Eleclioiis in Mali (1992-7) 229 ‘l’l-lE YOLI‘L’ICAL SYSTEMS 1’1IECEUING THE FREE 10 Elections in Mali ELECTIONS OF 1992 (I 992-7) : Civil Society The Precolonial Period The precolonial period i~ismarked by a succcssion ol‘ big Confronted with the African empires (of Gliaii:~,Mali, and Songhai), subsccjucntly by tlic Moroccan invasion and dcstruction of thc Songhai c Rule of Democracy ci ii 11 i rc (sis t c! 11 t 1i cc II t LI r y ) . ‘1’11 c I) i g i tiusi o 11s occ LI r ri iig fro ni cc ce M.-F. Lange thc sc\~nI IIt li to t hc ni II c t n t h cc II t u ries (ror c samplc, Uaiiianan, Fulani, Touarcg migrations) ultiniatcly led to thc for- mation ol‘ fcudnl statcs (Gnuclio 1992: 29-76). As Gaudio notcs: La destruction clc I’ciiipirc songhai avait ainsi permis la for- IlUTRODUCTION’ ination et IC cl6vcloppcmcnt d’Etats i I’6conomic inccrtainc, fonclk siir I’xrni6c ct, sclon Ics cxi, sur I’Tslmi ct I’aniiiiisiiic, ‘llic Salicliaii couiitry oI*bhIi,coilsitlci.cc1 as oiic 01’ tlic i~oorcst avec la i.cligioii ct iinc I¿)rtc hifrarchic socialc pour points countries in the ivorld, today apl~c;~rsas one of‘ the Al‘rican communs. Ils se d6linil~cllt2 tra\%!rs les gucrrcs f6odalcs. i statcs that has SLICCCSS~U~~~maclc il transition to tlcniocracy. (Gaudio, 1992: 69) Folloiving the pop~ilarrc\.olts of 1991, elections \vere held in [TIILIS,the dcstruction of thc Songhai cnipirc Icd to tlic ror- 1992 ancl SubsCc~Llcnll).in 1997. hMi tllLlS Seems to anchor i ni at i on ancl cl cvc lop ni c t stat c \vi t li rcca rio us ccoiioiii i cs, itsclf in a Wcstcrn clcctoral system. Ncvci-tliclcss, tlic ~LIICSof n 01’ s clcmocracy colliele \rith rcprcscntatioiis ancl practices ol’ poivcr based o11 tlic arm)- and on citlicr Islain or animism, \\rith reli- in Mali that arc somctimcs at variance \\pith the notions of a gion and ;i strong social hierarchy as common traits. Tlicy , consciisual... socicty i\.liicli cvcry clcmocrntic s?xtciii prcsup- dcrlnrcl thcmscl\~csas a result of tlic I‘cuclal \\-ars.1 poscs. 1 lie inllucncc of tlic political culturc inhci.itccl l‘rom The ciiipircs thcn folloivctl ul)on cnch other (the Scgou cmpirc, 11 c c c rir1 i c r Afri can c 111 i rc s a nel fro ni t li co 1o 11 i a 1 p r i od rc ni a i 11s t hc Fu Ian i cm pi re AIacina, t lie TOLICOUICUr c m pi rc) II n t i I t lie a 01’ rccognizablc fiictoi- in the cvolutioii of iiciv political rclntions arri\;\i of th(! 1:rc~ncll. ‘l’Il(. ‘poIi~ic:11cilllllrr’ ill this ~~l.‘!colollial cl \vas i Il1 I-od LI cctl by clc mocl.acy, 11LI 1 1 he la L t cr’s ynam ics II ¿L\’C been period largely one ol’ a I‘cuclalist poivcr structurc ivliich ill- shaped iiiainl). in iiitcraction \vit11 domestic agc-lits such as or- staIIctI itsell’ by tIic I’oi~r01’ ai-111s and rcsti:cI on i-cnt-sccking ganized youth ancl ci\.il society gro~ipsancl \\.¡th cloiior-country and tributr coIIcction.2 The Ixiymcnt of thc tributes markccl the policy. acccptancc ol’\Y~ssalsl¿LtLls; I.clilsing Lo p¿Ly it i\xi~)arallloLlnt to Afrcr prcsciiting sur\^>. :)l. the I)olitical s!.stciiis prc\dcnt a i ns u ri-c c t io n . POI i t ica I re 1;it i o 11s11 i 1)s iverc cs t a b I is II eel, ni ai 11- up to thc rcvolts ol‘ 1991, I \\-ill tlcscribc tlic essential character- taincd ancl rctlcfinccl by forcc. Kccouisc to violcncc to changc istics ol’ the clcctoral proccss that lias bccn takiiig its COLI~SC !lie .csistiiig political ortlcr ancl to substitute it with anotlicr li.om 1992 up lo 1997. :though often i.rtaiiiing csisting hicrarchics and positions of
Fonds Documentaire ORSTOM cote: %$Za3&$Ex: 4 23 230 ELec~ioiiObsei-valioli uncl Democrcili;aLion in ilJj.icti ELechiis in Addi (1992-7) 1 infcriority) also constituted much 01‘ the dynamics of altcrnat- S’oridanciis) Icd in I’act to it situation 01’ mono-partyism in the i iig s I at c powc r s ( ruct 11rrs. ?‘li c impact of ihr prc-colon ia1 Frcnch Suclan (Gaudio 1992: 98). period lins and bccn clccisivcly ti.atislbi.mccl by the \vanecl has ‘I’hc end 01‘ Lhe colonial ]’eriod ( 194.5-60) \\‘as tllLlS m:trkctl by ~~l~ccl~eiitcolonial cspcricncc in hlali. a ‘Icarning ])I.OCCSS’ 01’ Lhc rules of the clcctoral gamc” antl of democracy: frcctlom of association, inauguration of niult ¡-party- The Colonial Period ism, I’rccdom 01’ the press ancl clcvclopmcnt of trade unionism. The role of thc city of Bamako would bc a dctcrmining factor in tlic proccss of decolonization of Africa,G in spite of a much- l.c!tl1lcc:tl Slltli1llc.sr (.li ic. \\*ll(!ll colll~~:1r~~dio 1 Il(! milch 111orr 1111- iiicrotts ancl milch morc: ancicnt coastal clitcs (in Ilaliomcy, r,logo, ScncgaI). Thc various mcctings that took placc in lhm;iko, as \\v.II ;is tIic liar1 icip:ilioti of ccrtain Frcnch Sudancsc (:cl I‘ c I (*cL i i I 11 I (- 1’1.rI Icl I ;it1 i i I i i I is t r;i Ii o i I, pr II i i I I ctl t li(: S titl ;i I I rst. 1catlci.s to assci.1. tIicms(:Ii:cs iii poIitic:tl tli;tlogu(: ancl go\’” r nancc . 111 litet, unlikc tlic m;t.jority 01‘ Francol)honc Black African countries, I\ldi bcncfiiotl mucl1 inore from an inclcpciiclcncc ;IC- cortlctl II!, thc old colonial powr than countries that obtained tlicir intlcliciidcncc in armcc1 struggle. For the lirst time in tlic history ol’ this African rcgion thc rcclclinition of political po\\-cr \vas a obtillctl both by thc ballot bos allcl by conscIlsua1 pr~~ccsss:tlic’ traiisfcr of poIitic:tI po~vcrlvns carriccl out: without rccoursc to !rar. Al‘tcr the l‘ailurc ol‘ the hlali Fcdcration,’ the old Frc 11ch S utlnn (~rhic li be cam c t lic li6pub1 ici uc Souda na isc) took the iiainc of ‘Republic of Mali’ on 22 Scptcmbcr 1960.
