BSW-044 TRIBALS IN NORTH Indira Gandhi EASTERN AND National Open University School of Social Work NORTHERN

Block 1 TRIBALS OF THE NORTHEAST REGION-I UNIT 1 Tribes of 5 UNIT 2 Tribes of 24 UNIT 3 Tribes of 37 UNIT 4 Tribes of 45 EXPERT COMMITTEE

Prof. Virginius Xaxa Dr. Archana Kaushik Dr. Saumya Director – Tata Institute of Associate Professor Faculty Social Sciences Department of Social Work School of Social Work Uzanbazar, Guwahati Delhi University IGNOU, New Delhi Prof. Hilarius Beck Dr. Ranjit Tigga Dr. G. Mahesh Centre for Community Department of Tribal Studies Faculty Organization and Development Indian Social Institute School of Social Work Practice Lodhi Road, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi School of Social Work Prof. Gracious Thomas Dr. Sayantani Guin Deonar, Mumbai Faculty Faculty Prof. Tiplut Nongbri School of Social Work School of Social Work Centre for the Study of Social IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi Systems Dr. Rose Nembiakkim Dr. Ramya Jawaharlal Nehru University Director Faculty New Delhi School of Social Work School of Social Work IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi COURSE PREPARATION TEAM

Block Preparation Team Programme Coordinator Unit 1 Bro. Sunny Dr. Rose Nembiakkim Unit 2 Bro. Jerry Director Unit 3 Dr. Joseph Kuba School of Social Work Unit 4 Dr. D. Laloo IGNOU PRINT PRODUCTION

Mr. Kulwant Singh Assistant Registrar (P) SOSW, IGNOU

August, 2018 © Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2018 ISBN-978-93-87237-72-8 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University. Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University Courses may be obtained from the University’s Office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi -110 068. Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by Director, School of Social Work. Laser Typeset by : Graphic Printers, Mayur Vihar, New Delhi BLOCK INTRODUCTION

The block titled ‘Tribals of the Northeast Region -I’ consists of four units which highlights the tribal population in the four northeast states of India. The language, culture as well as religious practices have also been discussed. Major tribal groups that are found in the four states of the Northeast region of India have been discussed in this block namely: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, and Meghalaya. Unit 1 is about the ‘Tribes of Arunachal Pradesh’. It throws light about the people within the state while at the same time describing the tourism facility, the flora and fauna, the resources, economy as well as the tradition and culture of the different tribal population existent in the state. Unit 2 about the ‘Tribes of Assam’ introduces some of the major tribal communities that are found in the region along with their unique features and characteristics. The unit also describes the various cultural differences existing among the different tribal communities of Assam and also the interventional methods used for the development of the tribal communities. Unit 3 is on the ‘Tribes of Manipur’ and provides information about the tribal customs and the change and continuity within the tribal society in Manipur. It also highlights the concerns confronting the tribal society as well as the ethnic group and insurgency. Unit 4 is about the ‘Tribes of Meghalaya’. The unit provides information about the three major tribes namely: Khasi, Jaintia and the Garo Tribe of Meghalaya. It also discusses the Land System prevalent in the region and throws light on the Matrilineal System of the tribes of Meghalaya while talking about the social life of the tribes. 4th Blank UNIT 1 TRIBES OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH

Structure 1.0 Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 About the People 1.3 Tribes of Adi, Nyishi and Apatani 1.4 Tribes of Tagin, Mishmi, Khampti and Nocte 1.5 Tribes of Wancho, Tangsa, Singpho, Monpa, Sherdukpen and Aka 1.6 Tribes of Tangam, Khowa, Khampa, Miji, Padam, Minyong, Memba and Yobin 1.7 Let Us Sum Up 1.8 Further Readings and References

1.0 OBJECTIVES

In this Unit, we will learn about the tribal communities of Arunachal Pradesh. After introducing the tribals in the State, we shall discuss the flora and fauna, the resources available, the economic state as well as the tradition and culture along with the tourism of the State. The Unit also discusses in brief other minor tribes found in the State. By the end of this Unit, you should be able to know:

 Briefly the tribal scenario in the State;

 The resources in the State;

 The socio-economic life of the tribals in the State; and

 The tradition, beliefs and customs of the tribals in the State.

1.1 INTRODUCTION Arunachal Pradesh, the land of the sunrise, is situated in the North-East of India. An imaginary line called the Mac-Mohan line determined the Northern and the North- Eastern political boundary of India and of Arunachal Pradesh with , now under China. The eastern boundary coincides with the boundary. The boundary of and of India coincides in the Western part of Arunachal Pradesh. Internally Arunachal Pradesh shares the southern and western boundary with the states of Assam and . The first Indian soil to greet the sun is at Dong in Lohit district of Arunachal Pradesh with the religious faith of the vast majority of the territory’s people based on the worship of the sun and moon. The erstwhile North East Frontier Agency (NEFA) which attained the status of a Union Territory on January 20, 1972 and was renamed Arunachal Pradesh achieved full- fledged Statehood on February 20, 1987. Its capital, Itanagar is located in Papumpare district which was once a seat of historical importance. Arunachal Pradesh has an area of 83,743 Sq. km. which is four times bigger than the area of Manipur, and Meghalaya, eight times of and 500 sq. kms. more than Assam. The state of Madhya Pradesh has the biggest area in India and 5 Tribals of the Northeast Arunachal Pradesh is one-fifth of its area. It is twice as big as Switzerland, Belgium and Region -I Denmark. While it has the largest land area among the North Eastern states, its density of population, 13 persons per sq.km, is the lowest not only in the region but in the entire country. Arunachal Pradesh’s Females to Males ratio of 893 is below the regional average 936. It has the highest ratio of land distribution per person in the region and in the country. It is 7.63 hectares of land to a person in Arunachal where as it is 0.67 hectares for North East and 0.31 for all India. The state has 16 districts: Changlang, Lower Dibang Valley, Upper Dibang Valley, East Kameng, West Kameng, East Siang, West Siang, Upper Siang, Lohit, Lower Subansiri, Upper Subansiri, Papum Pare, Tawang, Tirap, Kurung Kumey and Anjaw. Arunachal Pradesh’s topography has hills, mountains, valleys and plains. Hills and mountains predominate. The great spreads to the East and covers most of the Northern part of Arunachal Pradesh. Arunachal Pradesh with about 1,097,968 populations keeps perfect harmony with nature, having its own lifestyle, culture, festivals and dances. The population of Arunachal is predominantly tribal, belonging to the Indo-Mongoloid stock. According to census 2011 figures, scheduled tribes form 68.78 per cent of the population as against an average of 8.6 per cent for the whole of India. There are about 26 major tribes, divided into as many as 110 sub tribes. The principal tribes are Adi, Nishi, Apatani, Tagin, Mishmi, Khampti Nocte, Wancho, Tangshangng, Singpho, Monpa, Sherdu-Kpen and Aka. These tribes speak their own dialects, though none have a script of their own.

1.2 ABOUT THE PEOPLE The entire population of Arunachal Pradesh is divided into three cultural groups based on socio-political religious affinities. The first groups of tribes profess . They include the Monpas, Sherdukpens, Membas, Khamptis and Singhpos. The second group consists of tribes like the Akas, Khowas, Mijis, Bangnis, Solungs, Nishi, Apatanis, Hill Miris, Adis, Mishmis, Tangsas, etc. These tribes practice a form of religion which may be called magico-religious beliefs and practices. The third group of tribes are Wanchos and the Noctes who believe in a sort of animist religion and practice head hunting. The WONCHOS inhabit the south-western part of the Tirap district bordering Nagaland. They are fond of wearing decorated headgears and heavy strings of beads on neck, arms, legs and ears. The NOCTES inhabit the central part of the Tirap district, to the north of the Wanchos. These people have long and traditional contact with the people of the neighboring plains. Many of them are Vaishnavites. TANGSHANGS is a common name of a group of people consisting of the Lungchang, Moklong, Yugli, Lungri, Have, Moshong, Rundra, Takhak, Ponthi and Longphi. These tribes occupy the Changlang district along the Indo-Myanmar front.

6 The SINGPHOS live on the banks of Teang and Noa Dihing rivers and extend towards the southeast into the land of the Khamptis. They are a fine athletic race with developed Tribes of Arunachal Mongolian features. Their men are expert blacksmiths and the ladies are good weavers. Pradesh They are Buddhists. The KHAMPTIS live to the south of the Lohit district along the Kamlang, Dehing and Tengapani rivers. The Khamptis are good craftsmen, enterprising traders and skillful agriculturists. They are Buddhists. There are three main groups of the MISHMIS, viz. IDU, MIJU or KAMAN and DIGARU or TARAON. The Idus also called Chulikata by the plain people live in Dibang valley district. It is by the manner of hair doing that the Idus are distinguished from other tribes. The front hair is combed down on the brow and then cut straight across from ear to ear. The back hair is collected in a knot. The Mijus live in the Lohit district, east of the Taraons. The Kamans, unlike the Idus, keep their hair long. Agriculture is one of the main occupations of these people. The Digarus call themselves as Taraon. They are good agriculturists. The tribes of the East, West and Upper Siang districts are mainly classified under the general title of ‘ADIS’. They may be divided into three main groups: GALOS, PADAMS and MINYONGS, each of which can again be sub-divided into a number of sub- groups. Along the International frontier in the Tuting area live the KHAMBAS. To the north along the banks of the Sipi river extends the TAGINS. The HILL MIRIS inhabit the lower Kamla valley. The APATANIS are settled in a valley in the Centre of the Lower Subansiri district. The NYISHIS are divided into several exogamous clans. The Nyishi men keep their hair long and tie it in a knot just above the forehead and they wear cane bands around the waist. The HRUSSOS are commonly called Akas which means ‘painted’ for they have a custom of painting their faces with black marks. The KHOWAS (Bugun) occupy 7 villages in Tenga and Bichum vally in the neighbourhood of the Sherdukpens. The PUROIKS (Sulungs) live mainly in the high altitude of East Kameng districts. The MIJIS call themselves Dhamai. They celebrate many festivals. Arunachal Pradesh is one of the floristically richest states in India and possesses the largest number of flowering plants. This botanically rich state has many interesting plants including botanical curiosities, rare and endangered plants, economically important plants, new records and new species. Check Your Progress I Note: Use the space provided for your answer. 1) List the tribes of Arunachal Pradesh......

...... 7 Tribals of the Northeast Region -I Flora and Fauna Arunachal Pradesh is endowed with number of rare and endangered flora. Its forests are rich in magnificent trees of high economic value, the state is also abound with a number of ferns, a large number of bamboo species, conifers, rhododendrons and other interesting and wild ornamentals. The state is proud of having about 525 species of orchids which adorn the land and the land-scape. Arunachal Pradesh is also home to a number of medicinal plants. The rich and diverse forest types provide natural shelter, food and habitat for wide varieties of wild animals. It is perhaps the state which harbors four major cats, i.e. Tiger. Leopard, Clouded-leopard and the Snow-leopard and also the rare felins species like the golden cats and the marbled cats. Seven species of primates and all the three antelopes are also found here. Arunachal Pradesh is the only place in India where Takin is found. The state is also rich in aquatic fauna and is a paradise for anglers. Mithun is a semi domesticated animal revered by the people of the state. Resources Arunachal Pradesh’s economy has been primarily agrarian and forest-based. The state has rich mineral deposits of Limestone, Dolomite, Graphite, Coal, Marble, Oil and Natural Gas besides many untapped Mineral Resources. Coal occurrences are known in all the districts and Limestone has been found in Kameng, Subansiri, Siang and Lohit districts and White Clay occurs in Dibang districts. In Tirap brine wells and salt springs are found. Mica and Beryl have also been reported from the Yachuli-Ziro belt in Lower Subansiri. Prospects for petroleum and natural gas are very bright. About 60 per cent of the state is covered with rich forests and is known over the world for its rich biodiversity. There is abundance of Bamboo Cane, Orchids besides economically important tree species. The forests are rich in medicinal plants also. The state with its many rivers and their tributaries provides immense potential for generation of hydro-power. The land is mostly mountainous with Himalayan ranges along the northern borders criss-crossed with mountain ranges running north south. These divide the state into five river valleys namely, the Kameng, the Subansiri, the Siang, the Lohit and the Tirap. All these rivers are fed by snows from the Himalayas and countless rivers and rivulets. The other important rivers are, Namjangchu, Tawangchu, Papum Pare, Siyom, Simang, Tsering, Yamne, Sisar and Dibang. The mightiest of these rivers is Siang, called Tsang- po in Tibet (China), which becomes Brahmaputra after it is joined by the Dibang and the Lohit in the plains of Assam. Economy Few decades past, the entire economy of the people was dependent on shifting cultivation and barter was the main medium of exchange. Almost everyone is basically a farmer and women are the main toilers in the field. Accelerated work of the agriculture with better technical know-how, modern implements, better quality of seed and manures has started changing the entire system. With this disappeared the old relation between consumption and production. Tradition and Culture The Sruti and the Smriti are equally the vehicles by which historic tradition has been 8 preserved and cultural continuity is maintained in the area in oral literature. Written records for several centuries exist among the Buddhist groups. Generation after Tribes of Arunachal generation, the major happenings in the tribe are versified and compressed in a style Pradesh almost completely different from the spoken language; they are memorized and preserved for the posterity. The people of this rich and colourful area are of many faiths and speak many tongues. The Nyishis regard the Sun-Goddess as the chief divinity while the Sun and the Moon are worshipped as the Donyi and Polo by the Adis. The dance and the song are an integral part of cultural life of the tribes of Arunachal. Tourism Part of the Eastern Himalayan ranges, Arunachal Pradesh is the most picturesque tourist destination of India. With its numerous turbulent streams, roaring rivers, deep gorges, lofty mountains, snow- clad peaks, thousands of species of flora and fauna and an endless variation of scenic beauty, there is tremendous potential for development of tourism in Arunachal Pradesh especially adventure and eco-tourism. Arunachal has vast potential for offering various attractions to the tourists like river rafting, angling, hiking, trekking, mountaineering, hang gliding, snow skiing etc. For the wildlife enthusiasts and nature lovers, Arunachal has a number of wildlife sanctuaries, national parks and biosphere reserves; its lush green tropical forests teeming with wildlife.

1.3 TRIBES OF ADI, NYISHI AND APATANI Adi tribe of Arunachal Pradesh were known as Abor. They are concentrated in the Siang district. Adi tribe also belongs to Tibeto-Burman groups considering their language, tradition, culture and other aspects. The Adis have two main divisions the Boeums and the Bomis. Under each there are a number of sub-tribes such as Minyongs, Karkos, Shimonga, Bomdo, Janbos, Panggis, Boguns, Padams, Milangs and so on. The Gallongs are another group of Adis having seven sub-tribes. By nature Adis are democratic having unique sense of history. They have a well organised village council called Kebangs. Polyandry is unknown but polygamy is practiced in Adi society. Adi women are very good weavers and Adi handicrafts are of high standard. Agriculture is the main profession and they prefer primitive jhum cultivation although they are gradually taking up settled cultivation recently. ‘Mopin’ is one of the principal festivals of the Adi tribe. The festival is celebrated for five days usually from fourth to eighth of April every year. This is more or less a cultivation festival like Nabanna of , Bahag of Assam, Pongal and Onam of South India. Tribes of Nyishi The term Nishi or Nishang is derived from the word “Ni” which means “human being”. The origin of the entire tribal group is being traced to mythical figure called Abo Tani. He is believed to be of supernatural nature, while the first human being was At Nia, from whom Takr, the legendary ancestor of the Nyishis descended. Takr had three sons called Dopum, Dodum and Dol and these have given their names to three main branches of the Nishi group. Within each of the three main branches Dopum, Dodum and Dol there are several sub-branches which may be described as phratries and these in turn are divided into clans. 9 Tribals of the Northeast The Nyishi religion begins with a primary belief in the existence of the Wiyus, the spirits Region -I and the thought that the word is full of Wiyus. There are Wiyus in the jungle, on the lofty hills as well as in the shadowy recesses and inaccessible caves on the top of the tall trees, in the river and inside and outside the house. When the rains are incessant and the sky gets stormy with lowering clouds and when gale flows across the hills, the Wiyus in their hunting dresses walk all over the world in search of the souls of men. There are the Orums, the ancestral ghosts who return from the land of dead to carry the things they had forgotten to take with them. Both the Wiyus and the Orums make the people sick and even cause death, unless appeased with appropriate sacrifices. However, the Wiyus and the Orums are not supreme. Ane Duini is the supreme goddess who controls the universe. No one can achieve anything in this world without her will and kindness. Duini also decides the fate of a man, whether he will be rich or poor. The name of Ane Duini is sung in songs on all important occasions. Below the rank of the supreme mother goddess, there is chains of spirits known as Wiyus. The Nyishis are comparatively poor and have little cultural tradition of arts and crafts. Only few of them know weaving though there is some work in bark fibre. In agriculture the Nyishis still depend on slash and burn method. Major crop from Nishi field is paddy besides , sweet potato, etc. Nyishis keep mithuns, pigs, fowl, goat, etc. for the purpose of getting milk and meat. The Nyishis are fond of different types of ornaments. Most important and valued ornament for the Nyishis is a Tibetan metal bell known as Maje. The Nyishis have four types of dances – Buiyasodon, Ropsodon, Northon and a dance performed as part of the worship of a spirit called Yab. Tribes of Apatani The Apatanis are settled in Lower Subansiri district and known for their intelligence, applicability and traditional technology. Their neighbours and the people dwelling on the plains of Assam close to Lower Subansiri district often refer to them as Sardarjis of Arunachal Pradesh, firstly because of their hair style and secondly the Apatanis are known for their commercial knowledge similar to those of Sikhs. They were responsible for bringing the pashmina wool of Tibet to NEFA and carrying Assam’s silk to Tibet and NEFA. Apatanis may be the only hill tribe who are perfectly commercial and who never lose transactions. Apatanis are also known for their agricultural technology. Apatani is one of the few hill tribes who prepare irrigated or terrace cultivation instead of jhumming. Apatanis’ religion is a world of spirits and deities. They believe in a Supreme being who is supposed to be creator of all. The Apatanis believe that all the lives are created out of water and by evolution gradually the homo sapiens were created. The term Apatani probably was created from Abotani the Supreme God as per Dono Polo religion who created this universe and the life on it. In addition to the Supreme being there are good and evils spirits. To carry out the rituals the Apatanis have their priests known as Aaiah Galang and Lile Puioh who perform the rituals as a part of the priestly team. Apatanis have many major and minor festivals. The major festivals are Dri festival, Morom festival and Ropi ceremony. Their festivals are mostly based on agriculture. The Dri festival is celebrated sometime in the month of June for a good paddy crop and for protection of the paddy crop from pests. The Morom festival is celebrated in the 10 month of January-February to ensure communal welfare and prosperity. The Ropi Tribes of Arunachal ceremony is basically associated with war. This ceremony is performed when a war Pradesh party was successful in killing an enemy. Check Your Progress II Note: Use the space provided for your answer. 1) Write three major features of the Adi, Nyishi and Apatani tribes......

