understood be should and rooted is process political country’s A the from leading process development totheir ofcleavages the showing in useful are parties of development the and context provide to cleavage discusses briefly chapter This upper and percentage lower ina cleavage. support differenc the as calculated country, the across support its than group social a from mix. a or variables nominal chiThe between part a relationship test whether thereis

See Gravetter & Wallnau, (2007) Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences Behavioral the for Statistics of Essentials (2007) Wallnau, & See Gravetter 3.1. 3. 0:p66).

Socio -

ant e nesod usd te otx ad nat and context the outside understood be cannot square is a releva a is square s that have developed. Section 3 Section developed. have that s

Socio otx fr icsin f ate ad hi sca attachments. social their and parties of discussion for context

This therefore means that history informs a country’s political process and and process political country’s a informs history that means therefore This

- Economic Backgroundand Cleavages - Economic history

nt method since it tests for a relationship between categoricalvariables, between relationship afor tests it since method nt :4 5

” noted ) A party is cleavage related if it receives at least 5% more support more 5% least at receives it if related cleavage is party A

oe ed a ul prcain f h cutys socio country’s the of appreciation full a needs one ,

In this sense Molomo Molomo sense this In h so the politicization phase.politicization

cio that

- .1 cnmc itr o te country the of history economic briefly discusse briefly “

i n seeking to understand contemporary political political contemporary understand to seeking n 19 y identification and a cleavage using alpha= 0.05. yalpha= cleavage0.05. a using and identification

contends that contends

s the socio the s r o te tt i development in state the of ure ,

“ the development the

economic history in order order in history economic

and identifies social social identifies and h socio The h socio the of political of - - - e between between e economic economic economic ”

CEU eTD Collection convenience for herein used are terms The Botswana. referenceera to in colonial post and colony 6 1966. Botswana in Independent of the Republicconstitution of b amended suitably this and 1965, March 3 on effect into came which constitution new that noted (1983) Polhemus independence. neg Constitutional people mobilizing in tendencies ideological radical of lack the explaining factor key a be also could and politics, radical of lack country’s the in evident remained has independence for struggle independence for struggle its in arms up took never country the why for explanation an as used often is Botswana of colonization of lack The for provided theprotection by British. the their financ from tax the from revenue The subjects. collection tax poll and hut and powers allocation land had who their chiefs of respective authority the under were they and territories their inhabited groups ethnic Different by miner seeking Empire British expand to wanted who Rhodes Cecil John by led Company Africa giant South British mining the by territory the of conquest possible of fears after III, Khama by led chiefs to was the in protectorate Africa South Bechuanaland from governed The resources. mineral without and world the in countries poorest the of one was country the that fact the to colonization of lack the attributed Somolekae referred officially was independence to prior and Protectorate British a was but colonized never was Botswana colonized, were that states African most Unlike

Although Botswana is often referris often Botswana Although ”

(2005:4). al concessions from chiefs.al concessions

otiations ensued in the 1960s to pave way for the country’s first elections and and elections first country’s the for way pave to 1960s the in ensued otiations

ed to as a former British Protectorate, scholars still use terms such as British asBritish such terms use still scholars Protectorate, British former asa ed to

wn of Mafikeng. British Protection was sought by three three by sought was Protection British Mafikeng. of wn

ed colonial infrastructure and it was a form of payment of form a was it and infrastructure colonial ed ,

“ discussions during 1963 and 1964 culminated in a in culminated 1964 and 1963 during discussions 20 Smlke note Somolekae .

” to as Bechuanaland Protectorate. Bechuanaland as to

What is important to note here is notehere important to is What s

that the “ ak f violent a of lack

ecame the the ecame 6

CEU eTD Collection of harassment alone let prisoners political been never have there and vote to entitled are 18 least elect holds country democracy. multiparty embraced she and rule, colonial post regime partyone instituted that countries African most by followed pattern the from deviated Botswana level, political the At economic classes. stratif the in resulted industrialization and urbanization 3, chapter in show income in improvements and services health 1966 in in instance For services. essential deliver enterprisesto investment development, infrastructural of terms in re growth economic remarkable The was needed. most assistancewhere countries otherrelocated to and assistanceceased donors of numbera 1990s the reason this For stands today income capita per its that extent the to diamonds. of thecountry bysituation hit a severe very was drought. her compound to and government colonial the from infrastructure scant very inherited having Upon later co who Masire Ketumile and Khama Seretse included talks constitutional the in participants that I t was not until the 1 the until not was t gaining independence in 1966 Botswana was one of the poorest countries in the world, the in countries poorest the of one was Botswana 1966 in independence gaining - foundedBotswana Democratic the Party. to 67.5 years67.5 to “ F ,

rom having been one of the world’s poorest countries, the countries, poorest world’s the of one beenhaving rom Botswana was classified as a middle income country by the World Bank and in and Bank World the by country income middle a as classified was Botswana

ions

970s that the fortunes of the country were turned around around turned were country the of fortunes the that 970s in 1999, thanks to an accelerated programme of expanding access expanding of programmeaccelerated an to thanks 1999, in every five years under relatively free environment and citizens aged at at aged citizens and environment free relatively under years five every corded has been translated into socio economic development economic socio into translated been has corded

distribution 21

at just over US$3,000 over just at , “l ,

ife expectancy at birth rose from 46 years 46 from rose birth at expectancy ife ”

(UNDP, 2005). However, as I would would I as However, 2005). (UNDP, education and health and public public and health and education ”

country has flourished flourished has country

ication of society into into society of ication (Somole with the discovery discovery the with kae, 2005 kae,

to public public to

The The :5 ).

CEU eTD Collection Figure trends of t Party, Democratic Botswana the of dominance the illustrate To incumbent party level. not is playingfield that maintains Somolekae parties. has BDP the the that fact decried the to due often elections of have unfairness society civil the and parties opposition elections, free regular the of the by dominated Inspite government. formed and vote popular beenwith election every won has that PartyDemocratic has scene political the independence Since challenges. suc the Notwithstanding pr relative recognized political stability andinAfricaand acclaimed beyond. rights human of record track good a boasts country The activists. opposition 2 : Election trends : Election

vote shares inpar ”

(2005:6)

es eodd hs a, h country the far, thus recorded cess “ . The BDP has more resources and enjoys the other benefits of being an an being of benefits other the enjoys andresources more hasBDP The liamentaryelections

ht opud ti stain s the is situation this compounds what

22 from 1965 to 1965to from

more resources to campaign than other other than campaign to resources more 2009. s eorc i fcd ih some with faced is democracy ’s he figure he

at ht h political the that fact below shows below tcin and otection Botswana Botswana

election election CEU eTD Collection land. ancestral their be to claim latter the which Reserve Game Kalahari Central the from community rights In human Survival with organization, campaign loggerheads at been occasions different in has government the instance cu and linguistic country The chancespower ofalternation ofbetween remain competing parties bleak. 37%. BNF party The vote. popular its in g The Sources Vote share Vote (%) share

ih h lte wnig ttl f 3 et ad t vt sae r share vote its and seats 13 of total a winning latter the with a despite BDP the of dominance the of extent the illustrates clearly raph The persistence of this scenario obliterates democratic consolidation for the reason that that reason the for consolidation democratic obliterates scenario this of persistence The : Poteete 2012 & IEC&: Poteete 2012 1999

has

ltural rights, despite having been praised for praised been having despite rights, ltural

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 also 0

1965 trce ngtv pbiiy n t hand its in publicity negative attracted

1969

has only been seriously challenged in the 1994 elections by the by elections 1994 the in challenged seriously been only has

1974 entoa fr lee freu rlctos f h Basarwa the of relocations forceful alleged for ternational

1979

23 Election year 1984

1989

a 1994 ling of minority groups and their their and groups minority of ling

good record of human rights. For rights. human of record good

1999 eaching an unprecedented unprecedented an eaching

2004

noticeable

2009

decl BPP BCP BNF BDP ine ine

CEU eTD Collection exclusively tocriss due arena, parti parties of activities As Botswana. in discernible are that cleavages of representation dimensional nation var the discusses section This Rokkan’s twodimens identified base. support their broaden to problems wit identified have parties Accordingly prosperity for theinternational which hails community therefore, (2 Somolekae vein this In fronts. economic and political social, country the nutshell, a In and aprojected2000,live belowthepoverty 36.7%line in Goal the of foreword 2004 the in stated Planning Development and Finance having despite re poverty in lingering citizens its of majority have still country the Moreover, corded a strong economic growth after the discovery of diamonds. For instance the Minister of Minister the instance For diamonds. of discovery the after growth economic strong a corded 3.2. es themselves are nothing more than the manifestations of social divisions in the political the in divisions social of manifestations the than more nothing are themselves es