From Independence to the Revolts
Thc c\rcnts around the :irri\xl to po\vcr of hhclibo Ikïta at thc a hcacl of the First licpublic thus signilictl rupturc ivith the tra- ditional political tl~.naiiiics,\\.here ;i change of pnvcr i\.as real- izcd by the use of I*c)rcc.Ncvcrthclcss, the rcgimc of Moclibo Ikïta quickly lost its popularity and thc KDA in fact iniposccl as itsc 1I’ t li c si nglc party. In 19G8, a military coup d’ilal cilclcd thc First liepublic and put in piacc I.,icutcnnnt AIoussat Traor6 at the head ofa Comitd Alilitaire tir L,il)i.rntion N:itionaIc (C:hII,N). Follo\\.ing the con- stituti0ii;tI \-oit1 prodticctl by thc iiiilit:try t;ikc-ovcr, ;i IICW con- stitution \vas prcp;trcd in 1974; it ;iiiiiouIicccl (ivith a dclay of five years Ixforc its application) the clcction of ;L hcatl of state 11)- uiii\Tcrs;iI suITrngc, ;I national assembly and a single party (1992-7) 232 L;leclioii 06seo-valioii aiid Ileiiioo-uti~~tioli ill A/i-ico Llectiaiis in ildali 233 (Gaudio 1992: 111). On 2Junc 1974, the Constitution was ap- multi-Ijartyism (Diarrah 1996: 34). Following this, thc Union pro\~clby rcfcrcncluiii with ;i 99.7 I per ccnt majoi.ity, but this cl Nationale clcs Tra\~aiiIcursclu hilali (UNTM), the central traclc itxs ita1 ilì ccl as./i[rcí>í~lec~orcik II!* ce rtai ii oppone ii (De Ucnoist 1s union that sincc the arrests of 1970 liad collaboratcd \\*itli the 1989: Tlic part!; tlic Unioll I>i.niocl.aticlLIc 133). single du rcginic,I” opcticd the \vay for opposition to tIic military rcgimc l’cuplc hlalicn (Ulll’hd), \\.as ci-catccl in 1979 \vit11 the aim of cl \vlicn during its central cstraorclinary meeting of 28 and 29 fi 1I i ng t li c 110 1i ti cal \roi wli i ch Ii)l 1o\vccl t lie ni i I ita ry d ic t ator- May 1990 it clcclarcd that: ship. l‘lie Scconcl Rcpublic \v;is thus charactcrizccl 11). the con- quest ol‘l)o\vcr through Lhe forcc ofal-ms ancl the control Ol’tlliS Consicldrant clue IC parti unique constitutionnel ct institu- tiollll~~lII(: l~i..polltl pills ;tils :~spir:ltiollscl~lllocralic~llcs ~)o\v(*rI)? ;i iiiilitar!. clic.iatoi.sllil), \\fliic.ll clic1 11ot 1lc:sit;ltc to LISC du forcc to maintain itscll’. l‘hc creation of‘ thr singlc party - mcl ~~c~iplcmalien .. . IC Conscil Central Estraordinairc rejette organizations like the National Union of Mnlian cn bloc IC dirigisme Iioliticiuc qui cntravc IC dCvcloppcmcnt of mass cl(: WoIii(*ii (IJNI‘AI) :iiitl Ili(. N:itioii:il IJiiioii of‘ h1:iIi:ii-i lroii[li Ia tIi.mocratic au i\iIaIi ... optc pour l’instauration du mul- (UFJAI) - ainicd at kccpiilg ;i large part civil socicty ;it 1i1)artisiiicct clu l)liitxlisiii(: cldiiiocraticluc: ... \vas 01’ (CERDES n.cl.: 33) bay by dividing t lie couti try i II to scparat c ‘CO ni part ni en ts’.:’ Ho\vcvcr, the militnr!* rcgimc nm‘cr succccclccl in rooting o~it the opl)osition coming l’rom I)olitical traclc unionists micl ccluca- [ional circles.” TIic scliooI-!.c:ar I ‘37(j-7 \vas iiixrkctl 1)). strikes by scconclary school ppils ancl uni\usity students, thc closurc ol’ schools lhe csliulsion ol’a 1:u-g~number ol’stuclcnts, ancl, l’oIlo\~v- ing tIic funeral ceremony ol‘hhdibo Iicïta on 18 May 1977, the regime procccclccl to arrest many persons wlio hacl conic to par- ticipatc in tlic ccrcmoiiy During the school-year 1979-80 tlic studclits tricd to organizc the tliircl congress of tlic N-‘1 t’ lona1 Union of I’upiIs atid Stuclents of Mali (UNEIN). l’hc c:lcctccl sccrctary of the UNEEh.1, Abclo~ilIinrim Camnra, nicknamccl ‘Cabral’, \vas arrcstccl, torturcd atid assassitiatccl (De Ucnoist 1989; Iliarrali 1996). Sincc tliat monicnt li(* lias iiicarii;1t(~(lthe s)mbol of’ school resistancc to the dict:itorsIiip. Biit during the !~ars1970 to 1980, the oppositioli iiio\rciiiciits ti(:\,rr succccclccl in organizing tlicmscl\:cs, nor in tlircatcning tlic clictatorship.
From the Opposition to the Moussa Traoré Regime to the Transition Period