1.4 TRIBES OF TAGIN, MISHMI, KHAMPTI AND NOCTE The Tagins are Indo-Mongoloid tribe. They speak a dialect belonging to Tibeto-Burman group. The Tagins believe in one Supreme creator, called Abotani, who created this earth and supposed to be the ancestor of human beings and tigers. Besides the Supreme Being they have a number of deities like Chonglotago the deity of the earth, Daulotago the deity of the sky, Chenkitrimet and Dokiriment their wives and Chongdur and Dodur their brothers who ultimately became the priests. There are other benevolent deities like togung, Ponung, Mindik and Rabdik who are responsible for joy and happiness. In addition they believe in a number of evil spirits residing in trees, sky, spring, rivers, hills, etc who are responsible for disease, death and miseries. Their culture, prayer festivals, etc. revolves around all these deities and spirits. The Tagins are basically agriculturists. They live on agricultural products and meat they get by hunting wild animals and by killing domestic animals like mithun, pig, etc. They follow jhuming. Besides paddy which is the main agricultural crop they produce , pulses, vegetables, etc. Tribes of Mishmi Mishmi tribe mostly settled in Lohit district of Arunachal Pradesh are one of the Mongoloid tribes of Tibeto-Burman origin. The Mishmi society is divided into a number of exogamous clans and the larger clans are again divided into sub-clans. The members of clans trace their origin from single ancestor. The three major Mishmi clans are Idus, Taraons and Kamans. Religious values of Mishmi’s has high philosophical value and can be compared with those of Rig Veda. They also believe in spirits both malevolent and benevolent and follow a sort of magic ritual too. The different groups of Mishmis have different names for the supreme god. Idu call Him Inni while the Taraons and Kamans call Him as Jab Malu and Matai respectively. They believe the supreme God is beyond all human propitiations, and, therefore, no sacrifices or offerings are made to Him. But his name is invariably invoked on all sacrificial and ritualistic occasions. It is also believed that in case of death due to accident or unnatural death the soul becomes an evil spirit. 11 Tribals of the Northeast The religious rites and sacrifices of the Mishmis are conducted by the priests who are Region -I called “Goak” or “Kambrang”. The Idus recognise two classes of priests who have different functions. There are senior experienced priests who officiate at various ceremonies. The others are medicine men concerned with causes and cure of diseases more or less vaidyas. Mishmi may be termed as a festive tribe or tribe of joy particularly since they believe any day of the year is auspicious for a ceremony if provision exists and animals and birds available for sacrifice. Name of the festival and upto certain extend varied from clan to clan. Di-Batai is the main festival of the Taraon clan of Mishmi tribe. Tamla or Takka is a festival celebrated by sacrificing animals every year to please village deity who protects the village. Reh is one of the most important individual festivals celebrated by Idus for six days. The festival is so expensive that this can only be celebrated once or twice in life time. During the festival outsiders are not allowed to enter the village. Most of the festivals of Idus are related to agriculture. Mishmis are an exception to sense of village community which is very strong among other tribes of Northeast. A Mishmi village is merely a scattered collection of houses. Obviously village chief system or autocratic or democratic ruling system is almost absent in their society. Handloom and handicrafts are in the blood of . Spinning, extraction of fibre and weaving are work of Mishmi women while the men are famous for cane and bamboo work. Tribes of Khampti The Khamptis are a quite, industrious and progressive people of Shan or Tai stock who migrated from the Bor-Khampti country near the source of the Irawaddy about 200 years ago. The Khampti tribe is populating the south-eastern Arunachal Pradesh, in Lohit district on the southern bank of the Brahmaputra in the vicinity of Sadiya of the Assam valley. Khamptis means tied to the spot or Gold spot (Kham=stick to, Ti=spot; also Kham=Gold). When they entered Assam, first they settled round Tengapani. Later on they captured Sadiya from the Ahom Governor, the Sadiya Khowa Gohain, and the Khampt chief himself became the Khowa Gohain. The tribe thus settled itself round Sadiya. The Khampti language is an Indo-Chinese tongue of the Tai family. They have an old traditional script of their own. The Khamptis are far advanced of all the Arunachal tribes in knowledge, arts and civilisation. They are Buddhists and have regular establishments of priests well versed in the recondite mysteries of their religion. The Khamptis have two great religious festivals in the year, one to celebrate the birth and the other to mourn the death of Gautama. In agriculture the Khamptis are advanced. They have acquired the agricultural pattern to the standard of their Assamese neighbours. They grow paddy, mustard, potato and vegetables. They rear cows, buffaloes and other domestic animals. The milking of cow is known to them. The bear, which they call Thon, is a favourite beverage among them. Khamptis are business minded people. 12 In marriage Khamptis observe the clan exogamy and tribal endogamy. The bachelor’s Tribes of Arunachal dormitories for the young women are in existence. The young girl on attaining puberty is Pradesh sent to the dormitory. The dormitory is administered by old maidens. Monogamy is a rule but the chiefs do have more than one wife. In case of polygamy the first wedded wife is considered the lady of the house. The cross-cousin marriage is allowed. The society is patriarchal. In inheritance, the wealth is distributed equally among the sons. Their society is divided into social hierarchy. Highest is the chieftain’s family; then the priest class which is a noble class respected by all other classes as it is concerned with performance of religious rituals; third is the class of common people. Tribes of Nocte Bulk of the Nocte people are settled in Tirap district of Arunachal Pradesh. The Nocte society is patriarchal, patrilineal and patrilocal. It is organised under chiefs each controlling a number of villages, and the major chief receive tribute from subordinate villages. The chief is called Lowang. The chief and his descendants form a separate class called Lowangjat, while the commoners are called Sanajat. Each of these two classes consists of many clans or lineage group. A striking feature of the Nocte community is its Chums or physical divisions of the village. All clans within a particular ‘Chum’ have a common name. The Noctes believe in the existence of a supreme being whom they variously call Janban, Jongban or Tesong, who is ambivalent having both good and evil aspects. He causes miseries and troubles as well as brings joy and prosperity to human beings. They also believe in a number of spirits and deities. The benevolent spirits and deities dwell in houses and protect human being from sorrow and miseries. They are worshipped regularly offering food and other items in order to get their support to fight the malevolent spirits. The Noctes came under the influence of through Vaisnava movement in Assam. Vaisnavism was carried to the Nocte area by one Naga Naruttam about 250 years age when Ahoms were the rulers of Assam. The Noctes believe that after death, the soul substance called Mang or Ja Khang, returns to Ulim or Balum a place in the sky. It may take the shape of a sky and appear on the day when the dead body is disposed of. In case of abnormal deaths they believe that the soul turns into evil spirits. The Nocte family consists of father, mother and their unmarried children. The sons except the eldest one leave the ancestral house after marriage and establish their new houses. The married sons are however permitted to stay in the ancestral house with their wives if there is sufficient accommodation for them till they attain parenthood. The father is the head of the family and he is succeeded by his eldest son. Religious Ceremonies One of the most important ceremonies of Noctes is called Jauban Chowom. It is performed once or twice in a year in each village. Time of the performance of the ceremony varies a good deal from one place to another and is connected with harvesting of . During the ceremony the rice beer or ‘Zu’ is prepared and kept in the house of the priest. Persons from neighbouring villages are not allowed to enter the village during the ceremony. Duidam is the ceremony performed by the priest near the village 13 Tribals of the Northeast gate by offering chicken to spirit Tesang and Sangaam to save villagers from calamities Region -I and diseases. The principal festival of Noctes is Loku, celebrated around the month of July-August, just after harvesting finger millet. The word ‘Loky’ is derived from ‘Life’ meaning to drive out and ‘Rang-ku’ or season. Loku therefore literally means to drive out of the old season or year. The sowing festivals are Kopkhut and Challiwan. The festival Ronglo is connected with harvesting of millets while the Chalow is with that of paddy. Noctes rely on jhum cultivation or slash and burn agriculture. Of late however some of them have started wet-rice cultivation. Their crops are paddy, millet, arum, tapioca, maize and a few local pulses. Check Your Progress III Note: Use the space provided for your answer. 1) Write a short note about the religious beliefs of the Nocte tribes ......

1.5 TRIBES OF WANCHO, TANGSA, SINGHPHO, MONPA, SHERDUKPEN AND AKA Wanchos mostly stay in Tirap district of Arunachal Pradesh. The villages are controlled by hereditary chief. There are four Wancho classes, each class is formed on the basis of marriage relations and each one of them receives social recognition according to their gradation and status in the social hierarchy. The highest of these classes are the Wanchams – Chiefs enjoying special privileges and position in the society. The lowest of these classes are the Wangpans, the commoners. Between their classes, there are two intermediary classes – the Wangshas and the Wangsus, who sprung from the inter class marriages. The Wangshas are the descendants of Wangham men and Wangpan women, where as Wangsus are said to have descended from marriages between Wangpan men and Wangham women. The Wanghams, the Wangshia and the Wangsus practically control the society and the Wangpans merely obey and abide by the decision of the higher classes. This is similar to the principle in Hindu society where Sudras are born to carry out orders of Brahman, Kshetriya and Vaishyas. The wanchos have a vague belief in the Supreme God of the Heavens called Rang, the benevolent creator. They believe that the benevolent Sky-God Rang is eternally opposed by Bau-Rang a god of the earth and the male destroyer. These two deities are brothers. The Supreme God Rang created men and animals and he takes care of them, where as Bau-Rang is a destroyer of human beings and the animals. Besides these two principal God there are a number of spirits Wanchos believe in and worshipping and appeasing the spirits and deities are part of rituals during festivals. The spirits propitiated by the Wanchos are Baua, the benevolent jungle deity, Lamlongkang, the rainbow spirit, Hung Wang a malevolent water spirit and so on. 14 The smallest unit of the Wancho society is the family consisting of father, mother and Tribes of Arunachal Pradesh their children. They also follow a joint family system. The grown up boys of the village sleep apart in bachelor’s dormitories. There is no separate dormitory for unmarried girls. When a family becomes too large and it is difficult to accommodate, the younger married sons establish separate houses for their families while eldest son occupies ancestral house and continues to look after his old parents. In the joint family all the members take their meals from a common hearth. The management of the kitchen and the cooking of food are the responsibilities of the eldest female member of the family, who is wife of the head of the family. There are a number of Wancho festivals it varies according to area of inhabitance. However, most important festival of Wanchos is Ojiyele which is celebrated during March-April just after sowing paddy. It is celebrated by all Wanchos irrespective of area of inhabitance. Dancers are held around long ceremonial pole called “Jangban” planted for the occasion. Sakila and Chachai festivals are held to celebrate the sowing of millet and paddy. Chachaban is the festival celebrated on the occasion of harvesting of millet. Besides this Laudongle, Chachiywan and Poatak-Le are also the festivals connected with harvesting. Wancho women are expert spinners and weavers. Wanchos have a keen sense of colours and combination. Wanchos are also known for wood carving. The central motif in wood carving is a human head. The head hunting is the inspiration not only of the wooden or brass heads worn by the warriors, but also of carving on drinking mugs and pipes, of head hunting scene on the pillars of dormitory and human figures carved on baskets. Wanchos are good craftsman for manufacture of cane and bamboo items and are well known blacksmiths as well. Wanchos too have a number of dances for various occasions. Hambowshon dance is performed after construction of chief’s house. Dongthanepu dance is performed when a members of the Chief lineage dies. Gallangpo is the dance performed after the enemy is defeated and his head, the hands and feet are placed at the entrance of the village. Tribes of Tangsa Tangsa people belong to Tibeto-Burman group occupying the eastern hills of Tirap district of Arunachal Pradesh. The word “Tangsa” means hill people (Tang = hill and Sa = people). The Tangsa story of migration alludes to the fact that search for cultivable land and inter-tribal feuds compelled them to migrate from their abode across the Patkai and settle in present place of inhabitance a few centuries ago. Tangsa tribe is divided into sub-tribes and clans. Important Tangsa sub-tribes are Haves, Moklums, Khemsings, Ron-Rangs, Mosangs, Yoghis and Lungchangs. The sub-tribes are divided into a number of ancestral exogamous clans. The clan organisation regulates the marriage but not the political life of the people. There is no clan distinction among the Tangsas. The Tangsas believe in an invisible supreme being, who lives in the heaven and in personified by the names of Sikia, Pra or Rang Kau Hawa. He is considered to be fountain of blessings for mankind. But they do not worship Him nor do they propitiate Him by offering sacrifices, for He does not harm human beings nor He desires anything from them. The Tangsas believe in a number of deities or spirits called Thangs or Sangs or Jubedis to whom sacrifices are offered. The Tangsa appease the malignant deities or 15 Tribals of the Northeast spirits by performing rituals according to a sort of a magico-religion system. There is a Region -I deity called Himmatai to whom they used to sacrifice human beings earlier. The profession of a priest or diviner in the Tangsa society is not hereditary. Anyone whether man or woman having acquired sufficient knowledge of the procedure of the craft may aspire for the position. The tradition is handed down orally from generation to generation. The priest is considered to be a pious man. The Tangsas also consult the Omens before embarking on any work be it hunting, agriculture or fishing. The Omen is indicated through the position of legs of the sacrificed chicken or through the bamboos placed on the fire. Tangsas believe in curing diseases by propitiating spirits who they consider to be responsible for various maladies. They celebrate three major agricultural festivals, one before sowing, second after sowing and the third when seedlings grow about 30 cm high. The greatest festival of Tangsas is Lamra or Perong, which is celebrated after the harvest. Tribes of Singpho The Singphos live in the foot hill of the Miao-sub-division of Tirap district of Arunachal Pradesh, adjoining the southern boundary of the Lohit district. The Singpho boundary is blessed with the river Nao-Dihing and the tributaries of Burhi-Dihing and this gives indirect help to their economic stability. The Singpho also belong to the Tibeto-Burman group linguistically. They have mongoloid features, stout figures and average height. A basic point that differentiates Singphos from other tribes of Arunachal is that they have their own script which is based on Shan script. Like other tribes the Singpho also have clan system or class system. The Singphos are divided into a number of clans or groups each under a chief. Their clan organisation is based on lineages or sub-lineage groups. All these groups are patrilineal. The Chief of a Singpho group has several privileges, but his authority is not absolute. He is in theory the lord of all lands in the territory under his jurisdiction, but in practice individual rights in land are also recognised. The distinction between the chief and his people is in some measure bridged by the elders who command great position and influence in the society and can exercise separate jurisdiction in the event of the chief’s failure. Traditionally the Singphos had their own religion which was more or less an animist or magico religion in nature. They had a number of spirits whom they used to worship. The malevolent spirits known as “NATS” are propitiated regularly by sacrificing bulls, cows and chickens. They also used to have several house deities like “Niglche”, “Pungphoy”, Natkum”, etc. But about a century back a revolutionary change took place in their society. A Buddhist monk called Dingla Chrato baptised them into Buddhism. He built a Buddhist monastery at Phakial village. The Singphos call this temple “Samuksing” where they go for pilgrimage. Though they have embraced Buddhism Singphos have not given up their old faith. Singphos have priests to carry out religious rights. Those priests who carry out traditional rituals are known as ‘Drumsa” while the Buddhist priests are “Punguya”. The principal Singpho ceremonies are based on Buddhism. Sangken, an important Buddhist religious festival is observed by them. The festival is observed for three days. 16 The occasion is the ceremonial bath of the image of Lord Buddha. They also have Tribes of Arunachal certain agricultural festivals, one of which is known as “Sanjo” which is held before the Pradesh sowing of the seeds. On this occasion they sacrifice one pig and four hens to appease the deity of agriculture. “Namangchole”, another festival is characterised by offering of rice grains and sacrificed animal to the deity of agriculture in order to protect the plants from pests and insects. “Manglup” is the death ceremony performed by the relatives of the deceased with the villagers. The Singphos cremate the body but again bury the bones of the deceased during the Manglup ceremony. When a village is established each family is allotted with a plot of land. One can construct house in a suitable site within the limits of the plot allotted to him. But one will have right over the land as long as one occupies it. If one abandons it to settle in another village, one looses the right of ownership. As regards agriculture is concerned the Singphos may be considered as an exception among the tribes. They practice both dry and wet rice cultivation of paddy by transplantation using better implements for tilling. Besides paddy and millet other crops include potato, maize and mustard. Tribes of Monpa Monpas are Mongoloid in look speaking Tibeto-Burman language mainly settled in western part of Kameng district belonging to Mahayan Buddhist sect. Considering style of dresses they use and the language they speak they are similar to the people of eastern Bhutan. In addition to Buddhism which came later many Monpas believe in their traditional religion known as Bon religion. Bon religion is based on a cult of local deities. Close to many Monpa villages there are sanctuaries consisting usually of several flat stones or stone structures used for the burning of incense, where rites in honour of local deities are performed. Bon culture is considered as original culture of Monpa tribe. Unlike most of the tribes of North Eastern region Monpas have recorded history in their own script found in gomphas, a script similar to those of Bhutan and Tibet. Economically Monpas are not as good as neighbouring tribes. Monpas employ primitive way of agricultural methods. They produce rice, wheat, barley, millet, potato, maize from their fields. They also have the tradition of animal husbandry. They breed mithun, yak, jiatsa (cross between mithunand Indian ), nuptsa, dzo and dzomu (cross between yak and jiatsa) and sheep. Traditionally sheep breeding is for the purpose of eating meat. It may also be noted that unlike other tribes Monpas consume milk regularly and extract butter out of the milk of yak, mithun and cow. Monpas are expert in weaving woollen carpets in their traditional way. Monpas of Tawang are expert paper makers who are producing hand made papers since ages. Monaps are lovers of songs, music and dances. But all their songs do not carry meaning always. Torgya is one of their principal festivals celebrated every eleventh month in the year to drive away evils of the year. Losar is the New Year festival held in February. Buddha Purnima is one of their principal festivals celebrated for a month with meditation by elders, prayers by all and dances by younger generation. Tribes of Sherdukpen Sherdukpen is a Tibeto-Burman tribe settled in western corner of Arunachal Pradesh. They profess Buddhism simultaneously with magico-religions. They call themselves as 17 Tribals of the Northeast “Senji-Tonji” while refer them as Sat Raja or the people with seven Region -I kings. They have similarity with neighbouring Monpas and Bhutanese but at the same time they have their own separate cultural identity. Sherdukpen society is divided into two classes according to social rank, each class again divided into several clans. The upper clan is known as Thong and this comprises of clans of Thungdok, Thungshi, Thango, Krime, Mosubi, Wangdza, Klengtung and Lamaguri. The lower class is referred to as Tsao, and within this class there are the five clans of Megedzi, Shindzadzi, Dingla, Monodzi and Midzidzi. Inter marriage between two classes are normally not allowed. Sherdukpen is traditionally a trading tribe. They used to play important role in the trade between Assam and Tibet. Tribes of Aka Aka tribe is found mainly in the Kameng district of Arunachal Pradesh. In their own dialect the Akas call themselves Hrusso. The term Aka is derived from the Assamese word Anka literally meaning painted. They are so termed so because of their custom of smearing their face with the mixture of the resin obtained from the Pinus excelsus and charcoal. The Akas speak their own dialect belonging to the Tibeto-Burman group. They are Mongoloid in appearance with yellowish brown complexion. Aka religion is shamamistic animism. Due to proximity to Buddhist neighbours, they were influenced to an appreciable extent by Buddhism. Some of their villages have chortens and prayer flags. Shaman, the Aka priest is important in every Aka village as his service is sought on every possible occasion. A shaman is distinguished from the others by the fact that he wears a yak’s tail on his back and his pill box hat is covered with tiger or leopard skin. Any young person having supernatural power can become a Shaman. The post is hereditary. According to Akas, Bhusluao is the supreme creator who is creator of all living beings. In addition to the supreme creator, they have a number of spirits both benevolent and malevolent whom they worship for happiness.

1.6 TRIBES OF TANGAM, KHOWA, KHAMPA, MIJI, PADAM, MINYONG, MEMBA AND YOBIN The Tangams live along the upper reaches of the Siang and the Nigong or Yang-Sang Chu in the northern extremity of the Siang district of Arunachal Pradesh. Tangam is an off shoot of Adi tribe of Arunachal Pradesh. As per story they had larger population earlier but after the Shimong tribes attacked them their population reduced. The present Tangams are descendants of those who survived. Tangams belong to Tibeto-Burman group having no script of their own and the cultural heritage is carried forward orally from generation to generation. According to their belief they trace their origin from Pedong Nane, the mythical mother of all beings. Originally they had eight clans such as Ngakko, Ngakki, Kondo, Jodo, Mudo, Doron, Daji and Tamut. It is said that some of these clans have gradually vanished. Tangams divide the year in two seasons Lobo and Digin, i.e. summer and winter respectively. The Tangam divide the year in twelve lunar months. The Tangam new year 18 starts from the month of Biro, i.e. March. Like any other tribes, the festival or ceremony of Tangams is also agriculture based. Tribes of Arunachal Their religion is similar to Dono-polo religion practiced by most of the tribes in Arunachal Pradesh Pradesh. They have a number of spirits or Gods for different purpose that they appease during the festival. Pedong Nane is the mythical mother of all human beings whom all Tangams pray. Gumin Soyin is supposed to be the God of Tangam who protects them from all evils.

