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3-1-1991 Impact of Agricultural Chemicals on Wetland Habitats and Associated Biota with Special Reference to Migratory Birds: A Selected and Annotated Bibliography C. F. Facemire

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Recommended Citation Facemire, C. F., "Impact of Agricultural Chemicals on Wetland Habitats and Associated Biota with Special Reference to Migratory Birds: A Selected and Annotated Bibliography" (1991). Bulletins. Paper 713. http://openprairie.sdstate.edu/agexperimentsta_bulletins/713

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A Selected and Annotated Bibliography

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Region 6 Environmental Contaminants Program North and South Dakota Fish and Wildlife Enhancement Offices South Dakota Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit and South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station South Dakota State University Published in accordance with an act passed in 1881 by the 14th Legislative Assembly, Dakota Territory, establishing the Dakota Agricultural College and with the act of re-organization passed in 1887 by the 17th Legislative Assembly, which established the Agricultural Experiment Station at South Dakota State University. Educational programs and materials offered without regard to age, race, color, religion, sex, handicap, or national origin. An Equal Opportunity Employer. 1,000 copies printed by Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences, SDSU, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service at $2.25 each.

This publication reports the results of research only. Mention of a trademark, proprietary product, or vendor does not constitute a guarantee or warranty of the product by the South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station or U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and does not imply its approval to the exclusion of other products or vendors that may also be suitable. B 708 Comments or terms added forclarifica tion or explana­ tion are in [ ]. Editorial comments are those of the author and do not necessarilyreflect the views of the Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) or of South Dakota Impact of State University (SDSU). Scientificnames of birds and fishare listed in the appendix. Both common and scientificnames of birds Agricultural are in accordance with the sixth edition of the AOU Check List of North American Birds. Common and sci­ entificnames of fishare as listed in Fishes of Missouri by W. L. Pflieger(Missouri Dept. of Conservation, 1975) Chemicals or as listed in the source. Theindex on page 62 groups all papers on a particular on Wetland Habitats subject. The numbers under each heading refer tothe and Associated Biota citation numbers andnot to page numbers. The bibliography was produced under a cooperative agreement between the North and South Dakota field with Special Reference officesof the Service and the Fish and Wildlife CooperativeResearch Unit at SDSU. Primary to Migratory Birds: resources included the H.M. Briggs Library at SDSU and various online databases. It is hoped that this bibliography will not only benefit A Selected Service Environmental Contaminant Specialists, for whom it was primarily intended, but all others who are and Annotated interested in the effects of agricultural chemicalson the environment. Bibliography Abbreviations These abbreviations have been used throughout the Prepared for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service text to conserve space. under Cooperative Agreement 14- 16-CXXl9- 1549 Research Work Order 20 AI activeifigredient by BChE butyrylcholinesterase Charles F. Facemire ChE cholinesterase South Dakota Cooperative DDD 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethane Fish and Wildlife Research Unit DDE dichlorodi phenyldichloro-ethylene South Dakota State University DDT 1, 1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethane Brookings, SD 57007- 1696 EC50 concentration at which some behavioral or physiological end point is noted in 50% of the This bibliographydocuments the impact of pesticides organisms tested and other agricultural chemicals on northernprairi e GI gastrointestinal wetlands and the migratorybirds using the wetlands. LC50 concentration at which 50% of the organisms It alsorecommends variouspract ices or techniques testeddie which could mi tigate, ameliorate, or prevent such LD50 dose at which 50% of the organisms tested die impacts. oc chlorinated hydrocarbon or organochlorine Such a subject covers a varietyof topics. Included are OP organophosphate papers from basic laboratory researchto determine the PCB polychlorinatedbiphenyl acute, and sometimes chronic, toxicityof a varietyof chemical pesticides. Also included are papers covering This bibliography and its associated index are available alternative pest control and agricultural methods and on either 5 1/4- or 3 1/2-inch disks. The fileis in variousbioassa y techniques. WordPerfect 5.1 and is compatible with all MS/DOS hardware. 'lbreceive a copy of this software, contact Generally, only those reports published since 1970 are Dr. Wal ter G. Duffy, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, included, thus excluding those dealing with many Cooperative Research Unit, South Dakota State chemicals no longer in use. For the same reason, many University, Box 2206, Brookings, SD 57007-1696. papers reportingorganochl orine contamination were Requests must be in writing and specify the disk size not included unless the research was performed during desired. Phone orders will not be honored. the past 10 years.

1 1. A.A. AQUATI C RESEARCHLtd. 1985. and 84% of the terbufos and 67 and 70% of the phor­ Implications of reduced and no-tillage systems ate was lost from the two treatment areas, respec­ on chemical use in theprairie provinces. EPS tively. Concentrations of the oxidized products ofter­ 4/AG/1. Environmental Protection Service, bufos and phorate (terbufoxon and phoratoxon sul­ Environment Canada, Ottawa. 20 pp. fones) increasedin the soil concomitant with the Ve ryfew reduced and no-tillage systems existed decrease of th e parent product and were more persis­ in 1985 in the prairie provinces. The high cost of tent than the parent product. The half life of phorate herbicides and the need for moreintensive farm and terbufos did not change significantlywith appli­ management were given as major limiting factors. cation rate; the half life of fonofos increased with Although the southernregions of the prairie increased application rate. [Correspondence from provinces have the greatest potential for reduced and one of the authors (DDW to J. Cooper, March 14, no-tillage farming, the change fromconventional 1990) stated"that an at-planting application of phor­ farmingwould favor the growth of perennial weeds ate at labeled rates would not present a hazard to and a concomitant increase in the need forherbicide waterfowl and most certainly [would] be in insuffi­ control. Reduced and no-tillage systems substantial­ cient concentration for secondary poisoning."] ly reduce soil erosion, however. As a result, the transport of nutrients and herbicides to nearby sur­ 5. ALEXANDER,H.C., F.M. Gersich, and M.A. face waters is greatly reduced as compared to con­ Mayes. 1985. Acute toxicity of four phenoxy ventional tillage. herbicides to aquatic organisms. Bull Environ Contam Tuxicol35:314-321. 2. ABEL, P.D. 1980. Tuxicity of gamma-hex­ The acute toxicitiesof 2,4-D, 2,4-D dimethy­ achloro-cyclohexane (lindane) to Gammarus lamine salt (2,4-DD), 2,4-D isooctyl ester, and MCPA pulex: mortality in relation to concentration isooctyl ester to three fish species and Daphnia and exposure. Freshwater Biol 10:251-259. magna were determined. MCPA was non-toxic at con­ In standard acute toxicity tests, the median sur­ centrations up to 1500 times its water solubility of vival time ranged from 0.57 h at a concentration of 2 0.003 mg/L. Likewise, 2,4-D in the isooctyl ester form mg/L to 116 hat a concentration of 0.01 mg/L. was not toxic to the aquatic organisms at 1000 times its water solubility of 0.006 mg/L. D. magna was most 3. AHLF, W. , W. Calmano, J. Erhard, and U. sensitive to the other two phenoxyacids. The48-h Forstner. 1989. Comparison of five bioassay LD5os were 25.0 and 184 mg/L to 2,4-D and 2,4-DD, techniques for assessing sediment-bound respectively. Ofthe three fish species tested,bluegill contaminants. Hydrobiol 188/189:285-289. were most sensitive to 2,4-D (96-h LD50, 263 mg/L). Many pollutants are preferentially associated Rainbow trout were most sensitive to 2,4-DD (96-h with sediments in aquatic systems. The relative sen­ LD50 250 mg/L). The96-h acute toxicity of both com­ sitivities of five different bioassay techniques were pounds to fathead minnows was >300 mg/L. compared. The Neubauer phytoassay, which evalu­ ates seed germination and plant growth of Lolium 6. ALLEN, J.D., and R.E. Daniels. 1980. multi/forum and Lep idium sativum in serially dilut­ Sublethal effects of pollutants: test of the use­ ed sediment concentrations, was the most sensitive. fulness of life tables for evaluating the impact Tests involving microbial biomass and algal growth, of chronic toxicity. U.S. NTIS PB Rep PBS0-216, however, were good indicators of contaminant and 674:1-69. nutrient availability. The authors recommended To test th e usefulness of the intrinsic rate of using a variety ofbioassays in toxicity testing of con­ population increase, r, as a chronic bioassay statistic, taminated sediments to increase the information estuarine copepods (Eurytemore affinis) and freshwa­ gained. ter daphnids (Daphnia pulex) were exposed to dield­ rin. For E. affinis, r declined sharply at 5 ppb ( <20% 4. AHMAD,N., D.D. Walgenbach, and G.R. of theLC 50 of 23 ppb), due to increased time to Sutter. 1979. Comparative disappearance of reproductive maturity, increased time between fo nofos, phorate and terbufos soil residues broods, and increased mortality of pre- and post­ under similar South Dakota field conditions. reproductive females. For D. pulex, r declined at 200 Bull Environ Contam Tuxicol 23:423-429. ppb (80% of the EC50 of 251 ppb), due to increased Granular formulations offonofos,ter bufos, and mortality of reproductive females. The authors con­ phorate (used to control com rootworm) were applied cluded that r is a better predictor of the sensitivity of to silty clay loam experimental plots under drought E. affinis to dieldrin than the LC50, whereas r and conditions at rates of 19.0 and 1.1 kg (the recom­ the EC50 are approximately equal in predicting toxi­ mended application) AI/ha. Fonofos was themost city to D. pulex. They suggested that E. affinis--and persistent of the three insecticides. At 84 days post­ copepods in general--may be more suitable chronic treatment, 4 7% of the compound remained in the 19 bioassay organisms than D. pulex. kg/ha plot; 27% remained at 70 days post-treatment in the plot receiving 1.1 kg/ha. Dissipation of terbu­ fos and phorate was much more rapid. More than 62

2 7. ANDERSON, D.W., D.G. Raveling, R.W. average 1.7 ppm. DDT and DDT metabolite concen­ Risebrough, and A.M. Springer. 1984. trations in Brandt's cormorant tissue samples collect­ Dynamics of low-level organochlorines in adult ed in 1971-increased with age from 1.6ppm in 1- cackling geese over the annual cycle. J Wildl year-old birds to 12.6 ppm in adults (>3 years of age). Manage 48:1112-1127. Concentrations also varied seasonally, being highest OC concentrations were monitored in cackling (15.8 ppm) during May and June and lowest (5.2 Canada geese over the annual cycle (1973-1974) to ppm) fromAugust to December. study pollutant acquisition patterns during migra­ tion fromAlaska's Yuk on-Kuskokwim river deltas to 11 . BABCOCK, K.M., and E.L. Flickinger. 1977. the Klamath Basin of Oregon and California and Dieldrin mortality of lesser snow geese in California's Central Valley. Concentrations for all Missouri. J Wildl Manage 41:100-103. OCs detected were in the ppb range and were not In March and April 197 4, 157 lesser snow geese believed to be overtly detrimental. Variations in died from dieldrin poisoning during north ern migra­ acquisition patterns suggested slightly different tion through western Missouri. Sick geese showed a exposures to different compounds during migration lack of awareness followedby an inability to fly. but could only be related to reported OC use in a Nervous pecking, uncontrolled head jerking, and vio­ qualitative manner. Concentrations of toxaphene, lent body tremors with rapid wing movement were the most-used OC insecticide in California, were observed prior to death. N ecropsies showed no evi­ below detection limits. Occurrence of several banned · dence of infectious disease or significantparasitic compounds suggested illegal use in some areas. With infection. Dieldrin residue concentrations ranged the exception of PCBs and DDE, the authors believed from 13.0 to 24.5 ppm wet weight. The evidence sug­ that the geese should eliminate all residues acquired gested that mortality was due to aldrin-treated rice during annual migration. ingested on Texas wintering grounds.

8. ANONYMOUS. 1979. Leptophos. FAO Plant 12. BALCOMB,R. 1983. Secondary poisoning of Prod Prot Paper 15:165-168. red-shouldered hawks with carbofuran. J Exposure of 1-week-old mallards to 260 ppm Wildl Manage 47:1129-1132. leptophos resulted in clinical signs of ataxia and sub­ Two red-shouldered hawks, one near death and sequent paralysis within 17-23 days. one partially paralyzed, were collected from a Maryland cornfield. The more seriously impaired 9. ASZTALOS, B., J. Nemcsok, I. Benedeczky, R. bird was sacrificedfor necropsy. Shrew and grackle Gabriel, and A. Szabo. 1989. Comparison of remains were recovered from the gut. Carbofuran effects of paraquat and methidation on enzyme was found in the gut contents and body tissue at con­ activity and tissue necrosis of carp,fo llowing centrations of 3.1 and 0.07 ppm, respectively. exposure to thepesticides singly or in combina­ Several small vertebrates from the cornfieldhad car­ tion. Environ Pollut 55:123-135. bofuran concentrations, expressed as percent of pub­ Under aquarium conditions, treatment with lished LD50 values, from 30 to 994. paraquat and methidathion resulted in cell damage and stress in carp, indicated by glutamate dehydro­ 13. BALCOMB,R., C.A.Bowen, D. Wright, and genase, glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase and M. Law. 1984. Effects on wildlife of at-planting lactate dehydrogenase activities, and by blood sugar corn applications of granular carbofuran. J levels. Paraquat was synergistic with methidathion Wildl Manage 48:1353-1359. in certain cases, resulting in dilated extracellular A search conducted within 96 h of application of spaces (light microscope) and cell autolysis (electron granular carbofuran (applied at time of planting) in a microscope) in the liver. cornfield in Frederick County, Md., yielded six dead songbirds (Passeriformes). Five contained carbofu­ 10. AZEVEDO, J.A. 1973. Pesticide investiga­ ran residues from 1.6 to 17 .0 ppm (GI tract and liver tions: pesticide residue monitoring of wildlife. combined). A dead white-footedmouse (Peromyscus Calif FW-l-R-10/WkPl 2/Job 4. California leucopus) found24 h post-treatment contained 15.1 Department of Fish and Game. 13 pp. ppm carbofuran. Laboratory tests on house sparrows Eggsfrom nests offish-eating waterbirds and and red-winged blackbirds revealed that doses as low raptors were analyzed forOC content. The highest as a single granule caused death in both species. residues were foundin herons and egrets. DDT and associated metabolite concentrations mirrored use 14. LIN,B., J. Jin, and S.F. Dowdle. 1988. Soil patternsfrom 1969 to 1972: the average concentra­ fe rtility and the transition from low-input to tion ranged from 28 ppm in 1972 to 45 ppm in 1970. high-input agriculture. Better Crops PCB concentrations ranged from <0.01 to 3050 ppm International, June 1988:1-4. (mean = 118 ppm). Highest dieldrin residues (mean In China, the switch from total organic farming = 2.4 ppm, range 0.6 to 4. 7 ppm) were foundin red­ to high use of chemical fertilizersproduced dramati­ tailed hawk eggyolk. Great blue heron eggyolk con­ cally increased yields only initially. Severe adverse tained dieldrin residues ranging from0.2 to 3.8 ppm, effects are now seen, including increasing incidence

3 of certain diseases, declining soil fertility, and stag­ nation in the increase of agricultural production. 19. BENNETT, R.S., J.K. Bennett, S.M. Meyers, The authors encourage the use of organic and inor­ B. Marden, and A. Fairbrother. 1990. Effects of ganic fertilizers. Studies have shown that the bal­ organophosphorus compounds on avian repro­ anced use of both, under certain conditions, leads to ductive success. Pp 25-26 in Proceedings:envi­ greater yields than when either was used separately. ronmentalcontaminants and theireff ects on biota of the Northern Great Plains. North 15. BART, J. 1979. Effects of acephate and Dakota Chapter, TheWildlif e Society, sevin on forestbirds. J Wildl Manage 43:544- Bismarck. 549. Mallard hens were exposed to methyl parathion Acephate was applied to two 200-ha mixed ( 400ppm in feed) during egglaying. A significant hardwood plots in New Yo rk aerially at a rate of 0.55 reduction in eggproduction resulted. Seventeen of kg/ha. Sevin was applied in water at a normal rate 23 birds exposed during incubation did not complete of 1.1 kg/ha, and subsequently in an oil carrier at the incubation: four died, seven abandoned their nests, same rate, and later at five times the normal rate and the remaining six birds exhibited reduced nest (5.5 kg/ha). Modifiedsinging-male surveys indicated attentiveness forat least 2 days. Nest abandonment a significantdecline in red-eyed vireo populations was correlated with reduced serum levels of pro­ after acephate treatment. Although not significant, lactin, indicating the behavior was the result of declines also occurred in the number of rose-breasted chemically induced physiological alteration. Free-liv­ grosbeaks and scarlet tanagers on the same plots. ing red-winged blackbirds orally gavaged during th e No Sevin treatment had any apparent effect on bird incubation period did not experience reduced nest numbers or on growth rate of nestlings. success, as measured by the number of birds fledged, even though the adult females were ataxic, lac­ 16. BART, J., and L. Hunter. 1978. Ecological rimose, and lethargic to varying degrees. Direct impacts of forestinsecticides: an annotated exposure of red-winged blackbird and European star­ bibliography. New York CooperativeWildlife ling nestlings to organophosphorus insecticides Research Unit, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY• . resulted in significantmortality and decreased 128 pp. growth rates at doses non-lethal to adults. Adverse Part 1 summarizes and evaluates studies; Part behavioral changes were observed in 5-day-old mal­ 2 is an annotated bibliography of studies completed lard ducklings gavaged orally with 4 mg/kgmethyl before 1977. Only papers concerningdirect aerial parathion. Treated broods spent more time on land application of insecticides to forests and laboratory preening and loafingth an did their control counter­ studies regarding toxicity and persistence (but which parts. Hens remained with their broods and kept all permit inferencesto be drawn) were treated. [Note: ducklings together even when treatedyoung were too Some of the studies cited are also included in this sick to move. Forty percent of treated ducklings (and bibliography.] no control ducklings) died the firstday of the experi­ ment. Exposure to methyl parathion can potentially 17. BATT, B.D.J., J.A. Black, and W.F. Cowan. impact recruitment in avian populations throughout 1980. Effects of glyphosate herbicide on chick­ all aspects of the reproductive cycle. en egg hatchability. Can J �158:1940-1941. Hatchability and length of incubation periodof 20. BERGER, D., G. Craig,and J. Enderson. domestic chicken eggs were unaffected by glyphosate 1978. Nesting performance of peregrinefa lcons at three different concentrations and at four embryo in Colorado. Colorado W-124-R/Wk. PL 5/Job 1. ages. The data suggest that the use of glyphosate in Colorado Division of Wildlife. 14 pp. zero-tillage farming should not affect the hatchability Egg shells from 11 occupied peregrine falcon of upland nesting bird eggs. nest sites showed approximately 20% thinning. Pesticide analysis of nine eggs showed DDE concen­ 18. BECHARD, M. 1981. DDT and hex­ trations from 10.9 to 43.0 ppm. PCB concentrations achlorobenzene residues in Southeastern ranged from 0. 70 to 9. 70 ppm. From analysis of Washington Swainson's hawks (Buteo swain­ remains found in nests, the major sources of contami­ soni). Bull Environ Contam Tuxicol 26:247-253. nation were thought to be violet-green swallows, Tissue samples from Swainson's hawk, ferrugi­ white-throated swifts, and Americanrobi ns, with nous hawk, and American kestrel carcasses were rel­ concentrations of 5.81, 1. 75, and 2.07 ppm DDE and atively free of OC residues. Eggs contained an aver­ 0.31, 0.12, and 0. 12 ppm PCB in fat, respectively. age of 0.65 ppm p,p'-DDE and were free of other metabolites. Only trace levels ofheptachlor epoxide, 21. BERKMAN, H.E., C.F. Rabeni, and T.P. Boyle. dieldrin, oxychlordane, and PCB were found. 1986. Biomonitors of stream quality in agricul­ Hexachlorobenzene concentrations were greatest (5.2 tural areas: fish versus invertebrates. Environ ppm) in Swainson's hawk. There was no apparent Manage 10:413-419. relationship between pesticide concentrations and Fish and invertebrate communities were evalu­ clutch size or survivorship. ated forth eir ability to reflecthabitat quality of sedi- 4 ment-impacted streams. Habitat quality was defined mortality of adult birds. Heptachlor epoxide (HE) by a combination of substrate composition, riparian concentrations in goose brain tissue ranged from type, buffer strip width, and land use. Invertebrates below detection limits to 22.0 ppm, well above the 8-9 were most sensitive to differences in habitat when ppm known to be lethalto passerines. HE concentra­ various community parameters (e.g., species diversi­ tions in eggs were highly correlated with nest suc­ ty) were used. Information gained fromfish commu­ cess. Only 17% of nests containing eggs with >10.0 nities was increased by use of the Index of Biotic ppm HE were successful, as opposed to 80 to 83% Integrity. The authors believedthe more direct nest success when concentrations were <10.0 ppm. impact of sediments to invertebrate communities Lindane-treated seed caused no apparent effects probably accounted forthe differences noted. under normal circumstances, however.

22. BEYER, W.N., and C.D. Gish. 1980. 26. BLUS, L.J., O.H. Pattee, C.J. Benny, and Persistence in earthworms and potentialhaz­ R.M. Prouty. 1983. First records of chlordane­ ards to birds of soil applied DDT, dieldrin and relatedmortality in wild birds. J Wild.IManage heptachlor. J Appl Ecol 17:295-307. 47:196-198. Bioconcentration factorsfor DDT, dieldrin, and Two adult male red-shouldered hawks and an heptachlor epoxide were 5, 8, and 10, respectively. adult female great homed owl, all found dead, had Heptachlor applied at 2.2 kg/ha yielded concentra­ lethal concentrations of heptachlor epoxide (3.4-5.8 tions still hazardous to earthworm-eatingbirds 3 ppm) and oxychlordane (1.9-5.2 ppm) in brain tissue. years post spray. Application at 9.0 kg/haremained These are both metabolites of technical chlordane. hazardous for 11 years. Dieldrin levels (3.4 and 4. 7 ppm) in the hawks were also near or within the lethal range of 4-5 ppm 23. BISCHOFF, A.I. 1967. Waterfowl losses from (obtained using experimental birds). Body condition suspected diazinon poisoning, Imperial Valley, of thebirds was indicative of OC poisoning. January-February, 1967. Calif FW-1-R-4/Wk Pl 1/Job 4. CaliforniaDepartment of Fish and 27. BOGACKA, T., and J. Groba. 1980. Game. 9pp. Toksycznosc i biodegradacja chlorfenwinfosu, Approximately 300 wigeon and 4 Canada geese karbarylu oraz propoksuru w srodowisku were founddead in Californiaalfalfa fields after woknym [Toxicity and biodegradation of chlor­ diazinon application. The field where the geese were fenvinphos, carbaryl and propoxur in water foundhad received 0.57 L diazinon in 46.7 L of water environment]. Bromatol Chem Toksykol 13:151- per ha the morning of the previous day. Alfalfa sam­ 158. ples collected from this field7 h post-application con­ Pesticide degradation decreased with water tained 38 ppm diazinon. Diazinon residues in alfalfa temperature, thus compounds remained toxic for samples from wigeon proventriculi and gizzards were longer periods in colder than in warmer water. at concentrations of 10 and 2. 7 ppm, respectively. Carbary] degraded more rapidly than propoxur, Proventriculus samples from the geese indicated 6.2 which degraded more rapidly than chlorfenvinphos. ppm diazinon. Laboratory toxicity tests showed an LD50 forwigeon of approximately 2.5 ppm diazinon. 28. BORGMANN, U., and M. Munawar. 1989. New standardized sediment bioassay protocol 24.BLUS, L.J., and R.M.Prou ty. 1979. using the amphipod Hyalella azteca (Saussure). Organochlorine pollutants and population sta­ Hydrobiol1881189:425 -531. tus of least terns in South Carolina. Wilson A bioassay procedure fortesting thechronic tox­ Bull91:62-71. icity of sediments to Hy alella azteca is described. Least tern eggs on the Cape Romain National The authors suggest a 4-week exposure of young (0-1 Wildlife Refuge, South Carolina, from 1972 through week old) amphipods should provide a suitable stan­ 1975 contained low concentrations of DDE (0.33-0.63 dardized chronic toxicity test forsediments. ppm), PCBs (0.40-1.08 ppm), and other OC pollu­ tants. Eggshell thickness, although less than the 29. BORTHWICK, S.M. 1988. Impact of agricul­ pre-1947 mean, was not significantly different from tural pesticides on aquatic invertebrates the earlier mean. OCs were determined to pose no inhabiting prairie wetlands. M.S. thesis, identifiable threat to least ternpopulations in South Colorado StateUnivers ity, Fort Collins. 90 pp. Carolina. Survival of invertebrates within enclosures was monitored after aerial application of selected pesti­ 25. BLUS, L.J., C.J.Ben ny, D.J.Lenhart, and cides. 2,4-D had no acute effects on survival. T.E. Kaiser. 1984. Effects of heptachlor- and Survival of conchostracans and odonates was reduced lindane-treated seed on Canada geese. J Wildl significantlyby fe nvalerate. Ethyl parathion was Manage 48:1097-1111. more toxic than methyl parathion and caused com­ Heptachlor-treated wheat was said to have plete mortality of amphipods and odonates within 1 caused a decline in resident western Canada geese day of application. Survival of the same taxa was due to lowered reproductive success and increased <30% when subjected to methyl parathion. The most

5 sensitive invertebrate was the amphipod Hyalella inants to the algal community include the release of azteca; gastropods were least sensitive. nutrients from mature macrophyte communities treated with herbicides. Releases of nutrients suffi­ 30. BOYLE, T.P. 1980. Effects of theaquatic cient to cause an algal bloom, however, do not seem herbicide 2,4-D DMAon the ecology of experi­ to occur without severe deoxygenation ofthe water mentalponds. Environ Pollut (Ser A) 21:35-49. due to increased BOD from rapid macrophyte decay. Growth of rooted macrophytes and fish was On the other hand, the suppression of macrophyte stimulated by the dimethylamine salt of 2,4-D at growth by herbicides applied at concentrations not rates of 5 and 10 kg/ha,respe ctively. Gross produc­ toxic to the algae resulted in an increase in the oxida­ tion in treated ponds was more highly relatedto tion-reduction potential of the bottom mud. This pre­ planktonic chlorophyll a and dissolved nutrients vented the solubilization of usable formsof nitrogen than in treated ponds. and phosphorus. The resultant lack of nutrients in the water column significantly decreased planktonic 31. BOYLE,T.P. 1983. Role and application of algae. [As algae are a major fooditem foraquatic semicontrolled ecosystem research in the invertebrates, a reduction in algal biomass would assessment of environmental contaminants. lead to a reduction in invertebrate biomass and less Pp 406-413 in W.E. Bishop, R.D. Cardwell, and foodfor waterfowl.] A reduction in the number of B.B. Heidolph (eds), Aquatic toxicology and aquatic invertebrates after insecticide treatment led hazard assessment: Sixth Symposium, ASTM to increased phytoplankton production and abun­ STP 802. American Society for Testingand dance. Algae have been noted to bioconcentrate envi­ Materials, Philadelphia, Pa. ronmental contaminants. Bioconcentration factors Procedures forasse ssing toxic effects of poten­ (BCF) were extremely high for some species/pesticide tial environmental contaminants are hierarchical combinations. For example, Skeletonema costatum, and consist of the followingstep s: (1) single-species after a 2-h exposure to 1.7 µg/Ldieldrin, had a con­ acute and chronic toxicity tests; (2) tests in laborato­ centration of 27.0 ppm, a BCF of 15,882. Nostoc ry microcosms to assess ecological interactions in muscorum showed a similar response to dieldrin with simple communities; (3) studies to determine chemi­ a BCF of 18,484, but the same species did not biocon­ cal-induced changes in ecosystem structure or fu nc­ centrate aldrin at all. Algae have been implicated in tion, using replicate semi-controlled pond and stream the degradation of organic chemicals and may be an ecosystems; and (4) development and use of tech­ important factorin the mitigation of contaminant niques forasse ssment of the actual impact of chemi­ effects on other organisms. cals on natural ecosystems. Experiments using semi­ controlled artificial ecosystems in ponds and streams 33. BRACH,J. 1989. Agriculture and water must cover a period of time (1 to 2 years) that allows quality:best management practices for identification of the magnitude of both primary direct Minnesota. Minnesota Pollution Control and secondary indirect effects at the community and Agency, St. Paul. 64 pp. ecosystem levels. Results from such studies are This handbook is divided into two parts: (1) a invaluable in assessing theapplica bility of laboratory description of major non-point source pollutants in bioassays, examining ecosystem qualities that enable Minnesota, and (2) descriptions of agricultural prac­ resistance to and recovery fromcontaminant stress, tices that can protect and enhance water quality. and in answering questions regarding the effectof Each section in the practice portion contains a short long-term stress associated with the use of herbicides description, an explanation of the benefits, and a dis­ or insecticides. cussion on planning considerations. A resource direc­ torylists organizations that can provide information, 32. BOYLE, T.P. 1984. Effect of environmental technical and financial assistance, and other services contaminants on aquatic algae. Pp 237-256 in related to the application of best management prac­ L.E. Shubert (ed), Algae as ecological indica­ tices for agriculture. tors. Academic Press, London. [A review paper; only the highlights are pre­ 34. BRADBURY, S.P. , and J.R. Coats. 1989. sented here.] Algal response to toxic contaminants is Comparative toxicology of the pyrethroid greatly dependent on many physical and chemical insecticides. Rev Environ Contam Tuxicol factors including temperature, water hardness, pH, 108:133-177. and nutrient conditions. Organophosphorus insecti­ [A review paper; only thosedata applicable to cides are more toxic than OCs (both inhibit photosyn­ avian and aquatic species are presented here.] Acute thesis), but are less persistent in the environment, oral LD50 values formost synthetic pyrethroids were thus do not present a chronic problem unless contin­ generally > 1000 ppm. Deltamethrin and tefluthrin uously added to the environment. Some mosquito LD50 values formallards were >4000 and 4190 ppm, larvacides, including methoprene, propoxur, respectively. Chronic effects were only detectable at temephos, and methoxychlor, cause an increase in veryhigh (15,000-27,000 ppm) concentrations. One nitrogen fixationby blue-green algae. Diflubenzuron study using deltamethrin showed some indication of reduced nitrogen fixation. Indirect effects of contam- embryotoxicity; otherwise, reproductive function

6 seemed to be unimpaired. Field studies have failed 36. BROWN, P.W. , and M.L. Hunter, Jr. 1985. to show any harmful direct effects on birds. All syn­ Potential effects of insecticides on the survival thetic pyrethroids tested were highly toxic to fish. of dabbling duck broods. J Minnesota Acad Sci LC50 values forfat head minnows ranged from0.22 50:41-44. µg/Lflucyth rinate to 15.6 µg/L permethrin. The Black duck and mallard ducklings raised on median for all species and chemicals was generally wetlands treated with carbaryl took 5 days longer to > 10.0 µg/L. Effects of temperature and body weight reach the normal 14-day body weight. Behavioral seemed to be inversely proportional to pyrethroid tox­ changes were also noted. Ducklings on treated ponds icity. Under fieldcon ditions, pyrethroid toxicities increased time in searching and moving about and appeared greatly reduced, probably due to adsorption reduced timein resting when compared to ducklings of the toxicant to suspended solids. Little is known on control ponds. The reduction in growth rate and concerningchronic toxicity, but those data that are the behavioral changes seemed to relate to reduc­ available indicate acute-chronic ratios forfenvaler­ tions in invertebrate numbers and biomass due to ate, flucythrinate, and permethrin to range from <1 spraying. As most mortality in normal broods occurs to about 40. Bioconcentration studies conducted at during the first 14 days of life, the authors concluded the conclusion of chronic tests indicate BCFs for the that depressed growth rates, which would increase fathead minnow of 3200, 2800, and 4000 forfenvaler­ the amount of time that ducklings were most vulner­ ate, permethrin, and flucythrinate,respe ctively. able, should lead to increased mortality. Highly toxic to aquatic insects, 24-h LC50 values for . deltamethrin, cypermethrin, fenvalerate, and perme­ 37. BUHL , K.J., and N.L. Faerber. 1989. Acute thrin in mosquito and midge larvaeranged from 0.02 toxicity of selected herbicides and surfactants to 13.0 µg/L. Deltamethrin was generally reported as to larvae of the midge Chironomus riparius. the most toxic. Twenty-eight-day flow-through expo­ Arch Environ Contam Tuxicol 18:530-536. sures indicated LC50 values offenvalerate and per­ Eight commercial herbicides (Eradicane methrinto fourbenthic species in the range of 0.03 to (EPTC), Fargo (triallate), Lasso (alachlor), ME4 0.17 µg/L. Mayfly (Ephemerella sp) and Rhaginoid Brominal (bromoxynil), Ramrod (propachlor), Rodeo fly Wherix sp) larvaeexperienced 80 and 30% mor­ (glyphosate), Sencor (metribuzin), and Sutan + (buty­ tality at the lowest concentration of 0.02 µg/L. late)) and two surfactants (Activator N.F. and Ortho Crustaceans were particularly sensitive to X-77) were tested for acute toxicity to midge pyrethroids with LC50 values generally well below (Chironomus riparius) larvae under static conditions. 1.0 µg/L. The 96-liLC 50 for someestuarine species Technical grade alachlor, metribuzin, propachlor, and has been reported to be as low as 0.003 µg/L . Again, triallate were also tested for comparison with the for­ deltamethrinwas most toxic, and fenvalerate was mulated products. EC50 values ranged from 1.23 least harmful. Molluscs were relatively tolerant to mgiL(Fargo) to 5,600 mgiL (Rodeo). Fargo, ME4 pyrethroids. Brominal, and Ramrod were moderately toxic; Lasso, Sutan +, and Eradicane were slightly toxic; and 35. BREWER, L.W., C.J. Driver, R.J. Kendall, C. Sencor and Rodeo were essentially non-toxic to the Zenier, and T.E. Lacher, Jr. 1988. Effects of midge larvae. EC50 (48 h) values of the two surfac­ methyl parathion in ducks and duck broods. tants were nearly identical (8.6 and 8.9 mg/L)and Environ Thxicol Chem 7:375-379. were considered moderately toxic. In some cases the Nesting mallards, blue-winged teal, and wood inert ingredients had a significanteff ect on the toxic­ ducks inhabiting two agricultural fieldsbordered by ity of the AI. Fargo was twice as toxic as technical waterways were fitted with radio transmitters and grade triallate, but Sencor was nearly three times their activities monitored daily. One field was treat­ less toxic than technical grade metribuzin. A com­ ed with methyl parathion at a rate of 1.4 kg AI/ha. parison with other published data regarding the toxi­ The other was untreated. Brood abandonment by city of these compounds indicated that the relative hens and nesting hen mortality were observed only order of toxicity to C. riparius was similar to those on the treated field. Brain ChE levels were signifi­ obtained forfish and otheraquatic invertebrates. cantly depressed in two of three nesting hens. In the Acute test results indicated Ramrod, ME4 Brominal, untreated field, 58% of 37 ducklings survived to day and Lasso would pose the greatest threat to midge 22 post-spray, but only 16% of 24 ducklings in the larvae from runoffduring a storm. treated field survived to day 22. The average daily rate of duckling loss was greater in the treated than 38. BULL, D.L. 1979. Fate and efficacy of untreated field. Nest abandonment rates did not acephate aft er application to plants and appear to be correlated with pesticide application. insects. J Agric Food Chem 27:268-272. After a foliarapplication of acephate, cotton leaves absorbed >50% in 24 h. Unabsorbed residues were depleted in 48 h. Of the amount absorbed, approximately 9% of the dose was metabolized by the plant to methamidophos. Absorbed material and the metabolites were rapidly translocated throughout the

7 plant, including the fruit. With normal application 41. BU SBY, D.G., P.A. Pearce, and N.R. Garrity. methods,translocated toxicant concentrations 1982. Brain cholinesterase inhibition in forest appeared to be insufficientto cause mortality of plant passerines exposed to experimental aminocarb pests feedingon new growth or fruit. spraying. Bull Environ Contam Thxicol 28:225- 229. 39. BU NCH, T.D ., and J.B. Low. _1973. Effects of Five to 48 individuals of five species of forest­ dieldrin on chr omosomes of semi-domestic mal­ dwelling birds (Tennessee warbler, yellow-rumped lards. J Wildl Manage 37:51-57. warbler, blackburnian warbler, bay-breasted warbler, Juvenile mallards fromparents which had and American redstart) were collected 2-48 h post­ received long-term doses of dieldrin were given 0, 4, spray fromfir-spruce control plots and from plots 10, or 30 ppm dieldrin for approximately 60 days. The treated with Matacil 180F (aminocarb) and an emul­ level of treatment of each juvenile matched that sifier (Atlox) by rotaryatomizer at an application received by its parent. Examination of femoral bone rate of 70 g/haof AI. Treated plots were sprayed marrow cultures at theend of the60-day period twice: in the evening and again 6 days later in the showed no significant chromosome abnormalitiesat morning. None of the sampled species showed ChE any treatment level. In those ducks receiving 30 ppm depression as a result of pesticide application, and dieldrin,however, the mitoticindex was reduced >5 only fourindividuals from sprayed plots exhibited times when compared with control birds. Lymphocytic ChE depression of >20% below the mean value. No culturesfrom adult, non-treated ducks were treated birds had ChE activity >50% of the mean. The with dieldrin at concentrations varying from 0.1 to 100 authors concluded that aerial application of ppm. Chromosome aberrations in cultures treated aminocarb at th e rate indicated had no significant with 30 ppm or less did not differ from controls, but inhibitory effects on ChE activity in exposed song­ cultures receiving 100 ppm dieldrin exhibited at least birds. a twofoldincrease in chromosome structural abnor­ malitiesover that of control animals. Significant 42. BU SBY, D.G., P.A. Pearce, and N.R. Garrity. reductions in the mitoticindex were noted at all treat­ 1983. Brain ChE response in forest songbirds ment levels and were proportional to treatment level. exposed to aerial spraying of aminocarb and The authors concluded thatlevels of dieldrin common­ possible infl uence of application methodology ly foundin free-livingwaterbirds are probably too low and insecticide form ulation. Bull Environ to cause chromosome aberrations. Contam Tuxicol 31:125-131. Selected spruce-firforest plotswere sprayed 40. BU SBY, D.G., P.A. Pearce,and N.R. Garrity. twice with two different formulations of Matacil 1981. Brain cholinesterase response in song­ 180F. One formulation used Atlox as an emulsifier; birds exposed to experimental fe nitrothion the other was an oil-based formulation. Both were spraying in New Brunswick, Canada. Bull applied at the same dosage and application rate by Environ Contam Thxicol 26:401-406. TBM aircraft rigged with boom and nozzle sprayers. Trials determined the efficacyof a fenitrothion Adult male Tennessee warblers, bay-breasted formulation containing a low-driftadditive. Aerial warblers, magnolia warblers, American redstarts, application to half of 12 40-ha treatment plots was by and white-throated sparrows were collected from con­ boom and nozzle (BN), and to the other half by rotary trol plots 1-2 days pre-spray and from sprayed plots 0 atomizer (RA). Untreated control plots were at least to 48 h post-spray. Most species samples from the 10 km fromtreatment areas. Application rates were emulsion-sprayed plots showed some ChE inhibition. 280 g/haon all treatment plots. Five to 23 individu­ Tennessee and bay-breasted warblers (both foraging als from each of the five most dominant species in the canopy) and magnolia warblers were most (Tennessee, magnolia, blackburnian, and bay-breast­ affected; bay-breasted warblers showed the most con­ ed warblers and white-throated sparrow)were col­ sistent reduction. White-throated sparrows (foraging lected from control and treatment plots (bay-breasted on the ground and in the understory)were least warblers were not foundon the RA plots and black­ affected. Birds from oil-sprayed plots were affected burnian warblers were not foundon the BN plots) less than those from emulsion-sprayed plots. Some within 48 h post-spray. All species from treatment birds from this plot, collected after thefirst applica­ plots showed some degree of ChE inhibition when tion, had increased, ratherthan inhibited, ChE activ­ compared with birds from control plots. BN applica­ ity. After th e second application, brain ChE activities tion caused the most ChE depression, inhibiting 30% were similar in birds fromboth treatment areas due of the samples by >20%. More than 50% inhibition· to a general increase in ChE activity in birds from was found in three birds foreach method of applica­ the emulsion plots and a general decrease in activity tion. Whereas bay-breasted warblers from BNplots in th ose individuals collected in the oil plots. Neither showed the most pronounced depression, the greatest treatment block contained species-samples which ChE reduction (59%) was observedfrom a white­ were inhibited >20% below the control mean. throated sparrow collected from a BN plot. There Comparison with a previous study [entry 41] indi­ was no significant difference in ChE values between cates a possible difference in toxicity due to applica­ any of the species fromthe control plots. tion method.