During the 1990s cliffcrcnt niovcmcnts fbrmcd opposing the military clictatorship (Ucrtrancl 1992; CERDES n.cl.; Fay 1995; Sidibd and Iicstcr 1994). In Rlarch 1990 the singlc part^ cclc- I_ bratet1 its clcvcntli annivcrsary. On this occasion ;I conli.rcncc on clcniocracy \vas orgmizccl within the party cluring l\-liicli mili- tants opliosccl to tlic clictatorship could makc their \vices heard. r, 1hr m:i.jorit!. of the I)ariiril)ants thcn spoke out in f:~ouror 234 ELcclioii O~scrua~ioiiaizd Democrati~atiaizin @icn Elecbioiis in MaLi (1992-7) 235 march organizcd on 22 March that ycar, thc army fired on thc [In tlic social domain, tlic cstraordinary iiicrcasc of catcgo- clcmonstrators, \vliicli thcn lecl to five clays of violent clistui-b- rial tlcm~uitlsancl t lic unprcccclcntctl clcvclopmcnt of violcucc .-.;111ccs. On 26 Alarc11 I99 1, the rcgimc of I'rcsitlcnt h10~1ssn as ¿I lllr~Lllslo 111nkc clc.mancls ha\T bccomc a m¿i;ol. ~'llcnomc- lraord \vas o\~crtliro~vnby ;i group of military lccl by Lt.-Col. non, strangely enough at the vcry momcnt that political and AI~~XIOLIToumani Tl%urd.The military installecl :L Conimittce of social dialogtic bccanic possible. Tlicrcf'orc, only clays aftcr Nat i o n al licconci 1i a t i on (CliN) a ncl subsc cl LI c n t 1y, aft c r cliscus- t lic ins tal1 a t i on of t li c transit i o na1 autli o ri tics, viol c nt niovc - sioiis bctwccn tlic CNR mcl thc Comite tlc Coordination clcs mcnts liavc thro\vn tlicmsclvcs into gear in thc country.] Associations clcs Organizations 1Xiiiocratiqucs (CCAOD), ;i et This at t it iitlc iiiiiy appc.;~r;i11 [li(: ~norcpxr;iclosic;il, ;is tlic. first Coììii/(; Yklìi.\iloiìr (fc 8YciLu/ du I'euliLc (G'I'S I') \\';is 1i)i.m ed, coni- clciiionstratioiis of' opponents to tlic tlic.tators1iip \vcrc pcaccl'ul 11osccl of ten rcprcscntativcs of tlic armccl ancl security forces and ;is this opposiiion was also dircctcd against corruption as and of fiftccii rcprcscntativcs of tlic CCAOD. Aniong thc rcprc- wcll as in favour of thc cstablishmcnt of a iicw kind of political scntati\-cs of tlic CCAOD one notcs thc prinic plarc accorclccl relations. With the arri\.al of tlic CTSP (ancl latcr of tlic Third to the youth associations (four out of fiftccn)," \vhicli inclicatcs liepublic), violcncc emanating from civil socicty in Fact replaces tlic rccogniiion given to tliosc that rcbcllccl against the rlicta- that of the statc. This appropriation of violcncc by civil society torship. Onc also notcs tlic plncc ocCupiccl by tive rcprcscnta- cl as a nioclc of csprcssion of rclations of po\vcr but also as a forcc tives of res i t ;iiicc iiiovc ni c II IS , \diich also i n ica t t li c s es rcgulating social o~.clcr"~iniliosccl itsclf\.cry quickly ancl has rc- importance of :trmccl movcmcnts that stixgglctl asailtst tlir niai iiccl ;i sign i lican t probl cni u 11til toclay. rcgimc of Ahussa Traoré."' The CTSI' then forinccl a provi- c sional govc r n ni c n t , 1 d by Rlam ad o u 'li, LI ni;i n i 'li, u r d . THE The Transition Conditions of the Electoral Process From 26 R/Iarch 1991 to 8 Junc 1992 tlic Transitional Govcrniiicnt took chargc or preparing clcctions and of manag- As was the casc in a majority of Francophonc African countrics, ing currcnt affairs. For niany authors this pcriocl is cliaractcr- a National Confcrcncc \vas organizcd (held from 29 July to izcd by a rather slack trcatmcnt of csisting national problcms 12 August 199 l).I.' In this franic\vork, the scttiiitr up of political (CERDES n.cl.: Nc\w-tliclcss, tlic transitional autlioritics '1 120). structures of thr nr\\.rcgimc, the choicc of clcction ~)roccdurcs, sliowccl goocl scnsc in their rcfusal - or inability - to cffcct it ancl tlic rst;il)lislinicnt of an rlcction calcnclar ivcrc prcparccl. It s!.s t cmat ic \\,it cli-liun , for c san1 plc, on t Iic pol i tical Icaclcrs of t \).as dso during tliis~nationalconfcrcncc that a nc\v Constitution tlic olcl rcgimc ancl their associates. On the otlicr hancl, thcy i naugu 1-at i ng t li r Th i rcl liepublic \\xsprr arccl cl. Th is Consti t LI t ion ~vcrcconfrontcc1 \vit11 many cI;tinis, often statccl in an aggrcssivc accords ;in important place to human rights, as inclicatccl by tlic or violent iiianiicr. Intlccd, ;is Siclibé and I olle or two roLIIlels) o11 23 1:cbrlIary anel o11 9 h!l:trcli, and lhc DES l’instauration du multil~artismcpar I’ordoiiiiaticc 110. 2 prcsiclcntial elections in tiro rounds on 12 April anel 26 April du CTSI’, la crCation rt Ia r6apparition iiiflationnistr clc 3 I992 (CLKl>ES t1.d.: 52). ‘l’hcsc elections \vc’rc organized by the partis (Icvcniis -1- ci1 un mois, pLiis -1-5 i l’issue tlc la Sccrctariut of State I¿)r InstitutionaI I (Yb) Table 10.1 1’:trticipation ofvotcrs ill the clcctions of 1992 I3cctions Datc ofclcctions l’crccntagc of participation has to bc notccl that tlic cli\.isions \\rithin tlic US-RDA lccl to gt “’&* cl cla .$,y;: Z: t hc i r prcs en t a t i on of t\vo cil ti i t cs, \\,li i ch pc rni i t t cd Al plia *ri 9?7 , ;p On Elections without the Support of Western Codes .As Sitlihi. ;iiitl Ikst(sr ( I !)