Tribes of Knowa Khowa, numerically a smaller tribe, is of mongoloid origin and linguistically belong to Tibeto-Burman group. They do not have their own script hence do not have their own written history. They have a village chief in each village whom they all obey. Agriculture is the principal occupation of the Khowa people. Their principal agricultural produce is paddy since rice is their principal staple food. Besides paddy, they also produce the pulses, vegetables, fruits, etc. They follow slash and burn agricultural method. The only tool they use is sickle. To avert pest attack they use a number of magico religion rituals as they believe that pest attack is due to the harmful spirits. Khowas believe in one Supreme being who created the universe and life there in. There are several deities and spirits inhabiting different places who are either benevolent or malevolent whom the Khowas worship and try to keep them happy by different ritual meant for different purposes. The rituals are conducted by the village priest following certain set procedures. Most important deity is Khatchoaih who is responsible for better crops, wealth and thus happiness. Similarly there are several other deities whom they propitiate. As Khowas are agriculturists their festivals are based on agriculture or cultivation. Most important festival of the Khowas being the Chasoai festival they celebrate in the month of January-February. They perform the rituals connected with this festival for eight days, to ensure their prosperity and a good harvest as well as to drive away the evil spirits from the village so that these cannot afflict them with various calamities.

Tribes of Khampa The Khampa tribe is one of the mongoloid tribes settled in Siang district of Arunachal Pradesh. Their language belong to Tobeto-Burman origin. Since they do not have any script of their own, they do not have any recorded history. Therefore it is difficult to predict regarding their origin and their path of migration. From the legends that were carried forward since generations orally, it is presumed that this group of people came to India to settle from Tibet sometime long before the birth of Gautam Buddha. Like any other hill tribes of the region, Khampas are also principally agriculturists practicing slash and burn method of cultivation. Paddy is their principal produce besides millet, barley, vegetables, fruits and pulses. They rear mithuns, cows and pig for consumption. This is one of the Buddhist tribes who were converted to Buddhism by one of the disciples of Lord Buddha named Padmasambhava whom the Khampas call Uzer Rimboche. Prior to the era of Buddhism, the Khampas used to have a number of malevolent and benevolent spirits who used to propitiate by several types of traditional rituals. Chanting of the sermons of Lord Buddha and following scriptures of Tripitaka, Pancha sheel, Ashta sheel and Dasha sheel is part of their rituals. With introduction of Buddhism reading Pali language was also introduced in their monasteries. Jataka stories are told and retold to the boys. This tradition is still being continued. 19 Tribals of the Northeast The Losar is the principal festival of the Khampas. They celebrate this festival twice Region -I during the year. The first Losar is celebrated as a sort of New Year festival during their first month Dawa Tamgbo (January/Febraury). It is celebrated for a week for prosperity, good health and happiness. Similarly it is again celebrated for one week during last month of the year, Dawa Chungipath (December/January) for the same reasons.

Tribes of Miji The Miji tribe is a mongoloid tribe speaking a dialect belonging to Tibeto-Burman group. It is not basically a Buddhist tribe but certain influence of Buddhism is noticed in their culture. Their religion is based on nature worship and is a world of spirits and deities usually associated with nature. Mijis are basically agriculturists. Rice being their staple food, paddy is obviously their agricultural product. They also produce pulses, vegetables and other food requirements. Bamboo is their main industrial raw material. They live in a bamboo hut with thatched roof, they make bamboo baskets for storing and carrying goods, they wear bamboo ornaments, bamboo rain coats and hats while eat bamboo shoots and bamboo pickles. Their loin looms are also made of bamboo. In brief it can be said that their skill is basically centred on bamboo. Mijis believe in one Supreme Being they call Thenerang who is also supposed to be their ancestor and ancestor of the tiger. Besides “Thenerang” there are several deities or spirits both benevolent and malevolent. They have two house deities Huthungi and Nachuni who are benevolent and are worshipped for happiness in a house. There is a deity called Sijangni who lives in the sky and Sajongni who lives in the earth both benevolent. The principal festivals for the Mijis is Chidang celebrated for eight days usually in the month of December. They observe this festival for eight days in which the sky deity Sijanguni, earth deity Sajanguni and other deities living in the hills and rivers are worshiped for a good crop and welfare and prosperity of the whole community. A ceremony called Dhoromiji is performed when an epidemic breaks out in a village to drive away evil spirits responsible for the epidemic. During successful killing in a war a ceremony called Dommadeiniuwai is performed for protection of the slayer from the spirit of the slain enemy.

Tribes of Padam Padam tribe is settled in Siang district of Arunachal Pradesh. Like other tribes in Arunachal Pradesh, the Padams too are mongoloid tribes speaking a dialect belonging to Tibeto- Burman group. Like any other hill tribes the Padams practice jhuming or slash and burn agriculture. Besides paddy they produce maize, pulses, barley, job tears and so. Rice beer is their favourite beverage which they prepare by fermenting rice. The social structure of the Padams as well as their family structure are similar to other Indo-Mongoloid tribes. The village administration is run by a village council headed by a village headman assisted by elders. All bachelors live in a bachelors dormitory and are the volunteers who help the entire community in war and peace, in joy and sorrow. The Padam village administration runs with absolute discipline, justice and equality. For sickness there is village doctor who known as Ayit Miri who treats the sick with his 20 magic religious rituals. Solung Etor festival is one of their agricultural festival performed during the month of Tribes of Arunachal March-April. This three days festival is performed after construction of a big circular Pradesh fence around the village so that cows and mithuns cannot get into the field and able to damage the crop. Solung Ponung is celebrated just after the last weeding and before harvesting. Epak ceremony is performed when a person is sick and Keming ceremony is performed after the head hunting. Delong dance is one of the most famous Padam dances they perform during Solung Etor festival. The leader of the dance, usually a man is called Delong Miri. The Keming Inam dance is a war dance performed during Keming ceremony after successful war. Ponung dance is associated with Solung festival. The leader of the dance party is a man known as Ponung Miri. Elong dance is a group dance performed by girls for amusement, especially performed on happy occasions like marriage, house warming ceremony, feasts, etc. The leader of the dance may be a man or a woman known as Elong Miri. Epak dance is a ritualistic dance performed by their magico priest or doctor while treating a patient. This dance is supposed to drive away the evil spirits.

Tribes of Minyong Minyong tribe is settled in Siang district of Arunachal Pradesh. Like their neighbours the Padam the Minyongs are also principally agricultural tribe. In fact they have much in common with the Padams including linguistic similarities, economic activities and even the names of their festivals and dances. The Minyongs are basically a agricultural tribe. They practice slash and burn agriculture. It is only recently that they have started practicing terracing but in a very limited extent. The agricultural tools are also very primitive mostly the tools like hoe, axe, sticks, etc. Even with a meagre production most of the rice they convert into liquor. Paddy is their main agricultural crop; besides this they also cultivate short stapple cotton, maize, barley, ragi, vegetables, fruits and pulses. Besides agriculture Minyongs domesticate pigs, mithun, cow, etc. for the purpose of meat. Hunting is one of their subsidiary occupation to get meat. Minyong believe in a super being or super power who is supposed to have created this earth and all who live on it. They also believe that tiger and human beings were sons of same ancestors and therefore they follow almost same ritual when they kill a man or tiger. Besides this they believe in a number of spirits both benevolent and malevolent. Etor is one of the principal festivals of Minyong tribe celebrated during the month of March/April. The Solung festival is celebrated in September to ensure good harvest and to prevent evils spirits from coming into the village to afflict the villagers with disease and evil spirits. Dongkong is a ceremony performed after a successful war operation. After killing a tiger they perform Meosong ceremony. The Minyongs believe that diseases are caused by evil spirits. The ceremony of treating patients is known as Koyning ceremony. Ayit Miri is a priest and a village doctor who can cure diseases through rituals and ceremonies of magico-religious type.

Tribes of Memba Memba tribe settled in Siang district of Arunachal Pradesh is a Buddhist tribe having rich cultural heritage. Like any other Buddhist tribe in case of Membas too the monk plays important role in the society. In fact the monk dictates the procedure and rituals 21 Tribals of the Northeast governing the tribal life particularly connected with their religion and culture. But they Region -I are still influenced by pre-Buddhism culture. Membas too are agriculturists producing paddy, maize, short staple cotton, etc. Membas are well skilled in cane and bamboo work. The Memba cane and bamboo products are famous for elegance and durability. With the arrival of Buddhism the Lord Buddha was accepted as their principal God and is now equated with their traditional supreme being. But they still believe in their second traditional Gods and Goddesses. Choijegepu is the equivalent of Hindu Chitragupta who records the deeds of every man and women. Lakhapro is the presiding deity of the heaven, equivalent to Hindu Indra. Denakpo is a God who guards the passage to heaven, a sort of Memba St. Peter. With the influence of Buddhism, the major Buddhist festivals came to stay with them. Buddha Purnima and other Buddhist festivals are celebrated with utmost serenity and calm atmosphere. Most important Memba festival is Losar festival which is celebrated twice a year, in the first Memba month Dawa Tonyba falls in January/February and during the Memba month Dawa Chungipah which falls around December/January. The purpose is to express their gratefulness to the Gods for keeping them happy and prosperous in the outgoing year and extorting the Gods to bestow more prosperity and happiness in the coming year. The Bardo festival is another important festival of the Membas. It is performed to ensure the communal welfare and also to impress the villagers that a person leading a pious life in the world goes to heaven and enjoys blissful life there; while a person leading a sinful life here goes to hell after death only to face a tormented existence there.

Tribes of Yobin The Yobins, also known as Lisus, migrated across Patkai range during the decade of forties of twentieth century and settled along the Noa-Dihing River in the Vijaynagar area of Arunachal Pradesh. Detail of their history and migration is not known due to absence of script and hence was not recorded. Perhaps due to frequent migration many of their legends were lost. Yobin society is divided into a number of clans. The clans are divided according to profession. For example, Ngaza clan are supposed to catch fish or expert in pisciculture while people belonging to Jeza clan are beekeepers and so on. The Yobin society is patrilineal and their family normally consists of father, mother, sons and daughters. A married son usually leaves the family to build up his own house. The youngest son inherits the property and hence remains with the family. The Yobins live in well demarcated villages, each comprising of a number of houses. The Yobins are basically good agriculturists and are comparatively advanced in this trade. They have their own land where they produce rice, millet, different vegetables and pulses. Yobins are traditionally good beekeepers. The religion of Yobins is based on nature worship and the world of spirits. They have their own deities and spirits whom they propitiate by sacrifice. Their festivals are usually based on agriculture, hunting and other professions. The festivals are associated with dance, songs and music.

22 Tribes of Arunachal Check Your Progress IV Pradesh Note: Use the space provided for your answer. 1) Write a short note on Minyong tribe of Arunachal Pradesh......

1.7 LET US SUM UP In this Unit we discussed briefly about the tribal scenario in Arunachal Pradesh. The people, the resources, socio-economic conditions as well as the tradition and culture existent in the region have also been described. The different tribes found within the region along with their distinctiveness have also been mentioned. Each of these tribes has its own distinct culture, customs, habits and religious beliefs.

1.8 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES 1. Census of India, 2011 2. Ministry of Tribal Affairs

23 UNIT 2 TRIBES OF ASSAM

Structure 2.0 Objectives 2.1 Introduction 2.2 The Bodos, Mishing, Karbis and Rabhas Tribes 2.3 Sonowal-Kaharis, Dimasa, Deori and Lalung Tribes 2.4 Let Us Sum Up 2.5 Further Readings and References

2.0 OBJECTIVES In unit 2, let us examine the profiles of the tribes in the state of Assam. By the end of this unit one would be able to: 1. Understand about the many tribal communities found in Assam; 2. Understand and describe the various cultural differences existing among the various tribal communities of Assam; and 3. Define the various interventional methods to be used for the development of the tribal communities of Assam.

2.1 INTRODUCTION Assam, situated along the foothills of the Himalayas, is popularly known as the ‘Land of Blue Hills and Red Rivers’. It is also the gateway to the other North-Eastern states of India. Assam is surrounded by Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh in the North, Manipur, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh in the east, and Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram in the south. Assam, at present is spread over an area of 78,438 sq. km. Assam is divided into two segments: the Barak valley and the Brahmaputra Valley. The World famous flows right through the middle of Assam and nurtures a splendid and complex eco-system around it. ‘Assam’ in means, ‘peerless’ or ‘unparalleled’. It was known as Pragjyotisha or the place of eastern astronomy during the epic period and later named as Kamrupa, the place where the Kamadeva, ‘The Lord of Love’ in Hindu mythology, was born. But today, the widely accepted opinion of the scholars is that the term Assam had been culled from the original name of the Ahoms, who came to this land in 1228 A.D. and ruled for six centuries before the British took over after the treaty of Yandaboo in 1826. Assam has been the meeting ground for diverse ethnic groups since time immemorial, thus giving shelter to streams of migrations of various communities with their own distinct cultures and social milieu. Assam’s rich art and culture is also the result of the contributions of the Austro-Asiatics, the Negroids, the Dravidians, the Alpines, the Indo-Mongoloids, the Tibeto-Burmans and the Aryans, who ventured into Assam through various routes. Bihu is the chief 24 festival and Assamese, the principal language of the state. Assam has been ungrudgingly blessed with unparalleled scenic grandeur, evergreen forests and exotic wild life and the Tribes of Assam rolling tea gardens. The state has 28 districts. Dispur, near Guwahati is the capital of the state. Assam is an agrarian state. The most commonly cultivated crop is paddy. But people also cultivate maize, oilseeds, sugarcane, potatoes; jute etc. Tea cultivation is another important source of income for the state. Assam also has rich mineral deposit. Petroleum, and minerals like coal and lime stone are found in Assam. The total population of Assam according to 2011 Census is 31205576. Of them, 3884371 persons are Scheduled Tribes (STs), constituting 12.44 per cent of the total population of the state. The state has registered 17.46 per cent decadal growth of ST population in 2001-2011. There are twenty nine (29) notified tribes in the state. Population: Size & Distribution Bodos constitute nearly half of the total Scheduled Tribe population of the state (35.05 per cent).The other major tribes, constituting more than 5% of the tribal population are Miri(Mishings) (17.51 per cent), Mikir (Karbis) (11.08 per cent), Rabha (7.62 per cent), Kachari(i.e. SonowalKachari) (7.1 per cent), and Lalung (Tiwa) (5.70 per cent). Along with the Bodos they constitute around 90 per cent of the ST population of the state. Besides them, the Dimasa constitutes 2.65 per cent and Deori 1.12 per cent of the total ST population of the state. The rest of the Scheduled Tribes are very small in their population size (Table1). Sl. Percentage of the total Names of the ST Total population No. ST population 1 Bodos(Boro) 1361735 35.05 2 Mishings (Miri) 680424 17.51 3 Mikir (Karbis) 430452 11.08 4 Rabha 296189 7.62 5 Sonowal-Kachari 253344 6.52 6 Lalung 182663 4.70 7 Dimasa 2.65 8 Deori 43750 1.12 All Scheduled Tribes 3884371 100%

Religion Of the total ST population of Assam, 90.7 per cent are Hindus and 8.8 per cent Christians. Besides these two religions, 6,267 persons are Muslims, 5,153 Budhists, and 3,574 persons pursue various other faiths and have been categorized under “Other Religions and Persuasions”.(Source: Office of the Registrar General, India)