(MDG) Report Report (MDG) ” - building and urbanization in Botswana. The section builds upon Lipset and Rokkan’s two Rokkan’s and Lipset upon builds section The Botswana. in urbanization and building

o oe extent some to

rmtesca n cnmchsoia akrudadtkn noacut Lipset account into taking and background historical economic and social the from o a tee r pol wo el gree i Botswana, in aggrieved feel who people are there say to Cleavages are the product of the ‘demands’ the of product the are ional cleavage structure. that “ that

- crossing

ate i Btwn rfet socio reflect Botswana in parties is not without challenges albeit the success it has recorded on the the on recorded has it success the albeit challenges without not is too many Batswana, an estimated 46.7% of the po the of 46.7% estimated an Batswana, many too

os laae ta cn e discerned be can that cleavages ious laae tutr t tae h dvlpet f socio of development the trace to structure cleavage

cleavages. seii scs n h scey n pltczd their politicized and society the in sects specific h

h nx scin t section next The

aeino (1988:3 Panebianco

of social groups, and that more generally, more that and groups, social of Botswana bypassed actually them has ” (Somolekae, 2005:6). (Somolekae, races - 005) contends that contends 005) cnmc iiin abi not albeit divisions economic

as a result of processes of of processes of result a as the Millennium Development Development Millennium - ) a noted has 4)

cleavages that can be be can that cleavages h blee ht the that believe who pulation in 1994 in pulation

“ i t is correct, correct, is t

- that economic ,

. “ ” the

CEU eTD Collection dista long of because interests tribal of issues discuss to forum NAC the attend not former The North, Batawana and the from tribes Tswana major two the from chiefs by Council Advisory Native in participation north the along themselves manifested observati this notwithstanding However purely made was convenience Botswana in period colonial the during designation and political no pre the during Initially, of generation. examined is group ageby identification partywork this in cleavage, a ageas include not let Rokkan and Lipset As students. and unemployed the particularly part opposition Botswana, of context the in least at group age specific a emp urba and growth economic independence post how show I Subsequently cleavagesnation of are a result ethno of manifestation the illustrate to order in follows ethnicity of discussion A cleavage. center periphery as perceived be can what produced it how and Botswana independent post in salient follows as proceeds section The 3.2.1. loyed - igitc laae I i iprat o oe ht center that note to important is It cleavage. linguistic

- Center unemployed cleavage unemployed tribal group is from further from is group tribal ”

(2009

- economic significance. Makgala Makgala significance. economic PeripheryCleavage :p229 Bangwatonorth the was ofthe early one manifestations of - independence era, the issue of regionalism or the north the or regionalism of issue the era, independence ) .

- buildingLipset as the . First I show how regionalism or the north the or regionalism how show I First . . While it is almost inconceivable to have a party that represents represents that party a have to inconceivable almost is it While .

northern part of the country and its representatives could could representatives its and country the of part northern n tee ee e isacs f rbl krihs that skirmishes tribal of instances few were there on, - ot dmnin Fr ntne h aseto from abstention the instance For dimension. south 25

bevs that observes - Rokkan model shows. Rokkan modelshows. - eihr ad ethno and periphery ,

“

alone Bartolini and Mair do do Mair and Bartolini alone t per te north the appears it ies have mobilized youth mobilized have ies - south divide became divide south

iain eutd in resulted nization o administrative for - - so south divide. south uth divide had had divide uth nce and poor poor and nce - linguistic

in termsin - south

- CEU eTD Collection p2 matters.” tribal on advise to parliament able are they Constitution, of the 79 to 77 sections well affect the matters that on consulted be This can chief ceremony. traditional a at her or him recognize will minister then 8 16 Africa< Articles>. Southern in Building Peace in Government and Society Civil Institutions, Indigenous Botswana: resoluti conflict traditional a refersKgotla to p.134. (1983) Jones, D.S Batswana.” the amongst institutions traditional for and respectforchieftainship continuing a by underpinned havebeen functions Such Chiefs. House of 7 Nyati Chiefs. non the of of none independence, have can House that tribes the Tswana in eight only representation recognize only however Botswana of laws The of a tribe, therefore,the isrecognitionculture people ofthe of “ associati the of one Kgotla. the at interest local articulate personal to and grievances,and disputes resolve to law, customary administer to continue they as responsibilities important (1983 Jones territories. center of manifestation the to contributed significantly chieftainship of institution the of influence The fight alcoho against to effort enough put not did south the from chiefs because was abstention his for reason the that IIIstated Khama Chief, it’s because attend not groupdid tribal latter the However transportation.

in Botswana chiefs are viewed as the custodians of the culture of the people. Formal recognition Formal recognition people. ofthe culture of the custodians asviewed the are chiefs in Botswana “It means that the tribal group can designate a chief, a designate can group tribal the means that “It issues nat on of parliament and government advise can both they addition “In (2), 115 - periphery cleavage as chiefs still command relative loyalty and authority in their tribal tribal their in authority and loyalty relative command still chiefs as cleavage periphery - 127. - being of the people and through the permanent membership to the Ho the to permanentmembership the through and people the of being

ons representing minority ethnic groups Nyati groups ethnic minority representing ons l consumption intheir ar l consumption

:134 pany rus that argues plainly )

- Tswana tribes have had their chief recognized. She recognized. chief their had have tribes Tswana on institution or a village assembly; see Osei villagea assembly; or institution on eas. in accordance with their customs at the district level and the the level and district the at customs their with accordance in 26

“ - c Ramahobo (2008) contends that since since that contends (2008) Ramahobo hiefs in Botswana have retained certain certain retained have Botswana in hiefs

”

(Nyati - ional importance through the the through importance ional Ramahobo (2008) writes that writes (2008) Ramahobo ” - 7 Ramahobo

For her part, the leader of leader the part, her For use of Chiefs provided for in in for provided Chiefs of use - Hwedie

, 2008:2). , B. Z. (2010). (2010). Z. B. ,

further notes further 8

CEU eTD Collection 12 compensation.” without 1963, in Reserve Game Moremi the now 11 (ibid). kgotla” village the at tried 10 p5 media.” the and education in of language one’s rights group 9 Ramahobo, 2008:3). tribes these to belonging as to referred and identified officially are which territory, T eight the of Chiefs the and Tribes ‘districts’. as to referred currently are which territories tribal called boundaries created 1933 of Act Territories Tribal The Botswana. in that writes (2008) Ramahobo Center other wishedtheir placesaswithout theadministration consultation. ancestral their from moved be could they and rights land collective claim not could Ramahobo (2008) thatthe territorialpower that the aptlyTswananon states ofmeant the non (2008:5). limited are opportunities infrastructure the and non the that claims She programmes. Nyati tribes. non the by enjoyed not rights cultural and linguistic enjoy tribes recognized that

“These include access to the institution of chieftaincy, permanent membership to the House of Chiefs as of right, right, asof Chiefs of House the to membership permanent chieftaincy, of institution the to access “These include iswhich area ploughing their from Bushemen River the and Wayeyi removed the Batawana the instance, For “ Tribal Territories Act Territories Tribal asappea such services other and opportunities employment seek villagesmain to the come“They to - Tswana ethnic group ethnic Tswana - 9 aaoo a rgoa dsaiis n em o ueul itiuin f developmental of distribution unequal of terms in disparities regional saw Ramahobo -

periphery conflict can also be understood in terms of terri of terms in understood be also can conflict periphery

to land, territorial and ethnic identity, a celebration of one’s culture in the public domain and the use the and domain public the in culture one’s of celebration a identity, ethnic and territorial land, to - 1933 Cap 32.03 Cap 1933

- od, lcrct ad la water clean and electricity roads, s is reflected in forceful relocations of the latter from their land. Nyati land. their from latter the of relocations forceful in reflected is s

“ land, territory and identity form the core of core the form identity and territory land,

swana tribes reside in major villages or towns within each within towns or villages major in reside tribes swana Moreover the dominance of the Tswana ethnic group upon group ethnic Tswana the of dominance the Moreover 12 - Tswana resi Tswana