!LI.: 72-3) Iix~sairl: La graiide niasse dcs pcrsonncs qui clcscc~iclaiciitdans la ruc ;t collnlry \\hcl-c Il10l.C t11~11180 per (:(!Ill of I’”I)llI, In 111(. ‘1 I’1011 is l’ont l‘:ti t (:II i~%.t ion ;\I la ni;itiv;tis(: gcsl ion, au nEpotismc, i II i t erat e, lie weak mast (: iy West c rn-tlc rived socio-c ti t II riil sc I 01’ 1 ;IIIS cIi.Iotii.ncmclits t1c.s clcnicrs ptiblics. 1711 uii 11io1,ils bnt- ‘coclcs’ (for esa ni plc, t lie ‘1 itcracy coclc’, or t II c ‘li u rcaucr;~t ic tnicnt pour Ia moraIisation clc Ia vie pubIic[tIc ... Or loin clc codc’: ill1 ill I illl(l(. ¿llltl milltl illlplyillg tlifli~l.c*nl IT, ;1 sl:1tc (11. ;I [\‘ay (1isp;iríiît la corixil)t ion, IVni.pol ismc rt la gaspillage SC ol’rlcaliilg icitli 0111ci.p:[il)l(:) ciiic.r.gcs ;is ;Lcr*rIaili liai~dicitl),il’ tli.\.r* lo I’] ,t. I1 I l-(1 111 I11 c pa I‘ I I’ I,assi.. OllC ~1SSllmr~s,¿IS Wcslcrn clollor-collllIl~ics 1I.sLI;LIIy do, tl1at ‘dcniocracy’ slio~ilclproccccl alwys in terms of moclcls and con- [‘l’lie great 11i;tss o1‘~’c“Sonslll¿It \\‘Clit out into tlic strccts clid ditions kno\\-n from the Western cslm-icncc (this is ali unrcalis- so in rcsponsc to bac1 govcriiancc, ncpotism, and cmbczzlc- tic assumption). Indccd cvcry clcctoral proccss in this sciisc nicnt of public funds. In one \\lord, thcy fought for improving the morality public lifc far from clisappcaring, sccnis to rest on a burcaucratic infrastructurc that prcs~~pposcs or ... Wcll, cs- \v - at least - statistical kno\dcclgc of the pop~~lation(for the CO 1-1-11p t ion, li c po t is ni an cl sclu antic ring clcvclo pccl in t o ha t cl tlic!. \\‘ere like in thc past.] t ab1i sli ni c 11t of vo t c rs ’ 1ist s an vo ti ng ca rt Is) , 1) roc1 LI c t i1.c caliaci- tics (the actual p~ocluctionof the clcctoral niaicrial: inclcliblc c ICI I ncl cccl, on cou say t lia t fol 1o\\.¡ ng t he LI 11sLICCCSS fu 1 i ni posi- ink, ballot papcrs, c~i~~clopcs,I~oscs for sccrct voting), organiza- tion of Iïolilijje (sec abo\rc), that is, of combating corruption alid tional capacitics (clistribution of the matcrial, transport of the icllcncss ancl inconipctcncc, and facce1 \vit11 thc failure of coun- .ballot boxes, control of t lie vo t i ng proccclu IT i tsc I f, t lie COLIii t- t c r\xi 1i ng foi-ccs ass c 1st i ng t li c msc to gti ara n t c c pol it ¡cal i n- ing), as \ve11 as aclccluatc linancial means. tcgrit): thcrc IKtS bccn 21 ClLliCk turn to\\’arcl the gcncral clcmand In Alali, the pix~l~lcni~)osccl 11); for instancc, the cstnblishing that ‘c\xr~htl~~sh()iiIcl lia\.c the right to such icllcncss ancl of voters’ lists ticcl to ;t situation of \\-cakl>.peifoi-iiiing ancl is a pro fi t cc ring’. From t li c n on, t lie con n cct ion to pol i t icxl potvc r partly corrupt ¿itlniiiiist1.ation on the one Iimicl, ancl to the 11 cl has inclcccl bccn pcrcci\d, as I’rcsiclcnt Alplia Ou1ii;tr Konari. po pu ar pc rcc ti oils of ad ni i 11 i t 1-21 t i1.c pap c r-ivo d OCLI- 1 s rk an said in an intenie\\-\\.it11 Le .Ifulion (citcd in Dia\vara 1994: 22), iiiciits in gcncrnl o11 the other. In an article on the clifficultics as ‘gctting a slice of thc cake’. cncoun.tcrcd b~.thc caclrcs of thc Ministr). of Scconclary ancl In such conditions, democracy is not sccn as a High cr Education in clccicling t li c al location o I‘ al lo\\-uiccsand permits the l’rcc choice of rcprcscntati\~cs,or the possibility to scholarships to stuclcnts, Diawara (1997) has sliow the proli- check thcm and holcl them accountable, but siiiiply as a systcm of ni;ikiiig the ~1(liiiiiiisti.~itioiipi~opcrly I’uiictioii in ;i tu- lems si that c;in 0SI’cr ¿LCCCSS to slatc bcnclìts or to ~)rolìtsfrom the ation \\here False chil registration IxipciF - obtained by yiclcls of intcrnational aid. ‘This is an ol‘tcn diagnosccd trait in patronagy ancl protcction or by bribing- prolifcr;1tc, These sys- Afri Cil11 ‘11 eo-pat rini oni al ’ S)’S t c Ills. t emat ic ahi nist t ive forge ries rc~ul su1x.c rt i ng t he %LI-- r- 1.a that I lie democratic process thus is being pcrccivccl primarily as a i-caucratic code’ (lio~\-c\~runclcrstnnclal~lc pcrlialxs against /),acess qf Lhe ~leiiio~~~i~i.~~~~io~/vf~cces.r [o ~hcjiiiniicinl i-e.ro~ii-ces ci t hcr OS , Sincc the cvciits of 199 1, clcctions haw bccn organizcd in Mali in 1992 ancl in 1997. The balancc is far from \vholly negative, cvcn consiclering that the p;trticip;ition in the clcctions has rc- ni a incd I o\v (about onc-cl LI art c r 01’ t lic c 1c c t o ra t c li avi ng vo t c cl) , ancl ci’cii if tlic opposition bolmtt lias callccl into cluestion the conscnsual ancl rcguIatin(u? function of thc clcctoral proccss. The appc;d from ccrtaiii nicmbcrs of the opposition to viol- cncc or to revolt has Iiot rcsonatccl at all among the largcr part of the Malian population, \\:hich for thc time bcing prcfcrs an iinpcrl’cct kinel ofclcmocracy to a situation of civil war. Also, thc ariiiccl