8 43. BUSBY, D.G., P.A. Pearce, and N.R. Garrity. most sensitive species are not offsetby the costs of 1987. Effect of ultraULV fe nitrothion spraying bad management decisions, and ( 4) a species shown on brain cholinesterase activity in forest song­ to be most sensitive to a limited array of toxic sub­ birds. Bull Environ Contam 'Ibxicol 39-.304-311. stances will also be most sensitive to a much larger Aerial application of ULV fenitrothion at a rate array of toxic substances. The author illustrates the of 0.4 Uha on spruce-firforest caused ChE inhibition weak points inherent in each assumption. He con­ in exposed songbirds. The amount ofinhibition was cludes that although multispeciestests, including the dependent on species and feedingloca tion within the use of micro- and mesocosms, are not common [at the canopy. Upper canopy foragers were most affected time of writing], they should provide valuable infor­ and ground foragers were least affected. Results sug­ mation not gained from single-species tests. [Not gest a cumulative impact with time post-spray. As mentioned is another assumption made in single­ ChE depression was considerably <50% below mean species toxicity tests: that the test organism, whatev­ control activity, it is unlikely that any mortality er the species, will echo the response of the same or occurred. Effectsof sub-lethal ChE inhibition on similar organisms in nature. Many of the species behavior, reproductive success, and survival are poor­ used in standard acute toxicity tests are fromlabora­ ly understood, but unpublished data collected by the tory strains with little genetic variability. Research senior author showed reduced singing activity and has shown that some genotypes are much more sen­ nest desertion and decreased growth rate of nestlings sitive than others to a given pollutant. Thus,not by white-throated sparrows exposed to twice the nor­ only would we have to select the most sensitive mal fenitrothion application rate. species but also the most sensitive genotype within the population. Doing this by chance alone would be 44. BUSBY, D.G., S.B. Holmes, P.A. Pearce, and highly improbable.] R.A. Fleming. 1987. Effectof aerial application of zectran on brain cholinesterase activity in 46. CALL, D.J., L.T. Brooke, R.J. Kent, M.L. forest songbirds. Arch Environ Contam 'Ibxicol Knuth, C. Anderson, and C. Moriarity. 1983. 16:623-639. 'Ibxicity, bioconcentration, and metabolism of Individuals of seven songbird species were col­ theher bicide propanil (3' ,4 '-dichloropropio­ lected from two300-ha blocks of coniferousforest nanilide) in freshwaterfish. ArchEnviron after application of Zectran (mexacarbate). One Con tam 'Ibxicol 12:175-182. block was sprayed at a dosage rate of 70 g AI/ha;the Fathead minnows were exposed to technical other at 140 giha. Brain ChE activity was similar grade propanil in a series of acute toxicity tests. among all species from a control plot. Among LC50 values were 11.5, 10.2, 8.6, and 3.4 mgiLat 24, exposed birds, ChE activity was lowest in individuals 48, 96, and 120 h respectively. Eggs, newly hatched from the plot receiving the highest dosage; however, fry, and juvenile fish exposed for 58 days showed no between-plot differenceswere not significant. As in adverse effectsat concentrations from 0.4 to 0.6 µg/L, previous studies cited, th e Tennessee warbler (an dependent upon length and dryweight of juvenile upper-canopy forager)was most affected, and white­ fish. Bioconcentration ofpropanil in fathead min­ throated sparrows (foragingon the ground and in the nows was insignificant. The herbicide was readily understory) were least affected. Other differences metabolized by rainbow trout, with at least ten were noted between warblers and sparrows, however. metabolites formed. Cholinesterase inhibition in warblers from the high­ dosage block was greater and longer lasting than in 47. CARSEL, R.F., and C.N. Smith. 1987. Impact those fromth e low-dosage block. The opposite was of pesticides on groundwater contamination. true forsparrows. Although brain weight explained Pp 70-84 in G.J. Marco,R.M. Hollingworth, and most of the variation in ChE inhibition, inhibition W. Durham (eds), Silent spring revisited. was also significantlycorrelated with dosage in war­ American Chemical Society, Wa shington, D.C. blers. In an evaluation of past and present pesticide use, the authors draw several conclusions: (1) pesti­ 45. CAmNS, J., Jr. 1986. Mythof the most sen­ cide characteristics have changed fromnearly water­ sitive species. BioScience 36:670-672. insoluble, strongly sorbed, non-mobile compounds to The probability of actually selecting the most more water-soluble, slightly sorbed, mobile com­ sensitive species for any given toxicity test is rather pounds, (2) ground water contamination by current remote. Current toxicity test methods make four pesticides is a much greater problem than any con­ assumptions: (1) selecting the most sensitive species tamination resulting frompesticides produced and froman array of test organisms means that the used through the 1960s, (3) chronic effects of low­ responses of the selected species will at least partly level pesticide residues in ground water are of correspond to those of a much larger array of exposed greater concern than acute effects, (4) ground water organisms in natural systems, (2) there will be no contamination from pesticide use is only a serious responses at any level of organization that are more health problem if the contaminated ground water is sensitive than the end points chosen forthe most the source of supply; thus, privately owned, shallow sensitive species, (3) savings resulting from using the wells in unconfinedaquifers areprobably at greater

9 risk than large municipal wells in deeper, confined the ecological balance. Some may persist for several aquifers, and (5) groundwater contamination by pes­ years, alleviatingannual applications. He states ticides involves some human health risk which will that all are not equally beneficial,howe ver, and that probably have to be carefullyevaluated. The combi­ more research is needed before making them avail­ nation of current pesticide application technologies, able as living insecticides. land management practices, and pesticide properties are cause forincreasing environmental concern.For 51. CHYKALIUK, P.B. 1980. Bibliography of example, chemigation (a technologythat mixes pesti­ glyphosate. Texas AES MiscPuhl 1443, Texas A cides in irrigation water) increases the likelihood of & M University, College Station. 87 pp. ground water contamination. Conservation tillage The bibliography contains 1,026 references to (which leaves crop residue on the soil) retards runoff the Roundup formulation of glyphosate. Arranged and surface water contamination, but promotes infil­ alphabetically, the papers deal with a variety of sub­ tration of pesticides into thesoil profile. As new pes­ jects. Lessthan 1 % of the entries address effects on ticides are developed in response to new agricultural aquatic organisms or other wildlife. practices and needs and as pest resistance changes and pesticide chemistry makes technical advances, 52. COOK, M.G. 1988. Impacts of current U.S. the strategies forprotection of ground water must agricultural policy on land use. INTECOLBull keep pace. 16:29-34. Conservation aspects of the 1985 U.S. Farm Bill 48. CHARNETSKI, W.A. 1976. Organochlorine are given. The author estimated that in excess of insecticide residues in ducklings and their 500 million tons of topsoil are saved annually as a dilution by growth. Bull Environ Contam result of the Conservation Reserve Program. 'Ibxicol 16:138-144. DDT, DDD, DDE, and dieldrin residues were 53. COURTEMANCH, D.L., and K.E. Gibbs. measured in seven species of ducklings fromAl berta, 1980. Short-term and long-term effects of forest Canada. DDT and associated metabolite levels spraying of carbaryl (Sevin-4-oil) on stream ranged from 0 to 36.48 ppm in fattytissues of 96% of invertebrates. Can Entomol 112:271-277. the birds and from0 to 0.97 in muscle from 67% of Invertebrate communities in three streams in the birds. Dieldrin residues were considerably lower, untreated (control) coniferous forestareas, three rangingfrom 0 to 2.62 ppm in fat and 0 to 0.11 ppm streams in areas treated with a single dose of car­ in muscle in 43 and 19% of the ducklings, respective­ baryl at an application rate of 840 g Al/ha, and three ly. Dilution due to growth was considered the most streams in areas which were treated twice (1120 g significantfactor in the reduction of pesticide levels. Al/ha and then 840 g Al/ha a year later) were com­ DDT and metabolites decreased significantly with pared. In treated areas, the driftresponse was up to increased weight of pintail, baldpate [wigeon] and 170 times that of control area streams. Plecoptera, gad wall. Ephemeroptera, and Trichoptera populations in treated area streams showed significant declines. 49. CHARNETSKI, W.A., and W.E. Stevens. 1974. Plecoptera populations were still depressed after60 Organochlorine insecticide residues in preen days. In streams subjected to two annual treat­ glands of ducks: possibility of residue excre­ ments, pre-spray Plecoptera population levels were tion. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 12:672-676. significantlylower than controls in the second year. The authors suggest that any species with a Oligochaetes and dipteran populations, with the well-developed preen gland can excrete lipid soluble exception of Microtendipes (Chironomidae), showed insecticides and their metabolites through the gland, no apparent response to treatment. and that during preening the same compounds or their metabolites could be reingested. The ducklings 54. COWAN, W.F. 1982. Waterfowl production arms could have received their contaminant load only from on zero tillage f . Wildl SocBull 10:305-308. the hen through the egg, and the hen probably Nest success on zero tillage farmland (cropland became contaminatedon the wintering grounds or and native cover combined) was more than three during migration. DDT and dieldrin concentrations times greater thanthat observed from nests on con­ (2.29 and 3. 77 ppm, respectively) in the preen gland ventional tillage farms. Sixty percent of nests in of the lesser scaup were an order of magnitude high­ cropland on zero tillage farms weresucces sful com­ er than in any of the other species (American wigeon, pared to 0% in cropland subject to conventional blue-winged teal, gadwall, northern pintail). tillage. Total duck production was 3.8 times greater on zero tillage farms. 50. CHERWONOGRODZKY, J.W. 1980. Microbial agents as insecticides. Residue Rev 76:73-96. The author suggests that microbial agents may approach the ideal foran insecticide. Essentially non-toxic and highly specific, they would not upset

10 55. COWARDIN,L.M., A.B.Sarge ant, and H.F. foundwere toxaphene, dieldrin, oxychlordane, and Duebbert. 1983. Low waterfowlr ecruitment in trans-nonachlor. the prairies:the problem, the reasons, and the challenge to management. Pp 16-18 in H. Boyd 58. CUSTER, T.W., E.F. Hill, and H.M. Ohlendorf. (ed), First Western Hemisphere Waterfowl and 1985. Effects on wildlife of ethyl and methyl Waterbird Symposium. parathion applied to Californiarice fields. Nest success estimates forthe northern U.S. Calif Fish Game 71:220-224. generally range from5 to 15%, and recent data from Mammalian and avian species collected from a central North Dakota study reported only 8% nest rice fields were analyzed for ChEinhibition after success forth e mallard. Nest success was lowest in application of either ethyl or methyl parathion (0.11 cropland and highest in grassland. Hen success, the or 0.84 AI/ha, respectively). Mice (Mus musculus) likelihood that an individual hen will have a success­ and ring-necked pheasant ChE activity was signifi­ ful nest during the season, averaged 15% during cantly inhibited, when compared to controls, by 1977-80 and was dependent upon overall nest suc­ methyl parathion. Ethyl parathion application cess, age of the hen, and water conditions. At least caused significantChE inhibition in 43, 33, and 37% 70% of nest losses was due to predation. When of ring-necked pheasants, American coots, and mice, predators were removed from a 259-km2 area of pot­ respectively. Although neither chemical appeared to hole habitat, nest success was observed to range be acutely hazardous to wildlife in or near treated between 70 and 98%. The authors recommended the rice fields,the authors advised cautious use of these development of managed breeding habitats as a way chemicals, especially methyl parathion. to increase duck production. 59. DABI, R.K.,H.C. Gupta, and S.K. Sharma. 56. COWARDIN, L.M., D.S. Gilmer, and C.W. 1980. Bio-efficacy of Bacillus thuringiensis Shaiffer. 1985. Mallardrecruitment in the agri­ Berliner against Euproctis lunata Walker on cultural environmentof North Dakota. Wildl pearl millet. Indian J Agric Soc 50:356-358. Monogr 92:1-37. A kill of greater than 80% was achieved using Recruitment of a mallard population was the equivalent of 1120 g/haof Dipel HD-1. assessed on a large (>10,000 km2) study area in cen­ tral North Dakota during 1977-80. Data were from 60. DAVIES,J.E., and R.Doon. 1987. Human 235 hens fitted withradio transmitters. Nest initia­ health effects of pesticides. Pp 113-124 in G.J. tion was negatively correlated with mean tempera­ Marco, R.M. Hollingworth, and W. Durham ture in April or May. Cropland generally was reject­ (eds), Silent spring revisited. American ed fornest sites. Grassland was preferred, and hens Chemical Society, Washington, D.C. distinctly preferred road right-of-ways and odd areas The exact number of pesticide poisonings is not of cover. Hen success (defined in 55, above) averaged known, but estimates based upon data gathered by 15% and varied between years, depending on water the World Health Organization indicate that 500,000 availability. Nest success was 8%. On average, hens poisonings may occur eachyear with a 1 % fatality in the spring population recruited only 0.27 young rate. Others have argued that the actual number is femalesto the fallpopulation. Based upon these probably closer to 21,000 fatalities annually. data, the authors predict an annual population Pesticides are often used for suicides. Over 1,000 decline of 20%. suicides during 1978 in Sri Lanka were attributable to pesticides. The most pressing problem, however, is 57. CUSTER, T.W., and C.A.Mitchell. 1987. disposal of pesticide containers. For example, Organochlorine contaminants and reproduc­ aldicarb and ethylene dibromide residues have been tive success of black skimmers in southTe xas, foundin some Florida ground water systems. 1984. J Field Ornithol58:480-489. Although DDE concentrations found in black 61. DAVISON, K.L., and J.L. Sell. 1972. Dieldrin skimmer eggs during this study (mean = 3.2 ppm) andp,p'-DDT effects on some microsomal were one third less than in eggs fromthe same enzymes of livers of chickens and mallard colony in 1979-81, nesting success was still apparent­ ducks. J Agric Food Chem 20:1198-1205. ly affectedby OC residues. DDE concentrationswere Some mixed-function oxidases of hepatic micro­ significantlyhigher in eggs fromnests where none of somes of mallards and white leghorn chickens were = 5 the remaining eggshatched (mean .9 ppm) than examined. Dieldrin at concentrations of 10 and 20 in nests where all of the remaining eggs hatched µgigof diet and DDT at 100 and 200µg/g of diet (mean = 1.9 ppm). Concentrations in eggsfrom ne sts increased cytochrome P 450 concentration and estra­ where some of the remaining eggs hatched were diol metabolismin both species, but increases were = intermediate (mean 3.6 ppm). There was no signif­ greater in ducks. DDT increased aniline hydroxylase icant difference between PCB concentrations in 1981 activity in duck microsomes and had the opposite = and those in 1984. DDE (max 28.4 ppm) and PCB effect in chickens. (max = 9.1 ppm) residues were foundin 98.5 and 72.6% of the eggs, respectively. Other OC compounds

11 62. DELAUNE, R.D., R.P. Gambrell, W.H. ciently elevated to adversely affect recruitment. Patrick, and J. Pardue. 1987. Fate and effect of Nevertheless, data obtained in this study indicated a petroleum hydrocarbons and toxic organics on downward trend in OC levels during the past decade. Louisiana coastal environments. Pp 83-84 in Preprints of papers presentedat the 194th 65. DeWEESE, L.R.,L.C. McEwen, L.A. Settimi, American Chemical Society Meeting, v. 27 no 2. and R.D. Dehlinger. 1983. Effects on birds of Division of Environmental Chemistry, fenthion aerial applicationfor mosquito con­ American Chemical Society,Wash ington, D. C. trol J Econ Entomol 76:906-91L Oxidation-reduction potential and pH were Aerial application offenthion at 47 g AI/hain a important factors governingthe activity of hydrocar­ low-volume formulation resulted in sickness or death bon-degrading microorganisms and subsequent min­ for 99 birds and 15 mammals. Mean brain ChE activ­ eralization rates in sediments of Louisiana's ityin dead birds ranged from 6.9 (Wilson'sphalarope, Barataria Basin. Because the herbicides 2,4-D and n = 3) to 23.0% (homed lark, n = 1) of activity in con­ trifluralin are mineralized at slower rates under trol animals. Cholinesterase activity in sick birds anaerobic conditions, surface runoffof residues of ranged from 9.4 to 20.6%, as measured in a killdeer these chemicals and subsequent incorporationinto and two savannah sparrows, respectively. Census anaerobic sediments will retard their degradation data indicated that avian population declines were when compared to degradation rates in aerobic greatest in areas with greatest mortality. upland soils. Other chemicals and various petroleum compounds are also discussed. 66. DeWEESE, L.R.,L.C. McEwen, G.L. Hensler, and B.E. Petersen. 1986. Organochlorine con­ 63. DE SMET, K.D. 1987. Organochlorines, taminants in Passeriformes and otheravian predators and reproductive success of thered­ prey of the peregrinefal con in the western necked grebein southern Manitoba. Condor United States. Environ Thxicol Chem5:675-693. 89:460-467. Composite samples of bird carcasses (less beak, Red-necked grebe eggs fromTurtle Mountain tarsi, GI tract, and feathers) collected fromeight Provincial Park, Manitoba, Canada, showed OC western states in 1980 were analyzed for OC pesti­ residues of eight different compounds at concentra­ cide content. Chemicals detected at concentrations tions above 1 ppm liquid weight. PCB (Arochlor greater than 0. 05 ppm were (in order of frequency) 1254/1260) and DDE residues averaged 194.8 and 74.3 DDE, PCBs, hexachlorocyclohexane, heptachlor epox­ ppm, respectively. Nesting losses approached 80% of ide, oxychlordane, dieldrin, and toxaphene. DDE and 697 eggs in 1 79 nests. Eggshell thinningwas greater PCBs accounted for72 and 3% of total OC concentra­ than that noted in studies in 1947 and 1971-73. tions, respectively. Geometric mean concentrations Clutch abandonment appeared to be linked to the of DDE were 12.0, 5.9, and 2. 7 in tree swallows, presence of pesticide residues and to egg inviability. killdeer, and Brewer's blackbirds. Eight migratory species showed DDE concentrations 13 times higher 64. DE SMET, K.D., and M.W. Shoesmith. 1988. than four resident species, but PCB residues were Levels of organochlorines and PCB's in fish­ similar in both groups. DDE, PCB, and total OC con­ eating and raptorialbirds in Manitoba. centrations were greatest in insectivores. Males of Manitoba Department of Natural Resources, some species showed higher residues than did Winnipeg. 33 pp. females. Residue concentrations in killdeer, Brewer's OC and PCB residue concentrations were exam­ blackbirds, and violet-green swallows were signifi­ ined in the eggs of 28 piscivorous and raptorial cantly related to latitude and longitude of origin. species in Manitoba during 1986 and 1987. DDE DDE concentrations in the fat of some individual tree residues were present in all samples. Although con­ swallows and killdeer were in the lethal range if 15 centrations in pooled homogenates rarely exceeded 4 to 20% if the stored DDE were rapidly mobilized to ppm (wet weight), individual eggs fromfive species the brain. Samples of 13 species contained DDE con­ (red-necked grebe, western grebe, double-crested cor­ centrations greater than 3 ppm, sufficientto inhibit morant, great blue heron, and caspian tern)had con­ normal reproduction of any avian predators which centrations ranging from 8 to 15 ppm. PCB residues might feed on them. were generally higher (from 10 to 31 ppm); a third of individual samples from red-necked grebes, western 67. DEWEY, S.L. 1986. Effects of the herbicide grebes, double-crested cormorants, and herring gulls atrazineon aquatic insect community struc­ exhibited 10 to 38 ppm PCB. Dieldrin, heptachlor ture and emergence. Ecology 67:148-162. epoxide, mirex, DDD, .13-BHC,and cis-chlordane con­ Atrazine was applied to experimental ponds at centrations rarely exceeded 0.5 ppm in pooled concentrations of 0, 20, 100, and 500 µg/L. Physical, homogenates and 1.0 ppm in individual eggs. chemical, and biological variables were measured. Organochlorine residues (includes PCBs) in eggs of Aquatic insect community structure was monitored the common loon, red-necked grebe, western grebe, using partially submerged funnel submergence traps. great blue heron, merlin, herring gull, Bonaparte's Atrazine had no effect on water temperature or dis­ gull, caspian tern, andlog gerhead shrike were suffi- solved oxygen concentrations but did cause a signifi-

12 cant increase in turbidity. Turbidity, however, could or in solution, may be permanently or temporarily not be correlated with emerging insect species rich­ tied up by sedimentation, lost to the atmosphere by ness or abundance. Macrophyte production was volatilization, chemically changed as a result of inversely correlated with atrazineconcent ration, but hydrolysis, microbial action, or photolysis, or pass the alga (Chara sp) showed resistance up to 100 µg;IL. through the wetlandunaltered. The fateof each is At atrazine concentrations of 20 µg;IL, emergence of governed by the chemical characteristics of the pesti­ the chironomid Labrundinia pilosella was signifi­ cide and by physicochemical conditions in the wet­ cantly reduced. Three other species (Dicrotendipes land. Several generalities may be made concerning modestus, Parachironomus chaetoalus, Cricotopus cf. pesticide persistence in wetland habitats. OC pesti­ sylvestris) emerged earlier from atrazine-treated cides are most persistentand frequently sorb strongly ponds than fromcontrol ponds. Benthic insect to soil particles. The best predictor of the sorptive ten­ species richness, species equitability (evenness), and dencyof a pesticideis its octanol-waterpartition co ef­ total emergence all declined significantly with the ficient(P ow)· OP insecticides, on the other hand, tend addition of atrazine. In general, predator species to hydrolyzerapidly in water and sediments at neu­ showed no response to atrazine treatment, and non­ tral pH. Parathion is an exception as it is resistant to predatory species declined in abundance. The lowest chemical hydrolysis but is degraded by microbial concentration at which atrazine affected aquatic action, both in aerobic and anaerobic conditions. insects (20 µg/L) was one order of magnitude lower Carbamates aremore persistent at low pH than at than the lowest concentration shown to have a toxic alkaline conditions. Phenoxyherbicides are decom­ effect on Chironomus tentans in an earlier laboratory posed mainly by microbes, and although temperature study. The results indicate that insect community sensitive, decomposition rates are generally faster in effects were indirect, probably due to reductions of sediments. Generally, the more efficienta wetland is nonpredatory food and habitat resources. at trapping sediment particlesfrom runoff, the more efficientit will be at locking up themore hazardous or 68. DIAZ-COLON,J.D., and R.W. Bovey. 1980. persistent pesticides due to permanent sedimentation. Selected bibliographyof the phenoxyher bi­ cides. IX. Tuxicological and physiological 70. DUNKER, P.N. 1989. Ecological effects mon­ effects of 2,4-D. Texas AES Misc Puhl 1454, itoring in environmental impact assessment: Texas A & M University, College Station. 92 pp. what can it accomplish? Environ Manage A listing of 810 references deals with the toxico­ 13:797-805. logical and physiological effects of2,4-D on animals, The author holds thatmo nitoring environmental humans, plants, and microorganisms. Acute, suba­ impacts is impossible -[which is likely true]. He then cute, and chronic toxicity effects (including reproduc­ states that theonly reason to incur the expense in tive, cytogenic, and carcinogenic responses) are listed. time and money of monitoring any environmental change would be toreduce uncertaintyin predictions. 69. DICKERMAN,J.A., A.J. Stewart, and J.C. Several objectives or reasons formonitoring in envi­ Lance. 1985. Impact of wetlands on themove­ ronmental impact assessment studies are presented. ment of water and non point pollutants from Theyinclude (1) detecting effects, (2) testing impact agricultural watersheds. USDA Rep.,Water forecastsand forecastingmodels, (3) testingmitigation Quality and Watershed Research Laboratory, effectiveness, (4) improving the knowledge base for Durant, Okla. 92 pp. futureassessments, (5) providing evidence forcompen­ [Pages 59-64 address the fate ofpesticides in sation, (6) providing an early warningof adverse wetlands. A synopsis of these pages follows.] Of change, and (7) establishing baseline knowledge. In some 200 million kg of pesticides used annually for any case, the data will provide a single time series. 'lb agriculture, some 1 to 4 million kg are lost to surface make any determination of their meaning, another waters yearly in agricultural runoff. Pesticides are time series willbe required for comparison. Methods more likely to enter run-offwater if they sorb to sur­ of obtaining this second data set are discussed. face soil particles, are applied as wettable powders, or have solubilities greater than about 10 ppm. Run­ 71. DWERNYCHUK, L.W., and D.A. Boag. 1973. offlosses typically decline exponentially with time Effect of herbicide-induced changes in vegeta­ post-application; they are much greater if a critical tion on nesting ducks. Can Field Nat 87:155-165. run-offevent occurs within 2 weeks of application; A reduction of broad-leaved plants fromapplica­ and they typically exceed 2% of the applied amount tion of2,4-D ester caused a reduction in the numbers during a catastropic run-offevent, regardless of tim­ of nests of lesser scaup, gadwall, and white-winged ing or intensity ofrainfall. Erosion control methods scoter. The number of nesting ducks increased with can reduce the runoffof many hydrophobic pesticides cessation of herbicide treatment. such as aldrin; dieldrin, DDT, chlordane, and arochlor, but are less effective forrelatively soluble pesticides such as atrazine, alachlor, carbofuran, propachlor, and metribuzin. Pesticides entering an aquatic system, either adsorbed to sediment particles

13 72. EDWARDS, W.M., G.B.Triplett, Jr., and R.M. values ranged from <2 µglLfor some cladocerans Kramer. 1980. Watershed study of glyphosate (Daphnia magna and Simocephalus serrulatus) to transport in runoff. J Environ Qual 9:661-665. over 2 million µg/L forbullfrogs (Rana catesbeiana). Roundup as a pre-seeding herbicide in no-tillage Turkeys were the most sensitive avian species tested establishment of fescue and corn, was applied at 1.1, (LD50, 2.5 mg/kgbody weight), and European star­ 3.36, and 8.96 kg/ha. Thehighest concentration (5.2 lings were the least sensitive (LD50, 213 mg/kg). ppm) and greatest percentage (1.85%) of the amount Ingestion of five granules of Diazinon 14G killed 80 applied was found in runoff1 day afterapplication. and 100% of all house sparrows and red-winged Runoffstill contained 2 ppb 4 months aftertreat­ blackbirds, respectively. Mammalian acute toxicities ment. On one watershed, 99% of total transport ranged from 224 mg/kgbody weight forfemale rats occurred in the firstrun-off event aftertreat ment. (Rattus rattus; Diazinon 50W) to over 1,000 mg/kgfor sheep (Ovis aries). Sublethal effects reported include 73. EISLER, R. 1985. Carbofuran hazards to spinal deformities (lordosis and scoliosis) in fathead fish, wildlife, and invertebrates: a synoptic minnows and yearling brook trout after 19 weeks in review. Biol Rep 85(1.3). U. S. Fish and Wildlife water containing 3.2 and 4.8 µg/L, respectively. Service, Wa shington, D.C. 36 pp. Mayfly, damselfly, caddisfly, and amphipod popula­ Carbofuranat recommended rates has caused tions were reduced (mayfliesand caddisflies only) or sporadic and extensive kills of fish, wildlife, and absent from the aquatic macroinvertebrate communi­ invertebrates. Laboratory studies have shown that ties after 3 and 12 weeks of exposure to 0.3 µg/L acute toxicities (96-h LC50) for aquatic organisms diazinon. ranged from2. 5 ppb forlarval dungeness crabs (Cancer magister) to 125,000 ppb for a clam (Rangia 75. EISLER,R. 1989. Atrazine hazards to fish, wildlife, and invertebrates: a synoptic review. cuneata). Other than for th e crab larvae, all LC50 values were above 130 ppb. In tests longer than 96 Biol Rep 85(1.18). U.S. Fish and Wildlife h, safe concentrations forfish were generally foundto Service, Washington, D.C. 53 pp. be between 15 and 23 ppb. Of birds tested, the ful­ More than 50 million kg of atrazine are applied vous whistling-duck was the most sensitive (14-day annually to more than 25 million ha in the U.S., pri­ marily to control weeds in corn and sorghum. LD50, 238 ppb), but an aerosol containing 40 ppb killed all ring-necked pheasants within 5 minutes. Phytotoxic concentrations have been found in ground The most resistant avian species was the domestic water, lakes, and streams as a result of agricultural runoff. The half-time persistence in soils is approxi­ chicken (LD50, 25,000 to 38,900 ppb). Mammals were less sensitive than most birds, having acute oral mately 4 days; but in dry, sandy, alkaline soils, the 5 LD50 values generally greater than 2 ppm. However, halftime may be as long as 38 days with low tem­ peratures and low microbe density. In freshwater, the 6-h LD50 for rhesus monkeys, from an aerosol, was only 2 ppb. Dermal toxicity to birds and mam­ half-time persistence is about 3 days. Sensitive aquatic plant species may experience temporary, mals is comparatively low. LD50 values ranged from about 1,000 ppm for cattle down to 100 ppm in birds. reversible adverse effects at concentrations from 1 to Secondary poisoning of raptors has been reported fre­ 5 µg/L. Indirect effects on aquatic faunahave been quently in recent years. [Several entries in this bibli­ recorded at concentrations of 20 µg/L and higher. ography address this phenomenon; see index]. Many Direct adverse effectsto aquatic invertebrates and non-target invertebrate species are killed, as might fishhave been reported at concentrations equal to or be expected. Honeybees (Apis spp) are extremely greater than 94 µg/L. Bioaccumulation is limited and biomagnification through the foodchain is negli­ sensitive to carbofuran (LD50, 0.16 µg/bee). Earthworms in soils treated with commercial appli­ gible in aquatic systems. Known acute oral LD 50 cations of carbofuran developed fatallesions within values forbirds are greater than 2,000 ppm; thus, 72 h. At sublethal levels, carbofuran reportedly dis­ avian species are relatively immune to normal con­ rupts enzyme and lipid metabolism in fishes. Most centrations foundin the environment. investigators argue th at, under current application EISLER,R. 1989. Pentachlorophenol haz­ rates, accumulation in aquatic systems is not signifi­ 76. ards to fish wildlife, and invertebrates: a syn­ cant and that degradation is rapid under field condi­ optic review. Biol Rep 85(1.17). U.S. Fish and tions. There are some studies, however, th at indicate Wildlife Service, Wa shington, D.C. 72 pp. degradation rates may be retarded by the presence of other pesticides in the system. Used primarily as a wood preservative and only secondarily as a herbicide, insecticide, fungicide, mol­ 74. EISLER, R. 1986. Diazinonhazards to fish, luscicide, or bactericide, pentachlorophenol (PCP) wildlife, and invertebrates: a synoptic review. residues have been detected in air, precipitation, Biol Rep 85(1.9). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, ground and surface water, fish, aquatic inverte­ Washington, D.C. 37 pp. brates, and human urine, blood, and milk. At recommended rates of application, diazinon Extremely toxic, it has been the cause of numerous has caused the deaths of songbirds, waterfowl, and human occupational illnesses and deaths and signifi­ cant adverse impacts on domestic animals. It is feto- honeybees. Among aquatic organisms, 96-h LC50

14 toxic and teratogenic, but evidence for mutagenicity (Gammarus fa sciatus; 26 ppb), and glass shrimp and carcinogenicity is either incomplete or negative. (Palaemonetes kadiakensis; 28 ppb). The LC50 for The toxicity of commercial preparations is often leopard frogs (Rana sp henocephala) ranged from 32 enhanced by variable amounts of toxic impurities to 54 ppb. Maximum acceptable toxicant concentra­ including chlorophenols, hexachlorobenzene, and tion values (based on exposure forthe entire or most dioxins. In living organisms it is rapidly accumulat­ of the life cycle) ranged from 0.025 ppb forfathead ed and rapidly excreted and is degraded in the envi­ minnows to 3.2 ppb for midge larvae (Chironomus ronment by chemical, microbial, and photochemical plumosus). processes. Growth, survival, and reproduction may be affected in sensitive aquatic species at concentra­ 79. ELDRIDGE, J.L., and G.L. Krapu. 1988. tions of 8, 3, and <1 µg;ILin algae, invertebrates, and Influence of diet quality on clutch size and lay­ fish, respectively. Avian fatalitieshave been reported ing pattern in mallards. Auk 105:102-110. for oral doses of 380 to 580 mg/kg bodyweight and Lack of animal protein in th e diet of wild-strain >285 mg/kgin contaminated nest materials; however, mallards resulted in reduced clutch size, egg size, adverse sublethal effects have been reported at laying rate, number of nesting attempts, and total dietary levels as low as 1 mg/kgrat ion. Acute toxico­ eggs laid when compared with siblings fedan sis has been noted in birds with residue concentra­ enriched diet. Diet had no apparent effect on initia­ tions > 11 mg/kg fresh weight. tion oflaying, duration, or the seasonal pattern of change in clutch and eggsize with each re-nest. The 77. EISLER, R. 1989. 'Iin hazards to fish, authors believed the variation and pattern observed wildlife, and invertebrates: a synoptic review. was an adaptation to a highly variable environment. Biol Rep 85(1.15). U.�. Fish and Wildlife Such an environment on the northern prairies Service, Washington, D.C. 83 pp. decreases the probability of reproductive success as Triorganotin compounds, especially tricyclo­ the season progresses. [A pesticide-induced reduc­ hexyltin and triphenyltin, are used extensively in tion of aquatic invertebrates theoretically would have agricultural pesticides. Although neither of these is the same effect.] as toxic to aquatic invertebrates as is tributyltin, they are both more toxic than mono-, di-, or 80. ESTENIK, J.F., and W.J. Collins. 1979. In tetraorganotin compounds. Growth of two species of vivo and in vitro studies of mixed-function oxi­ marine diatoms was inhibited by 50% in 72-h expo­ dase in an aquatic insect, Chironomus riparius. sures by triphenyltin concentrations as low as 0.6 Pp 349-370 in M.A.Q. Khan,J.J. Lech, and J.J. µg;IL. Acute toxicity values fortriphenyltin ranged Menn (eds), Pesticide and xenobiotic µgiL metabolism in aquatic organisms. American from 4.3 (72-h LC5 ) forthe marine diatom 0 Chemical Society, Washington, D.C. Skeletonema costatum to 1,000 µg/L(24-h LC50) for the snail Biomphalaria glabrata. No data are pre­ Chironomus riparius larvae were exposed to sented regarding triphenyltin toxicityin avian p,p '-DDT, lindane, parathion, paraoxon, malathion, malaoxon, propoxur, carbaryl, Landrin species, but the acute oral LD50 fortricyclohexyltin hydroxide forJapanese quail and domestic chickens (trimethylphenyl methylcarbamate), aminocarb, was reported as 255 to 390 and 654 mg/kgbody mexacarbate, allethrin (90%), piperonyl butoxide weight, respectively. (PBO), and sesamex. Short-term (24 h) acute toxicity tests were conducted foreach chemical as well as for 78. EISLER, R.,and J. Jacknow. 1985. each chemical plus PBO or sesamex (DDT only). of Tuxaphene hazards to fish, wildlife, and inver­ Synergistic ratios (SR; insecticide LC5 insecticide­ tebrates: a synoptic review. Biol Rep 85(1.4). synergist LC ) were calculated in addition to stan­ 50 µg/L U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. dard LC50 values. LC50 values ranged from 0.3 26 pp. (dieldrin+PBO) to 1,172.2 µg;IL (aminocarb+PBO). [Although its use was discontinued in 1989, SRs for aldrin, parathion, malathion, aminocarb, and there still may be some stocks of toxaphene, so this mexacarbate (+PBO in each case) were <1, indicating report was included.] Toxaphene does not appear to that the synergist was antagonistic to the action of constitute a major threat to warm-blooded animals the pesticide and that the mixture was thus less toxic (acute oral LD50 values ranged from 11.9 to 794 ppm than the pesticide alone. DDT+sesamex and PBO in birds and from 139 to 240 ppm in the two mam­ plus dieldrin, paraoxon, malaoxon, carbaryl, Landrin, mals tested). It is, however, extremely toxic to fresh­ propoxur, or allethrin all had SRs > 1. The largest SR water and marine biota. Acute toxicities (96-h LC50) (102.1) was noted forallet hrin+PBO; the mixture ranged from 0.05 ppb in a marine crab (Sesarma was two orders of magnitude more toxic than the pes­ cinereum) to 1,120 ppb forquahaug clam ticide alone. The presence of PBO prevented larvae (Mercenaria mercenaria) embryos. Fiftypercent of from converting aldrin to dieldrin via metabolic pro­ most freshwater arthropod species, however, suffered cesses. All insecticides affected the mobility of midge mortality at concentrations <20 ppb. Exceptions larvae similarly. were midge larvae (Chironomus sp; 30 ppb), snipeflies(A.therix sp; 40 ppb), amphipods

