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Divination and the Construction of Gender in the Late Roman Republic

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Divination and the Construction of Gender in the Late Roman Republic Engendering the Future: Divination and the Construction of Gender in the Late Roman Republic Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy January 2018 Chris Mowat (PGR) School of History, Classics and Archaeology Newcastle University Abstract This study brings together constructions of divination and gender in the Late Roman Republic, and argues how each influenced the performative nature of the other. Divination is usually understood as a standardised process of interpreting varying signs, through which a person can gain access to knowledge otherwise unattainable, often relating to the future. To construct divination as performative considers how the different elements of divinatory traditions, including, but not limited to, the identity of the divinatory actors, are the very factors that confirm the correctness of the interpretation and thus the reality of divination. This thesis argues how the performativity of gender informed, but was also informed by, the performativity of divination in the Roman world, in a reciprocal and inseparable relationship. The first chapter focuses on Cicero’s De Diuinatione, a mid-first century BC text that presents two sets of opposing views for and against divination. My reading shows how gender is axiomatic to – but never explicit in – these opposing viewpoints. Four chapters follow, each taking a specific divinatory tradition as a case study, and exploring constructions of gender across them: the Sibylline Books, as written prophetic guides for the State; the construction of the birth of an intersex child as a prodigy under the Republic, and the ritual response it garnered; the sacrificial specialism of individual diviners, specifically through the story of a woman named Martha; and, finally, the construction of prophetic dreaming in the Roman Republic. Although the chapters in this thesis advance different arguments, taken as a whole they enhance the understanding of the relationship between gender and divination in the Roman world. Roman women – and men – succeeded in being able to construct a performative identity within a diverse body of divinatory traditions, enabling them to communicate with the supernatural and assert a distinctive relationship with it. i ii Acknowledgements Towards the end of my time writing this thesis on divinatory traditions, a newspaper-style horoscope told me: “very few people achieve success single-handedly; even the most visionary, proactive and determined person needs some support from others along the way”. Regardless of “belief” in such a tradition, it is certainly the case that never a truer word was spoken. This PhD has been a journey, some or all of which has been shared with so many people, from so many backgrounds, to whom I would like to extend my deepest gratitude. First and foremost thanks must go to my parents and my brother, without whose unwavering support – emotional, financial and (in times of particular clumsiness) physical – this thesis could not have been. Extra thanks also to my dad, Alex Mowat, for proofreading every wrod. This project was also funded in part by the Max-Weber-Kolleg, Universität Erfurt, as part of the Kolleg-Forschergruppe “Religiöse Individualisierung in historischer Perspektive”, headed by Prof Dr Martin Mulsow and Prof Dr Jörg Rüpke. The colleagues and friends I met during my brief stay at the Kolleg challenged and continue to challenge me to think in new ways. My supervisory team has, without a doubt, been the best I could ask for, and each has gone above and beyond supervisor duties in helping me put this together. On top of everything, Dr Federico Santangelo has been there to resolve all my worries, no matter how inane; Prof Jörg Rüpke has asked just the right questions at just the right time to open new doors of thinking; Dr David Creese has shown the utmost patience as I try to constantly split my infinitives. Countless colleagues and friends, in Newcastle and further afield have listened to and engaged in discussion about various chapters and bits of research. To name a few: Mareike Ahlers, Holly Atkinson, Claudio Barone, Lizzie Cooper, Lucy Cummings, Drew Dalton, Gorka Etxebarria, Gianluca Foschi, Rachel Halse, Victoria Hughes, Emma Nicholson, Rahul Bjørn Parsons, Michail Raftakis, Veit Rosenberger, Claire Stocks, Emiliano Urciuoli, Rebecca van Hove, Linda Wimmer, Jaap Wisse, Emilio Zucchetti, and all the Miss Spiritual Trampses; especial thanks must also go to Lauren Emslie for being a sounding board and confidante, day and night, for Cicero, divination and general navigation of life and the PhD. (If I haven’t mentioned you at this point, you should probably consider it a snub). A final shout out of thanks should go to every friend, acquaintance and stranger in the pub who has patiently listened while I have gone off on another rant about gender. iii iv Table of Contents Page List of Tables vii A Note on the Texts viii Chapter One: Introduction 1 1.1 Engendering the Future 1 1.2 Divining Definitions 2 1.3 Sex, Bodies and Beyond 10 1.4 The Performing Arts 12 1.5 Fabia 15 1.6 The Structure of this Thesis 19 Chapter Two: Marcus 22 2.1 Arguing with Oneself 22 2.2 Women as Diviners I: The World According to Quintus 25 2.3 Women as Diviners II: The World According to Marcus 31 2.4 Making an Example of Cassandra 33 2.5 Cicero and the Pythia – a Deceptive Construction? 