foi-ccs havc not triccl to intcr\rcnc ancl ‘scttlc’ thc politi- cal crisis. But is all this sufficient to ;issumc that thc dcmocratic procc.ss is consolicl~ttingiiscll? First of‘all, it is clc;ir that ccrtain gains arc inaliciiablc - such as press frccdom ancl privatc raclio (Iicïta 1992, 1995), or the laying of tlic foundations, lio\vcvcr small, for jutlicial ancl acl- ministrati\:c dorm - cvcii if tlic cspcctccl overhaul 01’ tlic pub1 i c acl nii iiis t ra t i on lias ye t liarc1 I y b c gu n . Th c coni ni it ni c n t of thc \wious authorities in. the Malian Third Kcpublic to thc I‘ cl dcvc Io pm en t o ccl ilea t io i1 (cles p i t c t lie i scou ragi ng infl tic licc of donor-countries) slio\vs the clcsirc to rcconstitutc iclco- logical fwncl;itions for thc birth of ;I nc\v nation-statc. Succcss of tlic Third 1IcpubIic in this rcspcct is clcarly visible in the (1992-7) 248 Htclioii Obsei-vulion niid Ueiiiocra~ica~ioriin Afiicn Elections in Muli 249 (sec ‘cducational explosion’ witncssccl silice tlic early 1990s civil administrators wlicn buying property, aiid then wit11 often L~tiigcaiicl Gissclbrccht It is certainly one of the rare 1998). high 1y coli t es t cd 1cgal ti t 1c. Fi na1 I y, t hc prob1c ni of LI iic ni ploy- domains ivhcrc ;i colisciisu tlic state aiid the po11~11a- v. bct\vccn ment (cspcciaily among youth) has hardly bccn solved cithcr. tion lias Ixcn ablc to assert itsell.. This strong tlcmantl liir ctlu- 1lie essential pr(ibIcms that rcmain arc cithci. of bureau- cation ;is sren totlx): in fact slio\\Fs cffcctivcncss of apix:;iIing tlic cratic or polit ¡cal origin, :ind ;ire fould toclny in the prac:ticcs of LO rig111 to cd~lcalion ‘get part tlic cake’ alxl\~c). tllC to 01‘ (scc ccirr~iptioiiand cliciitclism, obscurc part). I‘iiiicling, anel in \\hat But it also ha\^ the social cfl’cct of ;i \vicl’cr acccptancc may 01’ cali Ix sccii as thcir coroliiu-y: the recourse of violence Iiy the ‘litcrac): (anel a prclutlc to integration into the bu- 1-1 code’ cc ai 11 gro~i13s in soci et): T II atleli t ion, t hc abscncc of i nclc pcn- l~~:lll~-l~:llic ll‘ Oll(’ r.ollsitl(:I-s Ill(: lTl.lIS~tllo :lLIc*lld c.otlr). sc:llool tlc 11c:c: 01’ :I II I o IIO II 11, i II liti I>I ic ad III i I I is I IYII ioiI COI It ri bii I es I o \\:as til(: [(I SIiII(’, llI(’1I orten csl~rcssionof op~~osilion Ill(: Ill(! ;Il.[ic.lllaI(: lT1;ll iOl1S or c~lirlllc~lisnl.13cli~I~c! 111c sl;trI o1’tl~!moc~ra- active in\.ol\.ciiiciil iu or coiiiniitiiie,nt to celucation iiii(V1it be in- >. tization, corruptioii \\.;IS consiclcrccl as bouiirl up \vit11 the politi- tcrllretcci r~~ll~Iiss~Lllce ;l c.crtain commitnlcnt irem 11~~: ;ls cal sysIcm of IllC tlictÍltorsl1ip - Ill(! right of the ‘Strong’ to siclc (civil) socict), to tlic iiatioii-state (Lange 1987, I). 01‘ 199 priviIcgcs and Ibvours I‘rom thc tlominatccl. Ijcl\vccn I99 I ancl ‘ I-Io\\.c\:cr, opposition to the state is also csprcssccl \vitIlout 1997, thcsc relationships, Iio\vcvcr, Iiavc lar Ilom c1isapl)c;ircd. rcscri~aiicl rather \rithout mibiguity in the obstinate refusal of As 1’ res i tic II t Alp li a Ou ni ar I ! 250 Eleclion Observalion aiid DamocraliZu/iori in AJi-icu Eleclioiis iu Mali (1992-7) 25 1 re-c~iicrgcticcol'social crises and national or local 1-cvo1ts.One ical class arc allcgcclly iiivolvcd in al'I'ai1-s ol' illicit l'uiicling ol' po- may ask: can social, cconomic ancl political clcvclopnicnt inclcccl litical partics, arc liarclly in a position citlicr to conclciiin tlic be realized in the abscncc of state rcgulation? In the transition ¿lbo\~c-1llcntioncrl~j1racticcs or io propose solutions for 111cm - period dtcr thr li~ll01' thc Traor6 dictatorship, tlic Comitd ivhicli thcy Iia~xtiot Ixcii ablc to lind in order to saiiitizc politi- Transitoire tlc Salut du l'cnplc (CTl'Sl'),in iis statcmcilt 01' cal life in their o~vticountrics. Is not ;i kind ufcoiisciisus - basrd co 5 April 1991, mentioned among its Iirst aims: 'la restauration on ni ni on i n t c r c s t s - b c i ng co 11s t ruct ccl b c t1v-cc II A fr i caII du crédit et CIC I'autoritd dc tat, (t~icrcstoratioii of t11c credi- Icadcrs ancl Wcstc.rn Icaclcrs, rcady to accoinmoclatc regular W); bility nncl authority of tlic statc) (CXliDES 1i.d.: hut ancl 'frcc' clcctions \vliicli ha\^ no rcal political stakcs, lack \i'¡tllOtl~ 111t' SlLllC* ~l~t\r~ll~IJ('CI1 lZ'//~~Jli~~/// 01' I.t'tlt:f¡llCCl, C¡[llL:l' ill its littaiir~ial Itxtispiitxiic!, o11 l):tt.1!3 1iii;iiict.s xiid clcctoi~alcitili- fountlations or in its i-claliotis \vit11 ckil socicly. IJtitil noiv, thc pigiis, ant1 \vliicli :ilso arc iiicrrasiiigly hcltl in tlic abs(:ncr of' c rclritionsliips bct\\-ccn po~vcraucl the ciiscuibic of institutions \'O t rs? (faiiiili:il, trac1ition:il or of the state) haw too oftcn rcniaincd under tlic go\*criianccof tlic boncls of clicntclisiii, \\;licrcby the oiic who 'posscsscs