15 81. ETO, M. 1981. Structure and avian terato­ methyl parathion exposure can affect the brood-rear­ genicity of organophosphorus compounds. ing phase either by direct mortality or through Nippon Noyaku Gakkaishi (J Pestic Sci) 6:95- behavioral changes. 106. Dicrotophos, diazinon, parathion, esterine, and 85.FA N, A.M.M. 1981. Effects of pesticides on carbaryl were strongly teratogenic to avian species. immune competency: influence of methyl Carbary} caused only type-I malformations. parathion and carbofuran on immunologic Parathion generally caused type-II malformations. responses to Salmonella typhimurium infec­ The other pesticides caused bothtypes at high tion. Dissert Abstr Int B 41:2962. dosages but generally only type I at low dosage. Immunologic competence (correlated with resis­ [Dosages were not specifiedin the abstract.] tance to infectious disease) in mice exposed to Salmonella typhimurium decreased with exposure to 82. EWEN, A.B., and M.K. Mukerji. 1980. methyl parathion or carbofuran. However, pesticide Evaluation of Nosema locustae (Microsporida) exposure of <2-week duration did not significantly as a control agent of grasshopperpopulations increase mortality in mice exposed to the bacterium. in Saskatchewan. J Invert Pathol 35:295-303. The results of this and other studies cited in the text Fifty percent of all Me lanoplus sanguinipes, M. indicate that environmental toxicants have a delete­ packardii, and Camnula pellucida populations were rious effect upon the resistance and immune compe­ infected within 4-5 days afterexposure to the tency of experimental animals. pathogen Nosema locustae. Maximum numbers were infected bythe 12th week. M. sanguinipes popula­ 86. FERRARO, S.P., F.A. Cole, W.A. DeBen, and tions were reduced by 20, 50, and 60% by weeks 4, 9, R.C. Swartz. 1989. Power-cost efficiencyof and 12, respectively. Melanoplus eggproduction was eight macrobenthic sampling schemes in Puget also lowered considerably. Sound, Wa shington, USA. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 46:2157-2165. 83. FACEMIRE, C.F. 1989. Comparison of the Power-cost efficiencies(PCEi = (n x c)min/(ni x sensitivity of electrophoresis and ecological ci), where i = sampling scheme, n = minimum num­ indices for the detection of stress in aquatic ber of replicate samples needed to detect a difference ecosystems. Ph.D. dissertation, Miami between locations with a probability of Type I or II University, Oxford, Ohio. 188 pp. errors of 0.05, c = the mean cost in time or money per Caution is advised in using species diversity replicate sample, and (n x c)min = the minimum indices as indicators of water quality. Data illustrate value of (n x c) among the i sampling schemes, were that species richness and species diversity may be determined foreight macrobenthic sampling greatest in areas highly impacted by contaminants. schemes. The 0.06-m2, 0- to 8-cm deep sample unit This opposes accepted theory. Analysis of selected size and 1.0-mm sieve mesh size was determined to enzyme systems of individuals from indigenous ver­ be the overall optimum sampling scheme of those tebrate and invertebrate populations proved to be a studied, ranking firstin PCE on 8 and second on sensitive indicatorof environmental stress due to three of 11 measures of community structure. industrial contaminants. Considering statistical power, the authors ranked the 11 measures from greatest to least as Infauna} Index, 84.FAIB. BROTHER, A.,S.M. Meyers, and R.S. log10(mollusc biomass + 1), species richness, Bennett. 1988. Changesin mallard hen and log10(numerical abundance), log10(polychaete brood behaviors in response to methyl biomass + 1), log10(total biomass + 1), log10(crus­ parathion-induced illness of ducklings. tacean biomass + 1), Mcintosh's Index, 1 - Simpson's Environ Tuxicol Chem 7:499-503. Index, Shannon's Index, and Dominance Index. Mallard ducklings gavaged orally with 4 mg/kg methyl parathion and then released with their moth­ 87. FERREL, C.M. 1963. Detection of wildlife er and untreated siblings exhibited abnormal behav­ losses caused by pesticides. Calif W-52-R-7/Wk ior within 4 h aftertreatment. Untreated ducklings Pl 03/Job 02. California Department of Fish and spent significantly more time on water feeding and Game. 4pp. swimming than did treated ducklings, which spent Drainwater fromrice fieldstreated with DDT nearly all their time preening and loafingon land. caused mortality in fish,coots, and mallards. Most Hens remained with their broods and kept all the (approximately 95%) of the dead fish werecarp. ducklings together even when treated young were too sick to move. Forty percent of treated ducklings and 88. FIKES,M.H., and R.A. Tubb. 1972. Dieldrin no untreated ducklings died the firstday. Generally, uptake in the three-ridge naiad. J Wildl dosed ducklings surviving the firstday survived the Manage 36:802-809. second day also. None of the dead ducklings nor any The three-ridge naiad (Amblemaplicata : survivors captured at the end of the 2-day observa­ Pelecypoda) was evaluated as a biological indicator tion period had any foodin their proventriculus or for dieldrin in surface water. At concentrations of 20 gizzard at the time of recovery. Results indicate that ppb and 20 ppt, dieldrin concentrations in naiad gills

16 stabilized at 17 ppm and 55 ppb, respectively, after 2 however that diets containing 6.0 ppm temephos or weeks of exposure. Release rates forth e two treat­ less do i:ot affect duckling survival and thatthe toxi­ ment groups were one sixth and one fourth of the city of this chemical may be increased by decreasing respectiverates of uptake. The authors concluded temperatures.] that thespecies appeared to be an acceptable biomonitor of dieldrin. 92. FLEMING, W.J., H. de Chacin, O.H. Pattee, and T. G. Lamont. 1982. Parathion accumula­ 89. FLEMING,W.J. 1981. Recoveryof brain and tion in cricket frogs and its effect on American plasma cholinesterase activities in ducklings kestrels. J Thxicol Environ Health 10:921-927. exposed to organophosphorus pesticides. Arch An American kestrel, fedfive adult cricket frogs Environ Contam Thxicol 10:215-229. (Acriscre pitans) which had been maintained in water Brain ChE recoveryrates in mallard ducklings containing 10 ppm parathion for a 96-h period, died exposed to dicrotophos and fenthion administered as within3 h. The frogshad accumulated an average a single dose vs. a 2-week dietary exposure did not 4.6 ppm parathion. There was no mortality of differ significantly. Recoveryto about 50% of normal kestrels fed frogs from groups exposed to <10 ppm. ChE activitywas rapid and followed the general + model Y = a b(logX). Further recoverywas slower 93. FLICKINGER, E.L.,and A.J.Kryn itsky. and followed the same model. Brain ChE activity 1987. Organochlorine residues in ducks on was found to be superior to plasma ChE activity for playa lakes of the Texas Panhandle and eastern environmental monitoring, due to a high degree of New Mexico. J Wildl Dis23:165-168. variation in plasma ChE between individuals. To determine the cause of death of 1,291 ducks Recovery of brain ChE activity can be modeled to at playa lakes in the Texas Panhandle during facilitate interpretationof sublethal inhibition of January 1981 and January 1982, 23 dead ducks were brain ChE activities in wild birds followingexposure necropsied and 48 adult ducks were shot for OC anal­ to OP [and carbamate] insecticides. ysis. No OC residues were foundin 46% of the ducks. Forty-four, 31, and 10% of the ducks con­ 90. FLEMING,W. J., B.P. Pullin, and D.M. tained DDE (0.09-1.2 ppm), heptachlor epoxide (HE; Swineford. 1984. Population trends and envi­ 0.13-9.3 ppm) and oxychlordane (0.11-0.38 ppm) ronmental contaminants in herons in the residues, respectively. Of those containing HE TennesseeValley, 1980-81. Colonial Waterbirds residues, 94% were pintails or green-winged teal. 7:63-73. Oxychlordane residues were found in only teal. HE Concentrations of OC and PCB residues in residues were highest in those birds collected from great blue heron and black-crowned night-heron eggs feedlot-agricultural lakes, but exposure was deter­ collected in 1980 were generally below those associat­ mined to be fromharvested corn fields. Pintails and ed with decreased productivity. Green-backed heron teal had the highest OC residue concentrations; the eggs collected in 1981 near a former DDT manufac­ two species comprised only 24 and 11 % of dead birds. turing site, however, contained the highest DDE con­ The authors foundmost mortality was probably centrations ever reported forthe species (mean = 3.9 caused by avian cholera and concluded that it was ppm; range 1.3 to 12 ppm). Effects on reproductive unlikely that contaminants contributed to the annual success were not assessed. Stable or increasing pop­ winter duck mortality in playa lakes. ulations of all three species, coupled with the above, indicate that OC compounds are not adversely affect­ 94. FLICKINGER, E.L.,and K.A. King. 1972. ing Tennessee Valley heron populations. Some effects of aldrin-treatedrice on Gulf Coast wildlife. J Wildl Manage 36:706-727. 91. FLEMING, W.J., G.H. Heinz, J.C. Franson, Dead waterfowl, shorebirds, and passerines and B.A.Rattner . 1985. Thxicity of Abate 4E were collected fromthree gulf-coast counties in Texas (temephos) in mallard ducklings and the influ­ from 1967 through 1971. Aldrin residues were found ence of cold. Environ Thxicol Chem 4:193-199. in samples of the dead birds and in all eggs, scav­ Mallard ducklings were feda diet containing engers, predators, invertebrates, fish, frogs, and soils <0.5, 0.89, 6.0, and 59 ppm temephos for a 7-day from the area. Whole-body dieldrin residues were period. Mortality in all dietary groups was greater highest (16-17 ppm) in fulvous tree [whistling-] for ducklings maintained in unheated (10 to 18 C) ducks, but brain residues were low (<0.1-1.6 ppm). than in heated (39 to 41 C) brooders. Mortality due Brain residues in other waterfowl species averaged to temephos ingestion was noted only in the group 10 ppm. Some birds were exposed by eating treated receiving 59 ppm and maintained in an unheated rice seed, but mo�t were contaminated by ingestion of brooder. [Although the authors say in the text that invertebrates. Snails and crayfish contained aldrin ducklings in this group exhibited brain ChE inhibi­ and dieldrin residues sufficient(average = 9.5 ppm) tion (range in dead birds from <10 to 48%), elevated to account for deaths in birds using these species as a plasma corticosterone concentration, and elevated major food item. A controlled study using fulvous creatine phosphokinase activity, the tabular data are tree [whistling-] ducks penned in fields aerially unclear regarding these phenomena. It does appear, planted with treated rice seed resulted in deaths of3

17 of 10 birds. Brain residues in the dead birds were hatching-year common goldeneyes arriving on the 2.5, 2.9, and 6.8 ppm. wintering grounds. Adults were also collected just prior to spring migration. PCB, dieldrin, HCB, and 95. FLICKINGER, E.L., C.A.Mitchell, and A.J. HE concentrations in fat increased significantly Krynitsky. 1986. Dieldrin and endrin residues between the two sampling periods. The major source in fulvouswhistling- ducks in Texas in 1983. J of exposure was believed to be invertebrate and ver­ Field Ornithol 57:85-90. tebrate prey. Analysis of adult and juvenile fulvous whistling-ducks for OC residues was conducted to 99. FOLMAR, L.C. 1977. Acrolein, dalapon, determine origin of contamination. Seven of 15 and 4 dichlobenil, diquat, and endothal: bibliography of 15 adult birds collected just after arrival on the of toxicity to aquatic organisms. Tech Paper breeding grounds contained detectable (>0.1 ppm) 88. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, residues of dieldrin and endrin, respectively. None of D.C. 16 pp. the flightless juveniles contained OC residues. In addition to a bibliography, toxicity tables Pesticide concentration levels in adult birds were (indicating the test organism, test type, experimental higher than would be expected in birds arriving from conditions, and test results) are included for the her­ Mexico (the mean half life of dieldrin in bird tissue is bicides listed. Each table includes a list of refer­ 4 7 d. Migration fromMexico occurs in somewhat less ences. Of the five pesticides tested, acrolein was than 4 7 d, but concentrations were such that birds most toxic. Acute toxicities forfish species were gen­ would have to have contained lethal concentrations erally <0.25 ppm, and brown trout were most sensi­ prior to leaving Mexico for them to contain the con­ tive (24-h LC50, 0.046 ppm). Dichlobenil was least centrations measured). Consequently, results indi­ toxic. For freshwater species, LC50 values ranged cate that some rice farmersin Texas were probably from 7.0 ppm (96-h) for a stonefly, Peteronarcys cali­ illegally treating rice seed with aldrin or dieldrin. fo rnica, to over 22,000 ppm (48-h EC50) for rainbow trout. 96. FLICKINGER, E.L., C.A.Mitchell, D.H. White, and E.J. Kolbe. 1986. Bird poisoning 100. FOLMAR, L.C., H.O. Sanders, and A.M. from misuse of thecarbamate Furadanin a Julin. 1979. Toxicity of the herbicide Texas rice field. Wildl Soc Bull 14:59-62. glyphosate and several of its formulations to Rice seed treated illegally with Furadan 4F fish and aquatic invertebrates. Arch Environ [carbofuran] led to the mortality of more than 100 Contam Tuxicol 8:269-278. passerine birds, mostly dickcissels and savannah Studies to determine the acute toxicity of tech­ sparrows. Brain ChE activity was depressed nical grade glyphosate, the isopropylamine salt of between 32 and 85% in 44% of the birds. Carbofuran glyphosate, Roundup, and the Roundup surfactant residues in the gut of dead birds ranged from 0.54 to were conducted. Four species of aquatic inverte­ 10 ppm (mean = 3.4 ppm). Mortality continued for brates (Daphnia magna, Gammarus pseudolim­ approximately 2 weeks after planting. naeus, Chironomus plumosus, Ep hemerella walkeri) and four species of fish (fathead minnow, channel cat­ 97. FLICKINGER,E.L., D.H. White, C.A. fish,bluegill, and rainbow trout) were used. Acute Mitchell, and T.G. Lamont. 1984. toxicities forRoundup ranged from 2.3 mg/L (96-h Monocrotophos and dicrotophos residues in LC50, fathead minnow) to 43.0 mg/L(48-h EC50, G. birds as a resultof misuse of organophosphates pseudolimnaeus). 'lbxicities of the surfactant were in Matagorda County, Texas. AssocJ OffAnal similar to the herbicide. Technical grade glyphosate Chem 67:827-828. was less toxic than Roundup or the surfactant. The The ingestion of rice seed bait illegally treated toxicity of Roundup to rainbow trout and bluegill was with either monocrotophos or dicrotophos resulted in directly proportional to water temperature and was the deaths of some 1,100 birds during March and greater at pH 7.5 than at pH 6.5 but did not increase May 1982. Brain ChE inhibition of those birds exam­ at pH values greater than 7 .5. Toxicity increased ined averaged 87% (range 82-89%). GI tracts con­ with development stage. Eyed eggs were least sensi­ tained residues of dicrotophos (5.6-14.0 ppm) and tive. Data regarding fecundity and gonadosomatic monocrotophos (2.1-13.0 ppm). Rice seed collected index are presented. The authors concluded that on-site contained 950 and 210 ppm monocrotophos Roundup applications at label-recommended rates and dicrotophos, respectively. along ditchbank areas of irrigation canals should not adversely affect resident populations of fish or inver- 98. FOLEY, R.E., and G.R. Batcheller. 1988. _ tebrates, but they advised caution for springapplica­ Organochlorine contaminants in common gold­ tions in lentic systems where dissolved oxygen levels eneye wintering on the Niagara River. J Wildl are depressed or temperatures are elevated. Under Manage 52:441-445. these conditions, Roundup applications could be haz­ Detectable concentrations of PCB, DDE, dield­ ardous to young-of-the-year fishes. rin, hexachlorobenzene (HCB), oxychlordane, mirex, and heptachlor epoxide (HE) were foundin adult and

18 101. FOX, G.A.,P. Mineau, B. Collins, and P. C. winter. OC pesticide residues in prey items were low, James. 1989. Impact of theinsecticide carbofu­ and no elevated pesticide levels were noted in winter­ ran (Furadan 480F) on theburr owing owl in ing eagles. Contaminant residues in prey items have Canada. Tech Rep SerNo 72. Canadian caused reproductive problems foreagles resident in Wildlife Service, Ottawa. the Klamath Basin. During 1985, some 1.2 million ha in Saskatchewan and 420,000 ha in Alberta were treat­ 105. FRIEND, M., and D.O. Trainer. 1974. ed at least once with carbofuran for grasshopper con­ Experimental dieldrin-duck hepatitis virus trol. The authors estimatedthat, at the recommend­ interaction studies. J Wildl Manage 38:887-895. ed rate, each square meter of treated area received Dieldrin exposure significantly increased mor­ 27 to 86 median lethal doses (for a 3-4 month-old tality in ducks subsequently exposed to duck hepati­ mallard) of carbofuran (a median lethal dose is the tis virus (DHV) under some conditions. In one exper­ quantity of chemical necessaryto kill half the test iment, however, dieldrin was antagonistic to the population; = LD50). The use of alternative chemical effects ofDHV, with reduced mortality. There were, control agents was strongly recommended. however, physiologicalind ications of synergism in all species and ages, even in the absence of mortality. 102. FREED,V. H. 1987. Pesticides: global use and concerns. Pp 145-158 in G.J. Marco,R.M. 106. FRIEND, M., and D.O. Trainer. 1974. Hollingworth, and W. Durham (eds), Silent Experimental DDT-duck hepatitis virus inter­ spring revisited. American Chemical Society, action studies. J Wildl Manage 38:896-902. Washington, D.C. 214 pp. DDT altered the response to duck hepatitis This paper documents the growing global depen­ virus, and was either antagonistic or synergistic, dency upon chemical pesticides and estimatesan aver­ depending on conditions. Synergistic effects were age annual increasein pesticide use of 4 to 5% with evident, however, even where no mortality occurred. the current level of use (more than 4 billion pounds AI annually). Western Europe and North America use 107. FRIEND, M., M.A. Haegele, D.L. Meeker, R. about 57% of the total. Latin America, Eastern Hudson, and C.H. Baer. 1979. Correlations Europe, Japan, and theremaining countries use between residues of dichlorodiphenylethane, approximately 15, 11, 11, and 6%, respectively. The polychlorinated biphenyl, and dieldrin in the fourforemost problems associated with pesticide use serum and tissues of mallard ducks. Pp 319-326 are (1) human and animal poisoning, (2) residues in in F. Peter (ed), Animals as monitors of envi­ foods, (3) thedevelopment of resistance by insects, and ronmentalpollutants. NationalAcademy of (4) safe disposal of pesticide wastes and containers. Sciences,Wa shington,D.C. Mallard ducks were studied to determine the 103. FRE�ING, C.R., and W.L Mauck. 1980. efficacy of determining OC residue concentrations by Methods for using nymphs of burrowing using blood rather than tissue samples. The correla­ mayflies (Ephemeroptera, Hexagenia) as toxici­ tion between blood serum and fat samples was highly ty test organisms. Pp 81-97 in A.L Buikema, significant and supports the use of blood forsampling Jr., and J. Cairns,Jr. (eds), Aquatic inverte­ OC residues in birds. brate bioassays. ASTM STP715. Burrowing mayflies (Hexagenia)are widespread 108. GEORGIDOU, G.P. 1980. Insecticide resis­ in the Western Hemisphere and are important mem­ tance and prospectsfor its management. bers of the detrital foodchain. Changes in distribu­ Residue Rev 76:131-145. tion and abundance due to pollution episodes indi­ The increased use of pesticides has resulted in cate that they are sensitiveto contaminants. Their increased numbers of resistant organisms. By the biologyis well known and they are easily cultured, end of 1978, at least 414 species had developed handled, and observed. Thus, th ey offer distinct strains resistant to one or more pesticides. advantages over fish as toxicity test organisms. In addition to their use in monitoring contaminant 109.GIE SY, J.P., and R.A. Hoke. 1989. impacts in a field situation, Hexagenia nymphs, Freshwater sediment toxicity bioassessment: when supplied with inert artificial substrates, are rationalefor species selection and test design. useful in a variety of static and flow-through acute J Great Lakes Res15 :539-569. and chronic bioassay procedures. Culture and test The relative merits of a variety of sediment toxi­ methodsare described. city assays are discussed. A batteryof assays is rec­ ommended over any single assay method. Assays 104. FRENZEL,R. W., and R.G. Anthony. 1989. recommended for inclusion in the screening battery Relationship of diets and environmental con­ are Microtox, an algal assay, the Ch ironomus ten­ taminants in wintering bald eagles. J Wildl tans 10-d growth assay, and the 48-h acute assay Manage 53:792-802. using Daphnia magna. Bald eagles fed largely on cholera-killed water­ fowl and on microtine rodents during mid- to late

19 110. GIESY, J.P., C.J. Rosiu, R.L. Graney, and be conducted to determine, among other things, the M.G. Henry. 1990. Benthic invertebrate bioas­ physical condition and reproductive potential of says with toxic sediment and pore water. waterfowl relative to winter habitat conditions. Environ Tuxicol Chem 9:233-248. Five bioassay techniques and three dilution 113. GOLDSBOROUGH, L.G., and D.J. Brown. methodswere compared forth eir utility in assessing 1988. Effect of glyphosate (Roundup formula­ toxicity of sediments. Lethality of Daphnia magna in tion) on periphytic algal photosynthesis. Bull pore water was similar to that of Hexagenia limbata Environ Contam Toxicol 41:253-260. in whole sediment. Further, the 48-h LC50 forD. Photosynthetic activityof periphyton communi­ magna was approximately equal to the 10-d EC50 for ties fromthree of five experimental ponds was not C. tentans and was similar to the toxicity that significantly affected at glyphosate concentrations :$; restricts benthic macroinvertebrate colonization of 0.89 mg/L. Threshold levels for communities from contaminated sediments. Although the three dilu­ two other ponds were 8.9 to 18.0 mg/L. Between 8.9 tion techniques gave similar results forsome assays, and 1800 mg/L, photosynthesis decreased with very different results were obtained in others; hence, increasing herbicide concentration. Carbon fixation dose-response relationships derived fromeach tech­ was not completely inhibited at the higher concentra­ nique should be interpreted carefully. tion, but varied from 11 to 27% of the control. EC50 values varied from 35.4 mg/L to 69. 7 mg/L. 111. GIESY, J.P., R.L. Graney, J.L. Newsted, C.J. Rosiu, A. Benda, R.G. Kreis, Jr., and F.J. 114. GOLDSBOROUGH, L.G., and G.G.C. Horvath. 1988. Comparison of three sediment Robinson. 1983. Effect of two triazine herbi­ bioassay methods using DetroitRiver sedi­ cides on theproductivity of fresh water marsh ments. EnvironTo xicol Chem 7:483-498. periphyton. Aquat Tuxicol 4:95-112. Three bioassays indicated that some sediments Varying concentrations of simazine and ter­ were toxic, and all were able to identify the most and butryn were added to in situ enclosures of marsh least toxic sediments. However, Microtox assay of water. Algal periphyton colonization on artificial pore water was most sensitive, and the 48-h acute strata was monitored relative to herbicide exposure. toxicity assay using Daphnia magna was least sensi­ Compared to an untreated control, chlorophyll a tive and least discriminatory. Based only on lethali­ accumulation and carbon assimilation varied from no ty, 10-d growth reduction of Chironomus tentans was difference from the control at a concentration of 0.1 less sensitive than the 48-h D. magna assay. Some mg/L simazine to approximately 95% inhibition at locations were deemed highly toxic by one or two 5.0 mg/L. The two processes were reduced >90% at a assays, but not by the others. Although the results of concentration of 0.01 mg terbutryn per L. Factor all assays were correlated, none could accurately pre­ analysis indicated that periphytic productivity was dict the results of the other two. Theaut hors con­ correlated with water chemistry, light availability, cluded that results of the 48-h D. magna assay could and time, in addition to the experimental herbicide be used to predict which sediments were sufficiently treatment. These results suggest that herbicidal toxic to preclude benthic insects. Furthermore, based effect resulted from a complex interaction of several upon results of this study, they suggest that the parameters rather than herbicide concentration Microtox assay should be included in those studies alone. Periphyton community recovery began within designed to accurately classify sediment toxicities. 1 week followingdecreased herbicide application. As the post-application growth rate was equal to or 112. GILMER,D.S., M.R. Miller, R.D. Bauer, and greater than that of the control, the long-term impact J.R. LeDonne. 1982. California's Central Valley of a single dosage of these herbicides may have been wintering waterfowl: concerns and challenges. minimal. Trans 47th N Am Wildl Nat Res Conf 1982:441- 452. 115. GOLDSBOROUGH, L.G., and G.G.C. This paper evaluates the Central Valley of Robinson. 1985. Effect of an aquatic herbicide Californiaas a wintering area forwaterf owl, identi­ on sediment nutrientflux in a freshwater fies problems confronting winteringwaterf owl, dis­ marsh. Hydrobiol 122:121-128. cusses efforts in the resolution of these problems, and Addition of simazine to in situ macrophyte-free recommends actions to improve waterfowl manage­ enclosures at concentrations of 0.1, 1.0, and 5.0 mg/L ment. Only the second of these, the identification of caused proportional increases in sediment releases of problems facingwintering waterfowl, is addressed NH3, total reactive phosphorus, and silicon. Results here. Some disease data are presented, but perhaps suggest that increases of dissolved nutrients com­ of greatest importance within the context of this doc­ monly observedfollowing herbicide treatment of ument is the statement that approximately 17% of all shallow waters may not be attributable solely to pesticides used in the U.S. (as of 1982) was applied in macrophyte decay but may involve a complex interac­ California. This amounted to some 55 million kg in tion of biotic and abiotic sediment nutrient exchange 1980, withabout 55% of it applied in Central Valley processes. counties. The authors recommended that research

20 116. GOLDSBOROUGH, L.G., and G.G.C. 120. GOPAL, K., R.N. Khanna, M. Anand, and Robinson. 1986. Changes in periphytic algal G.S.D. Gupta. 1981. Acute toxicity of endosul­ community structure as a consequence of short fan to fresh-waterorg anisms. ToxicolLett herbicide exposures. Hydrobiol 139:177-192. 7:453-456. Application of the triazine herbicides simazine Fish, insect nymphs, and frog tadpoles were used and terbutryn to in situ marsh enclosures resulted in to assess the acute toxicityof endosulfan. Exposure total biovolume inhibition greater than 98% at all (96 h) was at concentrations of 0.001-0.004 ppm for terbutryn concentrations (0.01, 0.1, and 1.0 mg/L). tadpoles and 0.005-0.04 ppm for catfish and inverte­ Similar inhibition was noted at only the highest brates. Fish exhibited jumping, erraticmovement, and simazine concentration (5.0 mg/L). Post-treatment convulsions accompanied by rapid opercularmovement recolonization patterns indicated that periphyton and occasional gulping of air. Loss of equilibrium and successional processes, which normally lead to the death followed. Hyperglycemia was maximum at 48 h development of a complex three-dimensional mat, at all concentrations, suggestingthat endosulfan may may be prevented by short herbicide exposures. interfere with carbohydrate metabolism. Similar symptomswere observedin nymphs and tadpoles, 117. GOLDSBOROUGH, L.G., and G.G.C. including severe reductionin free swimming and Robinson. 1988. Functionalresponses of fresh­ reduced physical stamina. Frog tadpoles appeared to water periphyton to short simazine exposures. be the most sensitive speciestested. Int Ve rein TheorAng Lim Verhand 23:1586-1593� The authors suggestthat freshwater periphyton 121. GRABER, D.A. 1987. Surveyof agricultural communities may develop partial resistance to herbi­ cropping systems and wetland management cide exposure but that such resistance may not per­ practices on selected Missouri Department of sist at herbicide levels of <0.8 mg/L. Conservation wildlife areas. MissouriW-1 3-R- 41/Study 03/Job 01, Missouri Department of 118. GOLLEY, F.B.,and L. Ryszkowski. 1988. Conservation. 20 pp. How can agroecologyhelp solve agricultural A range of farmingand wetland management and environmental problems? INTECOLBull activities occurred on wetland management areas. 16:71-75. The lack of readily available informationabout some The major theme is thatonly the individual aspects of farmingand wetland programs indicated a farmer can ultimately make the changes necessaryto need formore formal and standardized record keep­ solve current ecological problems wrought by ing of routine management operations. Further agricultural practices. The establishmentof sound research is needed regarding waterfo wl nutrient farm policy will not work if, for one reason or another, requirements, nutrient content of waterfowl foods, the farmer is unwilling to change current practices or impacts of agricultural chemicals, the utility of con­ to take private risks forthe common good. The ventional versus biological farming, no-till farming, authors suggest thatfarmers of the future must be and goose browse production. highly educated, provided with the most moderntools and sources of information, provided with better 122. GRUE, C.E., and B.K. Shipley. 1981. methods of natural pest control, and finally, must be Interpretingpopulation estimates of birds fol­ aware that they are, individually, natural resource lowing pesticide applications - behavior of managers. As such, the farmermust be employed in male starlings exposed to an organophosphate nature conservation, in the administration of the pesticide. Stud Av Biol 6:292-296. rural landscape, in the distribution of rural health Male European starlings exposed to a single oral and education, and in the creation of rural culture. dose of2.5 mg dicrotophos/kgbody weight spent sig­ Lastly, the authors suggestmore research, tied to the nificantly more time perching and less time flying, needs of farmers, neighborhoods, and regions. Most foraging, and singing and displaying than did control of all, research must have practical applications and birds. Results suggest that conventional censusing or not be driven by the needs of the research community. population estimating techniques which are depen­ dent upon bird activity may be inadequate in assess­ 119.GOODRICH, M.S., and J.J. Lech. 1990. ing bird populatfons afterpesticide applications. Behavioral screening assay for Daphnia magna: a method to assess theeffects of xeno­ 123. GRUE, C.E., and B.K. Shipley. 1984. biotics on spatial orientation. Environ Toxicol Sensitivity of nestling and adult starlings to Chem 9-.21-30. dicrotophos, an organophosphorus pesticide. This paper describes a method that may be used Environ Res 35:454-465. in screening surface water samples forpesticides or Toxicity(24-h LD50) of dicrotophos was age other environmental contaminants. The migration of dependent. Free-living 5-day-old nestlings (LD50, Daphnia magna along a light gradient was used to 4.92 mg/kg bodyweight) were approximately twice as determine effects. Effects were observedwith lin­ sensitive to the chemical as free-living1 5-day-old dane concentrations as low as 50 ppb. Analysis and nestlings (LD50, 9.59 mg/kg) and captiveadult birds statistical techniques are also discussed. (LD50, 8.37 to 8.4 7 mg/kg). Brain ChE activity was

21 severely depressed in all dead birds, but ChE inhibi­ 127. GRUE, C.E., L.R. Deweese, P. Mineau, G.A. tion was not age dependent. Weight loss varied Swanson, J.R. Foster, P.J. Arnold,J.N. Huckins, inversely with age and dosage but directly with time P.J. Sheehan, W.K. Marshall, and A.P. Ludden. to death. 1986. Potential impacts of agricultural chemi­ cals on waterfowl and otherwildl ife inhabiting 124. GRUE, C.E., and C.C. Hunter. 1984. Brain prairie wetlands: an evaluation of research cholinesterase activity in fledgling starlings: needs and approaches. Pp 357-383 in Trans 51st implications for monitoring exposure of song­ N Amer Wild.I Nat Res Conf. birds to ChE inhibitors. Bull Environ Contam The potential for agricultural chemical impact 'Ibxicol 32:282-289. on prairie pothole wetlands and the wildlife depen­ ChE activityin the European starling increases dent on them for survival and reproduction appears rapidly with age to the time of fledging. Afterfledg­ to be great, but the assessment of actual risk is hin­ ing, the rate of increase in ChE activity dropped dered by a lack of data. Those data that are avail­ sharply. The authors suggest that age must be con­ able regarding pesticide use and toxicity suggestthat sidered when diagnosing exposure of nestling and insecticides pose the greatest threat to wetland fledgling songbirds to ChE inhibitors. wildlife, particularly birds. The impact of agricultur­ al chemicals on the quality of the remaining wetland 125. GRUE, C.E., G.V.N. Powell, and C.H. habitatin the northern prairie and on the observed Gorsuch. 1982. Assessing effects of declines in waterfowl populations is of particular con­ organophosphates on songbirds: comparison of cern. Existing data indicate that adult and juvenile a captive and a free-livingpopulation. J Wild.I waterfowl may not be more sensitive to pesticides Manage 46:766-768. than other wetland wildlife. However, their food There were no significantdiffe rences in brain habits and feedingbehaviors may make them more ChE activityor in body weight changebetween cap­ vulnerable to direct toxic effects or chemical-induced tive and free-livingpopulations of European starlings changes in the abundance of aquatic invertebrates. exposed to dicrotophos (single oral dose, 2.5 mg/kg Further laboratory and fieldstudies are required to body weight). adequately assess potential impacts.

126. GRUE, C.E., L.R. Deweese, G.A. Swanson, 128. GRUE, C.E., M.W. Turne, and G.A. Swanson. S.M. Borthwick, and C.M. Bunck. 1990. Effects 1988. Agricultural chemicals and the quality of of aerial applications of 2,4-D, fenvalerate, and waterfowl habitat within the prairie pothole ethyl and methyl parathion on waterfowl region: what are the research needs? inhabiting prairie-pothole wetlands. Pp 34-35 Unpublished issue paper preparedfor in Proceedings of a symposium: environmental Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Laurel, MD. contaminants and theireff ects on biota of the Additional studies are needed to quantify agri­ Northern Great Plains. North Dakota Chapter, cultural chemical inputs and assess their impact on The Wildlife Society, Bismarck. the quality of prairie wetlands. To determine the 2,4-D (0.3 kg AI/ha), 2,4-D contaminated with extent of chemical inputs into non-target habitats, fenvalerate (0.009 kg AI/ha), ethyl parathion (0.6 kg the effects of these chemicals on non-target habitats AI/ha), and methyl parathion (0.3 kg AI/ha) were and waterfowl productivity, and the chemicals and applied aerially to several small wetlands in south­ management strategies that minimize risks to water­ central North Dakota in June 1986. Growth and sur­ fowl and other wildlife, the followingresearch topics vival of several groups of 3-week-old mallard and must be addressed: blue-winged teal ducklings released on treated and (1) The extent of contamination of non-target habi­ control wetlands were monitored. No overt toxicity tats by normal uses of agricultural chemicals. was observed in any waterfowl exposed to the pesti­ (2) The seasonal and cumulative effects of agricul­ cides. Brain ChE activity was depressed in <30% of tural chemicals on the productivity of waterfowl uti­ juvenile blue-winged teal collected 2 days post-spray lizing wetlands and nesting habitat within intensive­ and was still detectable 30 days post-spray in those ly farmedareas. teal exposed to ethyl parathion. Maximum depres­ (3) The effect on quality of seasonal wetlands for sion (� 69%) occurred 2 days post-spray. Body waterfowl under intermittent tillage and haying. weights of mallard and teal ducklings on treated wet­ ( 4) Differences in and effects of exposure of water­ lands were equal to or greater than those on control fowl to agricultural chemicals on conventional and wetlands. Although 2,4-D did not pose either a direct conservation-tillage fields. or indirect impact on waterfowl, fenvalerate and (5) Effectiveness of buffer zones and other strategies methyl and ethyl parathion were acutely toxic to the in minimizing inputs of agricultural chemicals into aquatic invertebrates which are essential foods for non-target habitats. laying femalesand young ducklings. (6) Contribution of exposure to agricultural chemi­ cals, directly or indirectly, to mortality of waterfowl from botulismor other diseases.