The Territories were named after the recognized Tswana recognized the after named were Territories The

de mainly in smaller and more rural villages rural more and smaller in mainly de

- s eeal poe, n te economic the and poorer, generally is torial line of conflict. of line torial 11

recognition of tribes of recognition - locations to locations recognized ls on cases cases ls on ” -

Tswana Tswana

(Nyati Nyati - - - CEU eTD Collection T. p.9, Ngamiland, of History 14 Industry of and Trade 13 and international levels. coalitio The Botswana. of Coalition since have they and organizations associations based ethnically of formation notes Association Kamanakao the Nyati recognition. their for advocate to order in formed was West North the in tribe Wayeyi the representing Association Kamanakao the instance For rights. their for non marginalized the consequence, a As Tswana eight the speakingcultural makingtheir thus supremacy andterritorial both tribes, of names the resumed territory each and Constitution amended the of (1) transferre were Act, Chieftainship old and Act Territories Tribal the in defined Fo constitution. country’s the in non The tribe Batawana recognized the to belongRamahobo, 2008:3). to seen is Maun 1915, in inception its there. H the as such tribes other of numbers significant and tribe district Ngamiland northern the of center administrative the and Batawana. of capital tribal Maun report Industry and Commerce of Review Botswana a to according instance For

Existing tribes in Botswana RETENG (2005), (2005), RETENG Botswana tribes in Existing Ministry the with cooperation in B&T Directories p.24 20007/2008 Industry and Commerce of Review Botswana 14

However, in accordance with the with accordance in However, - recognitio

n of non of n

Tlou, Gaborone, Longman (1985) Longman Gaborone, Tlou, 13 -

Tswana tribes is further exacerbated by the fact that it is embedded is it that fact the by exacerbated further is tribes Tswana However the reality is that, is reality the However

ntne Nyati instance r

n advocates for the rights of minority groups at the national the at groups minority of rights the for advocates n that 02 olse t form to coalesced 2002 www.reteng.org , -

Tswana ethnic groups for groups ethnic Tswana assimilation policy, they are not recognized and since and recognized not are they policy, assimilation “ a ohr om f gtto fr eonto ws the was recognition for agitation of form nother ”

28 20:) Peety hr ae bu 1 such 13 about are there Presently (2008:7). -

Ramahobo notes Ramahobo

“ Maun erero and Mbukushu can also be found be also can Mbukushu and erero -

the tourism capital of Botswana of capital tourism the EEG Te Multi The RETENG: -

is dominated by the Wayeyi Wayeyi the by dominated is med associations to advocate to associations med that , ”

- “

Ramahobo, founder of of founder Ramahobo, (2008:3). all tribal territories as as territories tribal all d into Section 77 Section into d

”

- cultural (Nyati

s the is - CEU eTD Collection ha Scholars them. recognize not does state the though Botswana, in exist tribes ethno of dynamicsthe in insights Nyati asin wars aresult or byofnatural voluntary submission calamities defeat after suzerainty Tswana under fell but territories these of inhabitants original either were te tribal groups ruled Tswana tribal in found other mostly numerous and San) or (Bushmen Basarwa nomadic the tribes, speaking Botsw sup to tends that evidence than hitherto, is or, There Africa) religion. South in perhaps (except class social than salience social greater much has term, this by understood is exactly whatever ethnicity, that posited (2006) Randall salienceethnicity ofalignmentparty underpins asit formation invoter the on literature of growth a to led has This groups. ethnic major from following large had often movemen liberation spearheaded who leaders party countries African most In alignment. voter determining Lipset The involved. recognition “ for desire the cleavage, of conception Mair’s of light in that follows therefore It rvds sne f ef dniy hc rfet te ef consciousness self the reflects which identity self of sense a provides 3.2.2. - Ramahobo’s Ramahobo’s n. codn t Makgala, to According ana.

” ts in their struggle for independence came to be associated with specific parties and and parties specific with associated be to came independence for struggle their in ts Ethno

- Rokkan model overlooks the significance of party leaders and their social base in in base social their and leaders party of significance the overlooks model Rokkan - linguistic Cleavage work on Minority Tribes in Botswana: the Politics of Recognition gives more givesmore Recognition of Politics the Botswana: in TribesMinority on work - linguistic conflicts. She writes She conflicts. linguistic

“

t he population of Botswana is composed of the Tswana Tswana the of composed is Botswana of population he rritories. 29

ot adl’ osrain n h cnet of context the in observation Randall’s port He further observes that s that observes further He

for instance that instance for ”

(2008:88).

and partyand strategies.

ome of these groups these of ome f h tia groups tribal the of

ve estimated the estimated ve “ about 37 other other 37 about

CEU eTD Collection 16 International. Group 15 non wh Rights, Political and Civil on example, observe (2012) citizens. as invisibility and culture their of erosion the suffered in felt presence conti the to the that extent led the to has groups minority dominance of marginalization Tswana this (2008), Sarkin and Cook to According Batswapongwho resideand others sub inthe various impose to sought clearly Bangwato. themselves consider should District Central the in live instance For domination. Botswana’s by divisive as viewed Presidents. traditionally and ‘tribalism’ fomenting as perceived t negative “ areminorities the numerical majority. non of population total T

Blame tribalism on the constitution by Mohwasa, M p.9 Mmegi Newspaper,9 p.9 M Mohwasa, by constitution the on Blame tribalism See e saa lt hv dat ih h ise f non of issue the with dealt have elite Tswana he ereas all ethnic groups of citizens are identified as Batswana, not all of them them of all Batswana,not as areidentified citizens of groups ethnic all ereas - saa speakers Tswana Nyati

in - erms Ramahobo, L. (2008). (2008). L. Ramahobo, ”

the alternative reportalternative the saa lts ae hs sd siiain f non of assimilation used thus have elites Tswana ”

social and political spheres. political and social

that i that (Nyati

n re n - - – Tswana tribes at about 60 per cent. per 60 about at tribes Tswana aaoo 20) Se claims She 2008). Ramahobo,

, “ cent years, some groups in Botswana have contested nationhood. For nationhood. contested have Botswana in groups some years, cent

el ht hi clue csos n taiin, n teeoe their therefore and traditions, and customs culture, their that feel “ Ngwato hegemony over tribes such as B as such tribes over hegemony Ngwato former President Mogae is reported to have said that all people who people all that said have to reported is Mogae President former Minority tribes in Botswana: The politics of recognition of politics The Botswana: in Minority tribes

RETENG (the Multicultural Coalition of Botswana) argues that that argues Botswana) of Coalition Multicultural (the RETENG

to the Human Rights Committee on the International Covenant International the on Committee Rights Human the to ”

These tribes face discrimination and have as a result result a as have and discrimination face tribes These 30

- regions the of District. Central - saa tnc dniy y rmn i in it framing by identity ethnic Tswana

that hv slim have y 15 ,

“ linguistic and ethnic the Therefore hs wo as tee sus are issues these raise who those - -

saa rbs o fet the effect to tribes Tswana ” 15 January January 15 Alexander Alexander asarwa, Bakalanga, Babirwa, Bakalanga, asarwa, 16

The President’s utterances President’s The

chance . London: Minority Rights Rights Minority . London: 1998 s n Kaboyakgosi and –

f aig the making of

particularlynot ”

nued nued ir ir CEU eTD Collection asser ethno of existence for search in insights leading provide could above stated facts the that therefore evident is It in diversity. non of recognition the for voice the raised collective, a as and associations individual as activities their 2008, and Nyati Botswana. of Coalition Multi The of RETENG: form to Promotion coalesced they the 2002 in and for (SPILL) Language Ikalanga Society the instance for formed were organizations based ethnically instance Nyati perceived (Ma ofonlyspeakersBotswanathe Constitutionrecognized Tswana that felt who associations) tribal “ ov hegemony Tswana reinforcing constitution. the in languages tribal other include and recognize to made attempts no in revealed also is recognition of Lack the disappearance ethnic oftheir identiti to leading ultimately non ‘Tswanadom’, into themselves that assimilate to expected implies are and recognized ‘Batswana’ as Botswana of citizens to referring simply S legal and territorial national the by recognized are identities, T he debate in 2002 was part of a larger concern by the country's minority tribes (through their their (through tribes minority country's the by concern larger a of part was 2002 in debate he gl, 2008 kgala, in that tion - Ramahobo mai Ramahobo

in education, media education, in

as marginalizin ”

ethno : ) Th . - - linguistic cleavage. This is true when taking into account Bartolini and Mair’s Mair’s and Bartolini account into taking when true is cleavage.This linguistic Tswana tribes, promoted multilingualis promoted tribes, Tswana ntains that none of the other tribal other the of none that ntains - psto o Stwn a te vrrhn ntoa lnug ws also was language national overarching the as Setswana of position e linguistic g ot , the Kgotla the , her - Ramahobo (2008 Ramahobo

“

Botswana’s language policy provides another mechanism for for mechanism another provides policy language Botswana’s groups’ cleavages er other ethnic groups, observed Nyati observed groups, ethnic other er es, and 2007). culture languages(RETENG cultures and other and

emerge out of the long process of linguistic linguistic of process long the of out emerge 31 :7

and languages ) concludes that concludes ) services. languages is permitted in public life public in permitted is languages m and called for a shift towards unity towards shift a for called and m

Against this backdrop a number of of number a backdrop this Against tate. The report claims that even even that claims report The tate. .

