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Notes 1. BUSINESS AND POLITICS 1. Lu put this philosophy into practice and his investments were enormously successful. The man in whom he invested, as the story goes, was the father of the First Emperor of China, the founder of the Qin dynasty. For details of this record, see Shiji, juan 85, pp. 2506–7. 2. For very general descriptions of these incidents, see for example, Edward J.M. Rhoads, China’s Republican Revolution, The Case of Kwangtung, 1895–1913 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1975), pp. 240–1; Jung-Fang Tsai, Hong Kong in Chinese History, Community and Social Unrest in the British Colony, 1842–1913 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), pp. 250–1; Chan Lau Kit-ching, China, Britain and Hong Kong 1895–1945 (Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press, 1990), pp. 111–5, 150–1; C. Martin Wilbur, Sun Yat-sen, Frustrated Patriot (New York: Columbia University Press, 1976), pp. 50–1. 3. Literature on the relation between merchant and state in China is vast. The existing literature concentrates largely on the areas of Zhejiang and Shanghai. These works include Keith R. Schoppa, Chinese Elite and Political Changes: Zhejiang Province in the Early Twentieth Century (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982); Mary B. Rankin, Elite Activism and Political Transformation in China: Zhejiang Province, 1865–1911 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1986); Joseph Fewsmith, Party, State, and Local Elites in Republican China: Merchant Organizations and Politics in Shanghai, 1890–1930 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1985); Marie-Claire, Bergere, The Golden Age of the Chinese Bourgeoisie, 1911–1937, translated by Janet Lloyd (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Parks M. Coble, Jr, The Shanghai Capitalists and the Nationalist Government, 1927–1937 (Cambridge, Mass.: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1986). 4. Yung Chi-hoe, ‘From Family to State,’ The China Review, no. 1 (Jan–March 1934), p. 26. 5. CO129/493, Memo on Policy of China, 28 May 1926. Clementi Papers, ‘Correspondence to the Colonial Office’, 28 May 1926. 6. John K. Fairbank, Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast, The Opening of the Treaty Ports, 1842–1854, 2 vols (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1953); see also his ‘The creation of the treaty system’ in J.K. Fairbank (ed.), The Cambridge History of China, vol. 10, Late Ch’ing 1800–1911 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), pp. 213–63. 7. For illustrations, see Arnold Wright and H.A. Cartwright, Twentieth Century Impressions of Hong Kong, Shanghai, and Other Treaty Ports of 133 134 Notes China: Their History, Commerce, Industries and Resources (London: Lloyd’s Greater Britain Publishing Company, Ltd., 1908). 8. Paul A. Cohen, ‘The new coastal reform’ in Paul A. Cohen (eds.), Reform in Nineteenth-Century China (Cambridge, Mass.: East Asian Research Centre, Harvard University, 1976), pp. 256–7; see also his ‘Littoral and hinterland in nineteenth century China: the “Christian” reformer’ in J.K. Fairbank (ed.), The Missionary Enterprise in China and America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1974), pp. 197–225; see also John K. Fairbank, ‘The Creation of the Treaty System’ in The Cambridge History of China, vol. 10, pp. 213–63. 9. Carl T. Smith, Chinese Christians: Elites, Middlemen, and the Church in Hong Kong (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1985); see also his ‘The emergence of a Chinese elite in Hong Kong,’ JHKBRAS, 11 (1971), pp. 74–115; Yen-ping Hao, The Compradore in Nineteenth Century China, Bridge Between East and West (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University, 1970); see also his ‘A new class in China’s treaty ports: the rise of the Comprador-Merchants,’ Business History Review, 44, no. 4 (1970), pp. 446–59. 10. See Thomas G. Rawsky, ‘Chinese Dominance of Treaty Port Commerce and its Implication, 1860–1875,’ Explorations in Economic History, 7, no. 4 (1970), pp. 451–73; see Shao Xunzheng, ‘Yangwu yundong yu Zhongguo zican jieji fazhan de quanti wenti’ (The question of the relationship between the Western Affairs Movement and the development of the capitalist class in China), Xin jianshe, no. 1 (March 1963), p. 3. 11. Hosea Ballou Morse, The Trade and Administration of China (Shanghai: Kelly and Walsh, 1921), p. 48. 12. Ibid. 13. For a detailed illustration, see Albert Feuerwerker, China’s Early Industrialization: Sheng Hsuan-huai (1844–1916) and Mandarin Enterprise (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1958). 14. See Stanley Spector, Li Hung-chang and the Huai Army, A Study in Nineteenth-Century Chinese Regionalism (Seattle: University of Washington, 1964); see also Chi-kong Lai, ‘The Qing State and Merchant Enterprise: the China Merchants’ Company, 1872–1902,’ in J.K. Leonard and J.R. Watt (eds.), To Achieve Security and Wealth: The Qing Imperial State and the Economy, 1644–1911 (Ithaca: East Asia Program, Cornell University, 1992), pp. 139–56; see also Samuel C. Chu and Kwang-Ching Liu (eds.), Li Hung-chang and China’s Early Modernization (London and New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1991). On Li Hung-chang’s advisors, see Smith, Chinese Christians, pp. 34–51. 