22 129. GRUE, C.E., M.W. 'lbme, G.A. Swanson, S.A. parathion and fenthion and fedto mallard ducklings Borthwick, and L.R. DeWeese. 1988. resulted in significantbird mortality. Animals that Agricultural chemicals and the quality of prey regularly on amphibians may ingest lethal prairie-pothole wetlands for adult and juvenile doses of ChE inhibitors. waterfowl: what are the concerns? Natl Symp, Protection of Wetlands from Agricultural 133. HALL, J.K., N.L. Hartwig, and L.D. Impacts. Colorado State University, Ft. Collins, Hoffman. 1983. Application mode and alter­ CO, April 25-29, 1988. nate cropping effects on atrazine losses from a A review of the literature and results of on­ hillside. J Environ Qual 12:336-340. going studies indicate the potential great impact of External drainage losses of atrazine were evalu­ agricultural chemicals, particularly aerially applied ated at two application rates (2.2 and 4.5 kg AI/ha), insecticides, on prairie pothole wetlands and the applied pre-emergence and preplant-incorporated. waterfowl using them. Aerial application of ethyl Application was on a hillside (14% slope) where corn parathion at a rate of 1.1 kg/hato sunflowerfields (Zea mays) was planted with and without a 6-m wide surrounding wetland areas, but withno direct appli­ oat (Avena sativa) buffer strip at the base of the cation to the wetlands, resulted in death of aquatic slope. Over 11 erosion events, the buffer strip invertebrates and a 23% reduction of brain ChE reduced water and soil losses by 66 and 76%, respec­ activity in blue-winged teal ducklings collected 2 tively, compared with nonstripped areas, and days post-spray. In other studies, 100 of 104 (96.2%) atrazine losses were reduced by 91 % at the 2.2 kg/ha mallard ducklings died within 3 days after applica­ application rate. At the higher application rate, her­ tion of ethyl parathion (1.1 kg/ha)to adjacent sun­ bicide losses were 65% less in stripped areas com­ flowerfields. Duckling mortality on nearby unex­ pared with non-stripped areas. Regardless of crop­ posed control wetlands ranged between 35 and 68% ping pattern, minimal preplant incorporation (mean = 48%). Brain ChE activity in all but one of reduced total atrazine loss by 91 and 87% at the two the dead birds from the treated wetland was application rates, allowing a total loss of only 7 g/ha depressed greater than5 0% compared to controls. at each rate. The results indicate that a convention­ 2,4-D application (0.6 kg AI/ha)to wetlands and sur­ al-tillage management system, minimal mechanical rounding cropland had no apparent impact on the incorporation of the herbicide into the topsoil, and a majority of aquatic plants, aquatic invertebrate popu­ buffer strip provided soil, water, and herbicide lations, or mallard ducklings. A coordinated effort by residue retention equivalent to that achieved in farmers,wildlife managers, and regulatory agencies reduced-tillage cropping. is needed to minimize these impacts. 134. HALL, R.J. 1987. Impact of pesticides on 130. GRUE, C.E., M.W. 'lbme, G.A. Swanson, S.M. bird populations. Pp 85-111in G .J. Marco,R.M. Borthwick, and L.R. DeWeese. 1988. Aerial Hollingworth, and W. Durham (eds), Silent application of insecticides may be contributing spring revisited. American Chemical Society, to declines in waterfowl production with the Washington, D.C. 214 pp. prairie pothole region. Unpubl ms. This is a review of the literature dealing with This paper presents the results from the mal­ pesticide impacts on avifauna from the introduction lard duckling and aquatic invertebrate (amphipod: of DDT through the mid-1980s. Several papers Hyalella azteca) study referencedin entry 129. regarding antagonistic and synergistic effects are cited. Wildlife threats from chemicals other than 131. GRUE, C.E., M.W. 'lbme,T.A. Messmer, D.B. pesticides are also discussed. The author concludes Henry, G.A. Swanson, and L.R. DeWeese. 1989. that studies on impacts of pesticides at an ecosystem Agricultural chemicals and prairie-pothole level are lacking. Several studies are suggested wetlands: Meeting the needs of the resource including the effects of reduction of food supply, dis­ and the farmer, U.S. perspectives. Trans 54th ruption of predator-prey relationships, and habitat N Amer Wildl Nat Res Conf 43-58. alteration due to herbicide use. This paper is very similar to entries 128, 129, and 130, and essentially is a synthesis of them. 135. HAMELINK, J.L., D.R. Buckler, F.L. Mayer, Some data relating to Russian wheat aphid D.U. Palawski, and H.O. Sanders. 1986. (Diuraphis noxia) infestation, previously unpub­ 'lbxicity of fluridone to aquatic invertebrates lished, are presented. and fish. Environ 'lbxicol Chem 5:87-94. The acute toxicity of fluridoneto aquatic inverte­ 132. HALL, R.J., and E. Kolbe. 1980. brates ranged from 1.3 mg/L ( 48-h EC50) for midge Bioconcentr�tion of organophosphorus pesti­ (Chironomus plumosus) larvae to 36.2 mg/L(96-h cides tQ hazardous levels by amphibians. J LC50) forblue crabs (Callinectes immunis) with a 'lbxicol Environ Health 6:853-860. mean of 4.3 mg/L. Acutetoxicity in fish was some­ Bullfrog(Rana catesbeiana) tadpoles concen­ what pH dependent and ranged from 4.2 mg/L (96-h trated parathion and fenthionby factorsof 64 and LC50) for rainbow trout to 22.0 mg/Lfor fath ead min­ 62, respectively. Tadpoles exposed to 1 and 2.2 ppm nows with a mean value of 10.4 mg/L. 'lbxicity

23 appeared to be greater in softerthan in harder water. ature. When carbaryl was applied during the The liquid formulation (Sonar) was generally more increasing phase of the Keratella valga population, toxic to invertebrates than was technical grade fluri­ population density increased more than normal. If done. Survival and reproduction of daphnids exposed during the decreasing phase, the Ke ratella (Daphnia magna) and amphipods (Gammaruspseu­ population did not recover even with the disappear­ dolimnaeus) were similar to controls at concentra­ ance of competitors. Applications of the insecticide at tions of 0.2 mg/Lfor 21 days and 0.6 mg/Lfor 60 days, different times thus induced different recovery pat­ respectively. Emergence of adult midges was not sig­ ternsof the zooplankton communities. nificantly reduced when exposed to 0.5 mg/Lfor 30 days. After 60 days exposure, channel catfish biocon­ 138. HANSON, W.R. 1952. Effects of some herbi­ centration factors rangedfrom 2 to 9; a metabolite cides and insecticides on biota of North Dakota accounted for 15 to 23% of the totalfluridone residue marshes. J Wildl Manage 16:299-308. detected. At concentrations greaterthan 0.95 mg/L, Effects of 2,4-D amine and water, 2,4-D ester survival of second-generationfry was reduced within and oil, chlordane, DDT, and toxaphene treatment on 30 days afterhatch. The results of this study indicate marsh plants and animals are reported. Results of that a favorable safety margin exists between the two herbicide treatments were similar, resulting in a fluridone concentration that affects non-target organ­ heavy kill of dicotyledonous plants and damage to isms and the concentration needed (approximately 0.1 most monocots, especially from the ester and oil for­ mg/L) to control aquatic weeds. mulation. The only animals killed were a few insects, presumably from the oil alone. Chlordane 136. HAMILTON, P.B., G.S. Jackson, N.K. and toxaphene both affected recruitment in bird pop­ Kaushik, K.R. Solomon, and G.L. Stephenson. ulations. In chlordane-treated areas, 34 birds were 1988. Impact of two applications of atrazine on produced from 25 nests; only 6 birds were reared the plankton communities of in situ enclosures. from 21 nests in the toxaphene area. Adult birds fed Aquatic Tuxicol 13:123-140. heavily on DDT-poisoned insects with apparent Compared to single atrazine applications, two immunity. All insecticides eradicated most insects applications 35 days apart at nominal concentrations for at least 5 weeks; the greatest destruction was of 0.1 mg/Lresulted in a more gradual killing of the caused by DDT and oil. phytoplankton, a longer period of recoveryfor the green algal community, and a distinct shiftin the 139. HARTMAN, W.A., and D.B. Martin. 1984. taxonomic composition of the affected communities. Effect of suspended bentonite clay on the acute The rotifer community was not significantly affected. toxicity of glyphosate to Daphnia pulex and However, two crustaceans (Bosmina longirostris, Lemna minor. Bull Environ Contam Tuxicol Diaptomus oregonensis) experienced significant 33:355-361. short-term reductions in numbers afterthe second The calculated 48-h EC50 forDa phnia pulex application. As these reductions were not observed was 3.2 mg/Lglyph osate with suspended sediment afterth e first exposure, it is suggested that popula­ present in the water column and 7.9 mg/Lwithout tion declines were the result of changes in other pop­ suspended sediment. Conversely, the EC50 for ulations within the community and not directly due Lemna minor was greater with suspended sediment to pesticide exposure. (>10.0 mg/L)th an without (2.0 mg/L). It is possible that the presence of suspended sediment enhanced 137. Takayuki, H., and Y. Masayuki. 1990. the bioavailabilityof glyphosate to D. pulex via Influence of time of application of an insecti­ adsorption to the clay particles. The same action may cide on recovery patterns of a zooplankton have rendered the chemical unavailable to L. minor. community in experimental ponds. Arch Environ Contam Tuxicol 19:77-83. 140. HARTMAN, W.A., and D.B. Martin. 1985. Zooplankton communities in outdoor concrete Effects of fo ur agricultural pesticides on ponds were exposed to carbarylat a final concentra­ Daphnia pulex, Lemna minor, and tion of 0.5 mg/L. Pesticide applications were made at Potamogeton pectinatus. Bull Environ Contam different times relative to the population trend. Thxicol 35:646-651. Chemical applications markedly reduced the clado­ The acute toxicities of alachlor, atrazine, and ceran and copepod populations, but the rotifer popu­ carbofuran to Daphnia pulex and Lemna minor with lation was unaffected. Afterthe treatments, and without suspended sediment (in water) were Bosmina fa talis recovered earlier than Daphnia spp assessed. Only slight differences were noted in the and dominated until Daphnia recoverywas complete. EC50 values forD. pulex. With the exception of The reappearance of Daphnia was delayed when car­ alachlor (9.0 and 10.4 mg/Lwith and without sedi­ baryl was applied later in community development. ment), toxicitieswere greater without than with sus­ Thus, the treatment induced Bosmina dominance pended sediment (45.0 and 35.0 µg/Land 46.5 and with the period of dominance extended by delayed 36.5 mg/Lfor carb ofuran and atrazine with and with­ pesticide application. Daphnia recovery was proba­ out sediment, respectively). For L. minor, no growth bly retarded by the seasonal decline in water temper- effects were notedwith carbofuran concentrations up

24 ? to 10.0 mg/L. The EC50 values foratrazine with and thrin to pond surfaces, most insects demonstrate without suspended sediment were 10.1 and 14.5 µg/L. some or complete recovery. Mesocosm studies us1?g Atrazine was ineffective against L. minor below a permethrin, cypermethrin, and lambd�-cyhalothnn threshold of approximately 100 µg/L regardless of suggest that effects due to normal agricultural use sediment presence or absence. Sprouting and growth will be minor and transient with no overall adverse rate of sago pondweed (Potamogeton pecti��us)were impacts on aquatic ecosystem populations or produc­ measured in the presenceof the three pesticidesand tivity. The apparent reduction of toxicity of glyphosate. None of the chemicals had an effect on pyrethroids in field situations i� probably �ue to the sprouting, and neither carbofuran nor glyphosate pro­ rapid adsorption of these chemicals to particulate duced inhibitory effects on growthrate at concentra­ matter. Acute toxicity data are presented forperme­ tions up to 10.0 mg/L;ho wever, glyphosate stimulated thrin, cypermethrin, fenvalerate,_ deltamethrin, growth at 1.0 mg/L and atrazine inhibited gr wt:h at lambda-cyhalothrin, and flucythnnate. � . concentrations as low as 0.1 mg/L. Alachlormh1b1ted growth at 10.0 mg/L, showed no effect at 1.0 mg/L, 143. HAVERA, S.P., and R.E.Duzan. 1986. and stimulatedgrowth at 0.1 mg/L. Organochlorine and PCB residues in tiss�es of raptors from illinois, 1966-1981. Bull Environ 141. HARTWIG, N.L., and J.K. Hall. 1980. Contam Tuxicol 36:23-32. Influencing the action of herbicides - runoff Brain, fat, liver, breast muscle, and heart tis­ losses. Crops Soils 33:14-16. sues from 68 raptors collected in Illinois during 1966- Herbicide loss due torunoff is dependent on a 1981 as dead or dying birds were analyzed forDDE, number of soil and climatic factors. Soil factors dieldrin, heptachlor epoxide (HE), and PCBs. include texture porosity, pH, organic matter content, . Results are presented in tabular form. Of68 birds percent saturation, and slope. The proximity of rain­ collected 17 were considered migrants in Illinois. Of fallto the area of herbicide application and to other the 68 bi�ds analyzed, 76.5% were contaminated with rainfall events, the intensity and duration of rainfall, at least one of the chemicals. DDE concentrations and total rainfall amounts are major climatic factors. were foundin a greater percentage of migrants than Herbicide loss is also dependent upon herbicide for- in residents (88.2 vs. 72.5%). The other four contami­ mulation, solubility, and method of application. . nants were more frequentlyfound in resident birds. Water soluble herbicide formulations allow theherbi­ Brain tissue analysis revealed that fivebirds had cide to percolate into the top soil and become less vul­ dieldrin levels that approached or exceeded the 4-5 nerable to surface loss. If the herbicide of choice has ppm diagnostic lethal level. Only one of these, a low solubility in water, a light mechanical incorp ra­ ? sharp-shinned hawk with 4.01 ppm, was considered_ tion significantlyreduces run-offlosse . Ad orptio? � � a migrant. None of the birds had le�hal levels of any to soil particles is enhanced the herb1c1de_ is apphed _ if of the other contaminants. Of all migratory species to a dry,well-prepared soil surface. The best method, collected, goshawks were least contaminated, however, is to prevent erosion in the firstplace. The although DDE residues were foundin at least one authors recommend the use of terraces, contour tissue of the seven collected. The highest concentra­ farming, strip cropping, and other conservation prac­ tions were in resident species: 781.1 ppm DDE and tices that reduce water flow and soil loss. Grass 195.3 ppm dieldrin in fatfrom a red-shouldered waterways reduce pesticide concentrations in runoff hawk, 10.2 ppm HE in fatfr om a barred owl, and by as much as 70%. No-tillage and minimum tillage 487.8 ppm from fat of another barred owl. were also recommended, including a living mulch of, for example, crownvetch or birdsfoottrefoil. The use 144. HELLING, C.S., W. Zhuang, T.J. Gish, C.B. of the latter system was reported to reduce water Coffman, Isensee, P. C. Kearney, D.R. runoff 93 to 98% and soil loss by 98 to 100% com­ A.R. pared to conventionally planted com on plowed Hoagland, and M.D. Woodward. 1988. ground. Surface losses were less than 0.1 inch of Persistence and leaching of atrazine, alachlor, water and 0.01 to 0.03 tons of soil per acre per year and cyanazine under no-tillage practices. in each of 2 years. Chemosphere 17:175-187. Persistence and mobility of atrazine, alachlor, and cyanizine were determined in soil subjected to a 142. HILL, LR. 1989. Aquatic organisms and no-till cropping regime during a 3-year period (1983- pyrethroids. Pestic Sci 27:429-465. 85). Up to 6 weeks after application, atrazine was A large number of field studies on the impact of most and alachlor least, persistent. The order pyrethroids on aquatic systems are reviewed exten­ chan�ed somewhat after6 weeks. Atrazinewas still sively. [A table to show the low toxicity of cyperme­ most persistent, and cyanazinepersis�nce was le st. thrin to birds is missing fromthe paper.] Laboratory ? Relative mobility did not change over time. Atrazme studies have shown some invertebrates and fish to be was most, and cyanazine least, mobile. Atrazine was extremely susceptible to synthetic pyrethroids. founddeep (0.3-0.5 m) in the soil profile,but there Normal fielduse of the chemicals, however, did not was no direct evidence that movement was deeper affect most fish. Although larval stage numbers of � some aquatic insects were greatly reduced with with o-till than with conventional tillage as compar­ direct application of either permethrin or cyperme- isons were not available.

25 145. BENNY, C.J. 1972. Analysis of the popula­ 147. BENNY, C.J., E.J.Kolb e, E.F. Hill, and L.J. tion dynamics of selected avian species with Blus. 1987. Case Histories of bald eagles and special references to changes during themod­ other raptors killed by organophosphorus ern pesticide era. Wild.I Res Rep 1, U.S. Fish insecticides topically applied to livestock. J and Wildlife Service, Wa shington, D.C. 99 pp. Wildl Dis 23:292-295. Population dynamics of 16 species of non-game From several case histories, the authors con­ birds (great homed owl, red-shouldered hawk, cluded that secondarypoisoning of raptors following Am erican kestrel, osprey, barnowl, Cooper's hawk, topical application of various organophosphorus red-tailed hawk, greatblue heron, black-crowned insecticides to cattle is widespread. Mortality in the night-heron, brown pelican, barn swallow, chimney cases cited was due to ingestion of animals either swift, blue jay, black-capped chickadee, northern car­ treated with or containing lethal concentrations of dinal, and Americanrobin) during 194 7 to 1972 were famphur or fenthion. One case of tertiarypoisoning studied to determine theimpact of pesticides on is cited. In this instance, a great hornedowl appar­ recruitment and mortality. Comparisonto similar ently ate a portion of a red-tailed hawk that had died data collected from 1925 to 1945 showed no significant as a result of secondary poisoning. Brain ChE activi­ differences in post-fledgling mortality rates. Evidence ty in the owl was depressed 85% and GI tract con­ of decreased recruitment rates was foundin five tents contained 15 ppm famphur. species (brown pelican, osprey, Cooper's hawk, red­ shouldered hawk, and sparrow hawk). Recruitment 148. BENNY, -C.J., LJ. Blus, and C.J. Stafford. for an additional four species (red-tailed hawk,great 1983. Effects of heptachlor on American homed owl, great blue heron, and barn owl) was kestrels in the Columbia Basin, Oregon. J unchanged over time. Recruitment data for theother Wild.I Manage 47:1080-1087. seven species were not available. Differences in This paper documents theeff ects of heptachlor recruitment rates were associatedwith feedinghabits. epoxide (HE) on productivity and survival of Those species feeding primarily on mammals were American kestrels in the Columbia Basin. Reduced stable; those species which fedmainly on fish, amphib­ productivity and adult mortality was observed in ians, reptiles, and other birds had decreased reproduc­ kestrels exposed to HE through the foodchain (treated tive success, which was also correlatedwith decreased wheat -> mice -> kestrel). The kestrel was foundto be eggshell thickness. Although those datareflect the more sensitive to HE residues in eggsthan the impact of OC pesticides, they provide an excellent Canadagoose, as reduced productivity occurred at source of baseline datafor future comparison. >1.5 ppm in kestrel eggsvs. >10 ppm in goose eggs. No eggshell thinning due to HE contamination was 146. BENNY, C.J. 1987. Field methods to evalu­ evident. ate effects of pesticides on wildlife of the north­ western United States. Pp 54-68 in P. Kacmar 149. BENNY, C.J., LJ. Blus, A.J. Krynitsky, and urre and J. Legath (eds), Collected reports from the C.M. Bunck. 1984. C nt impact of DDE on Czechoslovak-American Symposium on toxic black-crowned night-herons in the intermoun­ effects of chemical environmental contami­ tain west. J Wildl Mruiage 48:1-13. nants upon production and reproduction abili­ A study of OC contamination in black-crowned ty in free-living animals. University of night-heron populations in 1978-1980 in Washington, Ve terinary Medicine, Kosice, Czechoslovakia. Oregon, and Nevada revealed DDE residues in all 273 pp. eggs (n = 220) sampled. Eggshell thickness was The paper reviews basic methodologythat may inversely correlated with DDE and PCB residue con­ be used by fieldbiologists conducting pesticide stud­ centrations. A strong north-south clinal pattern was ies. Five case histories involving four species of birds evident, with southerncolonies more contaminated are cited forreferen ce. When investigating the than northern ones. Concentrations above 8.0 ppm effects of OC pesticide contamination, the author rec­ DDE resulted in reduced clutch size and productivity, ommended a comparison of reproductive success, on and the incidence of cracked eggs increased. With a nest-by-nest basis, with OC residue concentrations the exception of those breeding grounds along the in an egg collected at random from the nest. First Columbia River, no breeding-ground DDE-DDT con­ used with the peregrine falcon, this technique has tamination was found. been reliable. This technique has often been used with the measurement of brain or plasma ChE activi­ 150. BENNY, C.J., and G.B. Herron. 1989. DDE, ty to assess the impact of OP and carbamate pesti­ selenium, mercury, and white-faced ibis repro­ cides in avian populations. Examination of GI tract duction at Carson Lake, Nevada. J Wildl contents is also used extensively when pesticide poi­ Manage 53:1032-1045. soning is the suspected cause of death and brain ChE A study of a white-faced ibis population nesting activity is depressed by 50% or more. at Carson Lake, Nevada, in 1985 and 1986 revealed that the number of young produced per nesting attempt, th e number of young produced per success­ ful nest, and eggshell thinning were directly related

26 to DDE residue concentration in eggs. The relation­ ism. Although the U.S. test involved non-point ship between DDE contaminatio11(ppm wet weight) source contaminated water fromthe Detroit River and eggshellthickn ess (mm) wasY = 0.286 - 0.028 and the test in the USSR used water contaminated QX. log1 As DDE concentrations increased beyond 4.0 by a point source spill in the Rybynsk Reservoir, ppm, productivitydecreased and the incidence of results were comparable and the approach was com­ cracked eggsincreased. If 4.0 ppm DDE is thecritical patible with both situations. The use of this method­ residue level, 40% of the nesting population in the 2- ologyshould allow comparison of future data sets. year period was adversely affected, resulting in a net loss of approximately20% of the population's expected 154. HERNANDEZ, L.M., M.J. Gonzalez, M.C. production. Most eggs with high levels of DDE also Rico, M.A. Fernandez, and A. Aranda. 1988. had highlevels of DDT, indicating recent DDT expo­ Organochlorine and heavy metal residues in sure. However, no DDE or DDT contamination was falconiforme and ciconiforme eggs. Bull found on thebreeding grounds. Environ Contam To xicol 40:86-93. Sixty-nine infertile bird eggs collected at 151. HENNY, C.J., and L.J. Blus. 1986. Dofiana Nati on al Park and Castile Plateau, Spain, in Radiotelemetry locates wintering groundsof 1985 and 1986 were analyzed forOC and heavy DDE-contaminated black-crowned night­ metal residues. The eggs were from nests of five herons. Wildl Soc Bull 14:236-241. species of raptors and two species of the order Radiotelemetry was successfully used to deter� Ciconiformes. Residues of DDE and PCBs were mine the wintering grounds and source of DDE con­ foundin each of the 69 eggs(range 0.06 to 65.86 ppm tamination in a population of black-crowned night­ and 0.14 to 18.75 ppm, respectively). DDT and herons nesting at Ruby Lake, Nevada. Elevated gamma-HCH (hexachlor) residues were detected in DDE concentrations in the heron colony appeared to 87 and 61% of the eggs. The mean total OC concen­ originate on the wintering grounds in the Imperial trations in raptor and ciciconiform eggs was 3.4 and Valley, California, and along th e Gila River east of 0.9 ppm. Differences were thoughtto result from dif­ Yu ma, Arizona. ferencesin feedinghabits. DDE and PCB mean con­ centrations were greatest in Castile Plateau pere­ 152. HENRY, M.G., and R.A. Schoettger. 1988. grine falcon (9. 752 ppm DDE) and DofianaPark Aquatic toxicity test methodologies: an update black kite (2.882 ppm PCB) eggs and least in Castile for the 1980s. Pp 137-145 in R.C. Ryans (ed), _ Plateau black kite (0.167 ppm DDE) and Castile Protection of river basins, lakes, and estuaries: Plateau royal eagle (0.206 ppm PCB) eggs. fifteen years of cooperation toward solving environmental problems in the USSR and USA. 155. HERSCH, C.M., and W.G. Crumpton. 1989. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, MD. Atrazine tolerance of algae isolated from two This paper reviews toxicitytests used in the agricultural streams. Environ Tuxicol Chem USSR and USA prior to 1975 and discusses new 8:327-332. approaches fortoxicity testing developed since that Green algae (Chlorella sp and other species of time. The newer methodsinclude microbiological, Chlorococcales) collected from two Iowa streams, one physiological-biological, behavioral, and laboratory­ contaminated with atrazine and the other uncontam­ fieldapproac hes. The authors stated that the more inated, showed similar responses to atrazine expo­ recent test methods, in addition to offering standard­ sure during 5-min bioassays. Based on oxygen evolu­ ized procedures, are ecologically relevant and broadly tion, EC50 values forthe two streams ranged from 42 applicable across chemical classes. Future research to 125 µg/L and 35 to 162 µg/L, respectively. A interests, according to the authors, will address resis­ species of Franceia, however, proved to be resistant tance, reversibility of effects, and furtherdevelopment to atrazine (EC50, 430 to . 774 µg/L). This is near the of test methodologies that use fish and invertebrate high end of the range of EC50 values reported for species indigenous to broad areas of the USSR and green algae. USA, with particular emphasis on laboratory-field ver­ ification. 156. HILL, E.F. 1988. Brain cholinesterase activity of apparently normal wild birds. J 153. HENRY, M.G., B.A. Flerov, V.T. Komov, and Wildl Dis 24:51-61. T.A.Heming. 1988. On-site toxicity testing: A referencefile of[assumed] normal brain ChE applications in the United States and Soviet activity is provided for48 species of North American Union. Pp 70-77 in R.C. Ryans (ed), Fate and birds representing 11 orders and 23 families. These effects of pollutants on aquatic organisms and data are suggested foruse in emergency situations ecosystems: Proceedings of USA-USSR when controls from local populations may not be Symposium, Athens, Ga., October 19-21, 1987, available. Although ChE activity was usually similar EPA/600/9-881001. U.S. Environmental for closely related species, some congeners differed by Protection Agency, Athens, Ga. as much as 50%. Overall, ChE activity varied nearly On-site toxicity tests were conducted in the U.S. threefold among the 48 species represented. and USSR using Ceri.odaphnia dubiaas a testorgan-

27 157. HILL, E.F., and M.B. Camardese. 1984. [cyano(methylmercury)guanidine], and parathion) Thxicity of anticholinesterase insecticides to were most toxic (LD 50 < 100 ppm AI)to mallards. birds: technical grade versus granular formula­ Monocrotophos was most toxic (5-day-old duckling tions. Ecotoxicol Environ Safety 8:551-563. LD50, 9.6 ppm). Tolerance was positively correlated A comparison of the acute toxicities of 13 granu­ to body mass at time of testing in most cases. lar insecticides with their technical grade Alsusing adult Northern bobwhite quail as a test organism 160. HOFFMAN, D.J. 1988. Effects of la-enite showed that, when significantdiffer ences between brush control agent (fosamine ammonium) on the granular formulation and the technical grade embryonic development in mallards and bob­ material existed, the granular formulation was less white. Environ Tuxicol Chem 7:69-75. toxic. Interspecificdiff erences were evaluated by The embryotoxicand teratogenic potential of exposing ringed turtle-doves to five of the granular fosamine ammonium (FA; Krenite) was determined formulations. The 13 chemicals tested were: Amaze for mallard ducks. After 96 h of development, eggs 15G (isofenphos), Counter 15G (terbufos), Dasanit were dipped in distilled water or distilled water and 15G (fensulfothion), Diazinon 14G, Di-Syston 15G Krenite at concentrations of 1.5, 6.5, or 30% FA At (disulfoton), Dyfonate 20G (fonofos), Furadan lOG 6.5% FA, hatching success was reduced by 33%, and (carbofuran), Lorsban 15G (chlorpyrifos), Nemacur at the highest concentration, 100% of the embryos 15G (fenamiphos), Parathion lOG, Tattoo lOG (ben­ died by time of hatching compared to 37 and 30% diocarb), Temik 15G (aldicarb), and Thimet 15G mortality foruntreated and distilled water-treated (phorate). Fenamiphos, fensulfothion, and aldicarb controls. Only 23% of the eggs exposed to 6.5% FA were the most toxic. Northern bobwhite LD50 values hatched. Teratogenic effects noted in these hatch­ ranged from 1.0 mg AI/kgbody weight for technical lings included severe edema with stunting, hypopla­ grade fenamiphos to 2.5 mg/kgfor Te mik 15G. sia of the liver, heart aberrations, gastroschisis, and hydrocephaly. Two embryosfrom the low-dose group Lorsban 15G was least toxic to quail (LD 50, 108 mg/kg). Ringedturt le-doves were 1. 7 times more had curled toes. Three ducklings from the control sensitive than bobwhites to carbofuran but 1.5 times groups exhibited abnormalities. Several blood plas­ less sensitive to chlorpyrifos. The two species were ma aberrations were found in low- and intermediate­ equally sensitive to fe nsulfothion, parathion, and dose ducklings. Brain ChE activity was unimpaired. phorate. Ingestion of a single granule of aldicarb was foundto be lifethreatening to a quail-sized bird, and 161. HOFFMAN,D.J., and P.H. Albers. 1984. less than five grains of fensulfothion, diazinon, fono­ Evaluation of potential embryotoxicity and ter­ fos, carbofuran, or fenamiphosin the formulations atogenicity of 42 herbicides, insecticides, and tested could be lethal to sparrow-sized birds. petroleum contaminants to mallard eggs. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 13:15-27. 158. HILL, E.F., and W.J. Fleming. 1982. A variety of contaminants, including 29 pesti­ Anticholinesterase poisoning of birds: field cides, were tested for toxicity to mallard embryos. monitoring and diagnosis of acute poisoning. Eggs were either immersed in an aqueous emulsion Environ Thxicol Chem 1:27-38. or dosed with pesticides in a non-toxic oil vehicle by This paper describes the collectionand preser­ pipet. In aqueous emulsion, paraquat was most toxic vation of vertebrates to be analyzed for ChEinhibi­ (LC50, equivalent of 1. 7 kg/ha application rate), fol­ tion, as well as the analysis and interpretation of lowed by trifluralin, propanil, bromoxynil with analytical data. Both post-mortem and live sampling MCPA, and diclofop-methyl, all of which exhibited methodsare discussed as is the analysis of both LC50 values <10.0 kg/ha. When the LC50 was calcu­ brain and plasma ChE activity. Several case studies lated as a percentage of the fieldlevel of application, are included. however, trifluralinwas most toxic (LC50, 0.8) with paraquat, prometon, toxaphene, malathion, methyl 159. HILL, E.F., R.G. Heath, J.W. Spann, and J.D. diclofop, propanil, and bromoxynil with MCPA being Williams. 1975. Lethal dietary toxicities of less toxic in the order presented. 2,4-D, glyphosate, environmental pollutants to birds. Spec Sci atrazine, carbaryl, dalapon, dicamba, methomyl, and Rep - Wildl 191. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, phosmet in an aqueous emulsion were only slightly Washington, D.C. 61 pp. toxic or non-toxic (LC50 values, 199 to 560 kg/ha). Eight-day (5 days of toxic diet followedby 3 days Pesticides applied in a non-toxic oil vehicle were up of untreated diet) dietary toxicities of 131 pesticidal to 18 times more toxic than when applied in a water and industrial compounds to three species of upland vehicle. Paraquat was most toxic (EC50, 0.5 µgig game birds and mallards were determined. Results egg). Reduced growth and physical abnormalities are presented in tabular form. OCs, OPs, and resulted upon exposure to most of the pesticides test­ organometallics generally were most toxic. Mallards ed, often at levels less than the appropriate LC50. were generally the most tolerant species tested. Abnormalities appeared as edema, stunted growth, Eight compounds (Azodrin [monocrotophos], Bidrin scoliosis, gastroshisis, internal hemorrhage, lordosis, [dicrotophos], Ceresan MR [ethylmercury chloride], and aberrations of the eye, brain, limbs, neck, bill, Dasanit [fensulfothi on], endrin, famphur, Morsodren joints, and internal organs.

28 162. HOFFMAN, D.J., and W.C. Eastin, Jr. 1981. 165. HOLCOMBE, G.W., G.L Phipps, A.H. Effects of malathion, diazinon, and parathion Sulaiman, and A.D. Hoffman. 1987. on mallard embryo development and Simultaneous multiple species testing: Acute cholinesterase activity. EnvironRes 26:472-485. toxicityof 13 chemicals to 12 diversefreshwa­ External exposure of mallard eggs to malathion, ter, fish, and invertebrate families. Arch diazinon, or parathion in either an aqueous emulsion Environ Contam Toxicol 16:697-710. or a non-toxic oil vehicle resulted in embryotoxicity Five to nine vertebrate and invertebrate species and inhibition of plasma and brain ChE activity. were tested simultaneously for sensitivity to each of Formulations and concentrations used were similar 12 chemicals. The method described not only satis­ to those used in field applications. On a kg/habasis, fies the freshwateracute toxicity requirements for parathion was most, and malathion least, embryotox­ setting water quality criteria, but also allows more ic with either vehicle. Malathion, however, may pre­ accurate comparisons of species sensitivity with a sent the greatest potential forimpact, due to the high tested chemical. The authors suggest that use of this application rates permissible for certain crops. method can also produce the minimum acute data set Parathion was more toxic in an oil vehicle than in for the derivation of a water quality standard in less water, as reflectedby an LC50 of approximately 2.2 time and with a substantial cost saving forlabor, kg/ha, stunted growth, and frequentdistortions of materials, and chemical analyses when compared the axial skeleton. Cholinesterase inhibition due to with the more standard single species tests. parathion exposure was more pronounced and of longer persistence than with the other two pesticides. 166. HOLMES, S.B.,and P.T Boag. 1990. Inhibition of brain and plasma cholinesterase 163.HOFFMAN, D.J., and W.C. Eastin, Jr. 1982. activity in zebra finches orally dosed with feni­ Effects of lindane, paraquat, toxaphene, and trothion. Environ TuxicolChem 9:323-334. 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid on mallard Zebra finches given single oral doses of feni­ embryo development. Arch Environ Contam trothion dissolved in soya bean oil at rates of 1.04, Thxicol 11:79-86. 3.80, and 11.36 mg AI/kgbody weight exhibited max­ Concentrations and formulations oflindane, imum brain ChE inhibitions of 50, 70, and 75%, paraquat, toxaphene, and 2,4,5-T were applied exter­ respectively. Plasma ChE inhibition at the three nally to mallard eggs in either an aqueous emulsion dosage rates was 78, 82, and 89%. Recovery was at or a non-toxic oil vehicle. Paraquat was the most an exponential rate, with plasma ChE recovering toxic regardless of the vehicle used, but was 15 times more rapidly than brain ChE activity. At the two more embryotoxic in oil than in water. Both lower dosages, plasma ChE activity returned to nor­ paraquat and toxaphene caused mortality at approxi­ mal in 1 to 2 days, and brain ChE activity continued mately half the field application rate. Although lin­ to be inhibited for up to 10 days at the lowest dosage dane was teratogenic, effects were noted only at lev­ rate. Four of 40 birds died at the intermediate rate els five times the normalfield application rate. and 12 of 40 died at the highest rate. Birds that died Overall, with either water or oil, paraquat was most, lost, on average, 12.6% of their initial body weight. and 2,4,5-T least, toxic. During the course of the 16- Body temperatures of birds receiving 11.36 mg/kg day study, mortality due to lindane poisoning was were 6 to 15% below normal up to 12 h after treat­ <7%, and no mortality was caused by 2,4,5-T. ment. No temperature changes were noted in other control and treated birds. Brain ChE inhibition in 164. HOFFMAN, D.J.,L Sileo, and H.C. Murray. those birds that died ranged between 3 and 84%. 1984. Subchronic organophosphorus ester­ induced delayed neurotoxicity in mallards. 167. HOWARD,E.B., G.N. Esra, and D. Yo ung. Tuxicol Appl Pharmacol 75:128-136. 1979. Acute foodborne pesticide toxicity in cor­ Eighteen-week-old femalemallards fed0, 10, morants (Phalacrocorax sp) and seagulls 30, 90, or 270 ppm technical grade EPN over a 90- (Larus californicus). Pp 290-296 in F. Peter day period developed ataxia after 16 to 38 days (ed), Animals as monitors of environmental pol­ depending on dose. Concentrations of 10 ppm or less lutants. National Academy of Sciences, failed to produce ataxia. All birds receiving 270 ppm Washington, D.C. developed ataxia or paralysis by the end of the 90- Two Brandt's cormorants, three guanay, and 16 day period. Five of six birds in the 90-ppm group and Californiagulls at the LosAngel es City Zoo were poi­ two of six birds in the30-ppm group showed visible soned by a diet of bottom-feeding fish harvested near effects. Decreased body weights were observed at the the San Pedro Harbor. Bird tissue analyses revealed three higher treatment rates. Average brain neuro­ average concentrations of3,057.0 and 746.0 ppm toxic esterase activitydepression was 16, 69, 73, and DDE in gull and cormorant liver, respectively. Mean 74% in the 10-, 30-, 90-, and 270-ppm groups, respec­ concentrations in brain tissue were 428.0 ppm for tively. Demyelination and degeneration of spinal gulls and 217.0 ppm forcormorants. Tissue analysis cord axons were observed in ducks receiving 30, 90, from various food-fish species showed a mean DDE or 270 ppm. Ducks exposed to 60, 270, or 540 ppm concentration of 3.06 ppm in queenfish. A gull would leptophos exhibited similar symptoms. have to consume 24 kg of queenfish to accumulate

29 over 3,000 ppm DDE in the liver. However, given that Temik [aldicarb]. Six-month-old birds were more the half life of DDE is approximately 250 days in a sensitive to Azodrin [monocrotophos], Bidrin [dicro­ gull-sized bird and that the birds ingested some 149 tophos], and Systox [demeton] than were birds of to 225 g of fooddaily, the lethal level (200 to 300 ppm other ages. Dursban [chlorpyrifos], endosulfan, in brain tissue) could easily have been reached in 12 parathion, and toxaphene were most toxic to 7-day­ to 15 months or less. The results of this study indi­ old birds, and endrin was most toxic to 30-day-old cate a need formonitoring pesticide levels in food birds. 1080 [sodium fluoroacetate]was more toxic to items consumed by avian species. 7- and 30-day-old birds than to birds either younger or older. The toxicity of Zectran [mexacarbate] was 168. HUCKINS,J.N., J.D. Petty, and D.C. evaluated with birds aged 48 h, 7, 14, 30, and 60 England. 1986. Distribution and impact of tri­ days. Relative sensitivity for the various age groups fluralin, atrazine, and fo nofos residues in was in the order of 60 days > 48 h > 30 days > 14 microcosms simulating a northern prairie wet­ days > 7 days. The extremes between age groups for land. Chemosphere 15:563-588. all compounds were generally less than threefold. Wetland microcosms, consisting of sediments The four central nervous system stimulant LD50 val­ from a representative wetland, biota associated with ues decreased from 36 h- to 7- or 30-day-old animals, the sediments, seeded populations of Daphnia and increased forbirds aged 7 or 30 days to 6 magna and Chironomus riparius, and reconstituted months. Eight of the ten ChE inhibitors produced water, were separately exposed to atrazine (20 µg/L), LD50 values that increased forbirds aged 36 h to 7 trifluralin ( 4 µg/L),and fonofos (22 and 94 µg/L) in or 30 days, and decreased with age for older ducks. sediment-watermixtures simulating edge-of-field Thus, young animals are not always more susceptible runoff. All pesticides were labelled with 14c. Data to pesticides than are adults. Such factors must be collected at the end of a 6-week exposure period indi­ considered in the development of both laboratory and cated that approximately 45 and 72% of the triflu­ field studies. ralin and fonofoswas in the sediment. About 27% of the trifluralin and 13% of the fonofos was found in 170. HUDSON, R.H.,R.K. Tucker, and M.A. the water. More atrazine was in the water (approx. Haegele. 1984. Handbook of toxicity of pesti­ 49%) than in the sediment (approx. 38%). Pesticide cides to wildlife (2nd ed.). Res Puhl 153, U.S. Fish concentrations in biota varied among chemicals. and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC. 90 pp. Daphnid concentrations of 14C-trifluralin residues This book provides acute oral and, in some were more than three times those of any other biotic cases chronic, toxicity data (LD50 values) of some 93 component. Algae concentrated more I4c-atrazine chemical and biological pesticides for several avian, residues than any other biotic group. Macrophytes mammalian, and amphibian species. Signs of intoxi­ and midge larvae, however, contained only slightly cation and comments regarding physiological effects lower atrazine concentrations. 14c-fonofosresidue are given. concentrations in biota were generally proportional to application rate. Plants and ostracods showed 171. HUFFAKER, C.B. 1980. Use of predators highest concentrations. Daphnid mortality due to and parasitoids in biological control. Pp 173- in fonofos was significantly differentfrom controls at 199 R.C. Staples (ed), Linking research to both application rates, but no differences were noted crop production. Plenum Press, New Yo rk. in daphnid mortality due to either atrazine or triflu­ This is a review of the use of predators and par­ ralin exposure. Survival of midge larvae was not sig­ asitoids for biological control of pest species. A large nificantly affected by exposure to any of the three number of cases of successfulbiological control are chemicals. Analysis of plant biomass data failed to cited. Several of these cases which illustrate sound detect any significant differences between control ecological principles are discussed in detail, as are and treatment microcosms; however, dissolved oxy­ many cases involving integrated pest management. gen was significantly lower in atrazine microcosms Most cases involved restoration of biological control than in controls. in systems which were disrupted by chemical pesti­ cides. 169. HUDSON, R.H., R.K. Tucker, and M.A. Haegele. 1972. Effectof age on sensitivity: 172. HUNT, E.S. 1967. Detection and investiga­ acute oral toxicity of 14 pesticides to mallard tion of fish and wildlife losses caused by pesti­ ducks of several ages. TuxicolAppl Pharmacol cides. Calif FW-1-R-4/Wk Pl 1/Job 1. California 22:556-561. Department of Conservation. 6 pp. Mallard ducks aged 36 h, 7 days, 30 days, and 6 Mortality of a number of individuals represent­ months were used to assess differential toxicity to 13 ing several upland game, waterfowl, and fish species commonly used pesticides. Four of the pesticides due to pesticide exposure is reported. Several hun­ were nervous system stimulants, and the remaining dred American wigeon and four Canada geese were 10 were ChE inhibitors. Birds aged 36 h were more found dead on Ramer Lake (ducks) and Imperial sensitive than older ones to Baygon [propoxur], Valley alfalfa fields (geese). Alfalfawas foundin the Dasanit [fensulfothion], Furadan [carbofuran], and proventriculi of both species, and mortality was due