, “ , in the period between 1995 between period the in - Ramahobo - saa r not are Tswana

”

(2008:4). (2008:4). - c ultural ultural for ”

CEU eTD Collection 19 18 17 vote choices. over leaders traditional of influence the decreased changes legal of variety a and urbanization note (2012) Poteete instance, For Botswana. of landscape political and social emerged 200 in 1.8& and 1985 in 5.6% to 1966 in 42.7% from GDP to contribution its of terms in plummeted 1970s the in diamonds economic in changes 2001. in 45.8% and 1991 in 54.3% to 1981 in 82.3% from declined areas po the structure economic The class. employers’ versus Botswa independent post in realized class development workers of rise the I demonstrate vein this to In attempt 2006). (Randall, fore the to come will cleavages based class the increasingly Lipset The organize to and dissent express becomeopposition available to opportunities the when and standardization, linguistic nation modern to response in develop only nature migration, differentiation,

Poteete 2009, Bank of Botswana 2010; ROB2003:29 of Botswana Bank Poteete 2009, 2003: 29). ROB 2010; of Botswana Bank 2003 9: Plan Development National 2003. Botswana. of Republic 3.2.3. 5. 18

n h lt 18s n ery 90, evcs uh as such services 1990s, early and 1980s late the In

s motn eooi sectors. economic important as Employed - okn oe ipis ht wt eooi developme economic with that, implies model Rokkan

litical and social and litical

- unemployed activities also occurred particularly with the discovery and mining of of mining and discovery the with particularly occurred also activities . Agriculture, which used to be the mainstay of Botswana’s economy, economy, Botswana’s of mainstay the be to used which Agriculture, .

and state and

(

Bartolini & 217 Mair, 1990: process

cleavage - boundary creation creation boundary

in the country. The percentage of the population in rural in population the of percentage The country. the in 19

l tee hne hv hd mlctos pn the upon implications had have changes these All

na brought with it socio it with brought na - ules atmt t effec to attempts builders’ specific cleavages of an ethno an of cleavages specific - 2009. Gaborone: Government Printer Government Gaborone: 2009. ).

construction nt and national integration, integration, national and nt - tuim n finance and tourism , economic classes that that classes economic 17

Equally dramatic dramatic Equally ta education, that s t cultural and and cultural t - linguistic linguistic

CEU eTD Collection 22 21 services. essential as considered are becausethey unionization from exempted are however which services 20 inflation. increment salary and wage on government Botswana the employer The Feder Botswana the form to Union Workers Manual the with cooperated BOPEU and simultaneously, Authority Local Loca 2010). unioniz legali was service civil of unionization that 2008 until not was it that noted be should It servants. civil represents formerly (BOPEU, Union Employees Public Botswana The (BOPRITA)flourished have association Teachers Primary Botswana the and members 000 3 with (BOFESETE Teachers Secondary of Federation Botswana the members, 000 11 with (BTU) Union Teachers Botswana interests. their articulate to teachingprofes order in professions their with accordance in movements the and urbanization of levels low c the in resulted extremelyhave industrialization that observed (1998) Wiseman context this In

Ibid Makgala, C.J & Maundeni, Z (2010) History of Botswana Public Employees Union: 1885 Union: Employees Public Botswana of (2010)Z History Maundeni, C.J & Makgala, ii srie nlds a efreet gnis uh s the as such agencies enforcement law includes service Civil

political process in Botswana. in process political union movements under the auspices of BOFEPUSU have been at loggerheads with their their with loggerheads at been have BOFEPUSU of auspices the under movements union Gvrmn Ascain ( Association Government l

ation of Public Sector Unions(BOFEPUSU),aation of Sector public Public sector federation The Botswana Teachers Union (BTU) also became a real union while union real a became also (BTU) Union Teachers Botswana The e and a and e The fallout between government and BOFEPUSU culminated into the country’s ever ever country’s the into culminated BOFEPUSU and government between fallout The s a result, BCSA unionized and transformed into BOPEU into transformed and unionized BCSA result, a s sion proves to be the most significant unionized sector. significantunionized most the be to proves sion okr Uin (BLLAWU). Union Workers zed

. 20

The 2008 Public Service Act paved the way for the public service to service public the for way the paved Act Service Public 2008 The ”

(Maundeni, 2005 BULGASA

The employed The omparatively peripheral importance of organized labor in in labor organized of importance peripheral omparatively )

lotasomdit osaa Land Botswana into transformed also :186 33 21

has overti has o or p four So ).

police, the army, prisons services, intelligence intelligence services, prisons army, the police, Botswana Civil Service Association) Association) Service Civil Botswana me coalesced under different union different under coalesced me ublic sector unions were formed formed were unions sector ublic “ The teachers’ unions, the teachers’unions, The to offset the effects of of effects the offset to

(Makgala & Maundeni, Maundeni, & (Makgala - 2009 . 22

Botswana Unifi Botswana

- Board and and Board

The The ed ed CEU eTD Collection o war of declaration open an as viewed move 2011). (Gabathuse, a services, teaching and veterinary 25 fol work to return to order court a defying 24 23 profiles. the of to allegiance owe that parties with alignment workers’ of extent the and manifested workers a which found are others among owners and tenants employers, and workers the a The essential services contraveningILOdefinition of essential statute ontheservices as services veterinary and teaching the services other among declare to decision government’s in participated who nurses as such workers services essential of some expelled allegedly former the after suits law and government the strike, industrial the Since general.noted BOFEPUSU secretary adjustment. salary 16% a of demand latter’s the to accede not could former the after 2011 in strike industrial

BOFEPUSU took government to court over unfair dismissal of essential services employees who were fired after after were fired who employees services essential of dismissal over unfair court to government BOFEPUSU took “ B

Government ca Government aputaki, C (2011)aputaki, “a” bove evidence points to points evidence bove

okr’ ls. h nx catr discusses chapter next The class. workers’

axis

What workers demanded was demanded workers What

f h Lipset the of

me up with a proposal to amend the Trade Di Trade the amend to proposal a with up me - employer cleavage can be conceived lies in how political the issues are are issues the political how in lies conceived be can cleavage employer

BOFEPUSU launches strike countdown strike BOFEPUSU launches h strike. the - Rokkan

24 socio

h do has duo The lowing the April the lowing

23 - oe where model

economic

a fair and equal and fair a 34

- BOFEPUSU have been involved in a series of series a in involved been have BOFEPUSU class June public sector strike ( sectorstrike public June lo en itd gis ec ohr vr the over other each against pitted been also

“ h for the . Mmegi. Mmegi. . conflicts between producers and buyers, buyers, and producers between conflicts division spute Act schedule on essential essential on schedule Act spute ain of mation distribution of the cou the of distribution 31 March 2011 31 March

that can be located at the end the at located be can that ”

Morewagae, 2011). Morewagae, (1967:10). vario

| publi n

s ate ad their and parties us Issue: Vol.28 No.48 Vol.28 Issue: . 25

sco unions sector c

ntry's wealth, wealth, ntry's T services to add add to services

the interests interests the he extent to extent he

of of ”

CEU eTD Collection and socialization the On interests. minority and ethnic, interests, religious workers, to limited not but including society the in interests different aggregate and articulate parties formulation connect In votes. seek they which through manifestos party and programmes their in reflected often are that goals collective formulate Parties 2002). (Heywood, voters the and whic represent, general In functions. their of terms in defined and be to groups come have parties interest other from apart them set typically that functions some perform Parties that as thesee sotoodid theelectorategrew 19 the in America North and Europe in legislatures to power of transfer and franchise the of expansion the with especially notable been has democracies building in role Th 2006:16). (Scarrow, politics countries’ many in features organizing central as 19 the until not was It democracy. representative any of functioning they Although goalsprincipleseach and party that respective isfoun 4.2.1 section state of processes independence post and independence to leading developments historical the of light in Botswana in parties political func fundamental T profiles. on literature the reviews chapter This 4.1. 4.