36 2.6 Nothing but an Old Wives’ Tale? 39 2.7 Women as Diviners III: The World According to Cicero 44 Chapter Three: Sibyl(s) 46 3.1 Lost in a Book 46 3.2 Death of the Sibyl 50 3.3 The Creation of a Sibyl 53 3.4 The ‘I’ in Sibyl 58 3.5 Whose Line Is It, Anyway? 62 3.6 Sex and the Sibyl 67 3.7 Aeneas’ Adventures Underground 70 3.8 What’s in a Name? 75 Chapter Four: Callo/n 77 v 4.1 A Tale of Two Sexes 77 4.2 It’s All Part of the Process 81 4.3 One Is Not Born a Woman 82 4.4 Gender Troubles 86 4.5 Crimen Punishment 92 4.6 How to Get Away with Murder 97 4.7 One Hundred Years of Intersexuality 103 4.8 Bodies that Matter? 105 Chapter Five: Martha 107 5.1 Beyond Official Priesthoods 107 5.2 Why Is Martha a Woman? 110 5.3 Free Movement of Peoples 118 5.4 Acceptably Foreign 121 5.5 You Can’t Handle the Truth 125 5.6 Mulier Necans 129 5.7 Well, That’s Just (Stereo)typical 131 Chapter Six: Calpurnia 133 6.1 Calpurnia and the Disruption of the Roman State 133 6.2 Interpreting Structures 137 6.3 Dreams as Prodigies 140 6.4 Putting Calpurnia Back in the Picture 143 6.5 Comparing Calpurnia I: Lucan’s Tragical Dreamers 144 6.6 Comparing Calpurnia II: The Many and the Few 148 6.7 Comparing Calpurnia III: Cicero’s Concession 152 6.8 The Personal Is Political 159 Chapter Seven: Fabia, or: a Conclusion 161 Bibliography 165 vi List of Tables Page Table 1 The life of a prodigy (adapted from Corbeill 2010b, 84). 81 Table 2 Intersex prodigies recorded by Livy and Julius Obsequens. 84 vii A Note on the Texts For ease of reading, I have used the standard Anglicised versions of Roman, and particularly Greek names, so Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, not Titus Livius and Dionysios of Halikarnassos. Where relevant the titles of works are given in their standard Latin derivation, as they are given in the Oxford Classical Dictionary (with an English translation in brackets when necessary); similarly, abbreviations follow the Oxford Classical Dictionary. All Greek and Latin texts, unless otherwise stated, are derived from the Loeb Classical Library series editions. Finally, all translations, unless otherwise stated, are my own. viii Chapter One: Introduction 1.1 Engendering the Future Cassandra. Pythia. Sibyl(s). Tiresias (and, by extension, Manto). When one thinks of individual diviners in the ancient world, there is a heavy Greek bent to the answers. Examples can be found in Rome’s mythic past – Tanaquil, for one – but even these often have a foreign flavour to them: in Tanaquil’s case she is explicitly portrayed as an Etruscan who comes to Rome.1 One line of reasoning for this is that, as John North once noted, there appears to be a lack of named individuals in Roman divination: though the Romans had extensive and, to some extent, embedded divinatory traditions underpinning their political and religious systems, emphasis was placed on collegial positions and offices, rather than on any particular person.2 But these traditions, positions and offices, as impersonal as they seem, had specific (though often implicit) identity-based rules signalling who was “allowed” to practise, and to be successful at, divination. It is these identity markers that make up the individuals we can and do find in Roman divination. But with these diviners, what is also unusual for listing individuals (real or mythical) in the ancient world is that one also finds a bent towards women. This is not exclusive, and of course a number of men can be found in the surviving traditions: Calchas and Mopsus on the Greek side; Tages and even Romulus, as augur, on the Italic. But despite the fact that this is not (on the surface) a gender exclusive area – and indeed perhaps because of this fact – there are very specifically gendered rules that form divinatory traditions. In this thesis, then, I am aiming to uncover those rules of gender, as they stood in the late Roman Republic. Who was allowed to divine? How did their gender role play into their presumed ability as well as the sanctioning of their practice? In what ways did gender play an implicit, if important part in the construction and performance of the divinatory traditions of the period? Before we can start to answer some of these questions, there are a number of concepts that, though fluid, must be given at least a working definition at the outset of this thesis.
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