30 to diazinon poisoning. Diazinon residue concentra­ 176. JEFFERIES, D.J., and M.C. French. 1972. tions of 10 and 2. 7 ppm were found in wigeon proven­ Changes induced in the pigeon thyroid by p,p'­ triculus and gizzard samples, and a goose ventriculus DDE and dieldrin. J Wildl Manage 36:24-30. sample contained 6.2 ppm diazinon. Both alfalfa Pigeons were force-fed dieldrin or p,p '-DDE in fields involved had been treated with diazinon olive oil at rates of 4, 2, or 1 mg/kg and 72, 36, or 18 (approx 0.5 kg/ha)within 24 h of wildlifelo ss. Alfalfa mg/kg, respectively, daily for 56 days. Controls were collected fromthe fieldwhere the geese were found fedolive oil only. Thyroid glands of treated birds contained 38 ppm diazinon. Fish kills were associat­ increased in weight and showed loss of colloid from ed with agricultural runoffcontaminated with the folliclesassocia ted with hyperplastic epithelia Thiodan [endosulfan]. Concentrations of 1.3 and 1.4 when compared with control birds. The changes ppm Thiodan were sufficientto cause mortality. were similar to those observed in pigeons after inges­ Illegal disposal of pesticide containers resulted in a tion ofp,p'-DDT and were indicative of either hyper­ fish kill near Crescent City, Calif. Dinitro-o-sec-butyl or hypothyroidism. Further investigation indicated phenol [dinoseb] was found in the water at a concen­ hyperthyroidism at low dosages and hypothyroidism tration of 640 ppm. at high doses ofp,p '-DDT. Hypothyroidism was pro­ • posed as a possible mechanism responsible for 173. IltWIN, R.J. 1988. Impacts of toxic chemi­ eggshell thinning. In addition to thyroid effects, liver e cals on Trinity Riv r fish and wildlife. U.S. and adrenal weights increased and heart weights Fish and Wildlife Service, Fort Worth Field decreased with ingestion of p,p '-DDE, but similar Office, Fort Worth, Texas. 82 pp. responses were not noted in birds feddieldrin. This report does not directly address toxic Higher-than-expected mortality in birds treated with effects of pesticides to migratorybirds, but data of p,p '-DDE indicated that pigeons may be more sensi­ interest are presented. Included are pesticide con­ tive to DDE than to DDT. centrations in a variety of fish, amphibians, and mammals; FDA action levels forhuman and animal 177. JOHNSON, B.T. 1971. Pesticides in the food;and recommendations for predator protection freshwater ecosystem. Pp 59-62 in D.R. Scoby levels. Pesticides and associated organic compounds (ed), Environmental ethics: studies of man's discussed include PCBs, chlordane and metabolites, self-destruction. Burgess Publishing Co., dieldrin, lindane, mirex, DDT and metabolites, and a Minneapolis, Minn. 239 pp. variety of aliphatic and polycyclic aromatic hydrocar­ This paper was taken in part from an address to bons. Metallic contaminants are also addressed, and college biologyteachers. It addresses three specific data are presented relative to metal concentrations areas: the influence of pesticides on primary produc­ in mosquitofish. tivity, the biologicalmagnification of pesticidesby consumers, and the interaction of pesticidesand 174. ISENSEE, A.R., C.S. Helling, T.J. Gish, P. C. decomposers. The only pesticide discussed is DDT, Kearney, C.B. Coffman, and W. Zhuang. 1988. but perhaps rightly so. Some worthwhile historical Groundwater residues of atrazine, alachlor, data are presented. and cyanazine under no-tillage practices. Chemosphere 17:165-174. 178. JOHNSON, B.T. 1986. Potential impact of Detectable concentrations of atrazine, alachlor, selected agricultural chemical contaminants on and cyanazine were found in 75, 18, and 13% of a northern prairie wetland: a microcosmevalu ­ ground water samples from test wells in no-till corn­ ation. Environ Tuxicol Chem 5:4 73-485. field plots in Maryland. Maximum residue concen­ µg/L, The potential effects of carbofuran, fonofos,phor­ trations were 5.9, 3.6, and 1.0 respectively. ate, atrazine, treflan, and triallate were assessed Results indicated rapid vertical transport to the shal­ using aquatic, multicomponent microcosms designed low, unconfined ground water (approx 1 m depth), as to simulate northernprairie wetland habitat. Pre­ well as substantiallateral subsurface flow. exposure of the wetland sediments to either triallate or fonofos did not appear to change the relative toxico­ 175. JARVIS, R.L., and S.W. Harris. 1971. Land­ logical persistence of either compound in thewater use patterns and duck productionat Malheur column. Changes in pH, alkalinity, conductivity, dis­ National Wildlife Refuge. J Wildl Manage solved oxygen, total nitrogen, and totalphosphorus • 35:767-773. were observed with different pesticide treatments. Number of mated pairs, nesting species, earlier Atrazinesignificantly reduced gross primaryproduc­ and later nests, and nesting success were directly tivity and inhibitedalgal and macrophytic growth. In correlated with the amount ofresidual cover. general, however, there was no evidence of significant [Although cover loss in this study was not pesticide­ inhibition of microbial functions in the water or related, removal of broad-leaved weeds and other hydrosoil of the treated microcosms. Standard acute herbaceous species as a result of pesticide application 48-h toxicity tests ofthe six pesticides using Daphnia should produce similar effects.] magna and Chironomus riparius indicated that carbo­ furari, fonofos,phorate, and triallate were verytoxic to aquatic invertebrates. Forty-eight-hourEC 50 values

31 ranged from 15.5 µg fonofos/Lfor D. magna to 108.0 and the 50% wettable powder were similar, and µg phorateJLfor C. riparius. EC50 values foratra zine increased with increasing temperature and decreas­ and treflan were3, 600 and 560.µg/L, respectively, for ing pH. Toxicitywas unaffectedby water hardness. D. magna and 1,000 µg/L forC. riparius. With the Eyed eggs and yolk-sac fry of rainbow trout were exception of atrazine,D. magnawas more sensitive more resistant than were fingerlings. Imidan toxici­ (approx two times) to thepesticides tested than was ty in water decreased rapidly over time (water tem­ C. riparius. Carbofuran and phorate were less persis­ perature maintained at 20 C at pH 7 .2). Four-day­ tent in themicrocosms than were triallate and fonofos. old solutions were less than 0.04 as toxic as fresh There was no detectable evidence thatatrazine or tre­ solutions. Bioaccumulation factors (24-h exposure at flan influenced daphnid growth, survival, or reproduc­ 1.2 µg;IL of 14c-Imidan) ranged from 1 in the dam­ tion. Algal growth was reduced >40% by atrazine and selfly (Ishnura verticalis) to 10 in fathead minnows, by triallate at concentrationsgreater than 10 µg/L. It channel catfish, and bluegill. was unaffected by treflanand phorate and was stimu­ lated by carbofuranconcentrations above 100 µg/L. 182. JULIN, A.M., and H.O. Sanders. 1978. Fonofos at a concentration of 1,000 µg/L reduced algal Tuxicity of the IGR, diflubenzuron, to freshwa­ growth >50%. Over the 30-day test period, both pro­ ter invertebrates and fishes. Mosquito News ducers and consumers were affected by atrazine, trial­ 38:256-259. late, and fonofos at concentrations of 10 µg/L or less. Technicalgrade material and wettable powder formulations of the insect growth regulator difluben­ 179. JOHNSON, W.W. , and F.L. Mayer. 1972. zuron and three of its degradationproducts were Pesticides and the aquatic environment. Pp 21- tested for toxicity to three species of aquatic inverte­ 37 in T. Hinckley (ed), Proc, Symposium of brates (Daphnia magna, Gammarus pseudolim­ Pests and Pesticides. Southeast Missouri State naeus, Chironomus plumosus) and four fish species University, April 28, 1972. (rainbow trout, fathead minnows, channel catfish, Effects of a number of pesticides upon theaquat­ and bluegills). The acute toxicities of the wettable ic environment are discussed in relation to pesticide powder ranged from a 48-h EC50 of 0.015 mg/Lfor type and method of application. Effects on aquatic daphnids to a 96-h LC50 of 660 mg/L forbluegills. organisms are reviewed, and acute and chronic toxici­ The 96-h LC50 of technical grade diflubenzuron ty data are presented fora variety of vertebrate and exceeded 100 mg/Lfor all fishes. The most toxic invertebrate species. Other topics include mode of degradation product, 4-chloroaniline, had a 96-h action, synergism, and the development ofresistance. LC50 of 2.4 mg/L to bluegills and a 48-h EC50 of 43 The authorsconclude that detailed attention must be mg/Lto early fourth-instar midge larvae. The 48-h given to potential effects of pesticides prior to their EC50 formidge larvae and 96-h LC50 forthree of the release intothe aquatic environment if such environ­ four fish species fortwo other degradation products, ments are to be preserved. 4-chlorophenyl urea and 2,6-difluorobenzoic acid, exceeded 100 mg/L. Rainbow trout were most sensi­ 180.JOHNSON, W.W., and M.T. Finley. 1980. tive to 4-chlorophenyl urea (LC50, 72 mg/L) and fat­ Handbook of acute toxicity of chemicals to fish head minnows were most affected by 2,6-difluoroben­ and aquatic invertebrates. ResPuhl 137. U.S. zoic acid (LC50, 69 mg/L). Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. 98 pp. 183. JUTSUM, A.R. 1988. Commercial applica­ This handbook presents summary data from tion of biological control: status and prospects. toxicity tests conducted at the Columbia National Phil TransRoyal Soc LondB 318:357-373. Fisheries Research Laboratoryfrom 1965 to 1978. This paper examines thesuitability of different Data are presented for 197 chemicals and are types of biological control agents (BCAs) forresea rch arranged alphabetically by chemical. and commercialization. Biological control includes obligate parasites and pathogens,facultative parasites 181. JULIN, A.M., andH.O. Sanders 1977. and pathogens, competitors(e.g., weeds), toxin-produc­ Tuxicity and accumulation of the insecticide ing pathogens, toxins produced by pathogens, and non­ imidan in freshwater invertebrates and fishes. toxicbehavior-modifying chemicals (e.g., pheromones). Trans Am Fish Soc 106:386-392. BCAs may ultimatelybe used to advantage in virtual­ Toxicity tests used Imidan [phosmet] with a ly any market, ifthey are as good as or better than variety of freshwater fishesand aquatic inverte­ existing control agents in terms of cost and efficiency brates. Invertebrate 48-h EC50 or LC50 values or if they have a significanttoxicological or environ­ ranged from 2.4 µg;IL foramphipods (Gammarus mental advantage. The authors state thatonly four pseudolimnaeus) to 3,200 µg;ILfor larval midges exploitable market niches currently (as of 1988) exist: (Chironomus plumosus). The most sensitive fish (1) Outlets where conventional chemical agents give tested were chinook salmon and smallmouth bass; insufficient levels of control (e.g., insect strains resis­ 96-h LC50 values forboth were 150 µg;IL. Channel tantto chemical pesticides). (2) Outlets where conventional chemical control catfish weremos t resistant (LC50, 11,000 µg;IL). Toxicities to fishes of the AI,technical grade material agents are too expensive.

32 (3) Outlets where the application of chemical control 186.KEIL TY, T.J ., D.S. White, and P.F. Lundrum. agents is restricted by governmentagenc ies. 1988. Sublethal responses to endrin in sedi­ (4) Outlets where the environment is contained and ment by Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri, (Tubificidae), controlled (e.g., greenhouses). and in mixed-culture with Stylodrilus Several cases are cited where BCAs were used suc­ heringianus (Lumbriculidae). Aquat 'lbxicol cessfully: the cactus moth (Cactoblastis cactorum) to 13:227-250. control prickly pear (Opuntia spp) in Australia, and Sediment reworking by Limnodrilus lwffmeis­ Bacillus thuringiensis forthe control of lepidopterans teri alone and with Stylodrilus heringianus was mea­ and dipterans. Several failures are also cited. In sured in sediments dosed with endrin by monitoring some cases the BCA failed to become established, the burial of a 137 cesium marker layer. Endrin con­ became a pest itself afterfa iling to control the target centrations ranged from 16.1 to 81,400 ng/gdry sedi­ organism, or failed due to human error or lack of ment weight. Alterations in re-working rates were foresight (e.g., difficulties in handling, storage, etc.). noted at sediment concentrations two tofive orders of Overall, only about 5% of all deliberate releases actu­ magnitude below LC50 values. L. lwffmeisteri activi­ ally achieved their aim. The authors concluded that ty did not appear to be stimulated at low endrin although the future of BCAs looks bright, the agro­ concentrations as previously [see preceding paper] chemical industry expects them to complement, and noted forS. heringianus. At higher concentrations, not replace, chemicals. both species were affected adversely. Re-working rates with both species present (1:1 ratio) suggested 184.KAHN, M.A.Q. (ed). 1977. Pesticides in that the presence of S. heringianus enhanced there­ aquatic environments. Plenum Press,New working response of L. hoffmeisteri. Worm dry Yo rk, NY. 257 pp. weights at the end of the experiment were inversely Proceedings of a symposium forthe correlatedwith sediment endrin concentrations. International Congress of Entomologyin 1976, this Fewer L. lwffmeisteri mortalities occurredwith S. book includes papers on a wide varietyof topics heringianus present than when tested alone. In addi­ including thenature and origin, dynamics, and fate of tion, L. lwffmeisteri post-treatment dry weightswere pesticides in aquaticenvironments. Allfami lies of greater in the two-species experiments than when pesticides are discussed, and some excellent models to tested alone. The reverse did not seem to be true. As predict pesticidedistribution and fate are presented. in previous studies, upward transport of contami­ nants was mediated by the worms. S. heringianus 185.KEIL TY, T.J., D.S. White, and P.F. Landrum. bioaccumulation factors ranged from 9. 7 to 43.8 and 1988. Sublethalresponses to endrin in sedi­ were consistently three to fourtimes greater than ment by Stylodrilus heringianus bioaccumulation factors forL. lwffmeisteri. (Limbriculidae) as measuredby a 137-Cs mark­ er layer technique. Aquat Toxicol 13:251-270. 187. KING,K.A., D.H. White, and C.A.Mitchell. A microcosm study to determine possible sub­ 1984. Nest defense behavior and reproductive lethal responses of earthworms to endrin was con­ success of laughing gulls sublethally dosed ducted. Endrin concentrations ranged from3. 1 to with parathion. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 42,000 ng/gdry sediment, well below the LC50 of 33:499-504. 1,650 µgig. At lower concentrations, earthworm Adult laughing gulls of both sexes were orally activity seemed to be stimulated for the first 300 to intubated with parathion (5 mg/kgbody weight). 600 h of observation, followedby significant decreas­ This dosage was previously determined to inhibit es relative to controls. At higher endrin concentra­ brain ChE activity by an average of 46%, a level at tions, activity was equal to or less than that of con­ which no overt signs of pesticide poisoning were trols during the first600 h, then decreased dramati­ noted. This dose had no effect on nest defensebehav­ cally. Worm mortalityranged from 9.3 to 28% for ior or on hatching success. higher concentrations; at lower concentrations (including controls), it ranged from0 to 6. 7%. Post­ 188. KIRSCHENMANN, F. 1988. Switching to a experimental worm dryweights were inversely corre­ sustainable system - strategies for converting lated with endrin concentration. Bioaccumulation from conventional/chemical to factorsranged from 34 to 67 on a g dry organism to g sustainable/organic farming systems. Northern dry sediment basis. Data implied that worms medi­ Plains Sustainable Agriculture Society, ated upward transport of the chemical. Windsor, ND. 18 pp. This booklet describes the advantages (and some of the pitfalls) of a sustainable agriculture sys­ tem. Step-by-step directions, somewhat simplified, are given for switching from conventional (chemical dependent) to sustainable (organic) agriculture.

33 189. KLINGHAUF, F., U. Stein, H.-J. Bestmann, Only two organisms, an amphipod (Gammarus sp) 0. Vo strowsky, B. Classen, and U. Kobold. 1988. and a mayfly nymph (Paraleptophlebia sp), seemed to Pflanzliche Insektizide VI. Wirkung eines exhibit a slight ephemeral herbicide-induced response ethanolischen Blattextraktes aus Essigbaum in and downstreamof treated areas. Post-spray drift (Rhus typhina L.) auf verschiedene of these taxawas not significantly different from pre­ Schadinsekten. J Appl Ent 105:41-47. spray levels, but a measurable alteration in thedrift This paper describes the use of an ethanolic patterns of both genera was seen. Although there leaf- extract of Buck's horn. (Rhus typhina) for control seemed to be a definite increase in drifting of a variety of insect pests. Mortality rates of 76.3, amphipods, residual glyphosate in integrated water 71.2, and 62.0% were observed in three aphid species samples did not exceed 162 µg/L and was <50 µg/L at 24 h post-application. Mortality of within 10 h after over-spray. These levels are well µg/L Metopolophium dirhodum was 77% within 5 min below the 48-h EC50 of 43,000 forGammaru s after application. The extract was also toxic to larvae sp. The mean number of mayflies collected on the of the mustard beetle (Phaeodon cochleariae), and evening of thegl yphosate application was not signifi­ delays were noted in larval and pupal development. cantly different from that of the previous evening, but An increase in molting defects was also observed. Of drift was approximately ten times greater than the some 70 Buck's horn leaf compounds identified,hex­ pre-spray peak. Peak glyphosate concentrations were ahydrofarnesylacetone (as a 1% solution in 96% 1/90 to 1/3,000 the reportedcon centration required to ethanol) was highly toxic to the beetle larvae when induce movement of Ephemerella sp mayflies in an applied to plant foliage. From firstlarval stage to avoidance chamber. Overall, glyphosate application adult emergence, 92% mortality was observed. in accordance with label recommendations did not appear to impose any significant impact on stream 190. KOZLOVSKAYA, V.L, and F.L. Mayer, Jr. invertebrate communities. 1984. Brain acetylcholinesterase and backbone collagen in fish intoxicated with organophos­ 192. LAGERHOF, J., and H. Wallin. 1988. phate pesticides. J Great Lakes Res 10:261-266. Cropping systems, field margins and inverte­ This paper presents the rationale forusing brate fauna in Swedish agriculture. INTECOL brain ChE inhibition in fishas an indicator of OP Bull 16:55-59. pesticide contamination. Cyprinids and percids were Four types of fieldmargins were investigated exposed to trichlorfo n (80% technical formulation of for their potential as hibernation and propagation Dylox) and malathion (50% emulsion). sites for predators of insect pests. Of the four, field Cholinesterase was completely inhibited in those fish margins--with their naturally high diversity of plant that died during the study. Some of the perch died species--had the highest diversity and abundance of when ChE inhibition due to trichlorfo n exposure was insects and other arthropods (25 carabid beetle decreased by 50% (48-h LC50, 0.62 mg/L). In 2-h species, for example). The greatest number of para­ exposures at 5 mg/L, however, mortality was 100% sitoids was found in field margins of almost entirely and occurred when ChE was inhibited by 75%. Only coach grass (Agropyron repens) (21 carabids). Coach 11 % of carp exposed to 100 mg malathion/L (= 2-h grass margins plowed and sown in legumes or leftto LC100) died at 75% ChE inhibition, and all died vegetate naturally from the seed bank proved to be when enzyme activity was depressed to 87% of nor­ less valuable (16 and 19 carabid species, respective­ mal. The authors suggested that ChE inhibition was ly). The number of hibernatingpredatory beetles not the direct cause of death, but was the firststep was greatest in the coach grass margin. None of the leading to furthercomplicat ions. Further, they margin types was an important hibernation site for observed that the level of ChE activity at which blossom beetle or any other pest insect. death occurred was dependent upon the physiological condition of the organism as well as the degree of 193. LEIGHTON, F.A., and G.A.Wob eser. 1990. exposure to the toxicant. Survival was noted in Occurrences of poisoning of wild birds by pes­ longer, less acute exposures at ChE levels which ticides in Saskatchewan, 1984-1989. Pp 11-12 in proved fatal in more acute exposures. Proceedings of a symposium: environmental contaminants and their effects on biota of the 191. KREUTZWEISER, D.P., P.D. Kingsbury, and Northern Great Plains. North Dakota Chapter, J.C. Feng. 1989. Drift response of stream inver­ The Wildlife Society, Bismarck. tebrates to aerial applications of glyphosate. Very few deaths of wild birds from pesticide poi­ Bull Environ Contam 'lbxicol42:331-338. soning have been reported or investigated in Canada. A stream invertebrate community was exposed The firstsuch incident, the death of approximately to an aerial application of Roundup (glyphosate). 60 lapland longspurs due to carbofuran poisoning, Glyphosate application (2.0 kg AI/ha)on or adjacent occurred in May 1984. Granular carbofuran, applied to small tributaries of the stream did not appear to during seeding, was present in the gizzard. Brain unduly disturb stream invertebrate communities. ChE activity was markedly depressed. Carbofuran Driftdensities of most aquatic invertebrates did not was also the cause of death of some 45 California increase in response tO the herbicide application. gulls in June 1986. Exposure was facilitatedby

34 grasshopper ingestion. Grasshoppers eaten by the 197. MACEK, K.J., D.F. Walsh, J.W. Hogan, and gulls contained4.2 to 7.2 ppm carbofuran. Brain D.D. Holz. 1972. Toxicity of the insecticide ChE activity was normal. Death was likely the Dursban to fish and aquatic invertebrates in result of paralysis of the respiratory system due to ponds. Trans Am Fish Soc 101:420-427. ChE inhibition at the peripheral nerve endings. Bluegills and largemouth bass were exposed to Diazinon used in a Regina citypark led to the death two applications of Dursban [chlorpyrifos] at the rec­ of some 66 Canada goose goslings in June 1989. ommended rates formo squito control of 0.056 or Brain ChE was verylow. No adult mortality was 0.011 kg AI/ha in 0.04-ha experimental ponds. observed. Fensulfothion and associated metabolites Dursban residues in water 1 day post-treatment were the source of death of approximately 60 herring were 2.39 ppb and 0.97 ppb for the two treatments, and Californiagulls in and around Prince Albertin respectively. Cumulative mortality in control ponds May 1986. The presence of fensulfothion metabolites during the 63-day observation period was approxi­ suggests the gulls may have fed on other birds or mately 1 % of the total population foreach species of mammals that had ingested the pesticide. fish. During the same period, mortality in ponds receiving 0.011 kg/ha was 3 and 10% forbluegills and 194. LEININGER, W.C. 1988. Non-chemical bass, respectively, whereas the corresponding mortal­ alternatives forman aging selected plant ities due to the high application rate were 55% and species in the western United States. U.S. Fish 46%. Both species bioaccumulated the pesticide. Wildl Serv and Colorado State U CES Rep XCM- One to 3 days aftertreatment, the mean residue con­ 118. 48 pp. centration was 3.2 ppm in bluegills and 2.55 ppm in Identification, ecology, and methods forbiologi­ bass at the higher application rate. Residue loss was cal and cultural control of 14 aquatic and terrestrial rapid. At 2 weeks post-treatment, residue concentra­ plants are presented. tions were <0.4 ppm. They were undetectable 2 195. LINDUSKA, J.P., and H.M. Reeves. 1974. weeks later. Both species exhibited greater than 80% Direct mortality and related factors affecting inhibition in brain ChE activity when exposed to the waterfowl in North America. Pp 437-443 in highest application. Histological examination did not Proceedings of an International Conference for show conclusive evidence for pesticide-induced patho­ the Conservation of Wetlands and Waterfowl. logical effects. The high treatment rate reduced colo­ Pesticides are listed with other non-hunting nization of artificial substrate samplers by 75%, elim­ mortality factors which tend to limit waterfowl pro­ inated caddisfly larvae, and reduced mayfly popula­ duction and recruitment in North America. Dieldrin tions by about 90%. Significantreductions in the and DDT were cited as causes of mortality and egg number of insects colonizing the samplers were also shell thinning in snow geese and black ducks, respec­ observed at the lower application rate. Again, cad­ tively. Aldrin-treated rice seed was connected with a disflieswere the most sensitive group. Thelower sharp decline in the fulvous whistling-duck popula­ application rate did not appear to have any effect on tion in coastal regions of Texas and Louisiana. The the number of emergent midges; but at the higher authors expressed concern about the increased use of rate, the number of midges emerging was <1/3 the chemical pesticides, particularly aldrin and dieldrin. number emerging from control ponds.

196. LIPCIUS, R.N., C.A.Coyne, B.A. Fairbanks, 198. MACHBUB, M., H.F. Ludwig, and D. D.H. Hammond, P.J . Mohan, D.J. Nixon, J.J. Gunaratnam. 1988. Environmental impact Staskiewicz, and F.H. Heppner. 1980. fromagrochemicals in Bali (Indonesia). Av oidance response of mallards to colored and Environ Monitor Assess 11:1-23. black water. J Wildl Manage 44:511-518. With an increasing demand forfood for a grow­ In a series of experiments, captive mallards, ing population and limited land, the agricultural which had been deprived of foodfor 24to 48 h, were community of Bali sought to increase productivity placed in a pen consisting of a habituation section through intensifiedagricultural practices including connected by a ramp to a small artificial pool. Food use of high-yield rice varieties and agricultural chem­ in feeders was freelyavailable on the far side of the icals. Data show the kinds and amounts of pesticides pool. Results indicated that orange-colored water used since 1963 and fertilizeruse since 1970. As in was the most effective aversive stimulus. No other the U.S., pesticide and chemical fertilizeruse color (red, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet, black) increased over time, ashas the number of pest produced consistent avoidance. Black water was pos­ species. Total insecticideuse increased from 1,677 kg sibly attractive to mallards. [This paper wasinclud­ in 1963 to 390,283 kg (about 2.5 kg/ha) in 1978. ed in case it should be necessary to discourage water­ Nearly 70% of the paddy land area was treated with fowl from utilizing a highly contaminated pond or chemical fertilizer in 1979. Fertilizer application pothole. It would appear that avoidance could be rates averaged 144 kg of urea and 5.6 kg phosphate achieved by placing orange dye (100:1, FDC yellow per ha. The use of chemical fertilizershad not #5:repoline red; 0.077 g!L) in the water.] caused any known significant adverse environmental effects as of 1980. Nutrients lost to the environment from irrigated paddies represented only a small part

35 of the total nutrient input to surface waters. The this ecological parameter. Examples illustrate the past use of 'hard' OC pesticides (mainly endrin and calculation of each index; guidance is given to help in dieldrin, 1963-1973) has resulted in serious and per­ choosing and interpreting the results of the proper sistent impairment of the aquatic ecosystems on Bali. index for a given situation. Residual concentrations of those OCs measured (aldrin, DDT, dieldrin, lindane, benzene hexachlo­ 202. MAHONEY, J.J. 1975. DDT and DDE ride,and DDE) are considerably greater than USEPA effects on migratory condition in white-throat­ recommended limits. Total accumulation in the soil ed sparrows. JWildl Manage 39:520-527. ranged from an average of about 9 µg/kgfor lindane The onset of the spring migratory condition, as and benzene hexachloride to 321 µg/kgfor dieldrin. measured by Zugunruhe, and weight increase were The average total accumulation forall pesticides was delayed at least 1 week in caged white-throated spar­ about 100 µg/kg. Prawns sampled in 1980 contained rows feddiets containingeither 5 or 25 ppm technical residue concentrations of dieldrin, aldrin, lindane, DDT. Migratory fat stores were inversely correlated and benzene hexachloride of 4.2, 18.0, 4.3, and 3.3 with dose. [Although this paper discusses the effects µg/kg, respectively. Residue concentrations in some of DDT, now banned in the U.S., other pesticides have river bottom sediments were extremely high: 3,4 70 been observedto cause anorexia in birds. This condi­ and 6,490 ppb in the Palasari and Mertagangga tion would result, presumably, in effects similar to rivers, respectively. Palasari River sediment concen­ those observed in the white-throated sparrow.] trations of aldrin (245 ppb) and lindane (1,210 ppb) 203. MARTIN, D.B. 1985. Accumulation of sedi­ were also much higher than might be expected based ment, nutrients, and cesium-137 in prairie pot­ on surface soil samples. [Conditions similar to those holes in cultivatedand noncultivated water­ noted in this paper may be prevalent in many devel­ sheds. Pp 274-275 in Perspectives on nonpoint oping countries. Thus, elevated concentrations of OC source pollution: proceedings of a national con­ residues currently noted in many migratory bird ference. USEPA, Washington, D.C. species may be traceable to contamination of breed­ An attempt was made to measure sedimenta­ ing, wintering, or resting areas, as appropriate.] tion rates in prairie potholes surrounded by cultivat­ ed (at least partially) or non-cultivated land by using 199. MADDER, D.J.,and W.L Lockhart. 1980. 137cesium as a tracer. The average accumulation rate Studies on the dissipation of diflubenzuron and of cesium in the pothole sediments was the same in methoprene from shallow prairie soils. Can grassed and cultivated watersheds. This was believed Entomol 112:173-179. to be due to differences in the vertical distribution of Studies conducted to characterize thedissipation the contaminant. In the grasslands, the cesium was of diflubenzuron and methoprenefrom shallow allfound on the soil surface; in cultivated watersheds, Manitoba prairie pools indicated the rapid disappear­ it was incorporated throughout the tillage layer. ance of bothfrom the water,but diflubenzuron degrad­ Thus' similar rates of accumulation wasindicative of ed more slowly than methoprene. Results indicated greater erosion in the cultivated watersheds. The that the use of methoprene for mosquito control should author encouraged increased use of conservation not pose a long-term persistence hazard in water. tillage practices to reduce overall sedimentation rates and incorporation of pesticides into the soil to reduce 200. MAGUIB.E, R.J., and R.J. Tkacz. 1989. the amount transported to wetland sediments. Potential underestimation of chlorinated hydrocarbon concentrations in fresh water. 204. MARTIN, D.B., and W.A. Hartman. 1985. Chemosphere 19:1277-1287. Organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated Chlorinated hydrocarbons are usually extracted biphenyls in sediment and fish fromwetlands fromfresh waters at neutral pH; however, the in the north central United States. J Assoc Off authors found significant concentrations of PCBs and Anal Chem 68:712-717. other OC compounds in dichloromethane extracts of The data indicated that contamination by OC filteredNiagara River water at pH 12 after a thor­ pesticides or PCBs in the wetland habitats of the ough extraction had been performed at pH 1. The north-central U.S. was minimal. Sediment concen­ basic fraction accounted for40 to 48% of the total trations were above the minimum detection limits of concentrations of all OC compounds. These results 5 ng/gfor OCs and 20 ng/gfor PCBs in <4% of the suggest that OC concentrations in surface water samples taken. Detectable amounts of contaminants when extractions were made at neutral pH may have were found more often in fish than in sediments; 51 % been significantlyunderestimated. of the fish sampled contained DDE. The maximum concentration was 512 ng/g. Alpha-benzene hex­ 201. MAGURRAN, A.E. 1988. Ecological diversi­ achloride and DDD were detected in 36 and 14% of ty and its measurement. Princeton Univ. Press, the fish samples; DDT, dieldrin, PCBs, and trans­ / Princeton,NJ. 179 pp. nonachlor were foundin less than 10%. This book provides perhaps the most complete treatise available regarding species diversity and many of the indices which may be used to measure

36 205. MARTIN, D.B., and W.A.Hartman. 1987. Distressed birds vocalized excessively and were Effect of cultivation on sediment composition unable to keep pace with the rest of the group. and deposition in prairie pothole wetlands. Inhibition of brain ChE activity was directly related Water Air Soil Pollut 34:45-53. to both application rate and distance travelled. Birds This is a longer version of entry 203. The aver­ receiving maximum exposure (2x and 300 m) h�d age specific activity of 137 cesium in the top 10 cm of mean ChE activities only 29% of controls. Previous soil was 0.92 and 0.44 pCi/g for non-cultivated and studies by the senior author indicated carbofuran­ cultivated land, respectively. As the average accumu­ induced mortality was associated with ChE inhibi­ lation rate of cesium in recent pothole sediments was tion of 75 to 85%. Plasma ChE was depressed at equal forboth cultivated and non-cultivated water­ higher application rates, but was not affected by dis­ sheds, it may be assumed that sedimentation rates in tance traveled and appeared to buffer brain ChE potholes surroundedby cultivated watersheds were against carbamate binding. Growth rates were not approximately twice those noted in potholes in grass­ affected by exposure. The magnitude of brain C�E land watersheds. The authors concluded that infor­ depression suggested that many of the exposed birds mation regarding the movement of 137cesium may were at risk of dying. In addition, observed behav­ be useful in assessing the movement of many non­ ioral alterations, ifmanifested among wild birds, point source pollutants. could disrupt brood cohesiveness and result in high duckling mortality during upland brood movements. 206. MARTIN, P.A. 1990. Effects of carbofuran, chlorpyrifos and deltamethrin on hatchability, 208. MATrES,K. 1989. Kicking the pesticide deformity, chick size and incubation time of habit. Amicus Journal, Fall 1989:10-17. Japanese quail (Coturnixjaponica) eggs. Quoting David Pimentel, theauthor notes that Environ 'lbxicol Chem 9:529-534. during the past 45 years, pesticide use has increased Japanese quail eggs were immersed in aqueous by a factorof ten, and during the same time period, emulsions of carbofuran, chlorpyrifos, and crop loss from insects has increased from 7 to 13%. deltamethrinat threepotential fieldconce ntrations She then reviews current studies and trends in agri­ and at three stages of incubation. Hatchability was culture including integrated pest management, not affected by exposure to any of the three pesti­ organic and low-input sustainable agriculture, and cides nor did carbofuran cause any significant effects the use of biotechnology (genetic engineering) to pro­ on rateof hatching deformity, incubation time, chick duce herbicide resistant crop strains. She concludes mass, or tarsal length. Chlorpyrifos at two times the that learningto love dandelions, spiders, and imper­ recommended fieldapplication concentration was ter­ fect apples may be the hardest and most urgent task atogenic to eggs treated immediately prior to incuba­ we must facein kicking the pesticide habit. tion. Incubation was also delayed relative to con­ trols. Deltamethrin exposure at two times field 209.MA TSUMURA, F., and E.G. Esaac. 1979. application rates at the pre-incubation stage resulted Degradation of pesticides by algae and aquatic in longer incubation rates and in, at incubation day mi rganisms. Pp 371-387 in M.A.Q. Khan, 14, significantly lighter chicks relative to controls. croo J.J. Lech, and J.J. Menn (eds), Pesticide and overall effects were small, the author concluded As xenobiotic metabolism in aquatic organisms. that the three pesticides do not represent a signifi­ American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C. cant hazard to quail embryos at application rates up Small-weight flavoproteins were foundto be to two times the recommended rate. instrumental in the photodegradation of DDT, lin­ dane, dieldrin, toxaphene, parathion, and mexacar­ 207. P.A., and Solomon. 1990. MARTIN, K.R. bate by blue-green algae. In addition, reductive Potentialeffects of carbofuran during the ini­ degradation of mexacarbate, DDT, and toxaphene tial upland brood movement of duck­ mallard was enhanced in anaerobic conditions when the same lings. Pp 38-39 in Proceedings of a symposium: flavoproteins were present. The authors concluded - environmental contaminants and their effects that due to the biomass, large surface area, and rela­ on biota of the Northern Great Plains. North tive abundance of algae in many aquatic systems, Dakota Chapter, The Wildlife Society, these algae-derived flavoproteins may play � impor­ Bis k. marc tant role in pesticide degradation in an aquatic envi­_ Groups of 16-20 ducklings imprinted on ronment. humans were led forvarying distances up to 300 m through plots of upland vegetation that had been 210. MAYER, F.L. 1974. Pesticides as pollutants. sprayed with a flowable formulation of carbofuran at Pp 405-418 in B.G. Liptak (ed), Environmental rates of O, 132, or 264 g AI/ha (control, lx, and 2x rec­ engineers handbook. Chilton Book Co., ommended application rate). No mortality occurred Radnor, PA. during the study, but many birds in the 2x exposure Although somewhat dated, this review paper group and a single bird in the lx exposure had diffi­ covers many topics including mode of action, exposure culty in completing the 300-m trial. In most lx spray routes, and acute and chronic toxicity of the different treatment and in all 2x treatments, some birds classesof pesticides to aquatic organisms. exhibited symptoms of carbamate poisoning.