poi\~cr'can 0111~~retain it by buying allc- NOTES gi an cc from t lios c s/hc doni i 11 at c s. I-hrIO pass 1i.oiii ;i clientclistic state rvitli systematic privi- I. 9 1c:ging (\\*lit*rc'I(:gitim;tc.y' is acclitirrtl, oli I 1ir oiic Ii;iti(l, by [lit: -.. issuing of I'a\~oursthat can be distributed by the grace 01' the .5. of ).iclds corr~~ptionor of fringe benefits, ancl on tlic oilier hand, 4. by tolcrating transgressions of tlic law), to a bureaucratic rule- of-law statc? Thc distribution of favours and the tolerating of 5. transgressions (as a payment. for allegiance to the existing powcr structurc) form tlic basis of thc rcprocluctioii of the clicn- tclistic state atid cnsurc tlic continued clomination of tlic clitcs in plncc. For iiuiiicrous h,Ialians the ADl+XvIA-l'ASJ toclay consti- tutcs thc cciitral agent ivlicrcby this typc 01' rclationsliip is being forgcd and actcd out. In toclay's conditiolis ;LISO, tlic clcc- torn1 p~~ccss,far from having f~ilitatccltlic transition ol' a clicntclistic state to ;i rule-of-laiv st;~tc,lias ratlicr opcticcl up a (i. iiczu domain of clicntclistic cntct-prise. One m;iy be justiiìctl in 7. thinking that at least as long as the I3cctot-al Lau. ofJ:~iit~~); 1997 is not applicd ancl tlic funding ol' iol li tic al partics is not slrictly regulated by the hr, the clcc~oralprocess trill iicvcr lx ablc to really influcncc cxisting potwr rclations tior strctigtlicn t li c ~iroccss 01' cl c iiioc r a tiza t i o II i II kla ii. It is in this sciisc hat the role of cstcrnal, forcip obscrvcrs, H. \vliicli up to iiow \vas largely liniitccl to monitorin~/c\~alLiating tlic coiiditioiis ol' csct-cisc of the right to votc, can appear as without any rcal inlluciicc. 011 the ~lcmocratizatioii131-occss iii tlic country. It is also truc that certain obscrvcrs from M'cstcrii countries (like those from France), \\.liere iiiciiilicrs of tlic polit- 2.53 20. YI. !l. 22. 93. Io. 24.. -.).,) r I I. '17.26. 12. L'H. 13. 1-f. 29. 1.5. Iti. 1i. 18. 19. Part 111 New Perspectives? Policy Issues and Electoral Observation in Africa Cited Issues of Press Publications: Also hy Joli AldJiiik HISTORY AND CULTURE: Essays on the Work of Eric R. Woll' Election Observation (c.o-cYIi/or) and :Democratization MYTHO-LÉGENDESET HISTOIRE:I'énigme de I'etIinogen2se des i Beta Esra'el I ERITREO-ETHI OP AN STUDI ES IN SOCIETY AND H ISTORY in Africa A Supplementary Bibliography 1960-1 995 Edited by ! Jon Abbiiik Senior Resetrrcher tlfiicair Studie; Cnitrci Leideir The Ne~herkriitls and m First published in Great Britain 2000 by MACMILLAN PRESS LTD Houndmills. ßasingstokc. Hampshire RG2 I GXS and London C.ontents Companies :ind represenkitives throughout thc world A c;ilaloguc rccord for this bwk is ;ivailablc from lhe British Library. Coiit ribulors vi i ISBN 0-333-763084 . .- ...... - .. . . l’rdace xii m First published in the Unitcd Slates of America 2000 by G. He.s.seli11s ST. MARTIN’S PRESS, INC., Scholarly and Reference Division, Introduction: Iictliinking Dciiiocratization ancl 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010 Elcction Obscrvation 1 ISBN 0-3 12-2239-1-3 J. tlbbiiil; Library of Congress Catalogi~ig-in-PublicntionData Election observation and democratization in Africa / edited by Jon Abbink and Gerti Hesseling. Part I: tlic Coiitcxt of Elections in Africa p. cn1. Includes bi bliographical references and index. Dcmocratization in Africa: tlic liolc of Elcctioii ISBN 0-312-22394-3 I. Elcction monitoring-Afric;i. Sub-Salinnin. 2. Elcclicins- o bs c r\.a t io Il 2 1. -Africa. Sub-Saharan. 3. Deiiiocnitization- Africa. Sub-Sahonui. o. vu11 Crulleilbur~ll Abbink. J. II. Hesseling. Gerti. JQ1. 1879.A5WZ 1999 324.907’0329-dc2 1 99-15593 Elcctioiis in Africa in Historical Coiitcst 37 CIP S. Ellis Selection and editorial matter O Joli Abbink and Geni Hesseling 2000 Preface O Gerti Hesseling 2000 Stability or Democracy: oli tlic Rolc of Monitors, Introduction and chapters 7 and I I (with W. van Binsbergen) O Jon Abbink 2000 Mcclia aiid Miraclcs 50 Chapters 1-6.8-10 O Macmillan Press Ltd 2000 I. tl(Ll1 k%sseL All rights rcserved. No reproduction. copy or transmission of this pub1ic;ition niay be mnde without written permission. EIcctions aiid Civil Strifc: Sonic Implications for No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with 76 In t c rna i oli al E 1cc io n O bs c rmtio II written perriiission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and t t Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting liinited copying issued by B. de Gaaii Forhinii the Copyright Licensing Agency. 90 Tottenhain Court Road, London W I I’ 0LP. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may bc liable to Part II: Casc Studics criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of this work in 5 African Multi-partyisiii ancl tlic Qucst for accordance with Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Dcmocratic Altcrliativcs: Ugalidaii Elcctioiis Past the 99 and Prcsciit This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. M.Dooriibos 9 8 G 5 4 3 2 I 10 O8 7 O0 09 07 06 05 04 03 02 O1 G Of Ethnicity, Manipulation aiid Obscrvation: thc 1992 and I997 Elcctioiis in Iiciiya 122 Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham, Wiltshire D.Foekcti aiid T Dietz V \ri C(111leli I.r 7 l‘hc Organization and Obscrvation of Elcctions in Fcdcral Ethiopia: lictrospcct ancl Prospcct 150 C ontrib ut ors J. ‘,4bbilllL 8 Sccrc t 14~orltls,1)ciiiocratization and Elcction Jon Abbink is ;in ;uitliropologist ancl ii scnior rcscarchcr at thc - Obscrvation in Malawi 180 Afrika-Studicccntrum at Lcidcn Univcrsity. I-IC prcviously x.z~rill workccl at thc Univcrsitics or Anistcrdani ancl Ni-jmcgcn. His 1’h.D. rcscai~liin t11c 1!)IlOs W;LS o11 Etliiopiaii iiiimigrants iii 9 Thc 1996-7 Elcctions in Chad: tlic Rolc of the Isracl. IIis rcccnt rcscarch is on culturc, violcncc and cthnicity, Intcrnational Obscrvcrs 21 1 and on socio-political dcvclopincnts and dcmocratizatioii in li. Uicjjleiili u jjs North-rast AI‘rica, rspccially Ethiopia. I-IC has writtcn on c 1’: t II io pi an J curs in Is ra 1, Et lii o pi an c t li no 1ogy, niat c ri al cu 1tu rc, 10 Llcctions in Mali (1992-7): Civil Socicty Confrontcd ancl on the cpistcniology of anthropology. Among his publica- \villi the liulcs of 1)cmocracy 228 tions arc A~flio-l~qeiidesel Hisloire: LZiiignie de L~ellinogenèsedes Beta A,l.-l< (I tige L Esra’eL ( 199 1) ancl Hisloy ritid CitLtiire: ESSUJYoii the Plhrh- ofEric cs r R. I4/o~/‘(co-ctlitcd, 1992). Par t I II: se\\. I’(! rs pcct ives? 1’01 icy Iss LI and 131 ctora I Obscrvation in Al’rica i Wim van Binsbergen is l’rofcssor of Intcrcultural Philosophy at Erasmus Uni\-ri*sit); Iiottcrclam, ancl scnior rcscarclicr at thc 11 African Stuclics Ccntrc, Lcidcn, sincc 1977, ivhcrc in tlic 1980s 257 lie hcadcd thc Dcpartmcnt of Political-I-Iistorical Stuclics. Until 1998 hc \vas Profcssor of Anthropology at the Free University (Amstcrclam). I-IC has donc cstcnsivc Gclclwork in various 12 Elcction Obscrvation: Policics of thc Ncthcrlancls g African cou II t ri c s, a ni on t lic ni Tu II isi a, Gu inc a-Biss au, Zambia Govc rlilii c11 t 19 92-7 277 and Botswana. Among his major publications arc: Religious O. vati Cratieiiburgli Clintige in Zcliiibia (1 981), Old Modes of Proditctioti atid Calitalist Eticroachirieiit (cditcd with I? Gcschicrc, 1985), Theoretical 13 Thc Iicnyan Gcncral Elcctions of 1997: Iniplcnicnting ExfiLol-nlion.r in Aji-icnti Religioli (cditccl with M. Schoffclccrs, a Nciv Ivlocicl for Intcrnational Elcction Obscrvation of 1985), ancl Enrs Rniii: Etliiiici!y aiid Hislo? in Central Fl/estel-ii in Africa 295 Zaiiibicl (I 992). His most rcccnt cclitctl book is Black tltlieiia: Teil Al. Riitleti I%at-s @el- (1997). I-IC ivorkcd as Iccturcr at thc Univcrsity of Lusaka, Zambia, and \vas a visiting proI‘cssor at thc univcrsitics Il1 dex 32 1 of Rhichcstcr, Berlin and Durban-Wcstvillc (South Africa). I-IC has also writtcn poctry and novcls. j Robert Buijtenhuijs is a political scientist (1’h.D. 197 1, Paris) aiid a scnior rcscarchcr at tlic African Studics Ccntrc, Lcidcn. il His main rcscarcli intcrcsts arc African revolutionary movc- nicnts and rcvolts, political devclopnicnts in Chad, and dcmo- i cratization IJ~OCCSSCSin Africa. Soinc of his main publications on thcsc subjccts arc: Le A%zivement i2/laii-Mau: titie Révolte I vi i D. Fockcn hc rcccntly wrotc about tlcmocratization, clcctions and cthnicity in the Dutchjournal Geop~fie. Rijk van Dijk is an :intliropologist and al’filiatcd to the Afrika- Stuclicccntrum, Lcidcn, as ii mcmbcr of the rcscarch-group on Globalization ancl i lic . WOTliO rcscarcli programme Globali.:crtio~i und tltr Cotis/ritc/ioii of Coiliniunal Identities. I-IC Oda van Cranetiburgh is ;I ~ioli~ic;ilsciciilist ;iiitl I(.(.IIIIx*I. lias tloiic. lic-ltl\\ork iii hI;il:\\vi oii t Iic risc oí’ cllarisinatic at tlic Drp;~t-tnictit01‘ l’olitical Science at ilic Utii\wi.sity 01‘ 1’ciit.ccost~tlism i ti u rlxiti arcits (hiiig Malawinn I’iiritms: Ybiiiig Lcidcn. Hcr 1’h.D. thcsis was on Tanzania (The Wideiiilzg Born-Again I’rencliers in a I’t-esciit-day Ajiican Urban Environiiictit , Gj~re: LIIC7hii:aiiian Oiie-/)ar~Slnte (tiid Polig, Cowids Rural Utrecht 1992). I-IClias also hccn invo1vc:tl in UNDP clcction ob- Cou/)jlLmlive.s, 1990). She has publishctl on the African one-party scrvntion tliiring thc first I‘rcc AIaln\i.ian elections 01’ 1994. I-IC as es statc, clcmocratizntion in Africa, antl Dutch policics I‘or li 11 i1 bl is li c ti art i cl o Ii l’e II I, ccos t alis ni, gl o Ixil i za t i o ti ancl t lic clc\*elopmcnt coopcration. She is also a mcmbcr ol‘ the antliroi~olog!~of’ rcligion in man). 