15. Ibid. See also Kenneth E. Folsom, Friends, Guests and Colleagues: The Mu-fu System in the late Ch’ing Period (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968); Jonathan Porter, Tseng Guo-fan’s Private Bureaucracy (Berkeley: Centre for Chinese Studies, University of California, 1972); see also Smith, Chinese Christians, pp. 71–4. 16. Luke S.K. Kwong, A Mosaic of the Hundred Days: Personalities, Politics, and Ideas of 1989 (Cambridge, Mass.: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1984). Notes 135 17. John Wong, The Origins of an Heroic Image: Sun Yat-sen in London, 1896–1897 (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1986). 18. See Lancelot Forster, The New Culture in China (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1936), pp. 174–8. See also J.O.P. Bland, Recent Events and Present Policies in China (London: William Heinemann, 1912), p. 196. 19. Zhu Ying, ‘Qingmo shanghui di chengli yu guanshang guanxi di fazhan (The establishment of the chambers of commerce and the development of the relationship between merchants and officials in the late Qing) in Shehui kexue zhanxian, no. 2 (1990), pp. 67–73. 20. These proposals included plans to publish a business newspaper, to establish procedures to handle commercial dispute, and to develop new regulations governing railways and mines. See Wellington K.K. Chan, Merchants, Mandarins and Modern Enterprises in Late Ch’ing China (Cambridge, Mass.: East Asian Research Centre, 1977). See also Linda Pomerantz- Zhang, Wu Tingfang 1842–1922, Reform and Modernization in Modern Chinese History (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1992), pp. 149–50. 21. Same as 20. 22. En-han Lee, ‘China’s response to foreign investment in her mining industry, 1902–1911,’ JAS, no. 28 (1968), pp. 58–76; Roberta Albert Dayer, Bankers and Diplomats in China 1917–1925, The Anglo-American Relationship (London: Frank Cass, 1981), pp. 15–22; Frank H.H. King, The History of the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, vol. III (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 378–451. 23. For illustrations, see Guangdong Gangzhou shangfou zhangcheng (Regulation of the port-market development scheme in Gangzhou of Guangdong) Canton, 1910; Kaipi Xiangzhoufou zhangcheng (Regulation of the port-market development scheme in Xiangzhou of Guangdong) Canton, 1911; and Zheng Dehua and Sheng Luxi, Xinning tielu yu Taishan qiaoxi- ang (Xinning Railway and the overseas returned Chinese community in Taishan) (Canton: Zhongshan Daixie, 1992). 24. Ibid. 25. For a general description of the crisis, see Robert A. Scalapino and George T. Yu, Modern China and its Revolutionary Process, Recurrent Challenges to the Traditional Order 1850–1920 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), pp. 301–8. 26. John H. Fincher, ‘Political provincialism and the national revolution,’ in M.C. Wright (ed.), China in Revolution, pp. 185–226. 27. Pomerantz-Zhang, Wu Tingfang, pp. 211–16, 219–22. 28. On Tang Shaoyi, see Lee En-han, ‘T’ang Shao-yi: diplomat and Politician of Late Ch’ing China,’ Bulletin of the Institute of Modern History, Academia Sinica, 4, Part 1 (1973), pp. 53–126; Louis T. Sigel, ‘T’ang Shao- yi (1860–1938): The Diplomacy of Chinese Nationalism,’ PhD dissertation, Harvard University, 1972. 29. Carl Crow, The Travellers’ Handbook for China (Shanghai: Hwai-mei, 1913), p. 178. 30. For a detailed history of the northern government, see Andrew Nathan, Peking Politics 1918–1923, Factionalism and the Failure of 136 Notes Constitutionalism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976); for a detailed history of the southern government, see Pomerantz-Zhang, Wu Tingfang, pp. 231–85. 31. On Liang Shiyi’s history, see H.L. Boorman and R.C. Howard, Biographical History of Republican China (New York: Columbia University Press, 1967–71), vol. 2, pp. 354–7. A list of 22 Cantonese in the Ministry of Communications and their backgrounds can be found in Jia shucun, Beiyang junfa shiqi di jiaotongxi (The Communications clique in the period of Beiyang warlords) (Zhengzhou: Henan renmin chubanshe, 1993), pp. 25–43; on the rise of the Communications clique and its linkage with Yuan, see Stephen R. MacKinnon, ‘Liang Shih-i and the Communications Clique,’ JAS, 29 (1970), pp. 581–602. 32. On the origins of the Beiyang militarists, see Stephen R. MacKinnon, ‘The Peiyang Army, Yuan Shikai, and the origins of modern Chinese war- lordism,’ JAS, 32 (1973), pp. 405–23; see also his Power and Politics in Late Imperial China: Yuan Shikai in Beijing and in Tianjin 1901–1908 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980). On a discussion of the term ‘warlord’, see Arthur Waldron, ‘The warlord: twentieth-century Chinese understandings of violence, militarism, and imperialism,’ American Historical Review, 96, no. 4 (October 1991), pp. 1073–100; Edward A. McCoed, The Power of the Gun, The Emergence of Modern Chinese Warlordism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993).
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