2.2 THE BODOS, MISHING, KARBIS AND RABHAS TRIBES The Bodos belong to Indo-Mongoloid ethnic group of Tibeto-Burman . Among STs, Bodos constitute nearly half of the total ST population of the state (40.9 per cent). The Bodos are considered as the earliest settlers of Assam and are a culture loving community settled mostly along the north–west part of Assam. district of Assam is considered as the centre of the Bodos. The tribe is divided into clans according to their traditional occupation. A clan name 25 Tribals of the Northeast ends with the word ‘ari’. There are twenty three ‘aris’. They are – Basumatari, Masari, Region -I Doimari, Narzari, Ramsari, Borogoari, Swargiari, Khaklari, Gayari, Mahilari, Ouari, Joyoari, Ishari, Kahari, Sibiugari, Sibiziari, Babaiari, Biugbiugari, Ganjlerari, Fadangari, Samphrari, Kherkatari, and Thaletari. The names of the clans are used as the surnames. They are patriarchal and prefer living in a joint family. The sons living with the joint family receive double the share of the property of the family compared to the one who separates from the family. The eldest son assumes the charge of the family after the death of the father. ‘Haden-goura’ and ‘Hachung-goura’ are the two important institutions of the Bodo community. These institutions ensure the observance of the traditional practices within the community. The common institution in the Bodo village is the village council. The gaonburah (village headman) and the assistant ‘Halmazi’ perform the social functions of the village. Marriage within the same clan is prohibited. Widow re-marriage is accepted, but then she loses the right to the property of her deceased husband. She can take the child below one year, if she has one, with her to the new husband. A widower can remarry the younger sister of the deceased wife but not the elder sister; likewise a widow can remarry the younger brother of the deceased husband but not the elder. There are six types of marriages, they are: 1) SangnanoiLainaiHaba (negotiated marriage), 2) GorjiaLakhinaiHaba (marriage by service), 3) KharsonnaiHaba (the bride enters the groom’s house before the settlement of the marriage), 4) BonanoiLainaiHaba (the bride is forcefully taken), 5) DonkharLangnaiHaba (elopement marriage) and 6) DongkhaHabnaiHaba (marriage).Among all these sangnanoiLainaiHaba system is the most accepted form of marriage. They also had the practice of bride–price which they called Phon or PhonThaka but gradually it is becoming less prevalent. If a couple wants divorce it is placed before the gathering (samaj). The act of divorce is symbolized by tearing a betel-leaf, which is called Pathoi-laiBisinai in the Bodolanguage. If a husband divorces his wife for inadequate reasons, he has to bear the responsibility for her livelihood for some period of time as decided by the samaj. Agriculture is the main source of livelihood. They cultivate Ahu and Sali paddy. They rear the eri silk cocoons. The famous red eri cocoons are reared by the Bodos of Kokrajhar. The men folk are expert in making cane and bamboo products. Bodo language has no script of its own but Devnagari script is used. The BodoSahityaSabha has contributed largely towards the development of the Bodo literature by encouraging more publications and writings in Bodo language. The influence of the is noticed in most of the songs of the Bodo tribe. In the olden days the Bodos were animists. But later on they were converted to Hinduism, and to other religions. A large number of them are still the followers of Bathou or Lord Siva of the Hindu Pantheon. They also have other deities like the Mainao (Lakshmi or the Goddess of wealth), BathouBuri, and BathouBura, who are the protectors of this world. ‘Kherai’ is another religious institution of the Bodos. ‘KheraiPuja is generally observed before and after the cultivation for reaping a good harvest. Besides the religious occasions they also observe the of Assam. The musical instruments of the Bodo community are: Kham (mandal), Jotha, Khawnbang(tal), Siphuri (flute), Thorkha (drum). 26 The Bodo women wear Dokhna, a single piece of garment covering from breast to Tribes of Assam ankles. Blouse is used to cover the upper part of the body. The men wear dhoti, shirt and trousers. They wear a scarf called Patani which has geometrical designs on the border. Patani is usually the symbol of the Bodo tribe. The staple food of the Bodos is rice. They also prepare homemade rice beer called Jumai. The dead are either buried or cremated. The rituals after the death of a family member are performed in the form of Daha. The Douri(priest) or Ojha (medicine man) chants the mantras. The Bodos had been demanding a separate Bodoland during the last three decades and more. The struggle was marked by lot of bloodshed and factional feuds. The Bodoland Territorial Councils Accord, signed on 10th February 2003, between the Bodoland Liberation Tiger Force (BLTF), the Assam Government and the Indian government was a turning point in the history of Bodos, signaling the end of violence. Through this accord the Bodoland Territorial Autonomous Districts (BTAD) came into existence. It consists of Kokrojhar, Baksa, Chirang and Udalguri districts of Assam. The headquarter of the BTAD is situated at Kokrajhar. Mr. Hagrama Mohilary the Commander In Chief of the BLTF and the chairman of the Bodoland Peoples’ Front (BPF) headed the BTAD as the first Chief. Another important development after this accord was the dissolution of the BLTF which later turned to a political party named Bodoland People’ Front (BPF). The creation of BTAD brought a ray of hope for the Bodo people of Assam. The Bodo people got a territory of their own which is administered by them. With the provisions of the Bodo Accord and the creation of the BTAD, the common man could hope for positive change in all aspects of social, cultural and economic development. A number of developmental works have been taken up: roads are being improved, educational institutions being established, dams constructed, sports complexes, cultural and health centres are being set up. But as things stand, violence and factional feuds still interfere with the march of the Bodos to progress. Check Your Progress I Note: Use the space provided for your answer. 1) Of what significance is the creation of Bodoland Territorial Autonomous Districts (BTAD) ...... The Mishing Tribe The Mishing tribe, also known as the Miris or Tanees (Padum, 2005), belong to the Tibeto Burmese tribal group. The culture and the traditions of the Mishing tribe are quite similar to that of the Adi tribe of Arunachal Pradesh. They have settled along the south west belt bordering the state of Assam. They are found in the districts of Tinsukia, Sibsagar, Dibrugarh, Jorhat, North Lakhimpur and Golaghat. They are settled mainly on the banks of the River Brahmaputra and the other rivers of Assam. Their main 27 Tribals of the Northeast occupations are agriculture and fishing. They speak Mishing language. The Mishing are Region -I divided into 12 clans namely Paggro, Delu, Moying, Sayang, Dembuk, Oyen, Somua, Bebejia , Samuguria, Tamer, BangkualandBihia. The culture of the Mishings is considered widely as rich, diverse and colourful. There are various festivals and dances of the Mishings. The dances are called Paksong or Soman. The songs in Mishing local dialectare are called as the Nitom. They are of three types known as the Oinitom, Akunitom and AnuNitom. Aku mainly conveys the rich culture and the history of the Mishing Tribe and the Oi and AnuNitomare the contemporary love songs and use modern music. The drums, cymbals and the flute are the common musical instruments used by the Mishing tribe. The main festival of the Mishings is the Ali Aye Ligang which is celebrated in the month of February on the first Wednesday of Assamese month Phagun. It is to mark the sowing of the new crops.The festival is marked by hunting expeditions and grand feasts. Earlier people used to go for hunting in the forest and come back just before the festival, bringing with them lots of game and the villagers would gather to welcome them.This practice is still there among the Mishings of Sadiya but it is not seen in other Mishing areas in Assam.Po:rag is another festival associated with harvesting of the crops. It is celebrated by inviting guests from other villages who participate in the meal and the singing and the dancing. The Mishings enjoy pork and rice bear during these two festivals. Besides these, theMishings also celebrate religious festivals such as Dobur. They sacrifice chickens to please the Gods for the offenses committed. When Dobur is celebrated on the public road, travelers are not allowed to cross the road; but they can do so by paying money. Some of the other religious festivals are TalengUyu, UromApin, etc. They also observe the three main Bihus (festivals) of Assam, namely, the MaghBihu, the BohagBihu, and the Kati Bihu. The Mishings cultivate paddy, maize,mustard seeds and varieties of potatoes. They are also considered as expert fishermen. Fishing is their other main occupation after agriculture. The Mishings favour joint family system where the husband is the head of the family. He has authority over all family matters. Arranged marriages are considered as ideal at the community level. Some of the Mishings have taken to Hinduism while the others still retain the religious traditions of their ancestors believing in the existence of numerous malevolent and benevolent deities. The present religion of the Mishings is the syncretic product of animism and other religions. They worship the Sun (Do:nyi) and the Moon (Po:lo) .(Padum, 2005) The Mishings had their own governing system since time immemorial. The Migom (king) was the nominal head; the internal matters of the village were entrusted to his Gams (ministers). The village assembly was known as the Kebang. The issues of the villages were discussed and decisions were taken in the Kebang. The Kebangs were generally housed in the Mirong, which was the place for the development of cultural activities and youth welfare. As the Mishings are found on the banks of the rivers, they are victims of floods every year. Huge loss of property, crops and cattle and at times even of human lives occurs every year. The remote settlement of this community also deprives them of schemes of the government which are otherwise enjoyed by the other tribes located at more accessible places for the flow of the government schemes and programmes. Erosion of 28 agricultural land by the mighty Brahmaputra and its tributaries is one of the major problems Tribes of Assam for the Mishing people. A number of villages, vast stretches of land, houses, social institutions, cultural halls, etc had been lost to the river. Before 1950 Mishings were one of the strongest tribal communities in Assam. Now the people of this tribe are poorer compared to their situation of those days. Nowadays many young boys are working in the towns as rickshaw pullers, and outside the state as daily wage earners and doing odd jobs in private industries. Today the Mishings have their own Autonomous Council called the Mishing Autonomous Council. This is the result of an agreement signed on14th June 1995 between the Assam government and the Mishing Autonomous Demand Committee. This Autonomous Council has no geographical boundary under its jurisdiction so it is called the satellite council. Check Your Progress II Note: Use the space provided for your answer. 1) Why the Mishing Autonomous Council is called the Satellite Council? ...... The Karbis (Mikirs) The Karbis are found in several parts of Assam. They are mainly found in the districts of KarbiAnglong, Golaghat, Sibsagar, Kamrup, NorthCachar, and Nogaon. The Indian constitution refers to them as Mikirs. They are also identified as Manchatis and Arleng. Physically the Karbis have good height and are yellowish brown in complexion. The dresses are also too exquisite to look at. The males wear an elongated striped coat better known as ‘Choi’. The male also wear a short ‘Dhoti’ popularly known as RikongVetvot which basically covers nakedness. ‘Seleng’ is white borderedcloth used as dhoti. They also have different kinds of jackets different names, ‘Choihangthor’ ‘Choiik’ (black coloured jacket), ‘Choiang’ (red coloured jacket).On the head they put on the Pagri or ‘Poho’.The women folk put on special petticoat known as ‘Pini’ which is tied around the waist with a beautiful ornamental belt called ‘Vamkok’. The upper part of the body is enclosed by ‘PeJisso’. But the traditional dress was modified and at present the women prefer to wear ‘Pekok’which is a long narrow cloth wrapped over the whole body. The older women use ‘Pesarpi’ a black, red and white coloured striped cloth. Some of the ornaments often used by the Karbis are No-rik a brass earring, Prinsoroi a silver bracelet, Lekruve a silver necklace, No-thengpivery large earring made of silver usually put on by women, Rooparoi a silver bracelet used by young ladies, Leklokso a women necklace made of white beads, Leksika, Lekhiki are kinds of necklace made of silver coins and red beads. The typical Karbi house ‘Hem Thengsong’ is raised with posts on all four sides, with walls compacted with bamboos.The roof is thatch with sun grass. The furniture of the houses is mainly made of wood, bamboo and cane. 29 Tribals of the Northeast The belongs to the Tibeto- Burmese group. They are divided into three Region -I groups based on the location of their habitation, namely ‘Chinthong’, ‘Ronghang’ and ‘Amri’. But they do not differ from each other. They also have the other divisions called the ‘NilipLumbajong’ and ‘LongkuLongtang’ Every ‘Longri’ (division) had a ‘Lindokpo’ who acts as the King,but after independence this system was abandoned. They also have some traditional institutions as the other tribal communities have. The traditional village council of the Karbis is known as “Mei” which consists of all the male members of the village. The “Mei” is responsible for regulating the social, economic and the religious life of the community. Every village has a goanburah (village headman) who is also called the ‘Sarthe’. He is generally appointed by the authority of the Autonomous council. He is assisted by ‘RisoBasa’(assistant). Each Karbi village has a ‘Pherangke’ (messenger) who is responsible to pass on the message of the gaonburah to the villagers. The Karbis have five clans called ‘Kur’. These are Terang, Teron, Enghee, Ingti and Timung. These clans are completely exogamous and a marriage between a boy and a girl of the same clan can never take place as they are considered brothers and sisters. Even in the burial ground called ‘Tipit’ or ‘Thiri’areas is kept separately for each clan. Although all the clans are of equal status, the Ingti clan is a priestly race and occupied a higher status in the society in the earlier days. Though this tribe practices monogamy there are rare cases of polygamy. The cross-cousin marriage is a preferential one. After the marriage the wife continues to use the surname of her father but children from the marriage use the surname of their father. The Karbi community also carry out various practices and activities related to cultivation and farming.Paddy is the main crop for them. The Karbis also have their own tribal religion called ‘Honghari’. Besides this some of them have taken to the Hinduism. The Rabhas The Rabha community is found in Goalpara,Kamrupand Darang districts of Assam. The Rabhas have some cultural similarities with the Bodo linguistic groups. The Rabhas are said to be the offshoots of the Kachari tribe. (L.A. Waddel, 1901) The 2011 census shows that the literacy rate among the Rabha community is 75.1percent against the 72.1 percent literacy rate among the tribals of Assam. The community is branched into two main groups, viz. the Maitoria and the Randaniya groups. The primary occupations of the Rabhas are agriculture and weaving. Initially this community was engaged in shifting cultivation using ‘Gogo’ or billhooks but later on began doing settled farming using the plough. Their economy is basically agrarian. The main deity to which the Rabha community pays reverence is called ‘Rishi Aka Mahakal’. Other deities worshiped by them are Basek and Rungtuk who are the household deities. TheRabhas have the practice of offering sacrifices infront of the deities as that is considered as a requirement to propitiate them. The major festival of the Rabha community is the ‘Baikho’ which is celebrated in the spring season in honour of the goddess of wealth locally known as ‘Baikhu’. The 30 festivals are celebrated with dances, music and songs and merry making.‘Nagchung Reni’, a special dance of the Rabha community is performed when they celebrate the Tribes of Assam festival of fishing. 2.3 SONOWAL-KACHARIS, DIMASA, DEORI AND LALUNG TRIBES Sonowal-Kacharis The Sonowal-Kacharis are a division of the Bodo- Kachari family of the Tibeto-Burman speaking group. They inhabit the Dhemaji, Lakimpur, Dibrugarh, Tinsukia, Sibsagar and Golaghat districts of Assam.During the rule of the Ahoms the community was engaged in panning gold from the sand of the banks of the rivers and their tributaries; and hence the name Sonowal (gold washers). The villages of the Sonowal-Kacharis are administered by the village headman (gaonburah).They have a ‘barik’ who is in charge of the Namghar (the place of worship). The pathek is assigned with the honourable job of reading the religious books in the public. Ashirbadia offers the blessings; the gitgahis are experts in singing religious songs especially the Husori. The Medhi is the chief of all religious functions, the tamuli is responsible for supplying betel-nuts to the audiences, and there are teams of religious dancers called the Gayan Bayan. Namghar is also the place for solving the village disputes which are placed before the village elders. The main source livelihood of this community is agriculture. The common crops are the Sali and Ahu paddy. They also grow mustard seeds, potatoes, sweet potatoes, matimah (pulses). Rice is the main food with pulses and vegetables. ‘Haj’, the locally made rice beer is commonly used by the people. Serving of betel-nut is a sign of warm greeting to any visitor to a family. The Sonowal-Kacharis are monogamous. The marriage within the same clan is prohibited. They have four types of marriages: 1) BorBiya, (It is observed with all the traditions to which the whole society is witness. The NowaDhowais a special ceremony observed during this marriage, where the bride is bathed and dressed in new clothes given by the bridegroom.( 2) HomBiya ( it is performed in a traditional Hindu way in which a Brahmin Priest is involved), 3) Gandharba (love marriage, when the couple take the initiatives without the consent of the parents, and then a few days later send information to the parents of the girl; in this type of marriage bride-price is charged, the amount depends on the status of the groom) and 4) ChurChuria or RabhaSarakiaBiya (marriage by running away; an unceremonious feast is given to some of the elders of the community for legalization of the marriage). Both the joint and nuclear family systems are seen in this group of people. The family property is equally divided among the sons of the family soon after the death of the father. But the house is inherited by the eldest son. The Sonowal-Kacharis are divided into seven exogamous ‘Bangshas’ (clans). They are BaliKhitiari, ChiriPuriya, Amarabamiya, Dhulial, UjaniKuchiya, NamoniKuchiya and Tipamiya. These clans are again subdivided into fourteen Khols(sub-clans). They are: Hangral, Muktal, Madan, Manikiyal, Ahmal, Formal, BorHajoal, SaruHajowal, Kumral, Dhekial, Dingial, Lothial, DangralandChetial. The beauty of this clan system is that there is no higher or lower rank among the clans and the clan is traced from the characteristics of their ancestors. By religion they are the followers of MahapurshiaVaishnav Dharma and disciples of 31 Tribals of the Northeast AuniatiSatra and ChechaSatra(A Satra is a monastery typical to Assam, seat of the Region -I religious head, theSatradhikari). Like the other Kacharis they worship Siva, and observe ‘Bathou puja’. Sacrifice of animal forms an important part of this puja. A special song called ‘Haidang’ is sung during this puja. The other house hold deities likeBuraPoha, Sargadeo, PirDiya, MorakDiya, LakshmiDiya andMadhav Devaare also offered special oblations. These deities bring peace and happiness. Besides these, Sonowal- Kacharis observe ‘GatiGiriBhoj’ and ‘GajaiBhoj’ for the general welfare of the village. They celebrate the festivals of Assam. The RongaliBihu, BhogaliBihu and the Kati Bihu are the major festivals celebrated by the Sonowal-Kacharis. The dead are cremated. But the children below five years are buried. They observe tilani (third day), Dahdiniadaha (tenth day) and KuridiniaKaj (twentieth day) after the death of a person. Namkritan (religious singing) and a common feast are arranged on these ocasions. Check Your Progress III Note: Use the space provided for your answer. 1) List the seven exogamous clans of the Sonowal-Kacharis...... Dimasa Tribe The North Cachar Hill district is the home land of the Dimasa tribe. They are also found in the districts of KarbiAnglong and Cachar Hills. Ethnically they belong to the Indo- Mongoloid stock and linguistically they are of the Tibeto- Burman group. The literary meaning of the word DIMASA is the ‘son of the big river’ (Di=water, Ma= big, Sa=son). Thus they consider themselves to be the descendents of the mighty Brahmaputra, which indicates that they might have lived by the bank of the river prior to the establishment of their capital at (now in Nagaland). They are patriarchal, patrilineal and patrilocal people. The women do not have equal say in the society as men. The family normally consists of the husband, wife, unmarried children and unmarried brothers or sisters. The practice of monogamy and marriage by negotiation is common among them. Giving bride-price is a practice among the Dimasa. This practice is called ‘Kalti’. Marriage outside the community is looked down upon. They go even to the extent of driving the couple out of the house if they marry outside the community. Divorce is rare. But if a husband proposes divorce then he won’t get the ‘Kalti’ back; if the wife proposes divorce then she should give the Kalti back to the divorced husband. They have forty ‘Sengphong’ (male clan) and forty two Zuluk (female clans). The son belongs to the father’s clan and the daughter belongs to the mother’s clan. The clan is exogamous and so no marriage is possible between the girl and boy of the same clan and none can marry within his or her father’s and mother’s clans. The names of the clans are used as the surnames. 32 The houses of the Dimasa are made of timber, with mud-plastered bamboo walls, and Tribes of Assam thatched roof. They have bachelor’s dormitories for the youth called ‘Nodrang’. The young boys and girls are trained in the traditions of the tribe in these Nodrangs under the leadership of ‘Nagahoja’ (the leader for the boys) and ‘Malahoja’ (the leader for the girls) respectively. They have a traditional village headman called ‘Kunang’ who discharges his duties with the help of the assistant ‘Dilok’. The minor cases like theft, elopement, disputes, etc., are tackled by the Kunang in the village itself. When women are involved, the elderly women of the village are invited for the trial, otherwise ladies are not invited. No function can take place in the village without the permission of the Kunang. He is selected by the village elders in a formal meeting. Traditionally the oldest member of the village becomes the Kunang. Agriculture is the main occupation. They practice wet paddy cultivation in low plain areas and jhum (shifting) cultivation in hilly areas. They grow paddy, maize, mustard, cotton, pineapple, orange etc. Rice is the staple food. Zou (rice beer) is their favourite beverage which they prepare at home. Chewing of betel nut is common among the Dimasas. They live in the green pastures and rear lot of animals. It is said that if a Dimasa girl does not know how to weave she would find it difficult to find a husband. Perhaps that is the reason the Dimasa women are expert weavers. They have a Pathri or a local doctor who predicts and cures diseases by his magical power. He also performs the ritual dances with ‘Khram’ (drum) and ‘Muri’ (flute). They have rich folk tales that describe their culture and life style. The dead are cremated if they are adults, but they bury the infants. At the death of a husband, wife unties her hair till the cremation is over. The Dimasas are animists. They also follow Hinduism in some form. They have six ‘Madais’ (Gods) namely, Sibrai (Hindu God Siva), Doo Raja, Naikhu Raja, Waa Raja, GanyungBraiyuing and Hamdiadao. Among these Mandais ‘Sibrai’ are the most revered. Animal sacrifices are offered during religious occasions. ‘RajiniGabra’ and ‘HarniGabra’ festivals are observed before the cultivation every year. ‘Busu’ is the harvesting festival. Deori Tribe The Deoris are one of the four divisions of the Chutiyas, who themselves are a sub- branch of the Bodo group of Burman linguistic sub-family. The four divisions of the Chutiyas are the Hindu Chutiya, AhomChutiya, Borahi and Deori. Deoris were the most traditional among the divisions of the Chutiya family. They have been successful in preserving their traditions, religious beliefs and practices. Originally the Deori tribe lived along the banks of river Subansiri of Arunachal Pradesh. Presently they are found in the districts of Lakhimpur, Dibrugarh, Sibsagar, Jorhat and Sonitpur in Assam. Their simplicity and hospitality helps to a great extent in maintaining good relationship with the neighbouring communities. There are three divisions of the Deori tribe namely, the Dibangia, Borgonya and Tengapaniya. The Dibangia has 14 Jakus (clans) and Borgonya has 6. The tengapniya has no sub divisions or clans.

With regard to marriage exogamy is strictly followed. Deori marriage (Sajuba) is of 33 Tribals of the Northeast four types. They are: 1) Bar biya, this marriage is generally an arranged marriage which Region -I is celebrated for three days. 2) MajuBiya is also arranged by the parents, but this is celebrated for two days. For these two types of marriage the groom is given dowry. 3) DharamBiya, is celebrated for only one day, and 4) TamolkataBiya, is solemnized before a girl attains puberty. Widow remarriage is recognized. ‘Sariya Mata’ is a unique institution among the Deori community. Through this the members of a village help any member of the village for any kind of work. The women also have the institution called the ‘MaikiSariya Mata’ by which the women also extend their helping hand to the needy person of a village. Rice Beer is commonly served to the members of the ‘Sariya’. ‘Morungghar’ is the centre for the training cum recreation for the unmarried youth. It also serves as the place of assembly for the youth responsible to guard and protect the village from external threats. All the elders of the Deori villages are the members of the traditional village pancahyat called the ‘Mel’. The village headman presides over the meetings of the Mel. The local issues of the village are generally decided by the Mel. The Lalung (Tiwa) Tribe The Lalungs, also known as the Tiwas are one of the major tribes of Assam. They are found in the districts of Nogaon, Morigaon, and in some parts of Kamrup, Lakhimpur, Jorhat, Dhemaji and KarbiAnglong of Assam. This tribe has twelve exogamous clans, called the ‘Kul’, which is again sub divided into a number of sub-clans (Dhan- Bangah). Each clan is identified by the surnames used. The marriage within the same clan is prohibited. The major festivals of the Tiwas are Mal puja, Bison Kunwari Puja, Thal Puja, Sani Puja, and Jankang Puja. The house where they do the religious rituals is called Barghar. A priest who is known as ‘Giyati’ presides over the religious ceremonies. The ‘Zolo’ who is an expert in religious matters and folklore, assists the ‘Giyati’. The decision of the Gaonburain matters of anything concerning the village is considered as final, while Giyati’s words are taken as absolute in matters of religion. The Lalungs from the plains and those from the hills differ in their dressing pattern. A Lalung man from the plains puts on a Dhoti, a Ganji or a shirt while a Hill Lalung uses a Lengti which is a narrow strip that just covers nakedness. ‘Langri’ (turban) is worn by the elderly persons. The women put on Mekhela extending upto the knees and a Chadar to cover the upper parts. The other special festive garments of the Lalung tribe are Singkhap, Riha,Sondia, Thenus, Seleng, Farke, Mankaporand Borkapor. The practice of the youth dormitories which they called ‘Deka Chang’ has practically been done away with in the present days. Check Your Progress IV Note: Use the space provided for your answer. 1) In which district of Assam are the Deori tribe found? ......