37 Biomagnification, synergism, antagonism, and the is presented. The relative persistence and mobility of development ofresistance are also discussed. Tables pesticides registered for use in North Dakota are pre­ showing acute toxicity(herb icides; OC, OP, carbarnate sented in tabular form. From the data, the applica­ and botanical insecticides; and a varietyof other pesti­ tor should be able to select the pesticide that pre­ cides) and biomagnification (OCs only) are included. sents the least potential for movement into the groundwater. 21.1. MAYER, F.L., and M.R. Ellersieck. 1986. Manual of acute toxicity: interpretation and 214. McEWEN, L.C., T.L. George, and B.E. data base for 410 chemicalsand 66 species of Petersen. 1990. Response of wildlife to current freshwater animals. Res Puhl 160, U.S. Fish range grasshopper IPM practices and to former and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. 506 pp. control methods. Pp 43-44 in Proceedings of a This book contains all acute toxicity data devel­ symposium: environmentalcontaminants and oped by the Columbia National Fisheries Research theireff ects on biota of the Northern Great Laboratory, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, since Plains. North Dakota Chapter, The Wildlife 1965 that were deemed to be quality data. Covered Society, Bismarck. are 4,901 acute toxicity tests involving 410 chemi­ Aldrin, dieldrin, chlordane, heptachlor, and cals, mostly pesticides, and 66 species of aquatic ani­ other pesticides formerly used in wide-area grasshop­ mals. A synopsis of the data is also presented. As a per control programs were highly toxic to many non­ group, insects were most sensitive, followedby crus­ target species. Due to the nature of OC pesticides, taceans, fishes, and amphibians. Among the four all except toxaphene were phased out during the most commonly tested forms, daphnids were most 1970s. Research by the USDA in cooperation with sensitive 58% of the time, followedby rainbow trout the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and other agencies (35%), bluegills (5%), and fathead minnows (2%). to find more acceptable grasshopper pesticides led to Te stingof three species (Daphnia, Gammarus, and the registration of malathion (in an ultra low volume rainbow trout) provided the lowest toxicity (EC or formulation), carbaryl (Sevin-4-0il) and acephate LC50) values 88% of the time. Toxicity of aged solu­ (Orthene) forlarge aerial spray operations. The only tions increased (11%), decreased (22%), or remained other materials registered for use are bait formula­ the same (69%) dependent upon the chemical tested. tions of carbaryl and a biological control agent, Although pH affected the toxicity of only 20% of the Nosema locustae spores. Field studies showed that chemicals tested, pH changes resulted in greater none of these caused direct mortality of terrestrial changes in toxicity than did any other factor. vertebrates. Malathion and carbaryl, accounting for Generally, toxicity increased with increasing temper­ over 90% of total use, can cause fishkills and are ature, but the toxicity of DDT, dimethrin, and very damaging to aquatic ecosystems. Caution must methoxychlor decreased with increasing tempera­ therefore be used when these two chemicals or ture. Toxicity values formost chemicals increased by acephate are used for grasshopper control to assure a factor of 3.1 per 10 C rise in temperature; however, that wetland habitat is not over-sprayed and to pre­ the factor was 5. 1 for OP insecticides. This was prob­ vent aerial drift into these sensitive habitats. ably due to contaminant increases in ChE activity Carbary} bait and bait treated with N. locustae have and inhibition with increasing temperature. The fish the least impact on wildlife. diets fish altered test results and could increase toxi­ city up to 5. 7x. The authors concluded that precise 215. McMULLEN, M. 1985. Surveyof pesticide information can only be obtained by testing the usage by aerial applicators. NDSU CES, North chemical and species of concern under the environ­ Dakota State University, Fargo. 19 pp. mental conditions of interest. The magnitude of aerial application of pesticides on all North Dakota crops, the magnitude of use on 212. McBRIDE, D.K. 1989. Managing pesticides individualcrops, regional differences throughout the to preventgroundwater contamination. NDSU state, the differences among crops per pesticide cate­ CES E-979. North Dakota State University, gory, and the major target pests are presented. The Fargo. 12 pp. author also states that survey information will help This publication summarizes the potential for in assessing any impact resulting from actions taken pesticide contamination of groundwater as influenced against pesticides by regulatory agencies. by water, pesticide, and soil characteristics. Various management practices to minimize this potential are 216. McMULLEN, M.P., A.G.Dexter , J.D. presented. Natewaja, W. Hamlin, and K. Davison. 1985. Pesticide uses on major cropsin North Dakota 213. McBRIDE, D.K., D.E. Peterson, and H.A. 1984. NDSU and North Dakota Crop and Lamey. 1988. Persistence and mobilityof pesti­ LivestockRep Serv AgronRep 3. North Dakota cides in soiland water. NDSU CES Bull 49. State University, Fargo. 31 pp. NorthDakota State University, Fargo. 7 pp. This booklet presents the results of the second Basic information aboutfa ctors involved in survey conducted to determine pesticide use by the movement of pesticides fromsurf ace to groundwater agricultural community in North Dakota and is

38 based upon data received from 3,039 respondents. 218. MEHR.LE, P.M., M.T. Finley, J.L.Ludke, F.L. The first such survey was conductedin 1978. North Mayer, and T.E. Kaiser. 1979. Bone develop­ Dakota ranked 6th in the nation in acreage of princi­ ment in black ducks as affected by dietary pal crops harvested and firstin production of durham toxaphene. Pestic BiochemPhysiol 10:168-173. and hard red spring wheats, barley, flax, and sun­ Black ducks were exposed to dietary toxaphene flower in 1978. By 1984, the state ranked 4th in the concentrations of 0, 10, or 50 µgig for 90 days prior to nation in acreage of principal crops harvested, with laying and throughthe reproductive season. no change in the production of the other crops listed Toxaphene did not seem to affect reproduction or sur­ for 1978. Some 5. 7, 0.3, and 0.5 million ha were vival, but bone growth was reduced and backbone treated with herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides, development was impaired in ducklings. In duck­ respectively, during 1978. During 1984, herbicide lings fed 50 µgig, the collagen content of cervical ver­ and insecticide use increased (7 .1 and 1.0 million ha tebrae was significantly decreased. Ducklings receiv­ treated, respectively), but fungicide use decreased ing either 10 or 50 µgig exhibited increased calcium (0.2 million ha treated). The greatest change report­ concentrations in vertebrae. These effects were ed was the increased use of insecticideson sunflower observed only in female ducklings. In contrast to fields:from 5.6% of the total number of ha in 1978 to vertebral effects, tibia development was unaltered. 64.8% in 1984. A significantincrease in the use of Toxaphene residues in duckling carcasses averaged insecticides for com was also reported: from 4.2% in slightly less than the dietary levels. 1978 to 17 .9% in 1984. Sugarbeets and potatoes were the major crops treated with fungicides. The 219. MILLER,H.W. 1971. Relationships of duck top three herbicides used during 1984 (as determined nesting success to land use in North and South fr om the number of acres treated) were 2,4-D amine Dakota. Trans, 10th Congr Internat Union (2.1 million ha), trifluralin (1.8 million ha), and 2,4-D Game Biologists 133-141. ester (1.2 million ha). 2,4-D (all formulations), triflu­ Duck nesting success was determined relative ralin, and MCPA (all formulations) were the top to land use in North and South Dakota. Study plots three in 1978. Among insecticides, fenvalerate, consisted of fields or tracts under a single land use parathion, and carbofuran were most favored (0.57, for one year. Four classifications were recognized: ( 1) 0.20, and 0.17 million ha, respectively) in 1984. idled - unused land with the previous growth remain­ Azinphos-methyl, toxaphene, and aldicarb were the ing on the plot, (2) grazed - domestic livestock were three most used insecticides during 1978. Mancozeb, present or had removed a noticeable portion of the maneb and zinc, and triphenyl tin hydroxide (0.08, previous growth, (3) mowed - the previous and some­ 0.05, and 0.05 million ha, respectively) were the times the current growth had been removed by mow­ three most used fungicides during 1984. During ing, and (4) cultivated - tillage during the previous or 1978, mancozeb, thiabendazole, and maneb were current year. The number of nests found per ha of most often used. area searched was 0�51, 0.36, 0.35, and 0.05, respec­ tively, and nesting success forthe four land use types 217. McMULLEN, M., and A. Dexter. 1985. was 44, 27, 29, and 14%. Survey of pest management practices used by farm producers in NorthDakota. NDSU CES 220. MINEAU, P., and D.B. Peak.all. 1987. ServAgron Rep 2. North DakotaState Evaluation of avian impact assessment tech­ University, Fargo. 11 pp. niques following broad-scale forestinsecticide This publication presents the results of a survey sprays. Environ TuxicolChem 6:781-791. of North Dakota farmers to determine pest manage­ Methods for assessing the impact of forestinsec­ ment practices used in 1984 and covers not only ticide spray programs on forestsongbirds are chemical pest control methods but also information reviewed, and the applicability of various census tech­ regarding alternative pest control methods used. niques are discussed. As a result of re-analysisof Results (242 respondents) indicated that herbicides brain ChE levels in live birds collected post-spray were applied to 89.2% of the reported acreage. (most data related to exposure to either fenitrothion Fungicide use was greatest on sugarbeets (91.8% of or acephate), the authors concluded that a severe col­ sugarbeet acres treated), andinsecticide use was lection bias exists in favor of birds with a low (<30%) - greatest on sunflowers (75. 7%) and potatoes degree of ChE inhibition. Three options are suggest­ (100.0%). The most frequently reported non-chemi­ ed to alleviate this problem: (1) the recognition of the cal methods of pest control were planting clean seed, limitations of the technique and use of the proportion crop rotation, summer fallow,conventional tillage, of individuals that were "exposed" as a measure of and use of resistant varieties. Biological control was impact, (2) the adoption of exact criteria of acceptabil­ reported least often, and 20.9% of the respondents ity with respect to the intensity and duration of the did not know whether they used biological control cholinergic response followedby an intensive search methods. When asked what the term 'Integrated of the spray area to collect individuals with maximum Pest Management' meant, 38. 0% did not respond and inhibition, or (3) lower the range of acceptable inhibi­ 19% indicatedth at they did not know. Only 9.0% tion to the level generally foundin samp-ling (e.g., 30- provided a definition that was accep�ble. 35% as indicated from the data presented in the

39 paper) provided that an impact can be demonstrated 223.MORA, M.A.,D.W. Anderson,and M.E. at the selected level of inhibition. Finally, the authors Mount. 1987. Seasonal variation of body condi­ suggest that multiyear impact assessment studies tion and organochlorines in wild ducks from involving a numberof reproductiveparameters are California and Mexico. J Wildl Manage 51:132- needed to adequately evaluate the effects of non-per­ 141. sistent insecticides on forest [or any othergroup ofl Significant seasonal variation in the body songbirds. weights and extractable lipid levels of northern pin­ tails did not appear to be correlated with OC content. 221. MISHRA, S.K., C.J. Whitenack, and A.R. The authors concluded that, whereas QC pesticide Putnam. 1988. Herbicidal properties of residues were foundin all birds examined, levels metabolites from several genera of soil noted were insufficient to cause adverse effects on microorganisms. Weed Sci36:122-126. reproduction or survival. Metabolites from 906 microbial isolates were evaluated for their effectiveness as selective herbi­ 224. MORRISON, M.L., and E.C. Meslow. 1984. cides. Metabolites from 72 isolates significantly inhib­ Effects of the herbicide glyphosate on bird ited germination of cress (Lepidium satiuum) seeds. community structure, western Oregon. Forest About 18% of all Streptomyces and Nocardiopsis iso­ Sci 30:95-106. lates and 13% ofActino planesis olates were toxic to An aerial application of glyphosate totwo clear­ cress. Several other genera also inhibited cress germi­ cut areas of western Oregon resulted in a modification nation. About halfthe isolates were also toxic to barn­ of the density and habitatuse of birds. Although bird yardgrass (Echinochloa crus-galli). density and diversity were similar, several species 222. MOORE,J.A. 1987. Not so silent spring. declined in relativedensity on the glyphosate site 1 Pp 15-22 in G.J. Marco, R.M. Hollingworth, and year after treatment and others increased in density. W. Durham (eds), Silent spring revisited. All species that declined in density during the first American Chemical Society, Wa shington, D.C. year post-spray increased during thesecond year. Use 214 pp. of shrub cover on the treated site decreased and use of This chapter reviews current pesticide registra­ deciduous tree cover increased relative to the control tion criteria. Recent amendments to FIFRA led to during the firstyear post-spray. With theexception of the development of criteria closely attuned to some of the rufous-sided towhee, all species showed increased Rachel Carson's demands. EPA now reviews chemi­ use of shrub cover during the second year. cals by examining experimental data on their effects on soil, water, wildlife, andhuma ns. These needs are 225. MORRISON, M.L., and E.C. Meslow. 1984. clearly detailed in the recently issued Pesticide Response of avian communities to herbicide­ RegistrationRequirements. The requirements for the induced vegetation changes. J WildlManage registration of a new chemical for use on land crops 48:14-22. men­ grown forhuman consumption span fivemajor cate­ This study in the Douglas fir(Ps eudotsuga gories: product chemistry, residue chemistry, environ­ ziesii) region of the Oregon Coast Range examined the mental fate, wildlife effects, and toxicology. In addi­ relationships between avian communities and herbi­ tion, data from two other categories, re-entryand cide (2,4-D and 2,4,5-T) modification of early-growth clear-cuts. Areas were sprayed 1 or 4 years previous spray-drift characteristics, are also commonly � required. Specific needs in toxicologyinclude acute to the s udy. For both 1and 4 year post-spray sites, toxicity data by three routes of exposure, eye and der­ vegetation development was greater in the third mal irritancy, dermal sensitization, delayed neurotoxi­ height interval (>3.0 m) on untreated sites. Overall city, repeat dose 90-day study in rodent and non­ density and diversityof birds were similarbetween rodent species, chronic feedingstudy (usually 1 year treated and untreated sites; however, several species in duration), oncogenicity studies in two species, ter­ altered their foraging behavior on treated sites (i.e., atogenicity in two species, two-generation reproduc­ species using deciduous trees, which were largely tion study, gene mutation studies, structural chromo­ removed as a result of herbicide application, increased some effects, and general metabolism effects. In 1962, use of shrubs on treated sites). The authors concluded only acute toxicitystudies using two or three exposure that small patches of deciduous trees scattered in routes plus eye and dermal irritation studies were clear-cut areas could maintainan avian community required. A chronic test was sometimes performed if similarto that of untreated sites. residue concentrations in excess of 1 part in 100,000 (the detection limit) were found. Environmental 226. MURIHEAD-THOMSON, R.C. 1971. effects were not addressed. Alternatives to chemical Pesticides and freshwaterfa una. Academic pp. pesticide use arebriefly discussed. Press, New Yo rk, NY. 248 The book presents a review of the literature to 1981 about effects of pesticides on both vertebrate and invertebrate target and non-target species as well as the influence of chemical and physical fa ctors on the impact of pesticides in freshwater ecosystems.

40 227. NAQVI, S.M., T.S. Leung, and N.Z. Naqvi. 230. NIETHAMMER, K.R.,and T.S. Baskett. 1980. 'lbxicities of paraquat and diquat herbi­ 1983. Cholinesterase inhibition of birds inhab­ cides to freshwatercopepods (Diaptomus sp iting wheat fields treated with methyl and Eucyclops sp) Bull Environ Contam parathion and toxaphene. Arch Environ 'lbxicol25:918-920. Contam 'lbxicol 12:471-475. Copepods (Diaptomus and Eucyclop s spp) were Red-winged blackbirds and dickcissels, two exposed to variousconcentrat ions of paraquat (0-100 species with similar foodhabits, had significantly dif­ ppm) and diquat (0-140 ppm). Mortalitywas recorded ferent degrees of brain ChE inhibition as a result of at 24 and 48 h. LC50 values forparaquat were 10 and inhabiting wheat fieldstreated with 0.67 kg AI/ha 5.3 ppm at 24 and 48 h, respectively. Corresponding methyl parathion and 1.35 kg/ha toxaphene. diquat LC50 values were 7 4 and 19 ppm. Maximum inhibition of 40 and 74% forred-winged blackbirds and dickcissels, respectively, occurred approximately 5 days post-spray. Barn swallows 228. NEMCSOK, J., L. Orban, B. Asztalos, Z. Buzas, A. Nemeth,and L. Boross. 1985. reached maximum ChE inhibition (42%) 3 days post­ Investigations on paraquat toxicity in fishes. spray. Enzyme activity approached normality 10 Water lnternat10:79- 81. days post-spray. The authors postulated that the dif­ The effect of different concentrations of ference in ChE activity between dickcissels and red­ paraquat on three fish species with differentfeeding winged blackbirds may have been due to physiologi­ habits was investigated. Carp, silver carp, and cal differences between the species. sheatfish were exposed to concentrations of 1, 10, and 231. NIMMO, D.R.,D.L. Coppage, Q.H. 100 mg/L paraquat for2 h. All species died within Pickering, and D.J. Hansen. 1987. Assessing the first 15 minutes at the highest concentration. thetoxicity of pesticides to aquatic organisms. Paraquat significantlyincreased transaminase and Pp 49-69 in G.J. Marco, R.M. Hollingworth, and lactate dehydrogenase activity and blood glucose W. Durham (eds), Silent spring revisited. level concomitant with a decrease in ChE activity. u' American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C. Res lts suggest that paraquat causes liver and kid­ 214 pp. . ney damage, reduces 02 uptakeby injuring gill The authors estimated the value of aquatic epithelia, and inhibits ChE activity. resources by citing the following statistics forthe con­ tinental U.S.: 229. NEIDERLEHNER, B.R., K.W. Pontasch, J.R. • 34,259,813 ha offreshwater Pratt, and J. Cairns,Jr. 1990. Field evaluation • 28,328,611 ha of wetlands of predictions ofenvironmental effects from a • 59,894,779 ha of continental shelf and estuar multispecies-microcosm toxicity test. Arch ine waters Environ Contam 'lbxicol 19:62-71. . • 53,900,000 persons participating in fishing The predictive validity of a multispecies-m1cro- • 25,400,000 persons participating in shellfishing cosm toxicity test was evaluated. Predictions of bio­ and shell collecting logical response to a complex effluentwere made • $17.3 billion spentper annum on consumer from dose-response curvesobtain ed fromlaboratory goodsrelated to recreational activities tests. These predictions were compared to effects • $7 billion contributed to the Gross National observed in the receiving system. No effects on the Product per annum from harvesting, process protozoan or macroinvertebrate communities were observed at the field site with effluent concentrations ing andmarketing commercial fish stocks • $2.2 billion per annum income from commercial less than the chronic value of 1. 7% effluent deter­ landings mined in laboratory tests. The microcosm test accu­ Several case studies are cited regarding pesticide con­ rately predicted the magnitude of decreases in tamination of aquatic resources including pesticide species richness in protozoan and macroinvertebr�te communities in the receiving system at the first site residues in fish on the Rocky Mountain Arsenal, ele­ downstream of the effluentout fall. Predictions of vated DDE and toxaphene concentrationsin birds and environmental effects forstat ions farther down­ fishesin the LowerRio Grande Valley, Texas,endrin stream were generally less accurate and too high. residues in CentralFlyway ducks as a result of pesti­ This was perhaps due to lack of persistence in the cide use on Montanagras slands, heptachlor in milk in toxicity of the effluent. Stimulation of total biomass Hawaii as a resultof fire ant control on pineapple and algal growth was observed in both laboratory plantations, and the continuing presence of PCBs. and field tests, but laboratory tests greatly over-esti­ DDT and associatedmetabolite residues are declining, mated the magnitude of enrichment responses in the however, in both the environment and in biota. Since receiving system. the publication of Carson'sSilent sp ring, pesticide use has increased and will probably continue to increase forsome time. Current testingprocedures may not be sufficientto assure protection of aquatic habitats.

41 232 • . NIPPER, M.G., D.J. Greenstein, and S.M. sterility and developmental abnormalities, motor Bay. 1989. Short- and long-term sediment toxi­ incoordination, convulsions, and depressed aquatic city test methods with the amphipod invertebrate population densities. The authors rec­ Grandidierellajaponica. Environ Tuxicol ommended restricted use of chlorpyrifos for mosquito Chem 8:1191-1200. control in wetlands, curtailed agricultural use in The methods were designed for conducting flow­ watershed areas, and the development of more envi­ through sediment toxicity tests using the marine ronmentally safe replacementswith greater specifici­ amphipod Grandidierella japonica. They would be ty fortarget organisms. equally applicable for use with freshwater amphipods (e.g., Hy alella azteca). The exposure time is relative­ 234. ODUM, E.P. 1985. Trends expected in ly short (10 days), and tests may be conducted in 1- stressedecosystems. BioScience 35:419-422. liter beakers. Certain well-defined developmental trends may be observed in ecosystems which are not suffering 233. ODENKIRCHEN,E.W., and R. Eisler. 1988. from unusual external perturbations. As disturbance Chlorpyriphos hazards to fish, wildlife, and may arrest or even reverse these autogenic develop­ invertebrates: a synoptic review. Biol Rep ments, we should be able to anticipate and measure 85(1.13). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, some ecosystem responses to stress. Trends expected Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Laurel, Md. in stressed ecosystems are discussed and include 34 pp. changes in energetics, nutrient cycling, and commu­ Chlorpyrifos is used extensively in a variety of nity structure and function. formulations to control a broad spectrum of agricul­ tural and other insects, including mosquitos and turf­ 235. OHLENDORF, H.M., and M.R. Miller. 1984. destroying insects on golf courses. Domestic use in Organochlorine contaminants in California 1982 was about3.6 million kg. Accidentalor careless waterfowl. JWildl Manage 48:867-877. applications have resulted in mortalityof many non­ Wings and carcasses of northern pintails, can­ target organisms including fish, aquatic inverte­ vasbacks, lesser scaups, and northern shovelers were brates, birds, and humans. Applications at recom­ collected from the Pacific Flyway survey and from mended rates (0.028 to 0.056 kg/surface ha) for the Sacramento Valley. Concentrations of all OC mosquito control have led to mortality, bioaccumula­ compounds were <1 ppm in pintail wings, but tion, and various deleterious sublethal effects of residues were higher in wings from pintails shot late aquatic plants, zooplankton, insects, rotifers, crus­ in the season than early in th e season, suggesting taceans, waterfowl, and fish. Adverse effects have that pintails were accumulating chemicals while on also been noted in bordering terrestrial invertebrate the wintering grounds. Highest concentrations were populations. Degradation rates in abiotic substrates foundin pintails from southern California, and DDE vary from about 1 week in seawater to >24 weeks in was significantly higher in males than in females. soils of low moisture content, low temperature, Wings of diving ducks were too fewto permit evalua­ reduced microbial activity, and low organic content. tion. Carcasses of shovelers contained significantly In fishes,degradation has been reported to occur in higher concentrations of DDE (0.68 ppm) than <9 h. Similar rates could be expected in birds and observed in pintails (0.12 ppm) collected at the same invertebrates. Chlorpyrifos is acutely toxic to some time and place. On a wet-weight basis, pintail wing species of aquatic invertebrates and teleosts at nomi­ concentrations were about half of carcass concentra­ tions. Although some individuals were contaminated nal water concentrations. LC50 values foraquatic invertebrates are as low as 0.035 µg/Lfor with possibly harmful levels of some chemicals, con­ My sidopsis bahia to a high of 2,710 µg/Lfor the snail centrations of OCs were relativelylow in all species . Lanistes carinatus. Among fish species, the fathead and probably would have no adverse effect on sur­ minnow was most sensitive of those species tested vival or reproduction. with an LC50 of 0. 13 µg/L. The gulftoadfish (LC50, 520 µg/L) was least sensitive. Acute single-dose oral 236. OHLENDORF, H.M., F.C. Schaffner, T.W. Custer, and C.J. Stafford. 1985. Reproduction LD50 values for avian species ranged from 5 mg/kg for the European starling to 157 mg/kgfor the ringed and organochlorine contaminants in terns at turtle-dove. Bioaccumulation factors (BCFs) in fish San Diego Bay. Colonial Waterbirds 8:42-53. varied with the mean concentration in the medium Caspian tern eggs were found to contain signifi­ and the duration of exposure. For example, the BCF cantly higher concentrations of DDE (9.30 ppm) than for California grunnion varied from < 1 fora 26-day elegant tern eggs (3. 79 ppm). Although the relation­ exposure at a concentration of 0. 13 µg/Lto 1,000 for a ship between hatching success and DDE concentra­ 35-day exposure at essentially the same concentra­ tion was not clear, shells from eggs that broke during tion. BCFs forthe gulf toadfish, on the otherhand, incubation or that contained chicks that died while varied from 100 at 1.4 µg/L to 650 at 46.0 µg/L dur­ hatching were significantly thinner then shells from ing 49-day exposure tests. Sublethal effects included pre-194 7 eggs. OC concentrations in the brains of ChE inhibition in brain and hematopoietic tissues, dead chicks were not sufficientto indicate OC poison­ reduced growth, impaired reproduction including ing as the cause of death.

42 237. OLSON, L.J. 1986. Immune system and pes­ tachlorophenol, maleic hydrazide, cyclohexamide, and ticides. J Pestic Reform (Summer 1986):20-25. dinoseb) alsoaff ect the immune system of various ver­ A properly functioning, intact immune system tebrate organisms. Thus, it is evident that the poten­ is essential for protection against diseases, cancer, tial exists for serious damage to human and non­ autoimmunity, and certain allergic reactions. human populations through immunosuppression due However, tests using standard laboratory strains are to pesticide exposure. Further, research has demon­ least likely to show effects as they are maintained in strated thatsubtle immune system defects can have an atmosphere designed to promote health and mini­ serious or fatalconsequences to both animals and mize stress. In a normal wild population, the indi­ humans. viduals most likely to be affected are the aged, very young, pregnant, sick, or those otherwise stressed. 238. PAPENDICK, R.I., L.F. Elliott, and R.B. Although a broad spectrum of non-pesticide com­ Dahlgren. 1986. Environmental consequences pounds affects the immune system (including lead, of modernproduction agriculture: how can alternative agriculture address these issues mercury, cadmium, nickel, N02, 802, volatile organ­ ic compounds, halogenated hydrocarbons, asbestos, and concerns? AmJ Alternative Agricult 1:3-10. and others), this review concerns only pesticides. It The authors propose various alternatives to large­ is important to understand that different chemicals scale conventional agriculture as a means of curbing will affect some segments of the immune system soil erosion and runoff, such as conservation tillage, more than others. DDT lowered the antibody titer to organic farmi ng, and croprotati on. Use of some or all the bacterium Salmonella typhi by a significant of these agricultural alternatives would greatly reduce amount and decreaseed the gamma globulin serum the input of sedimentsinto surface waters as well as fraction to ovalbumin in rabbits after a 35-day expo­ dependence uponchemical pesticides. sure to 200 ppm DDT in drinking water. Mortality of young mice infected with encephalomyocarditus was 239. PATTEE, O.H., M.R. Fuller, and T.E. Kaiser. significantly increased with exposure to DDT when 1985. Environmental contaminants in eastern compared to infected mice not so exposed. Increased Cooper's hawk eggs. J Wildl Manage 49:1040- susceptibility to duck hepatitis virus was foundin 1044. ducks given DDT. Tests usingcarbamate insecticides Cooper's hawk eggs were collected from nests showed that methyl carbamate and pyrindol carba­ located in five eastern and midwestern states. Egg mate had little or no effect on selected immune shells, but not contents, were also collected from two responses in mice or rabbits; however, carbofuran fed other states. Shell thickness, Ratcliffe thickness to mice was associated with decreased nitrogen activ­ index, shell weight, and lipid level data were com­ ity, reduced immunoglobins, and increased mortality pared with pre- 1946 data Shell thickness was not following challenge by Salmonella typhimurium. significantly different between the 1980 and 1946 Several other carbamate insecticides have also been eggs, but there was a significant difference in the shown to affect the immune system. For example, Ratcliffe indices for the two time periods, indicating primacarb has induced immune hemolytic anemia 9% thinning in 1980 egg shells. Mean OC residue (damage to the bone marrow sufficientto affect the concentrations ranged from <0.05 ppm (wet weight) production of white or red blood cells or both) in dogs; p,p '-DDT, in Pennsylvania and Wisconsin eggs, to 17 ethyl carbamate caused severe bone damage, ppm p,p'-DDE in a single eggfrom Connect icut. depressed killer T-cell activity, reduced humoral DDE and oxychlordane residue concentrations were immunity, and increased susceptibility to tumor cell correlated with the Ratcliffe index but not with egg challenge in one strain of laboratory mice. Carbary1 shell thickness. There was no relationship between increased the susceptibility of quail to a protozoan embryo development stage and residue concentration parasite, reduced spleen antibody-producing cell num­ or shell thickness. bers in mice, and enhanced in vitro infectivity of virus­ es to human lung cells and green monkey kidney cells. 240. PAULOV, S. 1981. Rizikovost fungicidu Aldicarb significantlyreduced the splenic plaque­ afuganu (pyrazofos) pre vyvin obojzivelnikov forming cell response in outbred mice fe d 1, 10, 100, (Rana temporaria L.). [Hazards of thefungicide and 1000 ppb in the drinking water. The effect was Afugan (pyrazophos) for the development of greatest at the lowest dose. Triphenyl tin acetate amphibians (Rana temporaria L.).] Biologia (TPl'A), a fungicide,was associated with atrophy of (Bratislava) 36:135-140. the thymus and reduced plasma cell populations and Examination of the effect of the fungicide decreasedimmunological responseto tetanus toxoid in Afugan [pyrazophos] on development and on the guinea pigs fed 12 ppm TPl'A for several weeks. activities of glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase Methyl parathion increased mortalityof mice exposed (GOT) and glutamate pyruvate transaminase (GPT) to S. typhimurium, decreased the mouse antibody of 22-day-old amphibian tadpoles (Rana temporaria) responseto S. typhimurium, reduced the mouse mito­ showed that concentrations greater than 1 mg!L genic response, and suppressed the tuberculin delayed resulted in lethality. A concentration of 0.1 mg/L hypersensitivity reaction in rabbits. Many other pes­ pyrazophos stimulated growth (front leg develop­ ticides (including dieldrin,hexachloro benzene, pen- ment, atmospheric respiration, and tail resorption

43 were accelerated by 2 days). However, all animals in 1986). Mean fledgingsuccess on grasshopperIPM died prior to metamorphosis. GOTactivity increased management areas in Idaho and North Dakota during and GPT activity decreased. The author concluded 1988 and 1989 was approximately 2.2 and 1. 7 young that theuse of pyrazophos represents a potential risk per nest, respectively. The mean number of young fornatural ecosystems and that the chemical should fledged from a group of nests (used for comparison) only be used within the framework of integrated pest located along the front range of Colorado from 1982 to management where it cannot contaminate useful 1989 was approximately 2.5. surface and groundwater resources. 243.PHUJ.WS, J.D. 1988. Nonpoint source pol­ 241.PAYN E, C.C. 1988. Pathogens for the con­ lution and spatial aspects of risk assessment. trolof insects: where next? Phil Trans R Soc Annals Assoc Am Geog 78:611-623. Lond B 318:225-248. As pollution has significant off-site impacts The narrow host-range of many pathogenic which are often more severe than local impacts, it is microorganisms makes them natural candidates for necessarythat we consider the cumulative impacts of integrated pest management programs. However, spatially distributed pollution sources rather than many microbial pathogens currently available do not consider each source as a separate case. In this con­ meet the expectations of an agricultural industry text, spatial risk assessment for a wide variety of air, used to the rapid and broad-spectrum pest knock­ water, and cross-media pollutions will become more down achieved by many chemical pesticides. Much urgent, and hopefully, more common. recent attention has focusedon the improvement of strains by genetic manipulation. For example, the 244. PHILLIPS, J.D. 1989. Fluvial sediment environmental persistence of the insect-pathogenic storage in wetlands. Water Resources Bull toxin of Bacillusthur ingiensis has been extended by 25:867-873. inserting the toxin gene into other bacterial hosts The ecological and hydrological roles of wet­ and plants. Although future opportunities for biolog­ lands are widely recognized, but their geomorphic ical control may be created by the use of such strate­ functions are often overlooked. An analysis of flu vial gies, we must understand more about their long-term sediment budget studies shows that wetlands typi­ impact on insect populations and the environment. cally serve as short-term sediment sinks or, over the The author suggests that such information should long term, sediment storage sites. In ten drainage come not only from detailed ecological studies of the basin studies, 14 to 58% of the total upland sediment host-pathogen interaction but also from laboratory production was stored in alluvial wetland or other and field studies of the frequency and consequences aquatic environments, and 29 to 93% of sediments of the exchange of genetic informationbetween modi­ reaching streams was stored in wetland or channel fiedstrains and naturally occurring microorganisms. environments. The author suggested that wetlands should be managed in the context of drainage basins, 242. PETERSEN, B.E., and L.C. McEwen. 1990. rather than as discrete, independent units and that Use of American kestrels as bioindicators of any attempts to control sedimentation rates or ero­ environmental contaminant effects. Pp 45-46 sion of wetlands to achieve ecological goals might in Proceedings of a symposium: environmental have serious repercussions throughout the entire contaminants and theireff ects on biota of the drainage basin. Northern Great Plains. North Dakota Chapter, The Wildlife Society, Bismarck. 245. PHILLIPS, J.D. 1989. Nonpoint sourcepol­ American kestrels were evaluated as bioindica­ lution control effectiveness of riparian forests tors of environmental contaminant stress at point along a coastal plain river. J Hydrol 110:221-237. source locations and on large-scale grasshopper con­ A detention-time model of water quality buffer trol IPM management areas. The species can be read­ zones was used to evaluate the non-point source pol­ ily attracted to nest boxes, is tenacious to its nests, lution control effectiveness of riparian forests in a and will tolerate periodic examination of eggs and North Carolina river basin. All typical riparian young. Data collected bi-weekly (more frequently forests provided significant water quality protection, afterincubation was complete) were clutch size, but there was a wide variation in buffer effectiveness nestling growth rate, hatching success, fledging suc­ due to soil type, topography, and vegetation charac­ cess, and foo d habits. Nest box utilization was affect­ teristics. Effective buffer width varied fr om 5.07 m ed by distance between nest boxes, nest entrance ori­ for the best soil under optimum conditions to 73.25 m entation, location in respect to other trees, and height for the worst-case scenario. Buffer widths of 60 m or of the box. Percent utilized ranged from 21 (Dinosaur less are generally adequate to filternitrates from National Monument, Colorado) to 58 (Rocky Mountain agricultural runoff. Arsenal,Denver). At the RockyMountain Arsenal, where OC pesticides were manufactured and released formany years priorto this study, data collected dur­ ing 1982, 1983, and 1986, showed a significant increase in number of young fledged (1.1 in 1982 to 2.2

44 246. PICKETI, J.A. 1988. Integrating use of bled in spite of a tenfoldincrease in insecticide use. beneficial organisms with chemical crop pro­ Reasons forthis seeming anomaly are discussed. tection. Phil 'Irans R SocLond B 318:203-211. Of thefour groups of insecticidescurrently used 248. PIMENTEL, D., D. Andow, R. Dyson­ in crop protection (OCs, OPs, carbamates, and Hudson, D. Gallahan, S. Jacobson, M. Irish, S. pyrethroids), pyrethroids are rapidly replacing the Kroop, A. Moss, I. Schreiner, M. Shepard, T. others. This paper addresses the selectivityof some Thompson, and B. Vinzant. 1980. pyrethroids and proposespossibilities for development Environmental and social costs of pesticides: a of even greater selectivity. The relative toxicity of preliminary assessment. Oikos 34:126-140. bioresmethrin, permethrin, and deltamethrin to house Indirect costs of pesticide use in the U.S. are fliesand honeybees is used to illustrate advances in 45,000 fatal and non-fatal human pesticide poison­ selectivity. Bioresmethrin was equally toxicto both ings annually; $12 million in livestock losses; $287 species, permethrin was 12x more toxic tohouse flies million due to reductions in natural enemies and than to honey bees, and therelative toxicity of increased pesticide resistance in pest species; $135 deltamethrin is 1, 700 (house fly) to 11 (honeybee). million due to honeybee poisonings and reduced polli­ Several other possibilitiesfor minimizing pesticide nation; $70 million in losses of crops and trees; $11 impact are alsodiscussed. Genesfr om pest species million in fish and wildlife losses; and $140 million in which conferresistance to the host have been cloned, miscellaneous losses. The authors believed that t-he and it seems only a matter of timeuntil these genes $839 million total annual loss attributed to environ­ may be successfullytransferred to beneficial insects. mental and social costs of pesticide use represented Semiochemicals (chemicalswhich control behavior) only a fraction of the total cost, and that a more com­ such as insect pheromones are being developed for plete accounting would probably result in a figure agricultural use. These chemicals have been used to several times that obtained in this study. bring the target species into contact with various bio­ logical control agents either through attractingthem 249. PINOWSKI, J. 1988. Effect of liquid manure to theagent, as in the use of moth sex pheromones, or on the environment. INTECOL 16:61-70. by causing them to disperse, illustrated by the use of The deposition of large amounts of liquid the aphid alarm pheromone to increase the likelihood manure from Polish livestock farms on fields and in of contactwith pathogenicorgan isms. Beneficial waste areas since 1970 has caused several adverse insects may also bemanipulated by use of semiochem­ environmental impacts, including an excessive accu­ icals. For example, the Nasanov pheromone can be mulation of nitrogen and an increase in salinity. used to attract honeybees away from crops recently Nitrogen above standard levels was found in 74% of sprayed with insecticides, or alternatively, stinggland the wells on the test area. Vegetational changes and mandibular gland pheromones mixed with the included the development of large populations of pesticides could serve as an effective repellent, again nitrogenphilous species. Faunal changes included a reducing the hazard to foragingbees. It may also be reduction in the number of species of nematodes and possible to attract natural predators of some insect saprophagous acarina. pests to crop plants using geneticengineering tech­ niques. Thus, many alternatives to chemical pesticide 250. PONTASCH, K.W., E.P. Smith, and J. use may be available. Cairns,Jr. 1989. Diversity indices, Community comparison indices and canonical discriminant 247. PIMENTEL, D. 1987. Is Silent spring analysis: interpreting the results of multi­ behind us? Pp 175-187 in G.J. Marco, R.M. species toxicity tests. ResWat 23:1229-1238. Hollingworth, and W. Durham (eds), Silent Canonical discriminant analysis, diversity spring revisited. American Chemical Society, indices, and community similarityindices were evalu­ Washington, D.C. 214 pp. ated for their utility in measuringinvertebrate Some pesticides may actually increase pest prob­ response to a complex effluent in laboratory micro­ lems. For example, 2,4-D used at recommended appli­ cosms. Allmeasures tested indicated that microcosms cation rates on com increased the susceptibilityof com receiving the high dose (10% effluent) were signifi­ to both insects and plantpathog ens. Sublethal doses cantly different from the controls. The canonical dis­ of parathion increased egg production of theColorado criminant analysis, however, was mainly influenced potato beetle by 65%. Highly toxic materials at low by decreasedmayfly densities in the high-dose micro­ dosage can achieve mortality similar to larger doses of cosms. The Shannon and Simpson divers-ityindices low-toxicity materials and be less damagingto the indicated that both themedium- (1.0% effluent)and environment, but risks to humans handling these high-dose microcosms were significantly different highly toxic chemicals are far greater. Even though from controls, but this was solely dependent upon high more pesticides and non-chemical controls are being numbers of chironomids. Diversityindices calculated used todaythan ever before, an estimated 37% of all excluding chironomid numbers failed to discriminate crops is lost annually to pest species. Losses to weeds between medium-dose and control microcosms. The and pathogens have remained relatively constant most meaningful condensation of data was provided since 1942, but crop losses to insects have nearly dou- by the Bray-Curtis community similarity index.