Developmentof

e hpe bgn wt scin 4 section with begins chapter he Parties at a at Parties glance

that h refers to their capacity to respond to and articulate the views of both members members both of views the articulate and to respond to capacity their to refers h are an invention of the modern age, political parties are fundamental for the the for fundamental are parties political age, modern the of invention an are

in pris efr. eto 4 Section perform. parties tions presents

t he profiles of the parties consisting of ideology defining the party, party, the defining ideology of consisting parties the of profiles he p oliticalparties

formation and nation building. nation and formation

the

omto of formation ming inevitabilityming party competition. of organized 1 ht ie a gener a gives that .1 35

in Botswana 2 evs no icsig h evolution the discussing into delves .2 ded upon

the

ifrn pltcl pa political different .

l vriw of overview al

The chapter ends with ends chapter The

century that they emerged they that century th ,

parties are supposed to to supposed are parties century. Scarrow noted noted Scarrow century. eir fundamental eir ate ad the and parties rties ion with goal with ion

and their their and

sub

o - f CEU eTD Collection also reduce tribalismasthey acrosswould draw support thedifferenttribes. would thepeople aspirationsas which of mediathrough the people keep would system party their of a informed of introduction that view the of was Party Federal The represent old and chiefs the by opposed bitterly be may system togeth introduced be should which i system ‘party a that argued Council notes, Legislative the on submission Polhemus 1959. in Party Federal Protectorate Bechuanaland LD. one by talks constitutional C Legislative the during highlighted was Botswana in system party a have to need The criticize that parties opposition particularly parliament government’s inactions. and actions outside and parliament inside governm keep parties political Moreover government. of arms legislative and 2002:255). an value the and agenda, political the set help on focus to choose parties that issues The socialization. and ofpoliticalagents education areelectoral important competition, parties campaigningwell as and mobilizatio 4.2.

attds ht hy riuae eoe at f h lre pltcl culture political larger the of part become articulate they that attitudes d atives authority” oftraditional

Political Parties Parties Political in Botswana n function Heywood (2002) writes (2002) Heywood function n Parties form governments and accordingly foster cooperation between the executive the between cooperation foster accordingly and governments form Parties “ educational, economic, political and social developments as parties would act would parties as developments social and political economic, educational,

aild wo e te hr lvd n ohrie insignificant otherwise and lived short the led who Raditladi

r ih h Lgsaie Council Legislative the with er

(1983:398).

36 th at

“ through internal debate and discussion, as as discussion, and debate internal through - school politicians, because of these are these of because politicians, school find united expression. Partiesexpression. would find united I atcptd ht ‘party a that anticipated It . s…a democratic machinery machinery democratic s…a “ ” The Federal Party’s Party’s Federal The

ent in check both both check in ent ”

(Heywood, ouncil’s ouncil’s

CEU eTD Collection (2005 Lekorwe 1962. in Party Democratic Botswana the form to administration colonial the of support the with leaders moderate prompted BPP the of approach radical The (BNF, become1965). The the latter tomainopposi was Front National Botswana the also and 1964) (BIP, Party Independence Botswana the to others among birth, gave These splits. several to leading rivalries internal its of because run p the of split the to led that struggle leadership internal in mired was BPP the inception its after long not However immediate rule end andgranting tocolonial an independence. immediate of f called also it and chieftainship, of abolition the for callingmessages its in radical very and (2005 Somolekaerule. colonial British to end an influences radical the to due Partly mildlyasgoal was toescapeindependence notice, the of so stated objectives, and aims 13 BPP’S the of Penultimate 1960. in Motsete Kgalemang under movements. African fir the South of formation the with motivated independence links had founders (1983 party Polhemus Botswana’s parties. political first the of formation o Some Botswana. into moving activists Congress African Pan and Congress National African former some saw massacre Sharpeville the of aftermath The then Southern Rhodesia and Africa. apartheid South So the of history broader the in rooted Somolekae as First, arty. Nohlen et al (1999) observes (1999) al et Nohlen arty.

(2005 : 8 )

has rightly pointed, rightly has of the ANC the BPP adopted a radical approach in its call for for call its in approach radical a adopted BPP the ANC the of uthern African region, particularly developments in the the in developments particularly region, African uthern 37 :8 tion party Botswana.tion of inthe politics t oiia pry h Btwn Pol’ Party People’s Botswana the party political st

“ ) noted that noted )

the ” that the BPP remained BPP the that

history of political parties in Botswana is is Botswana in parties political of history ”

(Polhemus,1983 f the activists were influential in the the in influential were activists the f :399 “ the BPP was a pan a was BPP the osre that observed ) :399 ” peripheral in the long the in peripheral

). :124 h prut of pursuit The

- African party, party, African ) claims that claims ) “

several of of several or an or CEU eTD Collection so resulted inthe emergencefullyfledged ofa party. political doing at attempts failed but together, parties opposition all unite to was Front National Botswana deg doctoral a with Moscow of University the from returned just had who Koma Kenneth by Mochudi in called was meeting a and policies BDP about unhappy were who people some were there elections, these with the polici result ofdissatisfaction a as formed was it and 1965 in scene political the in appeared Front National Botswana The heir totheth chieftaincy of nation in role Seretse’s that realize to important is It later tosucceedBotswana thesecond as afterthe Seretse of president ofSeretse death in1980. the ch preferred him made cult leadership his and Khama Seretse of status traditional The London. from with stature of man a was tribes Tswana largest the of throne the to heir Seretse, Republic1966. ofBotswana in constitut new a culminated into that talks constitutional the participatedin Council Africanadvisory an and Council Executive an alongwith 1961 in established waswhich of members were whom of both Masire, Quett and Khama Seretse were BDP the of founders the Among that a suitablethe mantleofbehanded national powercould leaderbe towhom over. identified the “ omto o h D ws e was BDP the of formation

oice to lead the BDP. the lead to oice the

Legislative Council. It is perhaps fitting to note here that the Legislative Council Council Legislative the that here note to fitting perhaps Itis Council. Legislative ree

n oiia Science Political in e largest tribes Tswana

Masire was the first Secretary General of the Party and he was was he and Party the of General Secretary first the was Masire cuae yteclna amnsrto hc a anxious was which administration colonial the by ncouraged es of the BDP government post 1965 elections. 1965 governmentBDP post the es of 38 , ”

translatedgainsBDP. for electoral the into bevs eow (2005 Lekorwe observes - building and the and building

very fact that he was an was he that fact very ion for the independentthe for ion :128

a ).

law education law Initially the the Initially “ Following

”

CEU eTD Collection makingground the their home buttoken showingsoff leaders. of BDP, the to (1983 them Polhemus Contrasting independence. since dominance electoral its to owing party beco has that party only the is Party Democratic Botswana the However penetrate. seek introduced parties political the of Each membership. mass Structurally BCP. the form to party, the from councilors 100 with BNF, the from defected parliament of members (2005 Somolekae Botswana. a elections, into evolved 1999 has Party to Congress Botswana prior Koma Kenneth veteran by led Group’ ‘Concerned and faction democrats social the between BNF the in fights factional violent of wake the in Formed people. that fact the and performance electoral its to due Party Congress is analysis my for relevant is that party splinter interesting most the However resulted in the party splitting electi regarding differences over either other each against members leadership pitted often disputes factional These factionalism. and strife internal by plagued be to worst the of one became party the as lived short was party opposition main the as when t surpassing party opposition main i very became BNF The ”

the party garnered party the

Po lhemus (1983) o (1983) lhemus :402 ob ) nfluential in opposition politics of Botswana of politics opposition in nfluential 13 of the 40 parliamentary constituencies parliamentary 40 the of 13 serves and several :11

bserves notes ) that he BPP. he “ h BP n BP had BPP and BIP the

that Botswana’s political parties are branch parties with with parties branch are parties political Botswana’s that that parties

Its high Its ,

“ competitive party in the politics of opposition of opposition of politics the in party competitive 39 olwn te cioiu Plpe etn, 11 meeting, Palapye acrimonious the following formed.