34 ...... Tribes of Assam ......

2.4 LET US SUM UP The tribal communities living in Assam have been able to preserve their unique identity along with the observance of the traditions and practices. But one cannot deny that the influence of the present day’s way of thinking and acting, media and fashion is having adverse impact on the younger generation. The question of preserving the tribal identity with all its beauty is a major concern. Though there are a number of developmental schemes and programmes introduced by the government the level of development among the tribal communities has not happened as expected. People are still unaware of the available resources for their development.Taking advantage of the gullibility and simplicityof the tribal people, the practice of corruption is common. The problem also lies with implementation and monitoring of these schemes by the authorities responsible for the implementation of these development schemes. But Assam has also witnessed a number of communal disturbances based on the ethnic differences and accessibility to resources. The government and the civil society organizations have been engaged in re-establishing peace and harmony among the tribes engaged in conflict by peace building measures. The organizations have formed peace teams, are engaged in confidence building measures, conflict resolution trainings, peace building efforts and developmental activities. These initiatives have had some success in ending bloodshed, preventing conflicts and helping communities rebuild their life and relationships. Development, however limited, has also brought in its share of problems to the tribal people. With the disappearance of some of the traditional practices, values and ways of relating within the community, the question of identity is serious one for the younger generation. School and college education has not helped them root themselves in their cultural and historical milieu. Physical and mental health issues are cropping up in the wake of the rapid changes that are taking place in life style and food habits of the people. Assam is home to a number of ethnic groups. One can say that the beauty of Assam lies not only in its flora and fauna but primarily in the peaceful co-existence of the various ethnic groups in the state with all their colourful dresses, festivals, customs and practices.

2.5 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES 1. Bareh, H.M. (2007): “Encyclopaedia of North-East India.”, Vol. II. Mittal Publication, New Delhi. 2. Bhuyan, Kusumbar. (2008): “Sixth Schedule in North-East India.”, DVS Publishing, Guwahati. 3. Das, GirindraNath. (2006):”Tribal Tradition and Development in the Hill Areas of Assam.”, Assam Institute of Research for Tribals and Scheduled Castes, Guwahati.

35 Tribals of the Northeast 4. JyotiKuli, Jawahar. (1998): “The Mishings, their History and Culture.”,Ayir Region -I Publication, Guwahati,. 5. Padum, Nahendra. (Ed) (2005): “Mishings Through the Mishing Eyes.”, Published by I-CARD, Dergaon. 6. Pegu, Peter. (1998): “A history of the Mishing of Eastern India.”, Published by Mishing Society of Mumbai. 7. Sen, Sirpa. (1999):”Tribes and Castes of Assam.” Gyan Publishing House, New Delhi. 8. Sharma, S.K. and Sharma, Usha. (Ed). (2005): “Discovery of North-East India.”, Vol. 5. Mittal Publication, New Delhi. 9. Sharma, S.K. and Sharma, Usha. (Ed). (2006): “Documents on North East India.”, Vol. 4. Mittal Publication, New Delhi. 10. Sharma, Thakur.G.C. (2007):”Selected Essays on Tribes and Castes of Assam.”,Part I. Directorate of Assam Institute of Research for Tribals and Schduled Castes, Jawahar Nagar, Guwahati.

36 UNIT 3 TRIBES OF MANIPUR

Structure 3.0 Objectives 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Tribal Customs 3.3 Change and Continuity in the Tribal Society in Manipur 3.4 Concerns Confronting the Tribal Society in Manipur 3.5 Let Us Sum Up 3.6 Further Readings and References 3.0 OBJECTIVES After going through this Unit you will be able to:  Identify the different ethnic groups of Manipur;  Differentiate between the Chin-Kuki-Zomi and the Naga tribes which comprise the tribal population of the state;  Recognize the different customary and traditional features of the different tribes of Manipur;  Grasp the cultural and socio-economic dynamics of the state; and  Understand the areas of concern in Manipur, particularly, in the spheres of health and violence.

3.1 INTRODUCTION Manipur is one of the eight states that comprise the north eastern states of India. Bordering the state is Myanmar (Burma) in the east, Nagaland in the north, Assam in the west and Mizoram in the south-west. Imphal is the capital of the state. There are three ethnic groups that constitute the people of the state. They are the Meiteis, the Chin-Zomi- Kuki and the Nagas. The Meiteis are the majority community in Manipur comprising almost 58 per cent of the total population while the Nagas and Chin-Zomi-Kuki tribes make up about 36 per cent. The pangal (Manipuri Muslims) make up the rest of approximately 6 per cent. Meiteis and the pangal inhabit the plains of Imphal valley and tribal communities lie scattered along the hilly regions of the state. The Chin-Zomi- Kuki and the Nagas are umbrella names of various tribes. As per the Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes Lists (modification) Orders, 1956, Part X Manipur Gazette Extraordinary, Part-II, Section I, dated 7-1-2003 the recognizes a total of 33 tribal communities (both Chin-Zomi-Kuki and the Nagas) in Manipur. They are: Aimol, Anal, Angami, Chiru, Chothe, Gangte, Hmar, Kabui, Kacha Naga, Kharam, Koirao, Koireng, Kom, Kuki, Lamkang, Mao, Maram, Maring, Lushai, Monsang, Moyon, Paite, Purum, Poumai, Ralte, Sema, Simte, Sukte, Tangkhul, Tarao, Thadou, Vaiphei, and Zou. The Thangal, Zeme and Mate tribes are still in the process of being recognized as Scheduled Tribes. Historians claim that the Meiteis were also a conglomeration of tribes during ancient times (Kabui: 1990). These writers argue that the region where Myanmar (Burma), Tibet and China meet was once known as Khamtilong and tribes such as Khu, Nung, 37 Tribals of the Northeast Lei, Hou, Chakpa, Mon, Lotha, Nga, and so on were the tribes who lived in the region Region -I of Kham. Tai-Pong-Pan was the name of the present Manipur. For about 700 years, there was no ruler of Tai-Pong-Pan or Manipur. It was during this period (34-18 BC) that Thongarel, Kham-Nung Saowa, the great man of the Nung tribe was invited to rule over Tai-Pong-Pan. Centuries later, it was during the reign of Maharaja Bheigyachandra (1763-1798) also known as Ching-Thang Khomba that a new religion was introduced in Manipur – the Chaitanya sect of Vaisnavism. With it came a number of social and customary changes in the Manipuri society. King Garibniwaj also promoted this religion and made it into a state-religion. He invited Shantidas Goswami, a Bengali priest from Sylhet to Manipur. After this, Bengali priests became an integral part of the administrative structure in Manipur. With this, the Sanskritization process evolved and Meitei Gods were transformed to align with the Gods of the Hindu mythology. So, Pakhangba became Siva Mahadev and the representation of the Dragon God was transformed into the Snake God, Ananta, of the Hindus. Panthoibi, the God of Prosperity and of war became Durga. Thangjing, the Supreme God of the Moirang Kingdom, was attempted to be personified as Vishnu. It was also during this time that the Meitei script was for the first time published in 1877 AD for the Asiatic Society of Bengal. The then Bengal Government donated a few books and started teaching Bengali script and English. The Meitei script was considered obsolete and Bengali was adopted as the main script. With the redundancy of the ancient social practices, religions and the Meitei script, the Meiteis became a part of what may be considered as a ‘mainstream’ Hindu state thereby losing its tribal attributes. Tribals, therefore, in Manipur comprise only the Chin-Zomi- Kuki and the Naga tribes. Manipur literally means “jeweled land”. The state has a total area of 22,327 sq. kms. The total population of Manipur is 2570390 as per the 2011 census. The state has nine administrative districts which are Imphal East, Imphal West, Thoubal, Bishenpur, Ukhrul, Senapati, Tamenglong, Chandel and Churachandpur. Surrounded by blue hills with an oval shaped valley at the centre, rich in art and tradition and surcharged with nature’s pristine glory. Manipur is a melting pot of cultures. It is birth place of Horse Polo. This is the place where Rajashree Bhagyachandra created the famous Ras Lila, the classical dance of Manipur. Along with these are a number of folk dances and songs from the diverse hill tribes of Manipur. These pristine glamour and values of both the people in the hills and the valley inspired such people as Mrs. St. Clair Grimwood to describe it as “A Pretty Place more beautiful than many show places of the world”. It was Late Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru who paid a fitting tribute by describing it as the “Jewel of India”. After India attained independence in 1947, Manipur which was a princely state declared independence but was integrated into the Indian Union in October, 1949 as a part “C” State. In 1956, Manipur was given the status of a union territory, and was given full statehood in 1972.

3.2 TRIBAL CUSTOMS Tribal customs and practices define the very essence of tribal society in Manipur. Customary laws and practices regulate not only the day to day life of the community with regard to issues such as governance, marriage, land ownership/use system, religious affiliation, chieftain-ship and clan issues, inheritance and administration of justice but they also form an integral part of a harmonious co-habitation between the many tribal societies in the state. Individual tribal societies derive their distinct identity from these 38 customary laws and practices. These have evolved over a long period of time based on certain norms and values that have been a result of a common consciousness and Tribes of Manipur reverence to them by all members of the tribe. Customary laws and protocols have also come to occupy an important place in a tribal society’s world view, its interactions with other non-tribal communities, its notion of contemporary times and vision of the future. There are various definitions of customary laws. One definition argues that customary laws are “customs that are accepted as legal requirements or obligatory rules of conduct, practices and beliefs that are so vital and intrinsic a part of a social and economic system that they are treated as if they are laws” (Black’s Law Dictionary, 1999). By another account, “customary law consists of established patterns of behaviour that can be objectively verified within a particular social setting. The modern codification of civil law developed out of the customs, or coutumes of the middle ages, expressions of law that developed in particular communities and slowly collected and written down by local jurists. Such customs acquired the force of law when they became the undisputed rule by which certain entitlements (rights) or obligations were regulated between members of a community” (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customary_law). Another definition looks at customary laws as “locally recognized principles, and more specific norms or rules, which are orally held and transmitted, and applied by community institutions to internally govern or guide all aspects of life.” From these definitions, it is evident that within the domain of customary laws, aspects such as legal, religious and the body of norms, practices, taboos, values and moral standards are essential to the analysis of ‘culture’ as a regulatory mechanism of a society in an ever changing environment. The paragraphs below will briefly look at the customary practices of the tribal communities of Manipur and also comparatively analyse the similarities or differences among them. Despite being clubbed together as tribal communities, the Chin-Kuki-Mizo group and the Naga group comprise of many tribes with certain characteristics that are so dissimilar that often they are identified as a group with no cultural affinity with the tribes in Manipur. For instance, in Manipur there exists a community which sees itself as descendants of the Menashe Tribe (which is one of the 10 lost tribes of Israel). These people have Chinese appearance and they claim that after their forefathers were exiled and enslaved by the Assyrians they somehow escaped from slavery and arrived in China. Later on they moved to the Chinese-Burmese border and much later on to the neighboring east India. Among the Manipur Jews there are some who believe that all the Manipur and Mizoram residents (about 2 million people) are originally from the Menashe tribe (Aharon Daniel: 1999-2000). It is in this diversity of tribes in Manipur that the cultural and social life of the tribals in Manipur will be examined. Differences will be there but certain traditional commonalities are also there. Such an assessment will highlight a common ground for better appreciation of the diversity in the state. Check Your Progress I Note: Use the space provided for your answer. 1) Write briefly about the tribal custom existent in Manipur ......

39 Tribals of the Northeast Region -I Administrative Structure Among the Kuki-Chin-Mizo tribal groups, traditionally, the office of the chieftainship was in the hands of the village Chief, hereditary in nature, who had almost complete control in terms of landholding and administration of justice under his jurisdiction. He was assisted by a council of elders who were representatives of all the clans and these representatives were called Upa. It was the Chief who would own the land on behalf of the village or community and distribute it as per his will in consultation with the council of elders. In recent times, however, there has been a gradual change in this administrative structure with the election of elders, not necessarily representing all the clans. The chief of the village is the Ex-Officio chairman and all decisions are taken through consultation with the duly elected members. This has brought about some kind of democratization among the tribes and more transparency in the functioning of the village activities. The Nagas, on the other hand, are fully administered by a Village Council duly elected or represented by the elderly representatives of the various clans in the village. The Village Council performs both administrative and judicial functions. It is usually, the eldest male of the clan who is inducted into the village council. (Panmei: 2002). However, traces of a monarchical system of chieftainship are not altogether absent among the Naga tribes. The Maram Nagas still have a Queen – who performs all the customary laws and is highly revered by the people. The Maos and Zeliangrongs also exhibit these tendencies with the first settler of the village becoming automatically the head/chief and the subsequent chieftainship being taken over by the eldest son of the family. It may be noted, here, however, that the village chief is only a nominal head in the village while the administrative powers lie in the hands of the village council comprising of the khullakpa/ Chairman elected by the villagers. In this manner, most Naga tribes in Manipur do have Chiefs. It is apparent in both cases that tenets of democracy have begun to crystallize despite the presence of chiefs whose traditional role was enormous but now have been rendered to that of a nominal head in all affairs of the village. The land ownership pattern, as briefly mentioned, show that there are certain differences among the tribes of Manipur. For the Chin-Kuki-Mizo group of tribes, the village chief is the authority over the village land. “He is the village chief as well as the owner of the village land who receives Changseo, which is a measure of paddy offered to the chief annually for the individual right of cultivation on the village land and a one-day free labor of one person of every household per annum called Khotha. Moreover, a tribute is paid to the village chief by any villager whenever an animal is killed in hunting and even when a villager sells animals like buffalo, cow, and so on (http://www.manipuronline.com/ Features/May2002/tribalpractice05_1.htm). This is, however, changing with the inclusion of elected members in decision making. On the positive side, although this new form of administration is far more constructive, often tensions arise when there is a conflict of interest between the chief and the other elder members of the council. The Naga tribes, on the other hand, practice the system of community land ownership. Ownership rights of land can be given to any person or clan with the explicit knowledge and understanding that it is going to be used by that particular person or clan for farming, cultivation, habitation or acquiring forest/land resources. The Nagas are not allowed to sell land on an individual basis. Clan System and Inheritance One important aspect of the tribal society in Manipur is the importance given to clans. Clans are made up of a number of families who trace their ancestry to a particular person or a family. “A clan is a group of people united by actual or perceived kinship 40 and descent. Even if actual lineage patterns are unknown, clan members may nonetheless recognize a founding member or apical ancestor…” (Fox: 1984). The importance given Tribes of Manipur to clans among the tribal groups in Manipur is because all decisions bearing upon the village in which they live or the clan itself is carried out through a collective decision by the elders of the various clans. There may be one or more clans or many clans in the same village or tribe. This clan system is prevalent both in the Kuki-Chin-Mizo and the Nagas tribes. This is identified by a common surname. Within the clan there is also what is called sub-clans and sub-sub-clans. Sub-clans have mushroomed, in recent times, due to migration from the mother village and the formation of new villages. Sub-clans are actually a group of close knit families which unite due to certain factors such as land or family inheritance. In some tribes, however, these sub-clans become new clans after some customary laws are performed. The new clan becomes a completely new entity with all the powers of a clan. Sub-clans are usually affiliated to the ‘mother’ clan and any decision is taken collectively with representatives from the mother clan. In the tribal society in Manipur, the family inheritance mostly goes to the eldest son of the family except for some tribes within the Kuki-Chin-Mizo group like Sukte and Hmar where the youngest son in the family enjoy all the benefits of the family inheritance. It may be noted here that despite, by tradition, the eldest surviving son inherits all the ancestral property, by convention, the ancestral house is given to the youngest son with an understanding that he will take care of the parents as long as they live (Maheo: 2004). In both the tribal societies mentioned above, the right of inheritance to women is very limited or almost nil except in certain cases where inheritance rights may be gifted to anyone who took care of the parents during their old age whether it is a son or a daughter. Crime and Administration of Justice The tribes of Manipur still practice the traditional way of administering justice for crimes committed within the community. In both the Chin-Kuki-Mizo and Naga tribal groups, crimes are brought to the notice of the village authorities and according to their severity justice is administered. The Naga tribes administer justice through the offices of the village court or village council constituted by the elderly male representatives of all clans including the chief of the village. In the same way, among the Kuki-Chin-Mizo group of tribes it is the chief along with his group of elected representatives who arbitrate and dispense out justice. When it is difficult to determine the guilt, the tribal people leave the matter to the ‘divine power’ by making the accused or all the accused perform certain oaths and gennas. Notwithstanding the differences in the seriousness of the crime among different tribes, punishment in the form of fine is the most common form of punishment. The fine may be in the form of cash or kind such as a cow, a bull or a certain amount of paddy. Capital punishment is not practiced in the tribal society (http:// www.manipuronline.com/Features/May2002/tribalpractice05_1.htm). The most serious crimes usually invite banishment from the village and this is considered the heaviest form of punishment. Marriage and Divorce Arranged marriages are encouraged among the tribal societies. Elopement, forced marriage or marriage by kidnapping may not invite any serious punishment but certain formalities are observed before the newly weds can become a part of the community once again. Serious taboos exist regarding marriage in tribal society. Marriage between closely related persons is considered incest and marriage within the same clan is not allowed. Polygamy and polyandry is not recognized by the tribal societies in Manipur. 41 Tribals of the Northeast Divorce is not encouraged but they do take place for reasons such as adultery or if a Region -I woman fails to bear a child. Usually if the case for divorce is not justified, a fine or other forms of punishment is meted out to the person who is guilty. 3.3 CHANGE AND CONTINUITY IN THE TRIBAL SOCIETY IN MANIPUR In recent times, the tribal societies in Manipur have faced major changes in all walks of life. One of the first consequences of the effect of modern ways of life has been the customary laws and practices of the tribals. Whether such changes are for the good or for the worse is a matter of debate. On the positive side, the spread of modern education, access to better medical facilities, exposure to the outside world, better means of communications and information technologies, better economic facilities, social mobility and such others have transformed the tribal societies into a far more progressive one. Although skeptics look at these changes as gradually eroding the pristine traditional values and thereby ‘the’ tribal identity, there are many who see these as positive changes towards a far brighter future than what was during the time when the tribes were ruled by pure traditional systems and practices. Customary Laws and among the Tribals The tribals in Manipur are mostly Christians. Christianity has been one of the most potent forces that have contributed to the change that has taken place among the tribal customary laws and practices in Manipur. From the mundane approach of the tribal ancestral practices, Christianity brought in a spirituality that went beyond the everyday practice of the tribal communities. Ancestral worship or the worship of nature was replaced by ‘divine’ worship which literally prohibited the old practices by emphasizing that such worship was controlled by a higher supernatural authority. In other words, tree worship was discouraged with the assertion that trees were made by a God far more powerful than the tree itself. In a similar manner, a lot of customary practices were made redundant. The coming of Christianity among the tribals of Manipur, however, has not altogether wiped out traditional institutions and certain customs relating to land-use and ownership systems, marriage, inheritance, administration of justice and certain gennas. Even modern education, social and economic development and other aspects of modern life have not completely led to the abandonment of these laws and practices. On the other hand, in recent times there has been a resurgence to safeguard traditional practices. Folk songs and folklores are being recorded and printed. Traditional attires, dances and festivals are being revived. In any important function in Manipur tribal dances by fully attired dancers is an important part of the function. The diversity in these attires and dances further lend colour and splendor reflecting the kaleidoscopic nature of the tribals in Manipur. Check Your Progress II Note: Use the space provided for your answer. 1) In short, explain how Christianity brought about a change among the tribals of Manipur ......