45 251. POWELL, G.V.N. 1984. Reproduction by an 254.RATTN ER, B.A. 1982. Diagnosis of anti­ altricial songbird, the red-winged blackbird, in cholinesterase poisoning in birds: effects of fields treated with the organophosphate insec­ environmental temperature and underfeeding ticide fenthion. J Appl Ecol21 :83-95. on cholinesterase activity. Environ Thxicol Fenthion (Baytex), an OP chemical used for Chem 1:329-335. mosquito control, was applied aerially at a rate of 52 The effects of underfeeding and increased tem­ g AI in 3.2 L of No. 2 diesel oil/ha. One study area perature on ChE activity were studied to determine received a single application; another received two whether such non-contaminant related phenomena applications 35 days apart. Red-wing behavior was might confound diagnosis of pesticide poisoning. Only studied both before and after the application(s). The slight reductions in ChE activity were noted in insecticide application(s) had no significanteff ect on Japanese quail subjected to either stress. The amount fr equency of nest abandonment, clutch size, hatching of inhibition was considerably less than 50% (the cri­ success, or fledging success. Growth rates of 0-3 day­ terion generally employed in the diagnosis of insecti­ old nestlings were lower in nests on the area receiv­ cide-induced mortality). Roever, it did approach 20% ing two treatments, but overall growth rates of sur­ and thus could be confused with levels generally con­ vivors did not differ significantlyfrom those of con­ strued to indicate sublethal exposure to pesticides. trols. There were no significant differences in brain ChE activity of birds from the treatment sites when 255. RATTNER, B.A., and J.C. Franson. 1984. compared with control site birds. Cholinesterase Methyl parathion and fe nvalerate toxicity in activity was not significantly depressed in six large American kestrels: acutephysiological respons­ nestlings found dead 2 to 11 days post-spray. Spatial es and effects of cold. Can J Physiol Ph armacol distribution of territorial males was not affected by 62:787-792. the application offenthion. Although a single appli­ Methyl parathion and fenvalerate were adminis­ cation of fenthion eliminated approximately 50% of tered to American kestrels by stomach gavage at the dominant larvae (a noctuid) in nestling food 1 to dosages of 0.375 to 3.0 and 1,000 to 4,000 mg/kgbody 2 days post-spray, nestling growth and fledging suc­ weight, respectively. Birds were maintained at ambi­ cess was not affected. ent temperatures of 22 and -5 C. Methyl parathion was highly toxic (estimated LD50, 3.08 mg/kg) and 252. POWELL, G.V.N., and D.C. Gray. 1980. produced dose-dependent inhibition of brain and plas­ Dosing free-livingnest ling starlings with an ma ChE activity, hyperglycemia, and elevated plasma organophosphate pesticide, famphur. J Wildl corticosterone concentration. Fenvalerate, on the Manage 44:918-921. other hand, caused only mild intoxication and elevat­ European starling nestlings were dosed peroral­ ed alanine aminotransferase activity at doses far ly with 0, 0.3, 1.0, or 3.0 mg famphur/kg body weight exceeding those encountered in the environment. each day from age 4 to 18 days. Nine of 11 4-day-old Cold increased toxic responseto methyl parathion but birds given a single dose of 3.0 mg/kgdied within 8 h. not fenvalerate. Thus, far greater impacts may be Of the remaining two birds, one died afterth e second expected from OP insecticides than from pyrethroids. dose and the other was killed by a predator. Only one bird receiving 1.0 mg/kg died as a result of the 256. RATTNER, B.A., J.M.Beck er, and T. treatment, and two birds receiving 0.3 mg/kgdied Nakatsugawa. 1987. Enhancement of during the study. Growth rates of surviving treated parathion toxicity to quail by heat and cold birds were independent of dosage level; however, exposure. Pestic Biochem Physiol 27:330-339. nestlings receiving 1.0 mg/kg reached lower pre­ High temperatures (37 C) increased and low fledglingweights than did controls. temperatures ( 4 C) decreased plasma ChE inhibition in Japanese quail exposed to 4 mg technical grade 253. PROUTY, R.M., and C.M. Bunck. 1986. parathion/kgbody weight relative to those reared at Organochlorine residues in adult mallard and 26 C. These results and limited field observations black duck wings, 1981-1982. EnvironMonitor indicate that the hazards imposed by ChE inhibitors Assess6:49-57. may be substantially influencedby environmental Although ten OC compounds were detected in temperature regimes. black duck and mallard wings collected during the 1981-82 hunting season, most occurred very infre­ 257. REBEIZ, C.A.,J.A. Juvik, and C.C. Rebeiz. quently, and, with the exception of PCBs, were gener­ 1988. Porphyricinsecticides. 1. Concept and ally less than observed concentrations in 1979. DDE phenomenology. Pest Biochem Physiol 30:11-27. concentrations differed among collections, flyways, Modulators of the porphyrin-heme biosynthetic and regions, although PCB concentrations differed pathway, used singly or in combination with b-­ only between flywaysand regions. aminolevulinic acid, induced massive accumulation of protoporphyrin IX in the treated insect, causing death whether in darkness or in light. In light, death appeared to be photodynamic in nature. Photodynamic damage was also induced by treating

46 the insect with exogenous protoporphyrin or Mg-pro­ altilis was less sensitive to diazinon than some other toporphyrin. The authors proposed that the term species previously tested. For example, the 24-h "porphyric insecticides" be used to designate such LC50 values reported forbluegill and rainbow trout insecticides. They suggested that the appeal of such were 0.05 and 0.38 ppm. insecticides might reside in the potential to design a large number of totally biodegradable formulations of 263. SANDERS, H.O. 1969. Tuxicityof pesti­ selective photodynamic insecticides and herbicides cides to thecrustacean Gammarus lacustris. and in the anticipated difficultyfor insects to develop U.S Fish Wildl ServTech Pap 25. 18 pp. resistance to such compounds. The results of a series of acute toxicity tests of 70 pesticides using the amphipod Gammarus la.cus­ 258. REIMER, G.J.,and G.R.B. Webster. 1980. tris indicated that the species was generally more Lossof chlorpyrifos in pond water: examina­ sensitive to OP than to OC pesticides. Twenty-four­ tion of results using three simple mathmatical hour LC50 values ranged from 0.32 µg/L for models. J Environ Sci Health (B) 15:559-569. coumaphos, a parasiticide, to 56,000 µg/Lfor aldrin. [From abstract] The half lives of an emulsified Herbicides and fungicides were less toxic than most and a slow-release formulation were 5 and 14 h ' insecticides. Toxicity increased with time of expo­ respectively. sure. DDT toxicity was positively correlated with water temperature. 259. RENNER, K.A., W.F. Meggitt, and R.A. Leavitt. 1988. Influence of rate, method of 264. SANDERS, H.O. 1970. Pesticide toxicities application, and tillage on imazaquin persis­ to tadpoles of the western chorus frog tence in soil Weed Sci 36:90-95. Pseudacris triseriata and Fowler's toad Bufo Preplant-incorporated applications of 280 g woodhousii fo wleri. Copeia 1970:246-251. AI/haof imazaquin had significantly greater persis­ Although dated [many of the pesticides studied tence than pre-emergence surface applications are no longer registeredfor use], this paper contains throughout the 1985 growing season; however, there several data of interest. Static bioassays lasting was no significantbetween-treatment difference in from 24 to 96 h were conducted using Pseudacris w persistence in 1984. No explanation forobserved triseriata and Bufo oodhousiifo wleri tadpoles. between-year differences was found. Tadpoles were exposed to 16 and 18 pesticides, respectively. Tolerance limits (TL50) were deter­ 260.RESH, V.H. , and D.M. Rosenberg. 1989. mined for each pesticide and species. Endrin [discon­ Spatial-temporal variability and the study of tinued in 1987] was most toxic to Pseudacris tadpoles aquatic insects. Can Ent 121:941-963. and second-most toxic to Bufo tadpoles (trifluralin Many researchers have attempted to determine was most toxic to this species; 24-h TL50, 0.18 mg/L). the quality of an aquatic system by studying its Overall, herbicides were generally less toxic than invertebrate community. This paper discusses the insecticides. Lindane was the least toxic insecticide spatial and temporal variability inherent within to both species. One-week-old Pseudacris tadpoles aquatic invertebrate communities and suggests that, were more sensitive to the pesticides tested than rather than tryingto reduce this variability through were 4- to 5-week-old Bufo tadpoles. various homogenization processes, a "variance" approach, in which the data are disaggregated and 265. SANDERS, H.O. 1970. Tuxicities of some her­ fluctuation extremes considered, may provide more bicides to six species of freshwater crustaceans. information and elucidate underlying mechanisms. J Wa ter Pollut Control Fed 42:1544-1550. Of 37 herbicides tested, dichlone was most toxic to all six crustaceans. The 48-h tolerance limits 261. S.J.H.,D. Mukerji, and S.N. Mathur. RIZVI, (TL ) ranged from 0.025 mgiLfor Da phnia magna 1980. New report on a possible source of natu­ 50 to 3.2 mgiL forthe crayfish Orconectes nais. Silvex ral herbicide. Indian J Exper Biol 18:777-778. [discontinued in 1984], 2,4-D, and trifluralinwere extract from seed of Coffea arabica was An generally the next three most toxic chemicals tested· effective in preventing germination of Amaranthus ' however, crayfish were resistant to 2,4-D and silvex sp inosus. (TL50, > 100 mgiL). Of those herbicides tested which are still registered for use, dicamba was least toxic. 262. ROBERTSON, J.B., and C. 1989. Mazzella. The other four species tested were seed shrimp Acute toxicity of thepesticide diazinon to the (Cyp ridopsis vidua), amphipods (Gammarusfa scia­ freshwater snail Gillia altilis. Bull Environ tus), isopods (Asellus brevicaudus) and glass shrimp Contam Tuxicol42:320-324. (Palaemonetes kadiakensis). The 4- and .96-h LC50 values for snails exposed to diazinon were 93 and 11 ppm, respectively. A 96-h static renewal test was also conducted to compensate for possible diazinon losses over time. The results of this test indicated that the 96-h LC50 fora flow­ through system would be even < 1� ppm. Gillia

47 266. SANDERS, H.O. 1972. Thxicity of some ranged from 10 to 168 for the invertebrate species insecticides to four species of malacostracan and from 48 to 4 71 forthe four species of fish. More crustaceans. Tech Paper 66,U.S. Fish and than half of the herbicide was eliminated by all Wildlife Service,Washingto n, D.C. 19 pp. organisms other than Procambarus within 24 h when Acute and chronic (20-day) toxicities of 40 insec­ placed in fresh water. In the case of Procambarus, ticides to amphipods (Gammarusfa sciatus), crayfish tail residue half time was 10 days. (Orconectes nais), glass shrimp (Palaemoneteskadi­ akensis), and isopods

48 271. SANDERS,H.O., J. Huckins, B.T. Johnson, values were 17 and 43 µg/L for field formulation and and D. Skaar. 1989. Biologicaleff ects of technical grade material, respectively. Gammarids kepone and mirex in freshwaterinvertebrate s. were most sensitive to the fenitrothionfield formula­ Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 10-.531-539. tion (87. 7% AI; EC50, 2.0 µg/L), and midge larvae The acute and chronic toxicity of Kepone were most affected by technical grade (EC50, 2.6 (chlordecone [discontinued]) and mirex [discontinued] µg/L), however only 4.0 µg/L of the fieldformulation for daphnids (Daphnia magna), amphipods was required to cause immobilization or death of half ( Gammarus pseudolimnaeus), and midge larvae the test population of midge larvae, and the differ­ (Chironomus plumosus) was determined. Acute toxi­ ence may not have been significant. The EC50 for cities of chlordecone ranged from a 48-h EC50 of 350 acephate was greater than 50,000µg/L for all three µg/Lfor midges to a 96-h LC50 of 180 µg/L for invertebrate species. Five of the insecticides ranged amphi pods. The acute toxicity of mirex exceeded from highly toxic (methomyl, to channel catfish; 96-h 1,000 µg/Lfor all three species. Maximum accept­ LC50, 0.32-0.50 mg/Lfor all formulations tested) to able toxicant concentrations (MATCs) forchlordecone relatively non-toxic (trichlorfon, to fathead minnows; and mirex were based on daphnid reproduction, LC50 >100 mg/L);the sixth, acephate, was only amphipod growth, midge emergence, and survival of slightly toxic to the four species tested (LC50 >50 all three species. The MATC for chlordecone was mg/L). Rainbowtrout were generally the most sensi­ estimated to be between 9 and 18 µg/L for daphnids, tive species and highly so to methomyl, carbaryl, between 1 and 2 µg/Lfor amphipods, and between trichlorfon, and fenitrothion (96-h LC50 values 8.4 and 18 µg/L for midges. The MATC formirex ranged from0. 7 mg/Lfield grade trichlorfon to 2.2 exceeded 34 µg/Lfor daphnids and midges, but was mg/Ltechnical grade carbaryl). In tests with bluegill <2.4 µg/Lfor amphipods. Bioconcentration factors and rainbow trout, the toxicity of methomyl and feni­ for chlordecone and mirex by daphnids were 760 and trothion was little influencedby temperature, pH, or 8025. Estimated halftimes by daphnids were 141 water hardness, but that of carbaryl, aminocarb, and and 12 h forchlordecone and mirex, respectively. trichlorfon generally increased with increasing tem­ perature or pH, or both. 272. SANDERS, H.O., M.T. Finley, and J.B. Hunn. 1983. Acute toxicity of six forest insecti­ 273. SANTILLO, D.J., P.W. Brown, and D.M. cides to three aquatic invertebrates and four Leslie. 1989. Response of songbirds to fishes. Tech Paper 110, U.S. Fish and Wildlife glyphosate-induced habitat changes on Service, Washington, D.C. 5 pp. clearcuts. J Wildl Manage 53:64-71. Technical grade and fieldformulati ons of six Vegetation complexity was reduced on clear-cut experimental forestinsecticides (methomyl, carbaryl, areas treated with glyphosate (Roundup). Total aminocarb, trichlorfon, fe nitrothion, and acephate) numbers of birds, common yellowthroats, Lincoln's were tested for acute toxicity using three aquatic sparrows, and alder flycatchers were reduced on invertebrate species (Daphnia magna, Gammarus treated clear-cuts as compared to control areas. pseudolimnaeus ,and Chironomusplumosus) and Songbird densities were correlated with habitat com­ four piscine species (bluegill, rainbow trout, fathead plexity, especially hardwood regeneration, foliage minnow, and channel catfish). Methomyl, carbaryl, height diversity, and vegetation height. The authors aminocarb, trichlorfon, and fenitrothion were highly suggested that leaving untreated patches of vegeta­ toxic (EC50, 100-1,000 µg/L) or extremely toxic tion and staggering herbicide treatments on large (EC50 <100 µg/L) to the invertebrate species depend­ clear-cuts should help to maintain bird populations ing upon species and formulation. The fieldformula­ similar to those on untreated areas. tion of aminocarb (17% AI;EC 50, 19-30 µg/L) was at least an order of magnitude more toxic to all three 274. SCHAFER, E.W. 1971. Acuteoral toxicity invertebrate species than was the technical grade of 369 pesticidal, pharmaceutical and other material (EC50, 145-320 µg/L). The methomyl field chemicals to wild birds. TuxicAp plied Al) formulation (24% was also more toxic than the Pharmacol 21:315-330. technical grade, but differences were slight. The acute oral toxicity of 369 chemicals was Methomyl and carbaryl were most toxic to Daphnia determined forone or more species of wild birds. (EC50, 7 .6 and 5.6 µg/L, respectively) and least toxic Red-winged blackbirds or European starlings were to Gammarus(EC 50, 920 and 16 ppm). The relative always included to allow comparison. Of the total toxicity of aminocarb to invertebrates was dependent number of chemicals tested, 180 (many of which are upon the species and formulation. Dahpnids were pesticides) were toxic to one or more species at a con­ most sensitive to the fieldformulation (EC50, 19 centration of 100 mg/kg or less. Bay 25141 [fensul­ µg/L)and gammaridsto the technicalgrade (EC 50, fothion] was most toxic to both red-winged blackbirds 145 µg/L). Daphnids and midge larvae were equally and European starlings. LD50 values were 0.24 and sensitive to trichlorfon, either as technical grade or 0.56 mg/kg, respectively. Red-wings were more sensi­ as 80% wettable powder; the EC50 ranged from 0.08 tive to chemicals than starlings, and both were more to 0.12 µg/Lfor thetwo species. Gammarids were sensitive than rats. least sensitive to the technical grade material; EC50

49 275. SCHOETTGER, R.A., and J.L. Ludke. 1980. two species offish (brook trout and Atlantic salmon) Research strategyfor anticipating contami­ and two invertebrate species (Gammarus pseudolim­ nant threats to aquatic resources. Pp 1-17 in naeus and a stonefly,Peteronarcys californica) were W.R. Swain and V.R. Shannon (eds), determined. The three chemicals most toxic to thefish Proceedings of the Third USA-USSR species tested were Matacil, Dylox, and Sumithion. Symposium of the Effect of Pollutants upon The96-h LC50 values (pH 7.5; temperature 17 C) Aquatic Ecosystems: Theoretic81 Aspects of were 0.13, 0.50, and 1.8 m�, respectively. Allthree Aquatic Tuxicology. EPA-600/9-80-034. U.S. were more toxicat higher than lower temperatures. Environmental ProtectionAgency, Duluth, Thetoxicity of Matacil and Dyloxincreased with Minn. 241 pp. increased pH. Technical grade Dylox and Sumithion The number of potential chemical contaminants were more toxic than fieldformulati ons, but the field that may pollute U.S. lakes andstream s has been esti­ formulation of Matacil (17% Al)was as much as sev­ mated to be in excess of 87,000. Thereare 129 priority entytimes more toxicthan thetechnical grade. toxic substanceslisted by the EPA forimmediate Carbary}and Dylox toxicities increased with increased assessment of production, distribution, disposal, toxici­ water hardness. Orthene and Dimilin were least toxic ty, environmental fate, and ecological impact. to fish(LC 50, >100 m�). With theexception of Hundreds more are awaiting ecological hazard evalua­ Orthene (LC50, > 100 m�), all chemicals tested were tion. As manpower and scientific resources are limit­ acutely toxic to the two invertebrate species. ed, members of the environmental research communi­ Stoneflieswere generally more sensitive than ty must recognize and emphasize thenece ssity of not amphipods; 96-h LC50 values ranged from 0.002 mg only placing priorities on fish and wildlife resources, carbaryl/L to 0.035 mg Dylox/L for the former and but also in increasing efforts in determining which of from 0.012 mg Matacil/L to 0.040 mg Dylox/L for the the many pollutants are reaching or may reach these latter. Brook trout eggs and sac-fry were exposed to resources. To accomplish thistask, the U.S. Fish and Sumithion at a concentration of 0.1 m� with no sig­ Wildlife Service is developing its research priorities so nificant effectson either life stage. Thetwo fish that (1) emphasis may be placed on thoseresources species were also exposed to paired mixtures of the six that can least afford to be lost, and (2) valuable time is insecticides and to a Dylox/Guthion [azinphos-methyl] not lost studying a contaminant or polluting activity mixture. The toxicities of all combinationswere addi­ unlikely to affect a priority resource. Research should tive with theexception of theDylox/G uthion mixture be designed to provide information on the real or which was synergistic. Carbary] and Matacil were potential effects a contaminantmay have on priority about two times more toxic to brook trout containing resources. The authors suggest that such results Aroclor 1254 (PCB) residues of 2.3 µgig thanto trout should enable the researcher to make remedial recom­ with lower PCB concentrations. mendations which could include one or more of thefol­ lowing: 277. SCHUYTEMA, G.S.,D.F. Krawczyk, W.L. (1) legislative actionto regulateor prohibit themanu- Griffis, A. V. Nebeker, and M.L. Robideaux. 1990. facture, use, or disposal of a chemical, Hexachlorobenzene uptake by fathead min­ (2) modification of management techniques or prac­ nows and macroinvertebrates in recirculating tices to protect fish or other aquatic resources from the sediment/water systems. Arch Environ Contam contaminant, Tuxicol 19:1-9. (3) changes in the development, use, or application of Fathead minnows, earthworms (Lumbricus certain chemicals, variegatus), and amphipods (Hyalella azteca and (4) suggested substitute chemicals which prove less Gammarus lacustris) were exposed to hexachloroben­ harmful,or, zene (HCB) in water with and without an HCB­ (5) selection of a less harmful activity or process over spiked sediment bed. HCB concentrations in water one that is proven deleterious. were maintained by recirculation through HCB­ packed columns. Significantbioaccumulation (bio­ 276. SCHOETTGER, R.A., and W.L. Mauck. 1978. concentration factors ranged from 6, 700 to 95,400) Tuxicityof experimental forestinsecticides to was observed in water-only and water-sediment fishand aquatic invertebrates. Pp 11-27 in W.R. exposures. With the exception of th e two amphi pod Swain and N.K. Ivanikiw (eds), Proc, 1st and 2nd species, bioaccumulation was greater in water-only USA-USSR Symp on theEffects of Pollutants systems than in water-sediment systems. No signifi­ Upon Aquatic Ecosystems, Borok, Jaroslavl, cant increase in rate of uptake of HCB by the Oblost, USSR, June 22-26, 1976, Vol. II. Spec exposed organisms when exposed to water-sediment Puhl EPA-600/3-78-076. U.S. Environmental concentrations occurred; however, HCB sediment ProtectionAgency , Environmental Research concentrations did increase over time. Higher tissue Laboratory, Duluth, Minn. 158 pp. HCB levels in water-only systems suggest that sedi­ The acute toxicities of six experimental forest ments were a more efficient sink for HCB th an were insecticides (Sumithion [fenitrothion], carbaryl, Dylox the organisms, and that sediments thus ameliorated [trichlorfon], Matacil [aminocarb; discontinued 1989], the effects of HCB on the organisms. Dimilin [diflubenzuron] and Orthene [acephate]) for

50 278. SCHWAZBACH, S.E., L. Shull, and C.R. approach to the entire rural environment, society Grau. 1988. Eggshell thinning in ringdoves and economy. The goals of this approach are to exposed to p,p'-dicofol. Arch Environ Contam increase biological productivity, improve farm Tuxicol 17:219-227. income, protect the environment, and to assure sus­ Ringed turtle-doves fed diets containing either tainable development by allowing more effective 33.4 ppm dicofol or 37 ppm p,p'-DDE produced eggs adaptation to market trends, the climate, and other with shells 7.2 or 5.6% thinner than birds receiving extraneous conditions. Implementation of this no toxicant. In addition, birds receiving the dicofol­ approach in various areas of China has shown mea­ and DDE-treated diets produced an average of 1.88 sured success. and 1. 79 eggs per clutch, compared with 1.97 eggs per clutch from control birds. The proportion of eggs 281. SIERRA,M.T. M., Teran, A. Gallego, M.J. found cracked in the nest were 16.9, 7.9, and 5. 7% for Diez, and D. Santiago. 1987. Organochlorine birds treated with dicofol, DDE, and no toxicant. contamination in three species of diurnal rap­ Dicofol residues in eggs ranged from 2.62 to 22.58 tors in Leon, Spain. Bull Environ Contam ppm. Only eggs fromdicofol-treated birds showed Tuxicol 38:254-260. any significantcorrelation between residue concen­ OC residue concentrations in tissues and organs trations and percent shell thinning. of thekestrel, sparrow hawk, and red kite were determined. The sparrow hawk was the most con­ 279. SHEEHAN,P. J., A.Baril, P. Mineau, D.K. taminated; DDE concentrations were high in all Smith, A. Harfenist, and W.K. Marshall. 1987. organ and tissue samples and averaged 48.6 ppm in Impact of pesticides on the ecology of prairie­ fat. The least contaminated species was the red kite; nesting ducks. Tech Rep Ser 19. Canadian liver and muscle tissue samples contained only 0.69 Wildlife Service, Environment Canada, Ottawa. ppm total organochlorines. 625 pp. This report is perhaps the most comprehensive 282. SMITH,A.E. 1980. Analytical procedure treatise currently available regarding the impacts of for bromoxynil and its octanoate in soils: per­ pesticides on waterfowl. Begun in 1983, it presents a sistence studies with bromoxynil octanoate in review of most of the literature through the summer combination with otherherbi cides. Soil Pestic of 1985. Detailed information is presented regarding Sci 11:341-346.. the ecology of prairie sloughs and waterfowl, the In a laboratory study, 90% of an original treat­ overlap between waterfowl nesting and pesticide use, ment of 3 µgbromoxyniVg soil disappeared within 7 and the main threats associated with both insecti­ days after application. On field test plots treated cides and herbicides as well as the problem of off-site with 1 kg/ha in combination with asulam and MCPA, contamination. An executive summary is presented residues were absent from the top 10 cm of soil at 10 in the final chapter. weeks post-treatment.

280. SHUTAIN, G., and H. Chunru. 1988. 283. SMITH, G.J. 1987. Pesticide use and toxi­ Problems of theenvironment in Chinese agri­ cologyin relation to wildlife: organophospho­ culture and a strategyfor its ecological devel­ rus and carbamate compounds. Res Puhl 170, opment (an overview). INTECOL Bull 16:5-16. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,Wa shington, D.C. The authors list seven major problems that 171 pp. have arisen due to rapid changes in agricultural This publication presents data relating to practices in China. These are (1) the conversion of regional use of 0 P and carbamate pesticides through ­ forest and grassland to agriculture which leads to out the U.S. and data on the chemical properties, soil erosion, desertification, and frequentnatural dis­ acute toxicity, and persistence of 108 compounds. asters, (2) a general decrease of soil fertility and land Acute toxicity data are presented for a variety of non­ quality due to intensive agricultural use, (3) pollution target mammalian, avian, and amphibian species. (e.g., fertilizer pollution, more than 80% of which was nitrogen, averaging 208 kg/ha annually, more than 284. SMITII, G.J.,J.W. Spann, and E.F. Hill. twice the world average; pesticide pollution of 13 mil­ 1986. Cholinesterase activity in black-crowned lion ha, which, coupled with urban and industrial night-herons exposed to fenthion-treated pollution, resulted in decreased food grain production water. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 15:83-86. of >5 million tons annually), (4) water resource deple­ The black-crowned night-heron was used to tion, (5) a decrease in the amount of cultivated land assess the effects of fenthion,a mosquito control relative to population numbers, (6) increasing costs of agent, on wading birds. Birds were exposed in an foodproduction, and (7) a slowdown in agricultural experimental chamber which contained water treat­ production. The authors propose that the solution to ed with 1 and 10 times the recommended field appli­ these problems will require the application of ecologi­ cation rate of 112 g AI/ha. Results suggestedthat the cal agricultural practices. Ecological agriculture, birds received only a dermal exposure. No mortality which combines the rationale of traditional farming was observed during the study, and brain ChE activi­ with modern science and technology, takes a systems ty was not significantly inhibited. Plasma BChE was

51 inhibited relative to controls in the birds exposed to ranged from 9 to 220 µg/L. Suspended sediment lev­ the higher dosage. Butyrylcholinesterase levels in els were correlated withpe sticide levels, but nitrate­ birds from the lowest treatment group did not differ N concentrations were not. significantlyfr om those of the control group birds. The authors concluded that mortality of birds under 288. SPRAY, C.J.,H.Q.P . Crick, and A.D.M. Hart. field conditions is likely due to ingestion of treated 1987. Effects of aerial applications of fenitroth­ water or of poisoned invertebrate fauna. ion on bird populations of a Scottish pine plan­ tation. J Appl Ecol 24:29-47. 285.SOLBERG, K.L. 1989. Chemical treatment Application of fenitrothion at 300 g/hafrom heli­ of monodominant cattail stands in semiperma­ copters using ultra-low-volume techniques had no nent wetlands: duck, invertebrate, and vegeta­ apparenteff ect on breeding bird density or the num- tion response. M.S. thesis, South Dakota State her of singing birds pre- and post-treatment. The Univ., Brookings. number of coal tits breeding in nest boxes, the propor­ Glyphosate [Roundup] treatment of wetlands tion of broods hatched and fledged, clutch size, and for cattail control seemed to enhance the habitat for brood size were not significantlydiff erent from the use by breeding ducks. Aquatic invertebrate abun­ same parameters noted in control areas. Although dance was neither enhanced nor adversely affected nest visiting rates by parent coal tits and nestling by the treatment; however, aquatic invertebrate diets were different between treated and untreated diversity (as determined from activity trap samples) areas, such differences were complex and could have was greater in treated wetlands 1 year post-treat­ been caused by factors other than spraying. ment. Benthic macroinvertebrate populations were not directly monitored. . 289. STADNYK, L., R.S. Campbell, and B.T. Johnson. 1971. Pesticide effect on growth and 286. SOMASUNDARAM, L., J.R. Coats, K.D. 14C assimilation in a freshwater alga. Bull Racke, and H.M. Stahr. 1990. Application of Environ Contam Toxicol 6:1-8. the Microtox system to assess the toxicity of The effects of diuron, carbaryl, 2,4-D, DDT, pesticides and their hydrolysis metabolites. dieldrin, toxaphene [discontinued 1989], and diazi­ Bull Environ Contam Tuxicol 44:254-259. non on subcultures of the algal species Scenedesmus Twenty-one chemicals, including 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T, quadricaudata were evaluated under static condi­ carbaryl, fonofos, parathion, carbofuran, chlorpyrifos, tions. Initial concentrationsin each test were either isofenphos, diazinon, and several of their respective 0.1 or 1.0 mg/L. The most conspicuous effects were hydrolytic metabolites, were tested for toxicity to the foundwith the herbicide diuron and the insecticide marine bioluminescent bacterium, Photobacterium carbaryl. Following the second day of treatment with phosphoreum, using the Microtoxsystem. Acute tox­ diuron, there was a significantreduction in cell num­ bers which continued through the remainder of the icities (EC50 values) of the pesticides ranged from 5.0 and 5.2 µg/ml for carbaryl and fonofos,respective­ 10-day test. Final dry-weight biomass was 0.05 mg/L ly, to 100.7 µg/mlfor 2,4-D. Hydrolytic metabolite in treated subcultures as opposed to 46.8 mg/L in the toxicities ranged from 1.8 µg/ml for2,4,5- controls. Carbon assimilation was also significantly trichlorophenol, a metabolite of 2,4,5-T (approximate­ suppressed (up to 90%) in the treated cultures. In ly 25 times more toxic than 2,4,5-T), to 886.4 µg/ml contrast, carbaryl stimulated cell growth (44 to 57% for hydroxypyrimidine, which was about 80 times more biomass in the two treated subcultures) con­ less toxic than its parent product, diazinon. comitant with an increase in carbon assimilation. Although 2,4-D was least toxic, its hydrolysis Cell numbers were reduced with all other pesticides metabolite 2,4-dichlorophenol was among the most tested except diazinon, which showed no effect on cell number, photosynthesis, or biomass. toxic (EC50, 5.0 µg/ml). Isofenphosresults were sim­ ilar. This insecticide (EC50, 97 .8 µg/ml) was nearly 20 times less toxic than one of its metabolites, iso­ 290. STARY, P. , J.P. lqon, and F. Leclant. 1988. Biocontrol of aphids by the introduced propyl salicylate (EC50, 5.6 µg/ml). Lysiphlebus testaceipes (Cress.) (Hym., 287. SPALDING,R.F ., and D.D.Snow . 1989. Aphidiidae) in Mediterranean France. J Appl Stream levels of agrichemicals during a spring Ent 105:74-87. discharge event. Chemosphere 19:1129-1140. This paper reports the success of efforts aimed During spring runoff, atrazine, cyanazine, at the biological control of two aphids (Toxoptera alachlor, and metolachlor maximum· concentrations aurantii and Aphis citricola) exotic to southern in Shell Creek, Nebraska, were 89, 76, 46, and 3 France. A parasitoid, Lysiphlebus testaceipes, intro­ µg/L, respectively. Peak concentrations occurred duced from Cuba proved to be extremely successful prior to the maximum discharge rate of 781 cfs. throughout the Mediterranean region in controlling Other residues were detected at low levels ( <2 µg/L) these citrus pests. during the run-offevent. These included butylate, EPTC, metolachlor, metribuzin, propachlor, triflu­ ralin, and disulfoton. TOtal dissolved pesticide levels

52 291. STONE, W.B. 1979. Poisoning of wild birds Based upon the presence of 3-5 ppm of methami­ by organophosphate and carbamate pesticides. dophos, an acephate metabolite, at 4 h post-spray, New York Fish Game J 26:37-47. the authors suggestthat although malathion may This paper documents eight instances of bird not be hazardous, acephate may pose a threat to mortality due to 0 P or carbamate poisoning. Three insectivorous species. of the eight cases appeared to be intentional. Diazinon used to treat a lawn was the cause of death 294. STUBER, P.J. (coord). 1988. Proceedings of some 200 mallards and black ducks near of the national symposium on protection of Rochester, New Yo rk, during the fall of 1970. wetlands from agricultural impacts. Biol Rep Diazinon and Dursban [chlorpyrifos] applied to a golf 88(16), U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, course in May 1974 resulted in the death of eight Washington, D.C. 221 pp. Canada geese in Suffolk County, New Yo rk. Gizzard This report contains 27 papers covering four contents contained 0.99 and 0.38 ppm diazinon and major topics: agricultural impacts on wetlands, chlorpyrifos, respectively. A similar incident, again national legislative wetland protection strategies, in Suffolk County, occurred in October 1976; 24 state and regional wetland protection strategies, and Canada geese were poisoned by diazinon. Liver con­ wetland and agriculture management strategies. centrations fortwo samples were 0.018 and 0.014 Little definitive information regarding agricultural ppm, and the gizzards contained 0.34 and 5.3 ppm chemical impacts on wetland habitats was presented; diazinon. Some 25 geese were poisoned by Dasanit however, many of the papers provide excellent [fensulfothion] applied to- a golf course in Rockland overviews of the general problem as well as some County in June 1977. Crop and gizzard contents con­ methods which may be used to remedy many of the tained 4.0 and 25.0 ppm, and sod samples contained more specific problems associated with wetland 13 ppm of the insecticide. Individuals of several preservation and management. species were found dead at an industrial lagoon near Middleport. The cause of death was determined to be 295. SULLIVAN, D.S., T.P. Sullivan,and T. carbofuran. Of the three intentional cases reported, Bisalputra. 1981. Effects of Roundup herbicide carbofuran granules mixed with wheat (2,000 ppm on diatom populations in the aquatic environ­ carbofuran), parathion-treated com, and bread mental of a coastal forest. Bull Environ soaked in diazinon (14,300 ppm diazinon) were used Contam Thxicol 26:91-96. as avicides. Roundup (356 µg/L glyphosate) was applied to experimental areas at the recommended application 292. STROMBORG, K.L., C.E. Grue, J.D. Nichols, rate of 2.2 kg AI/ha. Although some differences were G.R. Hepp, J.E. Hines, and H.C. Bourne. 1988. noted between treatment and control areas, the Postfledgingsurvival of European starlings authors generally concluded that variation in abun­ exposed as nestlings to an organophosphorus dance of diatoms was mainly determined by habitat - insecticide. Ecology 69:590-601. and seasonal factors. Sixteen-day-old European starlings were orally dosed with 6 mg dicrotophos in com oil/kgbody 296. TOME, M.W., and C.E. Grue. 1990. Spray weight. Controls, receiving only com oil, all fledged deposit in the wetland emergent zone following successfully, but 18.5% of the treated birds died prior an aerial application of ethyl parathion to sun­ to fledging. Weight loss of survivors was significant­ flowers in North Dakota. Pp 27-28 in ly less than controls after treatment, but only slight­ Proceedings of a symposium: environmental ly so at fledging. Brain ChE activity was depressed contaminants and their effectson biota of the an average of 93% in birds dying prior to fledging Northern Great Plains. North Dakota Chapter, (day 18) and was depressed 46% in survivors at day The Wildlife Society, Bismarck. 18. Regular observations of treated and control birds Measurement of spray deposit from an aerial afterfor 10 to 14 weeks aftertreatm ent indicated no application of ethyl parathion in sunflowerfields and significant differences in age at fledging, post-fledg­ in th e emergent vegetation zone of adjacentseasonal ing survival, flockingbehavior, or habitat use. The and semipermanent wetlands was performed in two effects on nestlings appeared to be rapid but readily separate experiments during 1987. The insecticide reversible in survivors. There was no apparent rela­ was applied under optimal conditions and at the nor­ tionship between body mass at fledging and post­ mal recommended rate of 1.12 kg AI/ha. During the fledging survival. firsttrial, the applicator over-sprayed the wetland areas. Spray deposit in three sunflowerfields ranged 293. STROMBORG, K.L., L.C. McEwen, and T. from a mean of 0.06 to 0. 12 kg/ha, and mean concen­ Lamont. 1984. Organophosphate residues in trations in wetland margins ranged between 0.21 grasshoppers fromspraye d rangelands. Chem and 0.40 kg/ha. In two of four wetlands adjacent to Ecol 2:39-45. sunflowerfields, spray deposit in the emergent zone Grasshoppers (Orthoptera) collected from pas­ immediately adjacent to the sunflowerfield was tures sprayed with malathion or acephate were used greater than the deposit in the emergent zone on th e to assess adverse effects on insectivorous birds. opposite side of the wetland. When the entire wet-

53 land was surroundedby sunflowers, no such differ­ 298.TURNBULL, R.E.,F.A. Johnson, M. de los ences were observed. During the second trial, wet­ A. Hernandez,W.B. Wheeler, and J.P. Tuth. lands were not over-sprayed. Deposit in two sunflow­ 1989. Pesticide residues in fulvous whistling­ er fieldsaveraged 0.22 and 0.34 kg AI/ha. Average ducks from southFlorida. J Wildl Manage spray deposit in emergent vegetation zones ranged 53:1052-1057. from 0.07 to 0.25 kg/ha. These data indicate that Thirty fulvous whistling-ducks were collected aerially applied pesticides are deposited into prairie from Everglades AgriculturalArea of south Florida potholes, even when meteorological conditions are and analyzed for OC and OP pesticide residues. excellent and when the applicator attempts to keep Liver tissue from all 30 birds contained contami­ the spray out of the wetland. nants as did 14 of 15 breast muscle samples. A total of 18 contaminants was found,but all were at levels 297. TOME, M.W., C.E. Grue, S. Borthwick, and below those known to pose direct threats to birds or G.A.Swanson. 1990. Effects of an aerial appli­ humans. DDE, dieldrin, and heptachlor epoxide cation of ethyl parathion an selected aquatic residues occurred most frequentlyin breast muscle, invertebrate populations inhabiting prairie whereas livers most frequently contained aldrin (19 pothole wetlands. Pp 31-33 in Proceedings of a of 30 livers; geometric mean = 9.4 ppb), dieldrin, hep­ symposium: environmental contaminants and tachlor epoxide, heptachlor, and DDE, indicating their effects on biota of the NorthernGreat recent illegal use of aldrin and heptachlor. DDT was Plains. North Dakota Chapter, The Wildlife foundin 4of15 breast muscles; the highest concen­ Society, Bismarck. tration was 95.9 ppb. Sources of contamination may Seven macroinvertebrate populations have been from areas outside the U.S. (Coleoptera adults, Coleoptera larvae, Amphipoda, Gastropoda, Odonata, Corixidae, and N otonectidae) 299.WEIS, J.S., and P. Weis. 1989. Tulerance indigenous to prairie pothole wetlands were moni­ and stress in a polluted environment. tored to detect pre- and post-spray differences after BioScience 39:89-95. treatment of adjacent sunflower fieldsby aerial Populations of organisms chronically exposed to application of ethyl parathion. Applications were chemical pollutants may develop increased tolerance made under optimal weather conditions and at the to those pollutants. Increased tolerance may also be recommended rate. In addition to monitoring the induced by pre-exposure to organic pollutants. status of these seven wild populations, survival of Development of tolerance does not appear to be with­ amphipods (Hyalella azteca), waterboatmen out cost, however. Resistance to a specific chemical (Corixidae), damselfly nymphs (Lestes sp) and snails pollutant (methylmercury) in the mummichog, for (Stagnicola elodes) was measured in in situ enclo­ example, decreased the tolerance of eggs and sures. Of the seven populations monitored, only two embryos to salinity and HgCl2 and resulted in slower (Coleoptera larvae and Amphipoda) did not exhibit growth and weakness as adults. The effects noted in significant differences. Adult coleopterans decreased adults, including early reproduction, diminished 83.3 and 76.8% from pre-spray numbers on days 1 growth and regeneration rate, reduced longevity, and and 2 post-spray as compared to decreases of 18.5 less feeding,probably reflect the stress associated and 24.7% in control wetlands. No differences were with living in a contaminated environment. [One noted between treatment and control wetlands after could perhaps expect similar reactions to pesticide 35 days post-spray. After 2 days post-spray, signifi­ induced stress.] cantly more gastropods were found on treated wet­ lands. This appeared to be because snails in treated 300.WHITE, D.H., and E.J.Kolb e. 1985. wetlands tended to floaton the surface with the foot Secondary poisoning of Franklin's gulls in extended. Cholinesterase levels were significantly Texas by monocrotophos. J Wildl Dis 21:76-78. lower in snails from treated wetlands than from con­ Secondarypoisoning from monocrotophos con­ trol wetlands. Odonates were virtually eliminated taminated cicadas was determined to be the cause of from treated wetlands; however, a sixfold increase in death of 45 Franklin's gulls. Brain ChE activity was numbers was observed in control wetlands. 95 to 98% inhibited in dead gulls. A sugarcane field Notonectids reacted similarly. Corixid numbers adjacent to the refuge where the gulls were found decreased significantly 1-2 days post-spray, but then had been treated for sugarcane beetles coincident increased over pre-spray numbers. The increase with cicada emergence a few days prior to discovery seemed to be due to immigration of adult corixids. of thegu lls. Similar results were obtained on a second treatment area with the exception of the am phi pod population 301. WHITE, D.H., and J.T. Seginak. 1990. Brain which generally experienced a significant decrease in cholinesterase inhibition in songbirds from treated wetlands. In the enclosures, all treated pop­ pecan groves sprayed with phosalone and ulations except snails experienced significant mortal­ disulfoton. J Wildl Dis 26:103-106. ity when compared to control populations. Phosalone had little effects on ChE activity of birds from treated (0.83 kg AI/ha) groves. Eleven of 15 blue jays from groves treated with disulfoton,