est achievement came achievement est

ons or for control of the party and and party the of control for or ons

en eue t rgoa parties regional to reduced been s

” support from wherever they can can they wherever from support

it is mostly followed by young by followed mostly is it . However the BNF’s s BNF’s the However .

as it entrenched itself as the as itself entrenched it as in the 1994 election 1994 the in

the me a national national a me

Botswana Botswana uccess

the s

CEU eTD Collection issues; these resolving of purposes the for forces democratic social and patriotic all mobilize a facing is country our “ instance, Botswana preamble tothe Party’s Congress Constitution and party the defines ideology which messages. members,and clear of extent itis elitestosome theparties’ However, interms tothem rallies and messages campaign differences. differences Nonethele ofthe politics thecountry import an play ideology does is that situation, Botswana the for questions important raises vigor of lack its then parties, political for philosophy guiding a represent that assumptions spectrum political the that believe authors Some sole pur fou the that fact the to attributes he which differences ideological acute of absence the been has Botswana in ideologies party about clear of lack ideological the contested have authors some However, outlook. programmatic and policy front, ideological the On e h ebr f h osaaCnrs Pryuie n omn purpose, common in united Party Congress Botswana the of members the We, 4.2.1. pose of mobilizingthecreation state. and of nationalist an feelings independent

ss Ideological profiles of partiesIdeological profiles

are observable observable are parti the among differences

It is perhaps accurate to argue that the term ideology is rarelyu ideologyis term the that argue accurateto Itperhaps is hs pris o eie hmevs codn t ielgcl aes n some and labels ideological to according themselves define do parties these .

Molomo (2000 Molomo cute social, economic and political problems and affirming the need to need the affirming and problems political and economic social, cute ? parties project themselves as ideologically different because of their their of because different ideologically as themselves project parties ” notwithstanding

parties cannot be simply arrayed against each other on other each against arrayed simply be cannot parties ,

partly :69 r parties (BDP, BNF, BPP and BIP and BPP BNF, (BDP, parties r

) posits ) it is also reflected in the parties’ founding documents. For For documents. founding parties’ the in reflected also is it because lay people are more li more are people lay because es.

Nengwenkhulu (1979 Nengwenkhulu

questions raised about their about raised questions

that that 40

“ if by ideology we mean a mean we ideology by if :75

states, ) states ) kely not to understand such such understand to not kely ) had been formed been had )

lack of acute of lack

sed by parties in their their in byparties sed that

, set of theoretical of set

“ a major feature major a realizing

ideological ideological a left a ant role in role ant ”

for the for -

right that that

CEU eTD Collection 27 26 BNF BDP BPP Party Tabl not are parties that mean to ideologically different. misconstrued be not should it supporters, mobilize to parties programme whos tendencies ideological and political diverse vein, same the In other vices…. o remnants the neo feudalism, by dominated is country our of life economic and social the that observing

Botswana National Front Constitution, (2005) Constitution, Front National Botswana Constitution of Botswana Congress Party (1998) Party Congress Botswana of Constitution

1 : summarizes theorigin: summarizes andideological ofparties their profiles History . ”

27 ” - 26

colonialism and the resultant conditions of illiteracy, unemployment, poverty and poverty unemployment, illiteracy, of conditions resultant the and colonialism Founders were in mainstream of establishment establishment of protectorate. inthe politics mainstream in were Founders in 1962 Formed Party People’s FormerlyBechuanaland PAC ANC and Africa’s South and Africanism Pan by Influenced in 1960 Formed doctorate in Political Science in Political doctorate founder Prominent in 1965 Formed Party Democratic FormerlyBechuanaland

hrfr, hl I ge ta rdcl dooia apoc i nt dpe by adopted not is approach ideological radical that agree I while Therefore, “ t

he BNF is a progressive democratic movement that embraces within itself within embraces that movement democratic progressive a is BNF he

wasKo Kenneth

mawithSoviet a 41

uiyn pafr i te oil democratic social the is platform unifying e

Center Democracy Social - Conservatism Socialism Ideology Right - - wing left

Unity meaning “Kopano” peace meaning “Kagisano” ‘our country’ Meaning ‘Lefats Motto

he la rona’ hela

f CEU eTD Collection the country’s insist party’s the by reflected as extreme very is socialism BPP’ The and life systemof ‘a but nothing BPP a to party. governing a as groups ethnic minority against discriminating for attracted has it criticism the of t appeal to it enabled and society the penetrate to party constitution party’s the in enshrined as creed or color race, of grounds on discrimination of forms no tolerate to and rights human to commitment a with liberalism of principles espouses BDP The Sources BCP On the other hand t hand other the On

Somolekae 2005, Lekorwe Somolekae 2005, 2005 “ ouet eind o xli te Prys dooia Concept’, Ideological ‘Party’s the explain to designed document

resources

disput leadership a after new party the joining ofParliament Members sitting ofthe BNF's most with BNF, fromSplit the in 1998 Formed okr o or epe bit n wie oiis, n ‘oils i te better the is ‘socialism and politics’, ‘white on built people’ our of mockery must thereforeprev must he Botswana People’s Party subscribes to principles of socialism. According socialism. of principles to subscribes Party People’s Botswana he

and putting controland themunder state

e with Kenneth Koma withKenneth e ,” (Polhemus, 1983 (Polhemus, ,” ail and be the order of the day” the orderof the be and ail , IEC, , 42

www.iec.gov.bw/political parties www.iec.gov.bw/political

o a broader constituency of voters in spite in voters of constituencybroader a o :402 .

) .

Democracy Social This has by and large helped the helped large and by has This

“ (Polhemus, rtcin f fu of protection ence on nationalization of nationalization on ence

nation F sechaba ya “Kgololesego

reedom needne is independence

1983

” meaning ”

:404 ndamental ndamental of the the of - 405

) . CEU eTD Collection a is BNF the that the of ownership private and sector Programme, Democratic Social the from Drawing government. BNF under property private of nationalization potential of wary to appeal lost BNF the discredited being of result a As BNF wouldinclude to due party democratic th communism, of fall the With their as act or way a in exploiters intermediaries white replaced have who bourgeoisie bureaucratic African the by exploitation unabated and continued and anthem national flag, namely things Africa the of masses the brought has BDP the under independence that that observed Polhemus party. ideological most the In government.of the colonial puppet a as chieftainship of institution the against campaign radical its of because tribes Tswana with well bode not does BPP the Moreover East. North the in tribe Kalanga the among party such as and constituency broad a to appealed not has message services social and external finances, communications, production of means basic BPP, the For fluenced by the Marxist ideas of its founder Dr Kenneth Koma, the Botswana National Front is is Front NationalBotswana the Koma,Kennethfounder Dr its of ideas Marxist bythe fluenced ” “

socialism means ‘seizure and retention by the people through their through people the by retention and ‘seizure means socialism (1983: 406).

typical

sharing pro

pr mass party which according to its constitution trade unions and other other and unions trade constitution its to according which party mass opaganda -

h ln ad t ntrl eore, l is nuty tasot and transport industry, its all resources, natural its and land the perty, including cattle. including perty, “ the BNF subscribes to an economy based on a strong public public strong a on based economy an to subscribes BNF the e BNF changed from being a socialist party into a social social a into party socialist a being from changed BNF e

means of production of means

that was that

43 ede yteBP that BDP the by peddled

“ Koma, who writes in a Marxist vein, argues vein, Marxist a in writes who Koma,

peasants and foreign investors who were were who investors foreign and peasants ”

(Molomo, ”

Pleu, 1983:405). (Polhemus,

it has been reduced to a regional regional a to reduced been has it 2000 :71 communism under the under communism n people…only three three people…only n ).