42 ...... 3.4 CONCERNS CONFRONTING THE TRIBAL Tribes of Manipur SOCIETY IN MANIPUR The HIV/AIDS Epidemic The most serious concern confronting the tribal society in Manipur has been the virulent spread of HIV/AIDS. The spread of HIV/AIDS has been due to a number of factors. The Golden Triangle, an area that spreads between Thailand, Myanmar and Laos, which produces one of the world’s largest production of opium and heroine, is geographically close to Manipur and the state is used as a transit point for illicit trade in these drugs. This trade itself has exposed many of the youth in Manipur to the drugs. Corruption and the failure of the state government to provide job security to educated youths have led them to take recourse to drugs, alcohol and other narcotic substances. Poor economic condition of the people particularly in remote areas state have also attracted the youth to take up the trade as an easy means of livelihood. Trading or exposure to these drugs has dragged the youth into getting addicted to them. Successfully controlling the spread of HIV/AIDS in Manipur will need both the intervention from the government and non-governmental organizations. In a study carried out by Eicher, A.D., N. Crofts, et al. (2000). (“A Certain Fate: Spread of HIV among Young Injecting Drug Users in Manipur, North-East India.” AIDS CARE, Vol. 12, No. 4, pp. 497-504.), it was found that there was “significant community and non- governmental support for AIDS, sex, and drug education.” In another study by Hangzo, C., A. Chatterjee, et al. (1997). (“Reaching out beyond the Hills: HIV Prevention among Injecting Drug Users in Manipur, India.” Addiction, Vol. 92, No. 7, pp. 813- 20.), found out that outreach interventions to inform and educate people about HIV/ AIDS prevention measures have been found to be rather ineffective in Churachandpur – a small district in Manipur particularly where ex-IDU’s are used to reach out to their peers and educate them. The paper proposes that there will need to reach out to the larger community before targeting the IDUs. This would require a well structured strategy by the government, something that has still not happened in Manipur. The Manipur AIDS Control Society (MACS) is still to come out with a workable policy to control the menace of HIV/AIDS. Ethnic Groups and Insurgency The state has also been threatened by insurgencies ever since India got independence from the British. Three dimensions of these violent movements have particularly affected the state. The first has been the long period of conflict and the proliferation of insurgent groups in the state for various reasons. All the three major ethnic groups, the Meitei, Naga and Chin-Kuki have their own insurgent groups. There are over 30 insurgent groups operating in the state. Among them are the People’s Liberation Army (PLA), United National Liberation Front (UNLF), Revolutionary People’s Front (RPF), Peoples Revolutionary Party of Kangleipak (PREPAK), Manipur Liberation Front Army (MLFA), Kanglei Yawol Khanna Lup (KYKL), Revolutionary Joint Committee (RJC), Kangleipak Communist Party (KCP), People’s United Liberation Front (PULF), National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN-K), National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN-I/M), Naga Lim Guard (NLG), Kuki National Front (KNF), Kuki National Army (KNA), Kuki Defence Force (KDF), Kuki Democratic Movement (KDM), Kuki National Organisation (KNO), Kuki Security Force (KSF), Chin-Kuki Revolutionary Front (CKRF), Kom-Rem People’s Convention (KRPC), Zomi 43 Tribals of the Northeast Revolutionary Volunteers (ZRV), Zomi Revolutionary Army (ZRA), Zomi Reunification Region -I Organisation (ZRO) and ’s Convention (HPC). Secondly, corruption in the state and connivance between corrupt officials and the insurgents has created a situation where insurgent groups have gradually managed to reassure themselves of ‘easy money’. It has been alleged that the insurgent organisations collect monthly donations from government employees. “Going by the sources, the collection of money by various underground groups was nearly Rs. 100 crores a year” (Tarapot, 2003). Coupled with this, border illegal trade is to a large extent controlled by the various insurgent groups who deal with both drugs and arms, particularly small arms (Nepram: 2007). Thirdly, insurgent groups of the various tribal communities have been involving in internecine turf wars some of which has snowballed into major ethnic encounter conflagrations in the recent past. For instance, the Naga-Kuki clash during the early 1990s and the Kuki-Paite clash during 1997-98 are examples of such violence among the tribal insurgent groups. Quite like these clashes, the Meiteis and Pangals (Muslims) in Manipur also had a serious violent encounter in 1993 in which hundreds were killed. Manipur Needs National Attention Just to blame the hostile foreign countries for keeping alive the insurgency - is not an answer to this decade’s long unanswered question. The gradual turn of events since Independence shows that local issues including caste and ethnicity have come to centre stage at the cost of national issues, which is not a healthy trend. Contemporary India of over half a century is a grown-up democracy and needs a radical transformation in its federal structure for constitutional integration of its entire population. In order to tackle this problem, it is for the political leadership of the country to decide that national interest is beyond the party and power.

3.5 LET US SUM UP In this unit we have tried to talk in brief about the state of Manipur in terms of its continuity and change with special reference to the tribal community. The tribal community in Manipur has come a long way in terms of education and other social upliftment. The cultural affinity that exists between different tribal groups in Manipur has also led to the development in the state.

3.6 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES 1. Social welfare department of Manipur. 2. Basu, Sahil (1993), Tribal Health in India, Delhi Manak Publishers. 3. Hivaidsmanipur.com/youth.com.htm (last accessed may, 2017) 4. Nembiakkim, R (2017), Tribal Adolscent & their Public Health Concern, Uppal Publishing House, New Delhi. 5. Nembiakkim, R (2008) Reproductive Health Awareness among the Tribal Women in Manipur, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi

44 UNIT 4 TRIBES OF MEGHALAYA

Structure 4.0 Objectives 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Khasi Tribe 4.3 Jaintia Tribe 4.4 Garo Tribe 4.5 Let Us Sum Up 4.6 Further Readings and References

4.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this Unit, you will be able to:

 Know about the different tribes of Meghalaya;

 Know about the Land System in Meghalaya;

 Know about the Matrilineal System of the tribes of Meghalaya; and

 Describe the social life of the tribes of Meghalaya.

4.1 INTRODUCTION The name “Meghalaya” means “Abode of Clouds”. The state of Meghalaya has also been referred to as the “Scotland of the East” because of its enchanted land of lush green mountains and the meandering rivers and its English climate. Bounded on the North and East by Assam and on the South and West by , Meghalaya is spread over an area of 22,429 Sq. Kilometer. It receives heavy rainfall during summer months and it has the distinction of containing the highest rainfall area in the world. The forest covers are mainly tropical wet evergreen, moist deciduous and sub-tropical pine forest. The climate of Meghalaya is moderate but humid. With average annual rainfall as high as 1200 cm in some areas, Meghalaya is the wettest state of India. The Western part of the Plateau, comprising the Region with lower elevations, experiences high temperature for most of the year. The Shillong area, with the highest elevations, experiences generally low temperatures. The maximum temperature in this region rarely goes beyond 28 degrees, whereas winter temperatures of sub – zero degrees are common. The town of Cherrapunjee in the , south of capital Shillong holds the world record for the heaviest rain in a calendar month, while the village of Mawsynram, near the town of Cherrapunjee holds the distinction of seeing the heaviest yearly rains. Meghalaya became a full-fledged state on 21st January 1972, the 21st state of India. It has at present seven administrative Districts, West Garo Hills (capital Tura), East Garo Hills (), South Garo Hills (Baghmara), West Khasi Hills (Nongstoin), East Khasi Hills (Shillong), Ri-bhoi (Nongpoh) and Jaintia Hills (). Meghalaya is mainly the homeland of three main tribes, the Khasis, the Jaintias and the 45 Tribals of the Northeast Garos, who follow a clan system. The Garos inhabit Western Meghalaya, the Khasis in Region -I Central Meghalaya and the Jaintias in Eastern Meghalaya. The Khasis, Jaintias known to be one of the earliest ethnic group of settlers in the Indian sub-continent, belonging to the Proto Austroloid Monkhmer race. The Garos belonging to the Bodo family of the Tibeto – Burmese race were said to have migrated from Tibet. A unique feature about the people of Meghalaya is their matrilineal society. The lineage and inheritance follow the mother’s line. The faith of all three tribes give allegiance to one supreme God, however, the variation in the practice is that the Jaintias have an affiliation to Hinduism while the take to worship of spirits.

4.2 KHASI TRIBE Origin The people staying in the plains of the Bramaputra and Surma Valleys were divided by the Khasi and Jaintia Hills. Since these hills were covered with grass (‘ghas’) it is said that the folk inhabiting these hills were known to the residents of the plains as the people of “Ghas Land”. Subsequently when the Moguls fought wars with them, these hilly folk were then called “Khasia”. This name was current with the British and later on the Khasis apparently accepted this nomenclature. The Khasis have many racial characteristic that are common with other descendants of the Neolithic peoples. The languages of the Mundas and Khasis belong to the same family of speech (called Austric) from which those of the peoples of Indo-China and Indonesia have been derived. According to this view, these people, who were originally settled in India, passed gradually to the east and south-east and traversed, at first the whole length of the Indo-Chinese peninsula, and then over all the islands of the Pacific Ocean up to its eastern extremity. These and many other strange similarities and affinities between the Khasi and various other tribal communities ranging from India subcontinent to Malaysia and the Dutch East Indies. The Khasi hoe-mohkhiew, for instance, which has projected shoulders, is a enlarged version of the Naga hoe, and therefore, can be traced back to singular shoulder-headed celts of ancient Paleolithic stone implements found in the Malay peninsula, in Chhotanagpur and in a different shape in Myanmar. Eastern Nagas of the Tirap, Namstik and Sonkap group and the Karbi tribe wear the Khasi type of sleeveless coat. There are Naga and Karbi tribes who erect memorial stones similar exactly to the stones like the Khasi Monoliths. Further away, the Ho-Mundas of Chhotanagpur also erect Khasi-type monoliths and have death customs very similar to that of the Khasis. The Khasi laid great stress on the egg and its potency for divination during religious sacrifice. The same regard for the egg is also found among the Palaung Sawbwa tribes of Nagaland and it is a powerful part of their folk-traditions. The has intimate connections with the languages of the Mon-Khmer groups in Myanmar and the Malay Peninsula and it is thus akin to the language spoken by the tribe of central India and the Nicobar Island. Accordingly to the linguistic experts, these people also think in the same order when they express themselves in speech. The present Khasi language, as it is spoken and written was adopted by the Welsh Calvinistic missionaries in the Roman Script, in early 19th Century. Land System Each village in the Khasi Hills has it own lands in which rights of private ownership are 46 recognized. There are two main class of land in Khasi Hills, namely (i) Ri Raid Lands and (ii) Ri Kynti Lands. And under these there are sub classes of land by the different Tribes of Meghalaya names in the various elakas. 1. Ri Raid Lands are the land set apart for community over which no persons have proprietary, heritable or transferable right except the right to use and occupy as long as one occupies and use the land. The Ri Raid lands comprises of Ri Shnong, Ri Shnat, Ri Kuna, Ri Lyngdoh, Ri Ram Syiem, Ri Law Kyntang, Ri Law Lyngdoh, Ri Law Niam, Ri Law adong, Ri Law Sang, Ri Law Sumar, Ri Bam Lang, Ri Lynter, Ri Leh Mokotduma, Ri Aiti Mon Sngewbha, Ri Phlang, Ri Bamduh, Ri Diengshai – Diengjin Ri Samla. 2. Ri Kynti Lands are also known by the different names such as Ri Kur, Ri Nongtymmen, Ri Maw, Ri Seng, Ri Khain, Ri Duwat, Ri Khurid, Ri Bitor, Ri Dakhol, Ri Shyieng, Ri Iapduh, Ri Lynter, Ri Spah, Ri Longdung, Ri Pud, Ri Kut and Ri Lyngdoh, Ri Syiem, Ri Khasi Raibuh. Among the Khasis, there is the office of the “Syiem”, a traditional chief. The “Syiem” administers the areas which are included within the jurisdiction of his “Hima”, loosely described as a State, with the help of the “Durbar” or Council. These two traditional institutions are responsible for the entire administration of the “Hima”. The “Syiem” and his Council of Ministers, locally known as “Myntris” or Ministers have legislative, executive, judicial and financial powers and functions. Both these traditional institution are responsible for the entire administration and general welfare of the people within the jurisdiction of the “Hima”. Down at the grass-root level of administration, the “Syiem” and his “Myntris” who formed the State Council are assisted in running the administration by another tier of administrators which consists of the “Rangbah Shnong” or the Village Headmen. Religion The Khasis are basically animists or spirit worshipper. There is no idol or image worship among the Khasis. Reverence and adoration of ancestors is integral to Khasi culture. There is “nature worship” among the Khasis. “U Blei Nongthaw” is the Khasi God of creation, also known as the feminine “Ka Lei Synshar”. The priest in the Khasi clan always comes from the “Lyngdoh” clan. But with the advent of the British a major portion of the Khasis has turned to Christianity. Occupation The Khasi tribal community is generally dependent on Jhum Cultivation. They also engage in other subsistence activities such as fishing, bird snaring, hunting, rearing of . The Khasi are industrious cultivators they are thoroughly aware of the uses of manures. The orange of Khasi Hills has always been famous for its excellence; potatoes are raised on all classes of land. The Agricultural implements used are: a large hoe, (mohkhiew heh) an axe for felling trees (u sdie), a large cleaver or “dau” for felling trees (ka wait lyngngam), two kinds of billhooks (ka wait prat and ka wait khmut), and a sickle (ka Rashi). The forest land are cleared by the process known as jhuming, the trees being felled early in the winter and allowed to lie till January or February when fire is applied, logs of wood being placed at intervals of a few feet to prevent the ashes being blown away by the wind. No manure is used on this type of land. Wet paddy land (Hali or pynthor) implies the land where the kind of paddy required a great deal of water. The soil is made into thick paste through the agency of hoe or by ploughing. The seed is then sown 47 Tribals of the Northeast in the wet mud. When the crop has ripe they are collected and thrashed out on the shot Region -I either by beating them against the stone (Shoh kba) by men or women treading them out (iuh kba) The grain is then collected and placed in large bamboos receptacle (kit thiar). The paddy fields are not manured. Cottage industries and industrial arts include, blacksmithing, tailoring, handloom weaving and spinning, stone cutting, jewellery making, iron smelting, beekeeping, cane and bamboo work, basket making of many varieties – there are conical shaped basket “Ka Khoh” wide at the mouth and tapering to a pint at the bottom, these are carried on the back with the aid of a cane head strap, “U Star”. Manufactured goods include; woollen cloth, coarse cotton, ryndia cloth, quilts, plowshares, axes, silver-work, netted bags of pine apple fibre, mats baskets, brass cooking utensils, bows arrows, swords, spears and shields. Examples of decorative arts include metal gongs, implements of war fare and memorial slabs. These are marketed at Iewduh – which is the largest traditional market place of the Khasi situated in the heart of Shillong. The market is managed by the Syiem (King). Inheritance The Khasi are purely a matrilineal society. Khasi society is made up of a multitude of Kurs termed septs or class each of which ascribes its origin to a primeval ancestor (U Thaw lang) and ancestress (Ka Iawbei). The descent of an individual is always reckoned and traced from the mother alone and through her genealogical tree; it traces its origin back to the common ancestress. From the women sprang the clan, and all “descent” comes from the mother only, the husband is only a “U shong kha”, a “begetter”. From birth a Khasi belongs to the kur of his or her mother and the stigma of illegitimacy is rarely recognized. The child is the heir of its mother, whoever may be the father. The youngest daughter in a Khasi home inherits the property and “holds the religions” (ka bat ka niam) her home is the “Ka ing seng”-the centre of ceremonies and she is the guardian of her ancestral property. Other daughters are also “entitled” to the mother’s property after her death but the youngest daughter owns the largest share. She however, cannot sell off the property without her sister’s consent. In the event of the death of the youngest daughter, the next living youngest daughter inherits the property. Failing daughters, the property would pass on to the sister’s youngest daughters. If there are no sister’s daughters, succession would revert to the mother’s sisters and their female descendants. The Khasi Society is a classless society in which all group are considered equal. Even those clans which are elsewhere regarded as higher classes, e.g. the Syiems (Kings) and Lyngdohs (Priests) are hardly different at the social level from others. Because of the rigidly exogamous clan system, they can enter into marriage only with people of other Kurs. Family The Khasis welcome the newborn with all the joy they can muster. The umbilical cord is always severed with a clean-edged silver or bamboo, never a knife. The baby is washed with warm water stored in a red earthenware pot. The placenta is carefully preserved in another earthenware vessel till after the name-giving ceremony. A ritual is performed with eggs dedicated to water deities “ka blei sam-um” and “niangriang” Marriage is one of the most important rites of the people it is an elaborate religious ceremony that seeks the blessing of the God, the Creator, (U Blei thaw briew man 48 briew), the God or Goddess of the state, (U or ka lei Synshar) and the ancestress and Tribes of Meghalaya ancestor of the clan viz. “Ka Iawblei – tymmen” and “Thawlang”. Three types of weddings are prevalent among the “Khasi” – the “Pynhiar synjat”, the “Lamdoh” and the “Iadih kiad”. The first two are considered most respectable, the last one is for those who cannot afford the considerable expenses incurred by the other two.On the wedding day, the groom accompanied by his “Ksiang” or selected go- between and other followers wearing white or red turbans, proceed to the bride’s house where a great feast is laid out and rice beer (Ka-kiad-hiar) are kept ready in “Klongs” or gourd vessels. The bride’s family, too, have a “ksiang” who manages the wedding. The bride and groom exchange bags of betel-nut, rings or other tokens. The two ksiang each take up a gourd full of fermented liquor and an elder takes it from them and solemnly mixes the contents together. Three dried fishes are placed on the floor of the house. And the prayers to the Gods begin. After the end of the prayers, the elder officiating as priest pours the liquor from the gourd three times on the ground and begins the second invocation and repeats the liquor pouring. He then adjures the “Syiem” and all members of the two clan and pours the liquor three times. The three pieces of dried fish are first placed on the “Tympan”, the high rack above the hearth, then removed and tied to the home’s ridge pole. Everyone presents shouts “hoi!, hoi!, hoi!, hoi!” with great gusto. In poorer families a fowl is then ritually slaughtered and the wealthy kill an unblemished pig, (uba tlem), offering it to the “Syid nia” and “ka Iaw-bei” ancestors of the family. Two or three days after the marriage the bride pays a visit to her husband’s home and then they are free to come and go as they like. After two or three children the dried fish are brought down and two pigs are ritually offered. The “Lamdoh” ceremony is the same except that there are no exchanges of rings or ritual pig slaughter.Marrying within the clan would mean excommunication and expulsion from the clan. Among Khasis, divorce comes about as a result of adultery, barreness, incompatibility of temperament and a variety of other reasons. The Khasi rule is that divorce must take place by mutual consent. “Ka mynrain” or “Ka them” as the compensatory divorce process is called is decided by village elders. Divorced persons cannot remarry each other but are free to marry into other families. Pregnant women cannot be divorced. If the marriage has been celebrated by the “Pynhiar synjat” rite, a go-between or “Ksiang” is required on both sides for divorce proceedings and the “Kni” or maternal uncles of both parties have to be the witness. The Khasi divorce has no negative impact on the lives of the children because of the matrilineal system. “Rap iing” is a unique Khasi term that literally means to “help the house” which is practically adoption when female members of a family have died out. It is the custom for male members to call a girl from another family, to act as “Ka rap iing” and to perform family religious ceremonies. Houses Traditional Khasi houses are oval in shape with wooden plank or stone walls standing on raised plinths. In the olden days nails were taboo or ‘sang’ in Khasi houses and only a special kind of wood was used. But in contemporary times that restriction has faded. These houses have a single window on one side. A fire burns in an earthen or stone hearth in the centre of the room and above, the firewood for kindling is stacked in a swinging frame (Tyngir). Even higher up there is another stationary wooden frame fixed to the beams. Small wooden stools called “Lyngknot” provide seats for family members around the central fire. Drinking water is stored in hollowed out gourds or bamboo cylinders. Tableware, in the house, consists of the large “Ka Pliang Kynthei” (Female 49 Tribals of the Northeast Plate) and the “Ka Pliang Shynrang” (Male Plate). A variety of rain shades or rain Region -I shields called “Ki Knup” are used by all Khasis. Every Khasi home will have its own “U Stein”, net bags made of pineapple fiber the larger one for storing cowries (once used as currency) and the smaller one to store the betel nut “Pan” or betel leaves and tobacco leaves are stored in separate bamboo tubes. Lime for chewing with betel nut is stored in “Ka shanem” a twin compartment metal box usually of silver. Outside the homes of Khasi farmers, hollowed out logs of trees are used as feeding troughs for livestock. Building a new Khasi home has several interesting rituals. When a daughter leaves her mother’s house and builds a home in her mother’s compound, it is taboo to build on the right hand side; left or rear is allowed. “Kynjoh-haka-skain” ceremony is performed once a house stands complete-three pieces of dried fish are tied to the ridge pole of the house and family members try to jump up and bring them down. Sometimes they ritually slaughter a pig and use a portion of its skin and flesh in the same way. Dress The Khasi women wear the “jainsem” a two-piece sari each of which is worn across the body and pinned at the off-shoulders. A head shawl or “tapmohkhlieh” of fine cloth is knotted at the back of the neck. Over these another cloak like garment, “Ka jain kup” is knotted in front. In the interior areas of the Khasi Hills men wear the “jymphong”, a sleeveless coat which leaves the neck and arms bare. There is a fringe at the bottom and tassels in a row across the chest. It is festered by European style frogs in front. For headgear, the elderly Khasi males wear a cap with ear- flaps, the younger males; wear a large white, well-tied turban on their heads. Residents of the Syiemship and the North West part of Khasi Hills, wear red knitted worsted caps. They also wear a small cloth round the waist and between the legs, one end of which hangs like a small apron in front. Generally ornaments of gold, like necklaces or finger rings studded with precious stones, is worn. They also wear large beaded gold and coral necklaces called “Paila”. The gold beads are hollow and filled with lac. Even men wear these necklaces on gala occasions. The rupa-tylli or silver collar- a broad, flat silver band which hangs down the neck in front and is secured from behind is worn by men and women. Men wear silver chains around their waist and the women around their necks flowing down almost to their waists. Gold and silver bracelets are worn only by the women. Musical Instruments The traditional musical instruments of the Khasis blend with their songs and dance. There are many types of flutes and drums collectively known as “Ksing Shynyrang”, “Ksing Kynthei”. Drums act as the percussive beat layer for any music-form and are also used to proclaim an event and call people. “Tangmuri” is a kind of flageolet; “Shaw Shaw” are cymbals; “Nakra” is the big drum, “Ksiang Padiah” is a small drum; but “Besli” or flute is for solo recital; and other wind instruments like the “Sharati”, “Shyngwiang” are for sad and joyous occasion; “Duitara” is a two-stringed instrument played by strings with a wooden pick, and the “Dymphong” is a bamboo reed instrument. Monoliths The strange monoliths or memorial stones of the Khasis and the table stones, the cromlechs are found almost everywhere, in clusters or standing alone which are thought to be endowed with mystic powers. The Khasis call them the “kynmaw” which means to “mark with a stone”. They are however not restricted only to being a memorial to the 50 dead, because certain stones are known as “Mawmluh” or “salt stone”. Others are named “Mawsmai” (the oath stone) “Mawphlang”, (the grassy stone). “Mawlynti” or Tribes of Meghalaya “Mawkjat”-erected as seat for spirits of departed clans-folk when the remnants are taken to the cromlech; “Mawbynna” or “Mawnam” to commemorate a parent or near relation; “Maw shongthait” or flat table stones placed in market-places or by the roadsides to serve as seats for weary travelers. Food The food habits of the Khasis are simple Rice is their staple food but whenever it is not readily available, it may be replaced by a diet of millet or maize which may be mixed with rice. Wheat forms a favorite item in the diet. Fish is welcomed. For condiments they may use a paste of fish preserve (tung-tap) grounded with onion, a lot of chillies and the ripe berries of a particular type of tree called “jaiur” (Zantoxybem alatum) and also a variety of cheese prepared from fermented soya bean (“tungrymbai’). Cold boiled rice wrapped in a leaf, “ka ja-song” and “ki kpu”, a kind of a cake, “u sohphlang” a tuberous root eaten raw and in season, pickled bamboo shoots “lung-siej” are also relished. Pork and beef are the chief delicacy and part of daily meals. They also eat the flesh of almost all wild animals including field rats, a kind of monkey “U Shrieh”, tadpoles - “dohlun” green frog - “Ka Japieh” and the hairy caterpillar - “U niang phlang” Certain taboos about food exist among varied Khasi clans: Cherra Syiems cannot eat dried fish” Kha-piah”. Mylliem Syiem must not eat the gourd, “U Pathaw” Some Syiemlieh groups are forbidden to eat the ka kha lani fish. And the Khar-um-nuid clan of Khyrim is debarred from pork. Games The Khasis have many games integral to their culture. But the most popular is Archery and could be called their state-game. Today archery competitions are a regular feature all over the hills, with men of one village lining up on one side to challenge men of another village. Other games played by the Khasi community include “peg-top” spinning by Khasi children, who also play a kind of hop-scotch called “kyndat malai shito” and “ia tiet hile”. Other popular games are Wrestling and “ia-tur-masi” in which two men rush into each other like bulls and try to knock the other down. Festival The time when work in the fields has ended is the time when the rural folk can relax and organise sports and communal feasts. The most celebrated festival is the Shad Nongkrem (Nongkrem Dance) which is held at Smit, the seat of the Syiem (King) of Khyrim, the are sacrificed during the religious part of this annual festival which is called “Pomblang” were dedication to the patron deities of the Syiem are done and are followed by dances performed by unmarried damsels, clad in richest skills and adorned with a fortune in gold and silver ornaments. Women wear gold or silver crowns with braids of fine silver that fall pass the waist, gold, earrings, red-coral necklaces, silver armlets, semi-circular gold / silver plated collars. The men wear gorgeous turbans of golden silk, “Ka Jainspong Khor” Silver/Gold neck collar, 18 inches long plumes stuck to the turban, a silver chain round the shoulders, silver quivers with silver arrows, at the waist, a silver mesh belt, and maroon cloth worn like the Hindu ‘dhoti’. They all take part in the arena in front of the “Iingsad”, the residence of the High Priestess (Syiem –Sad) while young men in their costly ceremonial attire, holding a sword in one hand and yaktail whisk in the other, dance round them to the piping of the flutes (tang-muri) and the beating of drums. The festival lasts for five days. Another popular celebration, which is purely secular, is the “Shad Suk Mynsiem” (the Dance of Contentment or Happiness) an expression of thanks giving for the blessings 51 Tribals of the Northeast of prosperity that the people have enjoyed during the year that has gone. It is held at Region -I weiking ground “Madan Weiking” for which reason it is also called the “Shad Weiking”. It is the annual spring dance, performed to celebrate harvesting and sowing. Women dance demurely in the center of a ring, while men circle them on the outside with swift, energetic, galloping movement. This celebration is held in the month of April under the auspices of the “Seng Khasi” and is one in which Khasis from all parts of the hills are welcome to take part. It last for three days, with the inaugural dance called “Shad Nohkjat” in the first day. Other forms of dances are the “Ka Shad-Shyngwiang-Thangiap”, to express sorrow especially at the death of some one in the family; “Ka Shad-Kynjoh Khaskain”, is a house warming dance; “Umsan Nongkharai” is performed in spring and is meant to establish contact between the finite and infinite; and “Shad Beh Sier” is a deer hunting dance dedicated to occupational merry-making. Check Your Progress I Note: Use the space provided for your answer. 1) In your own words describe the dress habits of the khasis......