11roli.ssiona1journnls. Among c Ad\.isory Co unci 1 o ti I II c riia t i onal All*airs to t li Ne t li c ri ;u1 tls his recent ~itiblicutions;ire ;I cliaptcr in .J. Mayncs’ ctlitccl G~\Trnnic ti t. \u1u nic on Iieli,qioii. Clob(rli.y/ioii utid l’olïtic(rl CiiI~-iirein liir Tliird 1+br/d (1998). IIis cui-rcnI rc:scarch focitscs on ciiarismatic Martin Doornbos is l’rofcssor ol‘ l’olitical Sciciicc at thc l’cntccostal churchcs in Atcra ancl I Ton Dietz is Profcssor of Political Environmental Geography at I Dick Foeken studiccl huniiin gcography at thc Uiiivcrsity of I thc Univcrsity ol‘ Amsterdam (Amsterdam Rcscarch Institutc Anistcrclani. His 1’h.D. thcsis \vas on The Parlition of Cerztral CS for Global ISSLI and D cvclo pm c II t S t ucl i cs, a nic mbc r i 11s ti t utc 1 í!/Fico: o I’o/il;~o-c;e(l,~r~i/)/iic(i/L+/u!ii.si.s (1 994). l’rcscntly Iic is ;i or thc CIIIIES Rcscarch School). Ilis 1’h.D. thcsis was on the sc*niort-rsr;irclic.r ;II I li(* c~l’t.ik~~-S~~itlirrii~i.iim,1,ritlrn. Sincr tlir Pokot 01’ nortlicrn Kenya (l’us~ordi.s/.s in Dirt SLruifs, 1992). Ilc mid- 1980s lir lias brcn in\~olvrclin sc\~ralrcsrnrcli projects in has cstcnsivc rcscarcli cspcricncc in Iiciiya and publislicd Iicnya, notably in the ficltls of I‘outl ancl nutrition, rural employ- I-sea about a large varicty of clcvclopnicnt issues in that country par- ni c ti t , s ni al 1 c c n t c i-1) ris es, and u rba ti agricu I t LI re. Majo r cl t icu lar1y cvclo pm c tit i ti t c rvc II t i o tis and pas to ral isni. MG t li rcccnt p~iblicatiotisincliitlc Tiad 10 /lie Laird: Liiliiig Coridi/ioiu of 1 l i S Coiilribulors 1 C0111i-ib1ito1;~ si Labourers oli A~uipF(iri1i.r in E(iiis Nzoia District, Keyla (co- i fion1 aiid Lhe 7j-an.~firi1iaLio1iof SoliIli 1'1Ji-icn. Slic also tvritcs as a as authored, 1994.), Seamis aiid NiiLrilioii at the Kenya Coas1 (I 995), journalist on current alliiirs in Africa and lias bccii cii(wpI n ? and ~eipiCo(is1: ~ob1t11istint1 ~+m/xc[ixs(cdiiccl, I 998). mcclia consultant. During the 1994 general clcctions 111 South .-VI ica, she scr\-ccl LIS ;i Unitctl Nations obscrvcr. Bas de Gaay Fortman holds MAS in Ikoiioniics xntl Law. His P1i.D. dissertation \vas on Tlieogl of Coiilpelitiori l3~li~~~:n Coiyioizlnlioiz qf Ecoiiv~iiic,Politictil niid Le& Priiicifhs ( 1966). He iaiiglii ;it (lit 1:1-(.i*IJiiiscrsity iii Aiiistcrhiii aiitl \\';is Ac.tiiig I-Ic.;itl 01' l~~~ollolllics:it I II(* UIli\*C~I.Sii)~01. z~lllll~i~lill I,lls;lk;l ( 1967-7 1). I:rom 197 1 to 1977 lie \vas a memlicr of the Sccontl Cliambcr of llutcli Pnrliamcnt as 1,caclcr of the Kntlical Party (l'I'R), at that time participating in ;i coalition government. In I97 1 lie bccniiic I'rofcssor 01' Economic Dcvclopmcnt at the Institutc of Social Studies (I'hc Hiigii~).In 1977 lie \\';is ap- pointcd to tlic Cliair of l'olitical Economy tlicrc'. Until 1991 lie also sc~.vcdas a iiicmlicr 01' tlic First Cliambcr of the 1)LitcIi Statcs-C;cncl.al. I-Iis ~~lililications:il.(: ill Ille fìcltls 01' ccollonlic order, the iiolitical cconomy of go\~riimcntancl jurislirudcncc, ancl ol'sccurity ancl ronllict. With tlic cconomistJ. Tinlicrgcn lie founded the Association of I3conomists for 1'c;icc. I-Iis current s cl cl rc sc arc11 i II t c re s is arc t a t c fo ri11 ati o 11 ;i 11 is i II t cgra t i o II, a ncl hlarcel Rutten is a human gcographcr ancl senior rcscarchcr cl cl projccts on ccoiioiiiic, social and cultural rights. His Intcst book at t hc Afr i ka-S t LI i c cc' n t ru ni, I, I' i c 11. I-IC li ;is donc L- s t c 11s ivr (with U. Klcin Golclcwi.jk) is God and lhe Goorl~Global Kconoiiy iii riiitl long-tcrm rcscarcli o11 clc~~clopmcntissues, watcr aiid soil ti Ciililicalionril 13e~:~p-li~~e( 199s). m anagc m c II t and i a ncl t c II u rr i i1 Iic n)~,es peci a I 1y i ii t lic SIaasai districts. Among his major pulilications arc: SeIli~ig n of Gerti Hesseling is lega1 scholar ant1 clic1 lier P1i.D. on coiisti- JlSnlrIi 10 Bigi I'oi~-y: IIIP I"wJ qf lhe Iiidiuirlirnli~u~ioli tutional law ancl political history in Scncgal, which vas p~ib- L [z ndo~uiimli ip a111 oiig Ili e 111n tisti i Paslo ra lisls of KqjintIo Districl, lisliccl as fIi.ríoire 1301i~ic/uctlii Siii6qaI - I~i.sli/iiLioii.s,Dwib et s'ociiti Kc.p~,1890-1990 ( 1992), ancl The Diver.~i!il?J-DeveLo/)inenl: Esstys (Paris 1985). She lias a long research cspcriciicc in West Al'rica, in iTToi10r q/; Juli K/ei/i/)~/iiii/ig( 1997, co-cclitrcl). In 1997 lie wxi a par[ icularly concerning lancl tc-iiiirc, clcccntrnlizatioii proccsscs $1;. 1'coordinator 01' tlic I Ineke van Kessel is a historian aiid a rcscarclicr at the Afrika- Studi cccII t ru ni, L c id c 11, s 11 ccial izi iig i ii t lic rccc II t his tory of SoiitIi Africa. I-Icr doctoral thcsis on intcriial anti-aparthcicl rc- sistancc in South Africa in the 1980s ivas Iiiiblisliccl in 1998 untlrr tlic title 'I1~1~o)id0111- ~I'iltIesI IIizwi~i.~?[lie UiiiLd IIciiiocrtiLic