It should be noted be It should

state of the the of state The BPP’s BPP’s The CEU eTD Collection affil to 28 where different ideologically about raised been have that th of terms in for stand to purport parties basis the on Therefore went say onto thatBCP ispragmatist t and BCP ‘the said, BCP, the of leader then Dingake, that, observed Part Congress Botswana the purposes and intents all By champion under. affiliate can movements social

To guarantee its mass character, the BNF allows progressive mass organizations, trade unions, educational clubs clubs educational unions, trade organizations, mass progressive allows BNF the mass character, its To guarantee iate under the party (Botswana National Front Constitution, 2005). Constitution, Front National (Botswana party the iate under

parties draw their support from and drawtheir t parties

for workers rights “ at pains to make an ideological distinction between the BCP and the BNF, BNF, the and BCP the between distinction ideological an make to pains at

of the reflections made on the ideological dispositions of parties and parties of dispositions ideological the on made reflections the of In the next chap next the In .

the ir

ak f ct ielgcl ofit, parties conflicts, ideological acute of lack while the BNF istheorist 28 ter I show the social base social the show I ter eir economic policies economic eir

o ti rao te at hs rjce isl as itself projected has party the reason this For he groups theyhealign with 44

he BNF espouse social democracy’ and democracy’ social espouse BNF he y is a social democratic party. party. democratic social a is y

, I conclude that despite that conclude I , ”

(2000:72).

of the political parties, that is is that parties, political the of .

per o be to appear

questions Molomo Molomo

what what

CEU eTD Collection 29 . the north north whi region north the in support parties’ illustrates he most and biggest the district, Central that, observes (2009) dist Central from Bangwato the group tribal largest the of throne the to north along including preside first the Despite 95% confidence level. whether thereis test to used is test square chi A country. the across party that of support overall the than more 5% least at is group social that from support of margin the if group social a from support have p and cleavages between relationship a of evidence chapter This

See Makgala, (2009) History and perceptions of regionalism in Botswana, 1891 Botswana, in regionalism of perceptions and History (2009) See Makgala, 5.1. 5. - south divide map ( map divide south

Analysis:

south division places division onthe northernsouth country. district theCentral of the part the Regionalism - south division. The Botswana Democratic Party was formed by Seretse Khama, heir heir Khama, Seretse by formed was Party Democratic Botswana The division. south

provides an analysis of analysis an provides formation of poli of formation

strong

Parties andCleavages

“

evidence of a betweenevidence and relationship s of identification party ees a ahgl pplrbt nrwe he fte agao in Bangwato the of chief uncrowned but popular hugely a was Seretse nt’s See appendix for Botswana Map) Botswana for appendix See

and Centerand attempts at nation building, political developments that unfolded unfolded that developments political building, nation at attempts

tical parties, inevitably though inevitably parties, tical

the social background of background social the - periphery Cleavageperiphery vl ppltd n i Botswana in one populated avily 45

ch includes the central district accordin district central the includes ch

arty identification arty . It should be noted that historically, that noted be should It .

. parties and tests whether there is there whether tests and parties not always consciously occurred consciously always not

- 2005 .

rict. A party is considered to to considered is party A

To this end Makgala end this To .”

h figure The ocial group at groupat ocial 29

g to the to g

below below CEU eTD Collection vein t In country. the of part southern the in itself for niche a established Front National Botswana which oflargely isanarea thatconsists non 1993). (Charlton, 1989 in constituencies both Eas North East later decade a and North 1979 in BDP the and to lost was Francistown Francistown However 1993). (Charlton, in support Kalanga of because representation parliamentary Spe Tswana non parties. other the to relative regionnorthern the in base strongsupport a has BDP the that shows clearlygraph The Figure osiu o te nlec o Srte n h spot o te D i te eta dsrc, the district, Central the in BDP the for support the in Seretse of influence the of Conscious Party Party support t constituency also fell into the BDP. Notwithstanding the loss, the BPP still ran second in second ran still BPP the loss, the Notwithstanding BDP. the into fell also constituency t ,

Somolekaewrites (2005) 3 (%) : Party support in north region : Party supportin

90 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 aking Kalanga tribe. The BPP became and remains a regional party, retaining retaining party, regional a remains and became BPP The tribe. Kalanga aking

The Botswana People’s Party’s main support base is in north in is base support main Party’s People’s Botswana The

that ;

- Tswana speaking tribe

In the north, the BCP is strong in Ngamiland West Ngamiland in strong is BCP the north, the In 46

North North region

- east among the among east his N/A BPP BCP BNF BDP

CEU eTD Collection region, some major whichconsiststownsand of thecapital Gaborone. city 1994 g the in BNF the to areas urban in seats of loss BDP’s the in resulted have may increase p BNF. the of domination the and areas urban in BDP the of support limited the explain factors of number A 1990s. the in especially h BDP the that observes post in constituencies especiallydistrict andthe inthe Central BNF co north The part of Botswana wher elections president, vice then the Masire, Quett defeated subsequently He ranks of the chief Bathoen paramount theBangwaketse, Kgosi “In T eneral elections (Osei elections eneral overty, corruption scandals and the government’s refusal to grant workers’ request for annual annual for request workers’ grant to refusal government’s the and scandals corruption overty, he unwavering support from the large, rural population has helped the BDP to win rural rural win to BDP the helped has population rural large, the from support unwavering he

move intended move - south delineation as a result found the BDP commanding support from rural areas areas rural from support commanding BDP the found result a as delineation south e Kgosi Bathoen reigned. Up reigned. Bathoen Kgosi e ”

(Somolekae, 2005:8). to neutralize Seretse Khama’s traditional appeal, the BNF the appeal, traditional Khama’s Seretse neutralize to - independence general elections general independence - Hwedie, 2001). Hwedie, as not been able to win the loyalty of majority of urban constituencies, constituencies, urban of majority of loyalty the win to able been not as

The following figure following The

obnto o dsaifcin ih unemployment, with dissatisfaction of combination

to today, the BNF remains strong i strong remains BNF the today, to 47 ntrolling major urban towns and thecapital major towns ntrolling urban city.

( Osei -

Hwedie shows part shows

Gaseitsewe.

in the 1969 Ngwaketse district Ngwaketse 1969 the in , 2001). The author The 2001). , ies’ support in the south the in support ies’

brought into its its into brought n the southern southern the n

further

CEU eTD Collection relationship between and The region. identification result party ofthe Square Chi testis the margin BDP. Phikwe Selibe of town the In b West. Kweneng and Kgatleng KgalagadichallengedWest, gainedgroundasand NgwaketseBDP somesuch North, areas thein BNF the region, south the in even support significant a have to appears BDP the Although Figure ecause thenon marginalized of Party support (%) Party support

north and north

However, However,

4 of parties’ of : Party support in south region south : Party supportin south that a center a that

s 80 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

upport between regions between upport 0 region

s . A Chi Square test was also run to test whether there is evidence of a a of evidence is there whether test to run also was test Square Chi A . - periphery ,

which is a mining area the BCP poses a strong challenge to the to challenge strong a poses BCP the area mining a is which The BNF has been able to win the support of Kgalagadi partly partly Kgalagadi of support the win to able been has BNF The - Tswana reside tribesinthe Kgalaga that

cleavage can be proven to exist depends primarily on the the on primarily depends exist to proven be can cleavage . Table 2 Table 48 South South region

present

cross

tab results of party support in support party of results tab di area.di

p< 0.001 NA BPP BCP BNF BDP has has

CEU eTD Collection multi ethni an whereas (1998) Wiseman to According tribe distinguish first to important perhaps is It about the north the in than south the partiesother regionto southcomparedthe in strongsupport i than region north the in BDP the for support more region and identification party between relationship a of evidence obtained value p the of basis the and identification party between relationship no is there that is hypothesis null The Table 5.2. - tribal, 2 : Party identification by: Party identification region

party ‘support Ethno ”

Wiseman furtherWiseman notes. c group has a cultural identity. Tribes are multi are Tribes identity. cultural a has group c BPP BCP BNF BDP Party - linguistic cleavage linguistic

Northregion in thesouth. in 79.4 . 1.6 9.5 9.5

hs hrfr cnim te idns f h misra literature mainstream the of findings the confirms therefore This

“ a tribe is a political unit based on allegiance to a particular chief chief particular a to allegiance on based unit political a is tribe a ,

I Southregion

reject the null hypothesis null the reject

24.2 66.3 0.2 9.2

49 s and s Difference(%)

14.7 13.1

1.4 0.3 ethnic group ethnic te ot. h BF appears BNF The south. the n

as it receives it as

and conclude that there is strong is there that conclude and - s . tnc n tnc rus are groups ethnic and ethnic

This is because is This in the context of Botswana. Botswana. of context the in 14.7%

more support insupport more

of the the of

region. On region.