4.3 JAINTIA TRIBE Origin Jowai, the Headquarters of the Jaintia Hills is situated 64 Kms from Shillong. The town is circled by the majestic Myntdu River. The Jaintia Hills District is inhabited by a tribal community who are descendants of a very ancient people having distinctive tribal and ethnic origins. The Jaintias are believed to be of Indo – Mongoloid race although speaking a distinct Austric language belonging to the Mon - Khmer group. With regard to the social origin of the Jaintia people there is an indigenous theory according to which they belonged to a common race which occupied a large area of Northern India, Burma Indo – China and parts of South China in the Neolithic period. The people residing in the Central region of Jaintia Hills are called “Pnars “by those living in the Southern and Northern Regions and who are in turn called as “Wars” and “Bhois” respectively by the Pnar. These are collectively known by the name: Jaintias. Brief History of the Jaintia kingdom The Jaintia Hills was originally known in the local language as “ka Ri Khaddar Dolloi” (Pnar) or The Land of twelve Chiefs, because in ancient days, Jaintia Hills was ruled by the twelve Dollois, who had their own elakas or boundaries and powers to govern a sizeable population. The original twelve elakas were: (1) Nartiang Elaka (2) Jowai Elaka (3) Nongbah Elaka (4) Raliang Elaka (5) Nongjngi Elaka (6) Mynso Elaka (7) Shangpung Elaka (8) Sutnga Elaka (9) NongPhyllut Elaka (10) Lakadong Elaka (11) Amwi Elaka (12) Nongtalang Elaka.

52 Among the Dollois, the Dolloi of Nartiang was known as U Kongsan and the Nartiang Elaka was the biggest elaka which had the largest population in those days. The Dolloi Tribes of Meghalaya of Nartiang was very powerful, as he could easily raise and command the largest army among the twelve Dollois. He was also very rich. The wealth of the Dolloi of Nartiang could be seen up to these days from extensive service land (Rek Dolloi) he enjoyed during his Dolloiship. His service land is the biggest compared to the lands enjoyed by other Dollois. Whenever there was an aggression from any part of Ri Khadar Dolloi, all Dollois joined hands under the leadership of Nartiang Dolloi to fight against the enemy. In the beginning all the twelve Dollois lived happily and peacefully. But in course of time due to increase of population, there arose border disputes, land encroachment etc. To solve these problems a round-table conference was held at Nartiang among the twelve Dollois. After a long and thorough deliberation and discussion the twelve Dollois decided to appoint one person as their king / Raja who would rule over them and look after the welfare of “ka Ri U Khadar Dolloi” in order to end the frequent hostility and bloodshed. Land Tenure System The land tenure system in Jaintia Hills is different from that of the Khasi Hills. The Jaintia Kings did not raise any revenue from the people. The King was assisted by the Dollois and other officials. The Kings derived their income from the Raj land and from the tax on import duties on goods brought to Jaintia Hills. The Dollois used to send one he- goat or rice collected from each village under their respective elakas for sacrifice during Pujas. The Dollois, the Pators, Sirdar, Wasan, Sangot, Lyngdoh were unpaid officials for their services rendered. Land was allotted to them which were called Service Land. Land in respect of the priest (Ki Langdoh) is called “Puja Land”. Lands belonging to the Jaintia Kings were called “Raj Land”. This is the basic structure of land tenure system in Jaintia Hills. When the British occupied Jaintia Hills they found that the land tenure system in Jaintia Hills, though crude was the simplest and the best. These are the three categories of lands in the Jaintia Kingdom. Another category of land is the private property of the people. These are known as the Patta land. Religion The pnar or the Jaintia people maintained their unique culture and religion called Niamtre. Before having food they throw some morsels of the food on the ground in honour of mother earth. Most of the villages in Jaintia Hills have a great similarity with the Hindu religion. They are firm believer and worshippers to the heaven ruled by God Almighty “U Blai Trekirod”. Inheritance In Jaintia Hills traditionally, inheritance of real property passes from mother to the youngest daughter called as “Khon wasdiah”, other sisters also share the property but the youngest one inherits more because of her responsibility to the family. No man in the uplands of the Jaintia Hills can possess landed property, unless it is self acquired, if a man dies and leaves behind acquired property, his heiress will be his mother, if alive, excluding wife, sons and daughters. If the wife, however, undertakes not to remarry, she will inherit half of her husband’s property, which at her death will descend to her youngest daughter by him. The youngest daughter who inherits the property has to perform religious duties and look after the family idols and bear all its puja offerings and expenses. In modern times well-to-do families give a share even to male members of the family. 53 Tribals of the Northeast Family Region -I In the Pnar society, the family is the core of social organization. Though it is mother – centred, the authority of the house (Iung) lies with the eldest Maternal Uncle. He is the head of the clan and represents the same in any village matters. But marital and other institutional affairs are based on matrilineal system. Matriarchy’s in its true sense does not exist in the Pnar society. Inspite of the female ownership of property the woman’s elder brother (Kni) is the actual head of the household and when the husband after the initial matrilocal residence establishes independent house, he is the undisputed lord of the family. In the case where there is no female child, the mother is succeeded by her son, thus the system is called matriarchal only by courtesy. Nowadays, there has been tremendous change in the way of life of the Jaintia people and it is not uncommon case for a man to live together with his wife and children in separate houses and the house is solely run by the father of the house and not by the uncles. Matriliny in Jaintia Hills does not mean that the female are more supreme than the males but it is tracing the line of descent through the female line. The father no doubt is the head and occupies an honored position in a family. Women are entrusted to take care of property as the legal custodian, the family purse, and valuable, movable and immovable properties. Marriage The Jaintia marriage is socially approved and arranged union. In modern days however, the unmarried boys and girls enjoy some freedom of free mixing with one another. Marriageable relation is very carefully observed among the Jaintias. Limitations or prohibitions on the selection of male are there. The traditional law of marriage prohibits not only a marriage within the same clan but also a marriage with a paternal uncle or aunt. A person marrying his maternal uncle’s daughter is the best form of marriage relation. Marriage within the clan or a brother and sister’s marriage is a serious taboo (sang). Marriage among the jaintias is strictly monogamous. There is no system of either polyandry or polygamy among the Jaintias. The Jaintias are endogamous but nowadays endogamy is not strictly adhered to. Marriage among the Jaintias is a pre-arranged, even though the boys and the girls have known each other and consented between themselves to get married, yet their marriage would have to be arranged by their clans. The parents or his uncle would make efforts to find out a suitable girl for a boy. When a suitable girl is found, a formal proposal (Kyllat kurim) will have to be made. If the proposal has been accepted a formal meeting and a suitable date and time for an engagement is arranged. On this day an engagement ring made of Brass or Gold ring is presented to the girl. After scrutinizing and finding that there is nothing which could bar the marriage the two are allowed to tie the knot. On the wedding day religious ceremonies were performed according to the traditional custom and the marriage feast is held. A day before the marriage is solemnised, the groom’s family would provide the bride’s family with a sum of money for buying a special mat (U shylliah chlain) on which the groom will sit on the night of the wedding day. A week after the wedding day, the bride accompanied either by her grandmother or by her aunts, pays a visit to the house of her husband. This visit is therefore called I Li-e Kiad Pynche. It may be noted that among the Jaintias, the husband only visits his wife after dark and does not stay in his wife’s house. In modern days, however many of the Jaintia husbands now live together with their wives under the same roof. It may further 54 be noted that the Christians are still observing the social aspects as well as the customary law of marriage although the religious rituals are not the same. At any rate, the concept Tribes of Meghalaya of marriage as can be seen from the foregoing discussion has not been treated by the Jaintias just as an institution for procreation and for legalising of children but as a social and religious institution that should be respected by all. Divorce In Jowai Dolloiship / Nartiang divorce takes place in the presence of a village official called u “Wasan”. The husband or the wife gives the Wasan an eight anna paise (thnem) or compensation. The latter gives this either to the wife or to the husband, as the case may be. Partners who have been divorced cannot afterwards remarry one another. A woman cannot be divorced during pregnancy. Death In Jaintia society a man who lives with his wife, with the permission of his mother, and has no hope for survival, is to be brought to his mother’s house. In case he dies in his wife’s house, the dead body is brought to his mother’s house and all the rites are performed in his mother’s house only. For three days the body is kept. The fire is taken from the mother’s house. Fire is first lit up to the pyre by the eldest male member of the mother’s family. When the cremation is over the bones are collected by the relatives. Then the bones are carried to the family repositories because the Jaintias believe in the theory of life after death. But this practice is not followed among those converted to Christianity. Houses The Jaintias traditional houses known as ki “Iunglyntoor” are found in Jowai Town and other parts of Jaintia Hills, they have carving of flowers, and other designs on thick and long planks in the sitting room or parlour. The houses were made of wood, stone walls, good quality of timber like oak, pine and jack fruit. Dress The traditional costumes of the Jaintia men are the Turban, a conical cap, a shirt, waist coat, shawl known as ka “Ryndia Tlem”. A strip of cloth worn by men round the waist. The traditional costume of the women are an outer garment worn nicely across the shoulders (ka yusem) variously known as Eri garment (ka yusem ryndia), muga garment, silk cloth are used in festive occasions only. The eri-clothes come with alternate white and mauve stripes from top to bottom (ki thoh khyrwang) clothing with checks or patterns of small squares (ki thoh saru). Cloth tied around the neck covers the head and drops over the shoulders (ki spain khlieh). In modern times men and women as well as youngsters dress themselves in the Western style. Traditional Ornaments The traditional ornaments of the Jaintia include the following:- 1. a) Gold necklaces, the biggest type of necklace. b) Solid round gold necklace c) A type of necklace known as U chah radang. 2. a) Golden chain b) Kynjri Dather which is joined together like a dog chain

c) Twist golden chain 55 Tribals of the Northeast d) Golden chain worn over the shoulders Region -I e) A golden lockets f) Silver chain worn across the shoulders is among other varieties. 3. Earring – Men’s earring are known as ki ksah chkoor. Womens earring is known as ki khaila. There are different types of khaila (Earrings). 4. Bracelets include gold bracelet designed with exquisite flowers on them or bracelet which have no design on them. 5. Rings include twisted gold rings and others. Megalithic Culture One of the exclusive traits that differentiate the Jaintias (except the Khasis) from the other tribes of the North Eastern Region is that they followed what is known as megalithic culture pattern or the culture of creating monoliths in chosen locations. The most famous cluster of monoliths is found at Nartiang village in a place called Iawmulong (the market of Nartiang). Here hundreds of Menhirs and Dolments are found. They were erected by Mar phalangki, U Luh Lyngskor Lamare and villages of Nartiang. These monoliths belong to the clans which were the founders of Nartiang village. In Sakhain village near Sutnga, monoliths are found in different parts of the village, the most notable and spectacular of them are stone slabs and seats. Food The staple food of the Jaintia people is rice and curry. They also consume good quantity of fish, both fresh and dry and are very fond of most kinds of meat, specially pork. They also eat various types of vegetables. They eat many types of fruits such as Orange, Guava, Apples, Plums and Litchi etc. The Jaintias are well versed in the art of cooking soyabean-chatni made from fermented Soyabean. The smoked fish (Dakha - rang) is also well known through out the region. The Jaintia are also expert bakers and their traditional breads are U-Tpu-Wasain, Tpu- Langdong. The Jaintias have excellent and well-developed skills in the preservation of food so that they have ready food supplies throughout the year. Occupation The People of Jaintia Hills undertake various occupation nowadays, some are working as civil servants, engineers, doctors, labourers, cultivators, traders, potters, basket makers, business etc. Originally the main occupation of the Jaintia people was agriculture. The Jaintias have a more advanced method of cultivation than many other hill people in the North-Eastern Region of India. The process of converting highland into terraces for paddy cultivation has increased day by day. The Jaintia people are industrious and enterprising; they have keen interest in trade and commerce. Horticulture has tremendous potential in the region. Orange, Pineapple and Banana. Potato, Ginger, Garlic, Black pepper, Betel leaf and Bag leaf are some of the cash crops in Jaintias Hills. Forest Jaintia Hills is rich in forest wealth. The principal forest produce include Timber, Bamboo, Reeds, Canes, Medicinal Herbs and Plants, Thatch-grasses and various kinds of exquisite 56 orchids are also found. Pitcher plant, the insect eating plant of botanical wonder, is Tribes of Meghalaya found in abundance in Jaintia Hills. Among the seven Districts of Meghalaya, the forest cover is more in Jaintia Hills. Numerous sacred groves are found in many parts of the District. The two most famous sacred groves of the District are “Ka khloo Blai Tuber” and ka Tken Lyngdoh or Khloo Lyngdoh of Nongtalang. The numerous forest jungles, bushes, woods in Jaintia Hills District, is a natural habitat for many varieties of wild animal who thrive in them. Among animal that are found in Jaintia Hills are Elephants, Royal Bengal Tiger (ki khla Wah-la-rein). Games The Jaintias have been ardent lovers and admirers of sports and games. The games practiced in Jaintia Hills are of the outdoor variety played not only for honour or championship but also for amusement and pleasure even simple fun. Ka Iasiat Thong or Archery: A favourite sport of the elders is Archery and the contest between rival teams is usually held at Iawmusiang market day at Madan Iasiat Thong (field opposite to the office of the Deputy Commissioner, Jaintia Hills). Nowadays it is held in Madiah near the Syntu-ksiar River. The games of the Jaintia are Bull Fighting, Seasow, Weight-lifting, Tug of War, Wrestling, Cock Fighting, and Boating Competition etc. Festivals Jaintia music and dance is very rich and constitutes the unique culture of Jaintia Hills District. It is accompanied by different musical instruments such as bhuri (flute), bom (big drum) etc. Jaintias mainly celebrate two popular dance festivals namely BehdeinÞkhlam festival and Laho dance festival. The BehdeinÞkhlam festival is held every year during the rainy season of July or August. It is the most important and unique dance festival of the Jaintias. It is also considered as the most colourful religious festival. This festival is celebrated after the sowing period is over. A month-long preparation and religious rituals involving animal sacrifices are performed by the Lyngdoh preceding the great event. A month before the festival, a sacrifice known as “knÞia khang” is performed to drive away plague and evil spirit. At Jowai town, this festival can be seen celebrated during the month of July. A day before the sacrifice, the male members of the seven chosen localities of Jowai collects the Khnong from the forest. The Khnong are kept halfway for the night in a place called “Iawmusiang”. On the second day, these trees are erected at the centre of each locality. People dance on the streets with the accompaniment of drum beating and bhuri (pipe) playing. Each locality prepares a decorative tower – like structure called the “Rot”. These are carried by the people to the sacred pool called “Aitnar” for immersion, preceded by religious rites and sacrifices in the early hours of the morning. The festival comes to a close with a game of football called “Datlawakor” between the two teams from the upper and lower valleys of the Myntdu River. It is played with a wooden ball. It is believed that the winner will be blessed with a good harvest and prosperity. The BehdeinÞkhlam festival is also held at Tuber Kmaishnong. The Laho dance festival is another popular dance festival for entertainment of the Jaintia people. Everyone with colourful costumes participate in this dance festival. The important function of this festival is to enable the members of the community to 57 Tribals of the Northeast rejoice together and also it is an occasion for interaction. These are not only local Region -I festivals but are a part of Indian cultural heritage. Check Your Progress II Note: Use the space provided for your answer. 1) Write about the Inheritance law in the Jaintia Kingdom......