o ae a have to 13%

CEU eTD Collection organizing and thenon politicizing that stated (1998) Wiseman concerns. their represent to sought and groups ethnic speaking Tswana non with itself associated Front NationalBotswana the base support its broaden to attempt an In groupthe Tswanaethnic and Bangwato the population. the of cent per 50 tribes, up make who Bakwena speaking Tswana the from primarily drawn nationwide, support the on (1987:13 Holm party, ruling the of Commenting strength electoral groups. ethnic particular from support found coincidence or design by donotdominate t Although divisions ethnic constitutionallyrecognized a paramounteach as inthewith majortribeschief Hous are Batlokwa, and Barolong Bamalete, Bakgatla, Batawana, Bangwaketse, Bakwena, Bangwato, Tswa The more (Wiseman, 1977:73). and Bayei Bushmen, Europeans, Bakgalagadi, Kalanga, include These population. the within A majority populat “ divers societal underlying reveals tribes various by constituted of country the though Even Botswana is only a mono a only is Botswana tog the lthough

the ,

“

in recent years the BNF has increasing has BNF the years recent in saasekn tnc ru,te exis the group, ethnic speaking Tswana na, who are divided into eight distinct tribes in order of size and importance, the the importance, and size of order in tribes distinct eight into divided are who na,

saa ae plurality have Tswana ion ofextremelyethnic origins. diverse

(See appe is perceived to be to perceived is -

ethnic state insofar as a Tswana minority has imposed its culture on a on culture its imposed has minority Tswana a as insofar state ethnic - ndix for thechart) ndix Tswana ethnic groups. ,

hr ae lre ubr f te salr tnc groups ethnic smaller other of number large a are there

he political process in the country processhe the political in a

ly shown itself able to expand its support base by base support its expand to able itself shown ly largely mono largely 50 tence of the non the of tence

8) posited that the BDP commands majority commands BDP the that posited 8) .

Figure ”

”

ethnic society due to the dominance the to due society ethnic 7

illustrates ity. Parsons (1985) argues that, argues (1985) Parsons ity. - saa paig tnc group ethnic speaking Tswana parties’ suppor parties’ , parties have either either parties have , e ofChiefs. t among t

CEU eTD Collection Table Tswana. Tswana stro be to seems other the on BNF The Tswana. the from received it support the than more 1.6% with Tswana the that reveal charts the reflections, above the to Contrary Tswanagroup (see ethnic support. Bakgatla with BNF the for South the and Bakalanga, the among BPP the for East North the Bayei, the of support the North The Party Botswana thesupportFrancistown People’s oftheand able beenKalanga towin in has general 1994 the in elections. 46% to rose which vote the of cent per 34 garnered party the elections a Boteti Ghanzi, Ngami, as such districts in party the of structures organizational establish to sought and areas rural remote penetrated BNF The

3 East. Osei East. : Party identification by: Party identification group ethnic

(2.1%) Table 3 Table

while the BPP has a paltry 0.5% more support from support more 0.5% paltry a has BPP the while

ng among the Tswana (4.6%). Tswana the among ng - summarizes theparties’summarizes supportamonggroups. thetwoethnic Hwedie (2001) writes (2001) Hwedie BPP BCP BNF BDP (%) Party

appendix

”

iue 8 Figure

Tswana (%) Tswana

for chart 19.6 71.8 0.7 7.9

that

displays

)

. “

the North West is the stronghold for the BIP with BIP the for stronghold the is West North the 51 Non

The BCP appears BCP The

h share the - 73.4 nd Kgalagadi (Wiseman, 1998). In the 1989 1989 the In 1998). (Wiseman, Kgalagadi nd 1.2 Tswana 10 15

BDP is rather strong among the non the among strong rather is BDP of Difference

ate’ upr am support parties’ 0.5 2.1 4.6 1.6

to be strong among the non the among strong be to

(%)

the

non

Tswana than the the than Tswana

ong h non the - - - CEU eTD Collection peopl T cleavage. man have class economic along divisions The result ofindustrialization which isresponsiblesegmenting for society classes. into a is cleavage class the showed, cleavage of dimensions for model Rokkan’s and Lipset Like contrary sugg the literatureto seems towhat for support in evidence weak be to seems there results, the on Based party strongis no a evidence relationship of between party and language. identification of tabulation cross of results by identif revealed as speaking Tswana non and speaking Tswana. obtained. results the on based weak rather is cleavage ethnic an of evidence the that appears therefore It identification andgroup. ethnic no is there that conclude and hypothesis null re not do I case this In group. ethnic and identification party between relationship no is Tswana test Square Chi A 5.3. e whoare mostly poor ication by language (See table 7 table (See language by ication

and Tswana Tswana and

t per ta pris lo em o eev te ae ee o spot cos Tswana across support of level same the receive to seem also parties that appears It Support for parties seems to be more or less the same across the Tswana a Tswana the across same the less or more be to seems parties for Support Employment Status Employment he Botswana Democratic Party has capitalized support from the rural unemployed unemployed rural the from support capitalized has Party Democratic Botswana he produced a p value of value p a produced is quite insignificant quite is .

Chartsupport among 3showspartyappendix). (see theunemployed

0.189 appendix). On the basis the On appendix). (below 5% threshold) 5% (below est.

52 .

stron

The margin of support for support of margin The fse i t in ifested

evidence of a relationship between party party between relationship a of evidence e om of form he . The null hypothesis is that there that hypothesisis null The . of the p value ( value p the of

eth

unemployed no

parties bet parties - linguistic

p=0.181

nd the non the nd - ween n ween employed

cleavage ject the ject ), there there ), on - -

CEU eTD Collection the on emphasis puts it party socialist a As society. in class particular any with it associate n does Party People’s Botswana the hand, other the On addressingand povertylevels high ofunemployment. governing asattempts BDP failedat democracy,economic ofBCP disparages the the thepolicies pro and policies its in reflected as youth unemployed the and workers the of interests the for stands also Party Congress Botswana The of workersand theless privileged beca opposition good a as BNF the o its in party worker’s a is BNF the purposes and intents all For for(2001:72).appendix See party table identification 5in inurban, semi minin a Jwaneng, in seats seven all and Phikwe, Selibe in seats 13 all Lobatse, in seats 11 of including out ten seats, areas 25 the urban of 24 won of it where Council control City Gaborone in BNF the with government, local in parties opposition (Osei areas its for urban accounts in which underprivileged, popularity the and class working the of support the maintain opp the for openings created have and choice vote determining in leaders traditional of influence socio the However party’s un voters to out reaching of terms in party the to advantages resource confers which incumbency about advanced arguments to due Th e BDP’ support BDP’ e osition (Poteete 2009). (Poteete osition wavering support basewavering areas inrural support as among the unempl the among - cnmc yais nldn rural including dynamics economic

The BNF’s vision of an egalitarian society has helped the party to party the helped has society egalitarian an of vision BNF’s The

particularly those in the rural areas. ruralthe in particularlythose

(Osei - use it is an effective watchdog which is protective of interests interests of protective is which watchdog effective an is it use wde 2001 Hwedie, oyed - Hwedie,2001) grammes. As a party that espouses principles of social social of principles espouses that party a As grammes.

greater than its share a share its than greater 53

shown intable

Osei . ot purport to represent let alone can one one can alone let represent to purport ot

- - urban migration have reduced the the reduced have migration urban wde oe te perfo the noted Hwedie 8 g town, after the 1994 elections 1994 the after town, g utlook.

(seeappendix).

This is This mong the employed the mong

- T urban andurban rural.

he electorate perceives perceives electorate he further

reflected in the the in reflected

rmance of of rmance

partly partly CEU eTD Collection 30 the industrial strike in2011 when unemployed. the than group the from support employed the than group receives it as unemployed the for party a of more is BDP The BCP. the and co be to appear betwee relationship is a there that of confidence evidence 95% with concluded be can it reveals value p the on Based Table chi square in resulted teststatistic and constitution party’s ideology. guiding the in reflected is This people. the by resources state of ownership

See Mmegi online, BCP backs proposed govt. workers' strike. 15 February 2011. Vol 28: No.22 www.mmegi.b No.22 28: Vol 2011. 15 February strike. govt.workers' proposed BCPbacks online, See Mmegi the party rallied behind government employees government behind rallied party the 4 : Party identification by: Party identification employment status nsistent with nsistent Table

BPP BCP BNF BDP Party

4 . The BCP The .

. displays party displays

30 some of some

U nemployed (%) nemployed

a pvalue of pry dniiain n epomn status employment and identification party n 16.7 75.1 emerges as emerges the observations the 1.2 6.9

support among the among support

p<0.001

This is manifest in its campaign messages and and messages campaign its in manifest is This Employed a party for the for party a

65.8 16 18 0

above particularly with respect to the BDP BDP the to respect with particularly above

along with other opposition parties during parties opposition other with along .

Difference

unemployed and the and unemployed

employed 9.1 1.3 9.3 1.2

(%)

owing to owing 9.3%