4.4 GARO TRIBE History The vibrant and virile ethnic people who reside in the Garo Hills are known as the Garos. The Garos call themselves “Achik – mande”. In the ‘Achik’ means Hills and ‘mande’ means people. So, ‘Achik mande’ means the ‘Hill People’. In the pre-historic times, there was a great influx to Burma through Assam from Western China via Tibet. Perhaps the ancestors of Garos were in that conglomeration. Then in about 400 A.D. or still earlier, they had to leave the Irrawaddy and Chindwin valleys in Burma for Assam, being driven out by some stronger tribes. Perhaps during the course of the journey from Burma to Assam, the Garos picked up some of the customs and practices of the tribes residing there, like head hunting and the practice of tethering an ox with a Y-shape pole before sacrifice. Head-hunting practices were also found among the Garos. Garos bear more resemblance to the Kacharis and the Nagas who descended from the great Bodo race which migrated from Western China via Tibet to Burma. If hundred words are picked up at random from the and Garo vocabulary, fifty percent of the words will be found identical. In appearance too, both the tribes show undistinguishable similarities. There is a good deal of resemblance of the Garo language with the language of the Tibetans. The language of the Garo’s is simple and there are no “articles” and no gender distinction in nouns denoting inanimate objects. Like the Tibetans the Garos revere the ‘Gong’. They also attach great value to the yak’s tail. In fact, the Garos have their own word for the yak, which is ‘Matchik’ or ‘Tibotni matchu’ that is, ‘Tibetan cow’. Hence, it is generally believed that the Garos are actually Tibeto Burmese. Land system The lands in Garo Hills consist of revenue areas and Non-revenue areas. The revenue areas are the plain areas of Garo Hills and the Non-revenue areas are the A. King (clan) lands of Garo Hills. The revenue areas of plain areas are directly under the management and administration of District Council in matters of settlement of land to any of the individuals for cultivation etc. 58 The Hill areas of Garo Hills are the A. King lands which belongs to the A. King Nokma Tribes of Meghalaya (headman) of particular clan. The entire A. King lands are managed by the A. King Nokma who is the guardian and custodian of a particular clan or motherhood. The District Council do not have direct control over the A. King lands. A. King lands belong to the particular motherhood whose head is a female. The ultimate ownership lies with the motherhood which exercise its control through her husband. The A. King Nokma being a mere custodian and guardian of A. King lands cannot take any arbitrary decisions in matter of sale, mortgage, gift, transfer etc. There are different kinds of a A. King lands in Garo Hills such as A. milam, A. jikse, A.jama etc. All these different kinds of lands held by particular ma.chongs, cannot exercise the power over their own acquired lands as the entire property belongs to the wife or female. The “chras” or male elder members of the family play an important role in shaping their future and welfare. Social structure The Garo society is divided into three major clan or “Katchis” eg. “Marak”, “Sangma” and “Momin”. The “Katchis” are exogamous, marriage within the clan is forbidden and severely punishable. Some sub-clans have now branched off from the original clans and are developing into independent exogamous clans. In these new Katchis, mention must be made of “Awees” living in the North Eastern Hills, “Abeng” who form the most important group and live in the Western side and “Agongs” occupying Someshwari valley in the vicinity of Siju. Each of the Katchis or clans is further sub - divided into a number of lineages called ‘Ma.chongs’ (sub-clans). These ‘Ma.chongs’ are the basic units in the Garo social structure, and are named usually after animals, rivers, caves etc. A Garo belongs to his particular Ma.chong as soon as he is born. The dominant Ma.chong in a village selects its ‘Nok-ma’ or the headman. ‘Nok’ in garo means house, while ‘Ma’ stands for mother. Though the headman is a male, they call him ‘Nok-ma’. This shows the importance the Garos attaches to the woman. It is the women who inherit property of a Garo ‘Ma.chong’. Theoretically the land belongs to the Nok-ma or the village headman, but actually he is the manager of his wife’s property. He cannot dispose or mortgage the land of his wife without consent of his wife’s Machong. Almost all the land, except narrow strips of plain land in the Garo Hills is A. King land, that is clan-land. The clan allots land to the Nokma which is managed by the Nokma. In the Garo Hills, there are the Nokmas, who with the help of Laskars, administered the village community. Laskars are appointed by the No-kmas. Land belongs to the Nokmas, but only in name. Anyone can cultivate any land as per the sanction of the Nokmas. The Nok-mas have however, to obtain permission of his wife’s Ma.chong. Religion Almost all the Garos are now Christians. Before that the religion of the Garos was a mixture of pantheism and Hinduism. The poetic verses, stories in folklore which are sung or recited by priests, elders and other Garos on various occasions, contain in them the sources and roots of their religious beliefs and instincts. Chanting to celebrate the building of a house, all reflect the animistic religions of the Garos who believe in a multitude of benevolent and malevolent spirits. The Garos have great reverence for ancestors and the deceased, but no worship is done, though they look for their reincarnation after a period of sojourn at spirit land. 59 Tribals of the Northeast In all religious ceremonies sacrifices were essential for the propitiation of the spirits. Region -I They had to be invoked for births, marriages, deaths, illness besides for the good crops and welfare of the community and for protection from destructions and dangers. Inheritance Among the Garos, only a daughter can inherit the property. In the Garo society, selection of the heiress or “Nokna” depends on the wishes of the parents. The parents choose the best daughter, who is usually though not always the youngest one. In case of any differences between the spouse, the opinion of the wife prevails, because the Garo society is basically matrilineal. Generally the youngest daughter is selected “Nokna” because usually she is more attached, dutiful, obedient to the parents and more likely to survive the other daughters, because she is the youngest. However, in case the youngest daughter is not surviving or for any other reason, the parents can select any other daughter, but only ‘one’. Property is never shared, and it is retained always within the ‘Ma.chong’. Property once owned in motherhood, cannot pass out of it. A women’s children are all of her “machong”, and since property may never pass out of it, if a son marries another clan woman and his children would be their mother’s sept, the daughter must therefore, inherit and her daughters after her, and in the case of no-children, to another women of the clan, duly appointed by its members. After marriage, the son-in-law lives in his wife’s parent’s house and becomes the ‘Nokron’ or representative of his father-in-law. During the lifetime a women’s husband can fully use her property with complete authority, but cannot “will it away”. However “Matriarchy” in the strictest sense of the word, is not part of Garo Law. The woman simply acts as a vehicle for inheritance of property from generation to generation. Although a man cannot inherit property, his “machong” has the right to control what his wife brings him. In the event of death, he may choose a male member of his clan, a “nokkrom”, to represent him, who is not an “heir”, but is the channel through which the husband’s motherhood maintains control over the wife’s property. Sometimes the “nokkrom” is the son of the man’s sister, and is expected to marry his uncle’s daughter. Family Birth is a matter of joy not only to the family, but also to the community. Elaborate celebrations are customary-naming ceremony is usually observed on the day of birth itself. Till death, the new-born baby belongs to the mother’s family, irrespective of sex, even after marriage. Lineage is always matrilineal like the Khasis and the Jaintias. Except amongst the Nayars in Kerela, this system is not found anywhere in the country. It is unique among the Meghalayans. Marriage within the clan, as already stated is completely banned and severely punishable. The Garos do not abhor free mixing. Marriage is however, arranged with the formal sanction of the parents. Usually, the girl proposes to the boy. Then the girl and the boy report to their respective parents. If both the parties agree the marriage is then arranged. Naturally the question of dowry does not arise. Betrothal and marriage do not have much religious significance in Garo society and entail no sacrificial offerings or unusual religious symbols as are prevalent in birth and death. The priest only consults omens to 60 ascertain whether the couple will be happy and prosperous. Like other Hill tribes, there is “adoption” system among the Garos. Parents can adopt Tribes of Meghalaya a boy or a girl, not necessarily for inheritance. Divorce is easily obtainable with mutual consent. The community does not object in case of mutual consent, but it is accepted only on payment of a penalty to the community. In case of adultery however, mutual consent is not necessary. Mutual consent is also not required in case of infertility. Divorce is permitted when – the husband and Wife mutually consent to separate; when either one is guilty of adultery; or when either one of them refuses to work for the household. The separation case is heard by village elders and actual divorce takes place in a ceremony called “bolsckidena” held in front of an assembly of villages. Husband and wife pick up handfuls of dust and swear by “Mane”, the Earth, to have no dealings with and to claim nothing from each other. After the oath, the priest takes a sword or chopper or spear, strikes a tree with the weapon and calls upon it as a “son-of-the earth” to stand witness. The weapon used belongs to the man and becomes the property of the priest. Death of a person is not only a loss to the family, but is also mourned by the entire community. Elaborate rituals are held. Before embracing Christianity, they used to cremate the dead body in presence of all relations of the deceased. Nowadays, according to Christian practice the body is buried. Cremation or burial expenses are borne by the relatives of the female clan. Wooden ‘Kimas’ resembling the body of the dead is placed in front of the house in memory of the deceased. Houses The Garos live in houses built on piles, usually on a steep incline. The floor covering is a layer of rough bamboo matting. The roof is usually thickly thatched with grass or with bamboo leaves. The houses are generally long and narrow with no side windows. The house has three principal parts – the first one being called the “Nokkra” and holds the pestle dry firewood stacks. Two or three steps lead to the main living room known as the “Nokganchi”. And the last room “Nokdring” or dun is a master bedroom. The “bachelors” house called “Nokpante” which is found in every village are very big and built on such higher platforms which necessitate climbing notched logs of wood serving as stair cases. Garo houses are usually very sparsely furnished. Utensils usually consist of cooking pots, larger vessels for brewing liquor and the pestle and mortar for rice husking. Cooking pots are earthen. Fresh plantain leaves serve as plates and are replenished daily. A single large cane- leaf called “Rejak” is used to ward off the rain. Food The Garos have no inhibitions about food. They are a true carni-herbivorous. They will eat almost any animal for meat, usually raising goats, pigs, fowl and ducks in the village and buying cattle from the plains people. They are the only divisions of the Bodos who eat beef and other wild animals, except the tiger. Snakes, lizards and even small white ants with wings are not unwelcome. A favourite food item is dried fish, “nakam” - some of which they prepare themselves and some procured from plains. “Gran”, a dried version of beef is considered a delicacy. Garos eat quite a few vegetables and many edible roots and creepers from the forest. Bamboo shoots are considered a delicacy and eaten boiled, as a vegetable or used for special dishes. Garos grow chillies and eat a great deal of them. They use salt but no fat for cooking. Garos eat frugally, three meals a day. But all feasts are sumptuous affairs, with lots of food and drink. In all religious ceremonies, the Garos eat drink and dance 61 Tribals of the Northeast to the accompaniment of music by buffalo horn ‘singas’, bamboo flutes, drums, gongs Region -I and cymbals. Guest sits in rows, servers with baskets move around dispensing tempting morsels. They are followed by the liquor-bearers who carry “bek” or “pongsim”, a kind of gourd holding liquor to wash down the food. Garos drink only brewed liquor, never distilled. Liquor – making is the duty of women of a Garo household. Dress Original Garo dress is quite primitive. Men wear a strip of blue cotton cloth, women with red lines down the front, between the legs and tucked into the folds in the back and sometimes hanging in a little apron in front, decorated at the fringes with white conch – shell beads. The head – covering or turban is usually blue or white cloth. For important occasions it is made of red Assamese silk with ornamented fringes. The Pagri never covers the top of the head but is worn around the head from the eyebrows upwards. In winter a cotton cloth or blanket thrown around the shoulders completes the man’s attire. Garo women fashion a petticoat – like wrap around the waist using a piece of cloth about eighteen inches wide. Two strings of the same material fasten it at the top leaving a slit open on the thigh. This garment is called the “ReKing”. On their shoulders Garo Women wear a shawl of blue and white cotton. In modern times however, Western style – clothing has become common among the Garos. On all festive occasions, the Garos irrespective of sex, wear head-dresses with rows of beads stuck with feathers or hornbill. Males and females – both wear bangles and earrings. During festive or other occasions such as dancing, Garo women wear “marang-Jasku”, a dress made of dyed Assamese silk, which seem to acquire value with age. It is draped around the body passing under the right arm and tied in a knot on the left shoulder. Its fall reaches the knees, and the left side is left open. The usual petticoat is underneath. During dance ceremonies, men sometimes wear the pandra, a black cloth reaching to the waist, worn around the body, under the arms and laced across with white cotton. Both men and women wear circlets of bamboo or stiffened cloth bedecked with rows of white beads and feathers from a cock or bimraj bird or bunches of paddy ears. Pen fowl feathers are considered unlucky and never used. Women’s headgears have slight differences according to the locality. Traditional ornaments Garo men wear two kinds of brass rings in their ears-the first in the lobe of the ear, thin brass wire hoops, sometimes 30 to 40 in each ear – the natong or otonga. In the upper part of the ear they wear a small plain brass ring, sometimes embellished with the small plain brass dices and a string of beads, which end in semicircular pieces of brass, silver or crystal. Silver bangles are also worn, though these may be external influences. Some very heavy brass ornaments are worn on the wrists during festivals. Necklaces grace men and women and are usually long barrel-shaped, beads of cornelian or red glass. A rare ornament is the “kadesil”, a band of cloth covered with brass studs and worn round the forehead. Women, like their men, wear brass rings in their ear, but of much larger size ranging from two to four inches in diameter. These heavy sishas, are worn sometimes upto 50 a ear, which distend the ear lobes and finally split them. The seng’ki are a kind of waist 62 band comprising several strands of special cylinder shaped beads. During dancing women also wear headbands like the men and a curious head-ornament, the “pilne” or “salchok Tribes of Meghalaya maldong” which is a bamboo comb with a white-bead ornamented indigo-dyed cloth strip attached to the top. The comb is stuck in the hair-knot and the cloth hangs down behind. Musical Instruments Like their dance forms, the musical instruments of the Garos are simple. A few drums, wind-instruments of bamboo or horn, metal gong and cymbals all are manufactured or crafted at home. The types of drums used by the Garos are the “dama”, the “kram”, the “nadik” and the “nagra”. The “adil” is a small pipe, the “singga” is the whole of buffalo’s horn, the “otekra” is a big bamboo flute. Other flutes are the “ilongma”, “bangsi”, and the “imbonggi”. The Garos play a kind of “Jewish Harp” called the “Gonggina” made of bamboo, instead of iron. They used Gongs known as “rangs”. As cymbals the Garos use the “kakwa” and the “nengilsi”. Occupation First and foremost the Garo is a farmer. He loves to till the soil and watch his crops grow. Agriculture is the principal occupation. Trading is restricted to bartering his produce in the market place, now in currency though, some do trade in their favorite white beads, “Daos” (choppers), swords, cloth, timber, and bamboo. Industry includes blacksmithing and weaving. Every housewife has a rough loom. Games The Garos have few traditional games and they have several “trials of strength” which are performed by the youths of the “nokpante” in a Garo village. Among games practiced by Garos, the most important are, the “w˜apong-kala”, a kind of cock fighting in which contestants sit opposite each other on the ground grasping a short piece of bamboo, and proceed to try and tug the other off the ground. The “gogripa” or “cha gripa” is a wrestling match fought on the lines of a bear-fight. The “sue” is a large round bean and is a poor imitation of marbles. The “jakol-kala” is a kind of rounders, the homes being small round holes, no ball is used and participants race from one home to another while others try to intercept them. Festivals The “” or the “Hundred drum” festival is the most important festival. It is the last but not the least of the ceremonies of the agricultural year. This is a harvest festival held in honour of Saljeng, the sun-god of fertility. The festival marks the end of a period of toil in the fields, bringing a good yield of crops. It is a thanks giving ceremony. For days the people relax and rejoice. The hills and valleys resound with a distinctive beat of drums, the atmosphere is charged with cheers everywhere. The dance has certain subtle variations, the main motif being a queue of two parallel lines – one of men and the other of women, clad in their festive regalia. Needless to say, there is liberal dosage of meat and wine to mark the happy ending in joyful heart. Check Your Progress III Note: Use the space provided for your answer. 1) Express in your own words the musical instruments of the Garo tribe ...... 63 Tribals of the Northeast Region -I ......

4.5 LET US SUM UP The unit has provided an account of the tribes of Meghalaya, their manners and customs, their religious beliefs, their origin, their land system, their matrilineal system and their social life. The coming of the Welsh Missionaries brought about significant changes in their value system, beliefs, speech, etiquettes, food habits, life-styles and most importantly in the field of health, education and economic condition.

4.6 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES 1. Gourdon P. R, The Khasis, Low Price publication, Delhi, 2002 2. Joshi, H. G, Meghalaya – past and present, Mittal Publications, New Delhi, 2004 3. Chattopadhyay, Dr. S. K, Tribal Institutions of Meghalaya, Spectrum Publications, Guwahati, 1985 4. Rana, Capt. B. S, The People of Meghalaya, Punthi Pustak, Calcutta, 1989 5. Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Govt. of Meghalaya, The enchanting life and culture of the Jaintias of Meghalaya, DIPR, Shillong, 2005, (www.inegipr.nic.in) 6. Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Govt. of Meghalaya, The Khasi: dwellers of the high hills of Meghalaya, DIPR, Shillong, 2002 7. Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Govt. of Meghalaya, The Pristine culture and society of the Garos of Meghalaya, DIPR, Shillong, 2002 8. Directorate of Arts and Culture, Govt. of Meghalaya, Heritage of Meghalaya, Directorate of Arts and Culture, Shillong 9. Indianetzone, Culture of Jaintia Hills District, 2010, (www.indianetzone.com) 10. Indianetzone, Khasi Tribe, Meghalaya, 2010, (www.indianetzone.com)

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