54 however, had moderate (32%) to severe (72%) ChE 306. WHITE, D.H., K.A.King, C.A. Mitchell,E.F . inhibition. Although no direct mortalitywas Hill, and T.G. Lamont. 1979. Parathion causes observed in disulfoton-treatedpecan groves, other secondary poisoning in a laughing gull breed­ studies have shown rapid disappearance of bird car­ ing colony. Bull Environ ContamTo xicol casses fromagricultural areas. Additional research 23:281-284. is needed, especially since disulfoton is the pesticide Parathion contamination of insects in Texas cot­ of choice to control the Russian wheat aphid ton fieldsapparently caused the death of over 200 (Diuraphis noxia) in the western great plains. laughing gull chicks and adults. Brain ChE activity was depressed by 57 to 89% and 75 to 90% in dead 302. WHITE, D.H., C.A.Mitchell, and E.F. Hill. adults and chicks, respectively. Parathion residues 1983. Parathion alters incubation behavior of in the GI tracts of dead birds ranged from <0.02 to 10 laughing gulls. Bull Environ ContamToxicol ppm wet weight. 31:93-97. Incubating laughing gulls treated orally with 6 307. WHITE, D.H., W.J. Fleming, and K.L. Ensor. mg parathion/kgbody weight spent significantly less 1988. Pesticide contamination and hatching time on the nest the firstand second days post-treat­ success of waterbirds in Mississippi. J Wildl ment than did controls. Manage 52:724-729. During 1984, waterfowl wintering on the Ya zoo 303. WHITE, D.H., C.A. Mitchell, E.J.Kolb e, and National Wildlife Refuge were contaminated with J.M. Williams. 1982. Parathion poisoning of DDT and DDE, but at levels below those known to wild geese in Texas. J Wildl Dis 18:389-391. affect waterfowl. Higher than expected levels of Seventy-two geese were found deadas a result DDE were found in the eggs of some nesting birds. of parathion poisoning in the Hagerman National This was especially noticeable in green-backed heron Wildlife Refuge, Texas, during February 1981. From eggswhere residue levels ranged fr om 0.60 to 43.0 6 to 20 ppm parathion (wet weight) were found in the ppm wet weight. Hatching success and eggshell proventriculi of six of the dead birds. Brain ChE thickness in green-backed herons and anhingas were activity ranged from 78 to 85% of normal in Canada negatively correlated with DDE residue concentra­ and snow geese, respectively. tions in the eggs. The threshold level necessaryfor reduced hatching success of green-backed heron eggs 304.WHITE, D.H., C.A.Mitchell, E.J. Kolbe, and was 5.1 to 10.0 ppm DDE wet weight. W.H. Ferguson. 1983. Azodrin poisoning of waterfowl in rice fields in Louisiana. J Wildl 308. WILKINSON, C.F. 1987. Science and poli­ Dis 19:373-375. tics of pesticides. Pp 25-46 in G.J. Marco, R.M. Azodrin (monocrotophos)was responsible for Hollingworth, and W. Durham (eds), Silent the death of approximately 100 birds (mostly water­ spring revisited� American Chemical Society, fowl) near Sweet Lake,Louisiana Rice soaked in the Washington, D.C. 214 pp. insecticide was broadcast aerially over an already­ This paper provides a good overview of past and planted rice field, apparently to kill birds feedingin present procedures in the regulation of pesticides as the field. Monocrotophos was found in the proven­ well as some basic information regarding the sciences tricular contents of all snow geese and in three of five of toxicology and risk assessment. blue-winged teal analyzed, rangingfrom 0.65 to 110 309.WINGER, P.V.,D.P . Schultz, and W.W. ppm. Rice seed samples collected on-site contained Johnson. 1985. Organochlorine residues in 160 720 to ppm monocrotophos wet weight. Brain fishfrom theYaz oo National Wildlife Refuge. ChE inhibition in dead birds ranged from 82% in Proc Ann Conf SoutheastAssoc Fish Wildl green-winged teal to 89% in great-tailed grackles. Agencies 39:125-131. All samples of fishcollected from ninelocations 305. , D.H., C.A.Mitchell, L.D. Wynn, E.D. WHITE on the Ya zoo National Wildlife Refuge, Mississippi, Flickinger, and E.J. Kolbe. 1982. contained at least 10 ppm toxaphene and DDT Organophosphate insecticide poisoning of (including metabolites). Endrin, PCB, dieldrin, and Canada geese in the Texas Panhandle. J Field benzene hexachloride residues were also detected in Ornithol 53:22-27. some of the samples, but at concentrations generally Parathion and methyl parathion were the cause <1 ppm. The major exception was 5.68 and 2.06 ppm of some 1,600 waterfowl deaths at a Texasplaya lake. dieldrin and endrin, respectively, foundin gizzard GI tracts of those geese examined were packed The shad at one site sampled in 1982. DDT and with winter wheat leaves and stems. Parathion toxaphene residues were greatest in fishfrom sites residues in the birds examined rangedfrom 0.8 to receiving agricultural runoff. Gizzard shad from 17 .0 ppm ·wet weight, and methyl parathion residues upper Swan Lake contained 280.33 and 23.49 ppm ranged from 0.5 to 6.3 ppm. Brain ChE activity in toxaphene and DDT (plus metabolites). the dead birds was about 75% below normal.

55 310. WOODWARD,D.F., and W.L.Mauck. 1980. only one of seven birds collected on day 0 exhibited Tuxicityof fivefore st insecticides to cutthroat ChE depression (American robin; 23%), all birds from trout and two species of aquatic invertebrates. days 1, 2, and 6 fromthe areas sprayed with 2.26 Bull Environ Contam Thxicol 25:846-854. kg/ha were inhibited. The degree of inhibition in Cutthroat trout and two species of aquatic these birds ranged from 21 (American robin; day 6) to invertebrates, a stonefly (Pteronarcella badia) and an 54% (one dark-eyed junco and one golden-crowned amphipod (Gammarus pseudolimnaeus), were kinglet; both collected on day 6). Results fromthe exposed to technical grade and field formulations of 1.13 kg/ha applications were similar but not as acephate, fenitrothion, trichlorfon, aminocarb, and severe; one of 14 birds from day 0 (a MacGillivray's carbaryl. Cutthroat were most sensitive to warbler) was inhibited by 23%. The majorityof birds aminocarb (field formulation, 17% Al), carbaryl, feni­ collected afterday 0 showed some ChE depression trothion, and trichlorfon (96-h LC50 values ranged ranging from 21 % in two birds (a golden-crowned from 88 µg aminocarb/L to 6. 7 mg field formulation kinglet and a chipping sparrow), both collected on carbaryl/L). The LC50 foracephate was greater than day 2 (Fall 1976) to 65% (dark-eyed junco collected on 100 mg/L. The toxicity of aminocarb, carbaryl, and day 15, Summer 1976). Results were less severe trichlorfon to cutthroat trout increased with increas­ from the 0.56 kg/hacarbaryl application. ing pH and to some extent, with increasing tempera­ Cholinesterase activity was not inhibited in most ture. Stoneflieswere more sensitive to acephate, birds, and none fromday 1 showed ChE depression. aminocarb, and trichlorfon than were amphipods, but Inhibition ranged from 18 to 43% in two dark-eyed amphipods were more sensitive to carbaryl. The tox­ juncos collected 5 days post-spray. Dark-eyed juncos icity of trichlorfon to stoneflies at pH 7 .5 was 10 were most affected by acephate. Of all species col­ times greater than at pH 6.5, and two times greater lected fromthe acephate-sprayed areas, only pine at 8.5 than at 7 .5. Acephate toxicity to stoneflies siskins did not show ChE inhibition. Inhibition was increased with decreasing pH, but the differences generally greater as a result of summer rather than were not as great. The 96-h LC50 values ranged fall acephate application. from 4.3 µg/L (amphipod; fenitrothion; pH 6.5) to >25,000 µg/L (amphipod; acephate; pH 6.5-8.5). 312. ZINKL, J.G., R.B. Roberts, P.J. Shea, and J. From the standpoint of impact on non-target aquatic Lasmanis. 1981. Thxicityof acephate and organisms, acephate was the most acceptable insecti­ methamidophos to dark-eyed juncos. Arch cide tested. Environ Contam Toxicol 10:185-192. The acute oral LD 50 of acephate and methami­ 31 1. ZINKL,J.G., C.J.Benny, and P.J. Shea. dophos (a metabolite of acephate) to dark-eyed juncos 1979. Brain cholinesterase activities of passer­ was 106 and 8 mg/kg, respectively. Birds dying after ine birds in forests sprayed with cholinesterase exposure to acephate had brain ChE levels 80% inhibiting insecticides. Pp 356-365 in F. Peter below those of control birds. Cholinesterase depres­ (ed), Animals as monitors of environmental pol­ sion in birds dying from methamidophos poisoning lutants. National Academy of Sciences, was 60% below controls. The 5-day feedingLC 50 for Washington, D.C. acephatewas 1,485 mg/kg. Brain ChE activities of Carbary} (Sevin-4-oil), trichlorfon (Dylox), and birds which died early in this part of the study were acephate (Orthene) were sprayed aerially on several less depressed (51.5%) than those dying later 128- to 800-ha forest plots in southwestern Montana (69.6%), and brain residues of the two chemicals and northeastern Oregon during a pilot test for con­ were lower than in the birds of the acute oral LD 50 trol of western spruce budworm (Choristoneura occi­ studies. Brain ChE activity returned to normal with­ dentalis). Application rates were 0.56, 1.13, or 2.26 in 3 days of receiving a single sublethal dose of kg/hafor acephate, 1.13 or 2.26 kg/hafor carbaryl, acephate. and 1.13 kg/ha fortrichlorf on. Birds were collected 0, 1, 2, and 3 or more days post-spray. The effect of 313. RUIQUIN, X., X. Yo ngxiang, and G. Shirong. trichlorfon application on brain ChE activity was 1989. Tuxicity of the new pyrethroidpesticide, evaluated for 10 passerine species. Two of 28 birds deltamethrin, to Daphnia magna. Hydrobiol collected on day 0 (western tanagers; 21 and 27% 1881189:411-413. depression) and one of 21 collected on day 3 (evening Deltamethrin was highly toxic toboth neonate (6- grosbeak; 19. 7% depression) had depressed ChE to 24-h age) andjuvenile (48- to 72-h age) cladocerans. activity when compared to controls. As a result of Overall, neonates were most sensitive to the chemical. the 1.13 kg/ha carbaryl application, only one (moun­ The 24- and 48-h EC5o (immobilization)valu es were tain chickadee; 21% inhibition) of 48 birds represent­ 0. 113 and 0.031 µWL,respe ctively. Althoughthere was ing 10 species collected on day 0 was affected by the no significantdiff erence between the48-h EC50 values insecticide. The 2.26 kg/ha carbaryl spray resulted forneonates and juveniles, 96-h tests indicated in ChE inhibition of two Cassin's finches collected on neonateswere six times more sensitivethan juveniles day 1. None of the other·57 birds collected had ChE µWL) (EC50 values, 0.003 and 0.018 for thisexposure inhibition. Acephate caused much more ChE inhibi­ period. The concentration at which no effects were tion than either trichlorfon or carbaryl. Although observed was 0.01 µWLfor bothage groups.

56 314. BENNE1T, R.S., E.E. Klaas, J.R. Coats, and 318. KENNEDY, H.D., and D.F. Walsh. 1970. E.J. Kolbe. 1986. Fenvalerateconcentrations Effects of malathion on two warmwaterfishes in the vegetation, insects, and small mammals and aquatic invertebrates in ponds. Tech of an old-field ecosystem. Bull Environ Contam Paper 55, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Thxicol 36:785-792. Washington, D.C. 13 pp. Fenvalerate (Pydrin) was applied to three 1-ha Testponds were treated biweekly with either 0, old-fieldtest plots at a rate of 0.112 kg AI/hatwice in 0.002, or 0.020 ppm malathion. Bluegill and channel 1980 and twice in 1981. Immediately after applica­ catfish losses during the experiment could not be cor­ tion, fenvalerate concentrations were as high as 12.1 related with malathion concentration; greatest losses ppm on vegetation, but this declined to <1 ppm by were observedin untreated ponds. In addition, day 24 post-spray. Degradation was more rapid after bluegill growth rates were highest in the ponds the second application each year than after the first receiving 0.020 ppm malathion. Likewise, catfish (half life 6-7 days and 11 days, respectively). Insect growth was greatest in the ponds receiving the high­ samples contained <0.5 ppm. The highest mean val­ est dosage; however, length gain in catfishwas great­ ues were foundin short-homed grasshoppers est in untreated ponds. Macroinvertebrate densities (Acrididae; 0.33 ppm). In small mammals, the high­ were _determined from artificial substrate sampler est concentration (1.0 ppm) was from a meadow vole data. Although there were no significantdiff erences (Microtus pennsylvanicus). between control and low-treated ponds, the total number of organisms were significantly lower in 315. BENNE1T, R.S., Jr. , E.E. Klaas,J.R. Coats, high- than in low-treated or control ponds. About M.A. Mayse, and E.J. Kolbe. 1983. Fenvalerate 70% of the total number ofbenthic species were from residues in nontarget organisms from treated the family Chironomidae. Compared to control cotton fields. Bull Environ Con tam Tuxicol ponds, there were significant reductions of chirono­ 31:61-65. mids in both the low- and high-treated ponds after Organisms were collected 5 days afteran aerial the third application of malathion. Mayflies application of 0.112 kg AI/ha. Fenvalerate residues (Baetidae), comprising about 24% of the total ben­ were detected in 10 of 39 samples. Concentrations thos, were also significantlyreduced in treated ponds ranged from 0.01 ppm in the house mouse (Mus afterthe third treatment; heptageniid mayflies,origi­ musculus) to 0.55 ppm in a ground beetle (Calosoma nally low in numbers, did not recover afterthree sp). Snails [species not stated], golden shiners, and applications of the pesticide. mosquitofish ranked second, third, and fourth with concentrations of 0.53, 0.4 7, and 0.32 ppm, respec­ 319. KENNEDY, H.D., L.L. Eller, and D.F. Walsh. tively. Concentrations in all other samples were 1970. Chronic effects of methoxychlor of <0.25 ppm. Ground beetles were trembling when bluegills and aquatic invertebrates. Tech found. It is likely that 0.55 ppm is near the lethal Paper 53, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, concentration forthis species. Washington, D.C. 18 pp. Bluegillsexposed to methoxychlor at concentra­ 316. DANIELS,S.A., M. Munawar, and C.I. tionsof 0, 0.01, or 0.04 ppm in ponds for a period of 13 Mayfield. 1989. Improved elutriation tech­ weeks exhibited pathologic changes in various tissues nique for the bioassessment of sediment con­ and organs (mainly liverand circulatory system). The taminants. Hydrobiol 1881189:619-631. mortality observed during the experiment could not be The mixing efficiencyof the rotarytumbler was correlated with methoxychlorconcent rations. No dif­ compared to that of compressed air, wrist-action ferences in growth were noted betweenfishes from the shaker and reciprocal shaker methods. Results indi­ treatment and control ponds. Some bioaccumulation cated that the rotary tumbler method produced the occurred. Fish in the high-treated ponds contained21 most consistent bioassay-supportable data and was ppm methoxychlor by day 3, which was metabolized or also the most efficient procedure when used for 1 h excreted by day 56. Chironomids made up 7 4% of the with 1:4 sediment-water mixtures. total benthos in the high-treated ponds as opposed to 43 and 42% from the low-treated and control ponds, 317. ANDRUSCH, T. 1989. Core sampler for soft respectively. Heptageniidmayflies were scarce in the bottom sediments with lower closing mecha­ high-treated ponds. Methoxychlor residues were not nism. ActaHydrochem Hydrobiol 17:699-700. detected in bottom sediments. A coresampler forsoft and liquid sediment sam­ pling from either shallow or deep water is described in 320. OBERHEU,J.C., R.D. Soule, and M.A. Wolf. detail sufficient to allow construction of the device. 1970. Correlation of cholinesterase levels in test animals and exposure levels resultingfrom thermal fog and aerial sprayappl ications of Dursban insecticide. Down Earth 26:12-16. Dursban [chlorpyrifos] was applied to two test sites in Brevard County, Florida, by two different methods. Rats, domestic chicks, mullet (Mugil sp),

57 blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus), and shrimp 324. EISELE, P.J. 1975. Effects of methoxychlor (Penacus sp) were exposed in cages located within on aquatic invertebrate populations and com­ 22.9 m of the foggenerator or spray plane. There munities. Diss Abstr Int 36:1118-1119B. were no significantdiffer ences in either mortality or Continuous-flowacute and chronic bioassays cholinesterase activity in test animals from either and continuous dosing of a small stream were used to experiment when compared with controls or with assess the effects of methoxychlor on aquatic inverte­ each other. The authors concluded that when used in brates. Acute 96-h bioassays indicated a tenfold dif­ accordance with label instructions, Dursban concen­ ferencebetween species. An amphiphod trations in the environment should be less than those (Gammarus pseudolimnaeits) was most sensitive required to cause an adverse impact, at least upon (EC , 0.75 µgiL) and a crayfish (Orconectes virilis) 50 µgiL) those species tested. was least susceptable (EC50, 7.05 to the pesti­ cide. Agreementbetween laboratory and fieldmeth­ 321. SHEA, K.P. 1970. Dead stream. ods was good as an amphipod indigenous to the Environment 12:12-15. stream, Hyallela azteca, was more sensitive to Careless dumping of a mixture of chlordane and methoxychlor than were other benthic or aquatic malathion in xyleneinto a Missouri stream resulted invertebrate species. Species considered to be toler­ in the mortality of large numbers of fish,frogs, ant were generally not affected by the treatment. snakes, and aquatic insects. It was estimated that Caddisfly larvae (Chimarra sp) and the larvae of a some 349,000 fish were lost due to pesticide poison­ dipteran (Hemerodromiasp) both increased in num­ ing. Thirty days after the incident,residue concen­ ber as a result of treatment. trations in fish were still at a level of 8.5 ppm, a level deemed unsafefor human consumption. 325. CAMPBELL, B.C., and R.F. Denno. 1976. Effect of temephos and chlorpyrifos on the 322. EDWARDS,C.A. 1973. Persistentpesti­ aquatic insect communityof a New Jersey salt cides in theenvironment (2nd ed). CRC Press, marsh. Environ Entomol 5:477-483. Cleveland, Ohio. 170 pp. Species richness and diversity of the non-target In this review, the author attempts to bring salt marsh aquatic community were not changed sig­ together many of the comparative data regarding the nificantly as a result of fourbi-wee kly applications amounts of residues in the environment. (recommended rate formosq uito control) of temephos Biomagnification, where substantiated, is discussed. and chlorpyrifos. DDT, aldrin, chlordane, dieldrin, endosulfan,endrin, heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide, methoxychlor, 326. DEJOUX, C., and J.M. Elouard. 1978. toxaphene, 2,4-D, and 2,4,5-T residues in soil, air, Action di l'Abate sur les invertebres aquatiques and water are presented in tabular form with refer­ Cinetique de decrochement a court et moyen ences. Data are also presented forpe sticide residue terme. [Action of Abate on aquatic inverte­ concentrations in soil fauna and flora,aquatic inver­ brates. Detachment kinetic in the short and tebrates, fish and aquatic mammals, plants, birds, medium term.]. Cab ORSTROM Ser Hydrobiol terrestrial mammals, food, feed, and man. One chap­ 11:217-239. ter addresses ways to minimize pesticide residues in Various concentrations of Abate (temephos) the environment. applied at weekly intervals resulted in detachment of non-target invertebrates, especially larvae,from their 323. MARSHALL, C.D., and C.W. Rutschky, m. substratum. Driftrate also increased. Theresponse of 1974. Single herbicide treatment: effect on the theinsec ts and larvae was rapid, with detachment diversity of aquatic insects in Stone Valley occurring almost immediately after theappe arance of Lake, Huntingdon Co., Pa. Proo Pennsylvania thechemical in the water. All invertebrate groups AcadSci 48:127-131. reacted similarly, but baetids and caenids The application of a granular formof 2,4-D (Ephemeroptera), chironomids, and trichopterans (butoxyethanol ester) to a 1.6-ha cove at a rate of appearedto be more sensitive to thepesticide than - 43. 7 kg AI/ha resulted in no overall change in ben­ othertaxa. Biota not previously exposed to temephos thos diversity. Aquatic invertebrate species reacted were extremely sensitive. Greater than5 0% mortality differently with some (chironomid larvae, tabanid of non-target organisms often occurred in such commu­ larvae, and oligochaetes) increasing and some (dam­ nities when temephos was applied at concentrations selfly nymphs) decreasing in numbers after applica­ recommended forcontrol ofblackflies(Simulium sp). tion. The dissolved oxygen concentration dropped to 0 ppm 6 days aftertreatm ent and remained low 327. KINGSBURY, P. , and D.P. Kruetzweiser. throughout the summer. This was apparently due to 1980. Permethrin in streams. For Pest Manage the increased biological oxygen demand required for Inst Rep FPM-X 27. Canadian Forest Service, decomposition of the plant biomass destroyed by the Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario. 42 pp. 2,4-D application. Overall, the short-range effect on The most evident result of two applications of macroinvertebrate community structure seemed to permethrin (17.5 g AI/ha) 5 to 6 days apart forthe be minimal. control of spruce budworms was a decrease in the

58 number of aquatic insects. Consequently, fishfood 331. FINK,R.J. 1975. Effect of simazine on the habits were greatly altered. However, fishmortality reproductive capability of mallard ducks. was not observed. One and one-half months after TuxicolAppl Pharmacol 33:188-189. spraying, insect numbers recovered, and fish food Mallard hens were exposed to simazine at habits returned to normal 4 months post-spray. dietarylevels of either 2.0 or 20.0 ppm fromprior to Pesticide concentrations in water were below detec­ onset of eggproduction through the normal produc­ tion limits within 12 and 48 h post-spray in streams tion cycle. Analysis of seven reproductive parame­ and ponds, respectively. ters revealed that simazine caused no adverse effects on mallard reproduction. 328.BUIKEMA, A.L., E.F. Benfield, and B.R. Niederlehner. 1981. Effects of pollution on 332. MEYERS,S.M., and J.D. Gile. 1986. freshwater invertebrates. J Water Pollut Mallard reproductive testingin a pond envi­ Control Fed 53:1007-1015. ronment: a preliminary study. Arch Environ In additionto reviewing literature regarding Contam Tuxicol 15:757-761. pollutant effects on freshwaterinvertebrate s, the Mallards were exposed to either 8.0 or 80.0 ppm authors also provide a comprehensive bibliography (mg/kg of feed) chlorpyrifos. No significantreproduc­ (105 references) of the then-current literature. tive effects were noted at the lower rate. Birds Specific studies relating to the toxicity of various pes­ receiving 80.0 ppm, however, hatched significantly ticides including glyphosate, DDT, simazine, triflu­ fewer ducklings per successfulnest (5.8) than con­ ralin, toxaphene, fe nvalerate, lindane, mirex, and trols (10.2). None of the ducklings on treatment dieldrin are cited. ponds survived to age 7 days. Control birds produced an average of 8.4 ducklings per successful nest sur­ 329. ANDERSON,R.L. 1983. Toxicity of fen­ viving 7 days or longer. Birds in the high dose group valerate and permethrin to several nontarget ate less prepared food than did control birds, but aquatic invertebrates. Environ Entomol weight loss was less than expected, indicating that 11:1251-1257. these birds must have supplemented their diets with Several species of aquatic invertebrates were natural foods. exposed to fenvalerate or permethrin in a flow­ through system forup to 28 days. The LC50 values decreasedwith increasedexposure time. Behavior changes or mortalitywere observed at concentrations as low as 0.022 and 0.030 µg/Lfor fenvalerate and permethrin, respectively. Amphipods were most sensi­ tive to fe nvalerate. As a result of exposure to perme­ thrin, behavioral changes were generallynoted within a few hours, but mortality did not exceed 50% until at least 14 days of exposure. Bioconcentration factors (concentration in organism/concentrationin water) ranged from 177 to 1,286 forfenval erate in snails, and from 43 to 570 forpermethrin in stoneflies.

330. MULLER, H.D. 1971. Reproductive responses of the mallard duck to subtoxic pes­ ticide ingestion. Poultry Sci50:1610. Beginning approximately 30 days prior to the onset of eggproduction, mallard hens were fed subtoxic levels of either dieldrin (4 ppm) or parathion (10 ppm) in foodfor 90 days. Although no differences in eggproduction or fertilitywere noted when com­ pared to controls,hatchability of eggs from dieldrin­ treated hens was significantlyreduced to less than half that in parathion-treated or controlbirds. Egg shell thickness was significantlyreduced as a result of both treatments; thus hatchability of eggs from dield­ rin-treatedhens was likely due to factorsinfluencing embryo survival rather than to egg shell thinning.

59 APPENDIX

Common and scientific names of fishes mentioned Cackling goose ...... Branta canadensis minima in the text. Californiagull ...... Larus californ icus Canada goose ...... Branta canadensis

Atlantic salmon ...... Salmo salar Canvasback ...... Aythya valisineria

Big eye shiner ...... Notropis hoops Caspian tern ...... Stern a caspia

Blackspotted topminnow ...... Fundulus olivaceus Cassin's finch...... Carpodacus cassinii

Bluegill ...... Lepomis macrochirus Chipping sparrow ...... Sp izella passerina

Brook trout ...... Salvelinus fontinalis Chimney swift ...... Ch aetura pelagica

Brown trout ...... Sal mo trutta Coal tit ...... Parus ater

Californiagrunnion ...... Leuresthes tenuis Common goldeneye ...... Buceph ala clangula

Carp ...... Cyp rin us carpio Common loon ...... Gavia immer

Channel catfish ...... Ic talurus punctatus Common yellowthroat ...... Geothlypis trichas

Chinook salmon ...... Onchorhynchus tsh awytsch a Cooper's hawk ...... Accipiter cooperi

Cutthroat trout ...... Salmo clarki Dark-eyed juncos ...... Junco hyemalis

Fathead minnow ...... Pimephales promelas Dickcissel ...... Spiza americana

Gizzard shad ...... Dorosoma cepedianum Domestic chicken ...... Gallus gallus

Golden shiner ...... Notemigonus crysoleucas Double-crested cormorant . .. .. Ph alacrocorax auritus

Gulf toadfish ...... Opsanus beta Elegant tern ...... Sterna elegans

Largemouth bass .....� ...... Microp terus salmoides European starling ...... Sturnus vulgaris

Mosquito fish ...... Gambusia a/finis Evening grosbeak ...... Coccothraustes vespertin us

Mummichog ...... Fundulus heteroclitus Ferruginous hawk ...... Buteo regalis

Perch ...... Perea fluviatilis Franklin's Gull ...... Larus pipixcan

Rainbow trout ...... Sal mo gairdneri Fulvous whistling-duck ...... Dendrocygna bicolor

Sheatfish...... Silurus glanis Gadwall ...... Anas strepera

Silver carp ...... Hypophthalmichthys molitrix Golden-crowned kinglet ...... Regulus satrapa

Smallmouth bass ...... Micropterus dolomieui Great blue heron ...... Ardea herodias

Yellow perch ...... Perea flavescens Great horned owl ...... Bub o virginianus

Great-tailed grackle ...... Quiscalus mexican us Green-backed heron ...... Bu tori des striatus

Common and scientific names of birds mentioned in Green-winged teal ...... An as crecca the text. Guanay ...... Ph alacrocorax bougain villii

Herring gull ...... Larus argentatus

Alder flycatcher ...... Empidonax alnorum Horned lark ...... Eremophila alpestris

Anhinga ...... Anhinga anhinga House sparrow ...... Passer domesticus

American coot ...... Fulica americana Japanese quail ...... Coturnixjap onica

American kestrel ...... Falco sp arvarius Kestrel ...... Falco tinn unculus

American redstart ...... Setophaga ruticilla Killdeer ...... Ch aradrius vociferus

American robin ...... Tu rdus migra torius Lapland longspur ...... Calcarius lapponicus

American wigeon (baldpate) ...... Anas americana Laughing gull ...... Larus atricilla

Bald eagle ...... Haliaeetus leucoceph alus Least tern ...... Sterna an tillarum

Barn owl ...... fytoalba Lesser scaup ...... Aythya affinis

Barn swallow ...... Hirundo rustica Lincoln's sparrow ...... Melospiza lincolnii

Barred owl ...... Strix varia Loggerhead shrike ...... Lanius ludovicianus

Bay-breasted warbler ...... Dendroica castenea MacGillivray's warbler ...... Oporornis tolmiei

Black duck ...... An as rubrip es Magnolia warbler ...... Dendroica magnolia

Black kite ...... Mil vus migrans Mallard ...... Anas platyrhynchos

Black skimmer ...... Ryn ch ops niger Merlin ...... Falco columbarius

Blackburnian warbler ...... Dendroica fu sca Mountain chickadee ...... Parus gambeli

Black-capped chickadee ...... Parus atricapillus Northern bobwhite ...... Colin us virginianus

Black-crowned night heron ... Nycticorax nycticorax Northern cardinal ...... Cardinalis cardinalis

Blue jay ...... Cy anocitta cristata Northern goshawk ...... Accipiter gentilis

Blue-winged teal ...... Anas discors Northern pintail...... Anas acuta

Bonaparte's gull ...... Larus philadelphia Northern shoveler ...... An as clypeata

Brandt's cormorant .....- ... Phalacrocorax penicillatus Osprey ...... Pan dion haliaetus

Brewer's blackbird ...... Euphagus cyanocephalus Peregrine falcon ...... Falco peregrin us

Brown pelican ...... Pelecanus occidentalis Pigeon ...... Columba livia

60 Pine siskin ...... Carduelis pinus

Red kite ...... Milvus milvus

Red-eyed vireo ...... Vir eo olivaceus

Red-necked grebe ...... Podiceps grisegena

Red-shouldered hawk ...... Buteo lineatus

Red-tailed hawk ...... Buteo jamaicensis

Red-winged blackbird ...... Agelaius phoeniceus

Ringed turtle-dove ...... Streptopelia risoria

Ring-necked pheasant ...... Ph asianus colchicus Rose-breasted grosbeak Pheucticus ludovicianus

Royal eagle...... Aquila chrysaetos

Rufous-sided towhee ...... Pipilo erythrophthalmus

Savannah sparrow ...... Passerculus sandwich ensis

Scarlet tanager ...... Piranga olivacea

Sharp-shinned hawk ...... Accipiter striatus

Snow goose ...... Ch en caerulescens

Sparrow hawk ...... Accipiter nisus

Swainson's hawk ...... Buteo swainsoni

Tennessee warbler ...... Ve rmivora peregrin a

Tree swallow ...... Ta chycineta bicolor

Tu rkey ...... Meleagris gallopavo

Violet-green swallow ...... Ta chycineta th alassina

Western Canada goose .... Branta canadensis moffi tti

Western grebe ...... Aechmophorus occidentalis

Western tanager ...... Piranga ludoviciana

White-faced ibis ...... Plegadis chihi

White-throated sparrow ...... Zonotrichia albicollis

White-throated swift...... Aeronautes saxatalis

White-winged scoter ...... Melanitta fusca

Wilson's phalarope ...... Ph alarop us tricolor

Wood duck ...... Aix sp onsa

Yellow-rumped warbler ...... Dendroica coronata

Zebra finch...... Poephila guttata

61 INDEX

Abate - see Temephos Birds (other than raptors and waterfowl) Acephate 10, 13, 15, 17, 19, 20, 22, 24, 25, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 15, 38, 214, 220, 272, 276, 293, 310, 311, 312 57, 58, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 81, Acrolein 90, 94, 96, 97, 122, 123, 124, 125, 134, 138, 142, 146, 99 149, 150, 151, 154, 156, 157, 158, 159, 166, 167, 176, Afugan- see Pyrazophos 187, 193, 202, 206, 220, 224, 225, 230, 231, 233, 236, Alachlor 251, 252, 254, 256, 273, 274, 283, 284, 288, 291, 292, 37, 69, 140, 144, 174, 287 300, 301, 302, 304, 306, 307, 311, 312, 320, 322 Aldicarb Bolero - see Thiobencarb 60, 157, 169, 216, 237 Brominal - see Bromoxynil Aldrin Bromoxynil 11, 32, 69, 80, 94, 195, 198, 214, 263, 298, 322 37, 161, 282 Algae Butylate 3, 30, 32, 67, 76, 109, 113, 114, 116, 117, 136, 155, 37, 287 168, 178, 209, 229, 289, 295 Carbaryl Allethrin 15, 27, 36, 53, 80, 81, 137, 161, 214, 237, 272, 276, 80 286, 289, 310, 311 Amaze - see Isofenphos Carbo furan Aminocarb 12, 13, 69, 73, 85, 96, 101, 140, 157, 169, 178, 193, 41, 42, 80, 272, 276, 310 206, 207, 216, 237, 286, 291 Amphibians Carcinogenicity 74, 78, 92, 94, 120, 132, 173, 211, 240, 264, 283, 321 68, 76, 222, 237 Arochlor - see Polychlorinated biphenyls Ceresan M - see Ethylmercury chloride Asulam Chlordane (including oxychlordane) 282 18, 26, 57, 64, 66, 69, 93, 98, 138, 173, 214, 239, 321, Atrazine 322 67, 69, 75, 133, 136, 140, 144, 155, 161, 168, 174, Chlordecone 178, 287 271 Azinphos-Methyl Chlorfenvinphos 216, 266, 276 27 Azodrin - see Monocrotophos Chlorpyrifos Bacillusth uringiensis 157, 169, 197, 206, 233, 258, 286, 291, 320, 325, 332 59, 183, 241 Cholinesterase activity Baygon - see Propoxur 35, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 58, 65, 89, 91, 96, 97, 123, 124, Bendiocarb 125, 126, 129, 132, 146, 147, 156, 158, 160, 162, 166, 157 169, 187, 190, 193, 197, 206, 211, 220, 228, 230, 233, Benzene hexachloride 251, 254, 255, 256, 270, 284, 292, 297, 300, 301, 303, 154, 198, 204, 309 304, 305, 306, 311, 312, 320 Best Management Practices Coot, American 33, 40, 54, 55, 56, 69, 118, 121, 128, 133, 141, 179, 58, 87 192, 194, 203, 205, 208, 212, 213, 217, 219, 222, 238, Coumaphos 244, 245, 257, 275, 280, 294, 320, 322 263 Bidrin - see Dicrotophos Counter - see Te rbufos Bioassay techniques, Sediment Crustaceans - see Invertebrates 3, 6, 28, 31, 45, 70, 103, 109, 110, 111, 152, 153, 229, Cyanazine 316 144, 174, 287 Bioassay techniques, Water Cyano(methylmercury)guanidine 31, 45, 70, 103, 119, 152, 165, 229, 232, 250, 286 159 Bioconcentration (including biomagnification) Cyclohexamide 22, 32, 34, 46, 75, 88, 132, 168, 177, 181, 185, 186, 237 210, 233, 267, 268, 269, 271, 319, 329 Cypermethrin Biological control 34, 142 50, 59, 82, 170, 171, 183, 189, 192, 194, 208, 214, 2,4-D 217, 221, 222, 241, 246, 261, 290 5, 29, 30, 62, 68, 71, 126, 129, 138, 161, 216, 2 25, Bioresmethrin 247, 265, 286, 289, 322 246

62 Dalapon __, Fulvous whistling- 99, 161 73, 94, 95, 195 Dasanit - see Fensulfothion , Gadwall DDT (including DDD, DDE) 48, 49, 71

7, 10, 18, 20, 22, 24, 48, 49, 57, 61, 63, 64, 66, 69, 80, __, Green-winged teal 87, 90, 93, 98, 106, 107, 134, 138, 143, 149, 150, 151, 93, 304

154, 167, 173, 176, 177, 195, 198, 202, 204, 209, 211, __, Lesser scaup 231, 235, 236, 237, 239, 253, 263, 278, 281, 289, 298, 49, 71, 235

307, 309, 322, 328 _ ,Mallard Degradation 8, 19, 34, 35, 36, 39, 55, 56, 61, 79, 84, 87, 89, 91, 4, 27, 32, 38, 62, 73, 75, 76, 144, 184, 199, 209, 213, 101, 107, 126, 129, 130, 132, 142, 159, 160, 161, 162, 233, 258, 259, 268, 282, 283, 314, 319, 327 163, 164, 169, 196, 207, 253, 291, 330, 331, 332

Deltamethrin __, Northern pintail 34, 142, 206, 246, 313 48, 49, 93, 223, 235 Dem et on , Northern shoveler 169 235

Diazinon __,W ood 23, 74, 81, 157, 162, 172, 193, 262, 286, 289, 291 35 Dicamba Dursban - see Chlorpyrifos 161, 265 Dyfonate - see Fonofos Dichlobenil Dylox - see Trichlorfon 99 Ecological indices Dichlone 21, 67, 83, 86, 201, 224, 225, 234, 250, 260, 285, 325 265 Endosulfan Diclofop-methyl 120, 169, 172, 322 161 Endothal Di co fol 99 278 Endrin Dicrotophos 95, 159, 169, 185, 186, 198, 231, 264, 266, 309, 322 81, 89, 97, 122, 123, 125, 159, 169, 292 EPN Dieldrin 164 6, 10, 11, 18, 22, 26, 32, 39, 48, 49, 57, 61, 64, 66, 69, EPTC 80, 88, 94, 95, 98, 105, 107, 143, 173, 176, 195, 198, 37, 287 204, 209, 214, 237, 289, 298, 309, 322, 328, 330 Eradicane - see EPTC Diflubenzuron Erosion - see Runoff 32, 182, 199, 276 Esterine Dimethrin 81 211 Ethylene dibromide Dimilin - see Diflubenzuron 60 Dinoseb Ethylmercury chloride 172, 237 159 DiPel - see Bacillus th uringiensis Famphur Diquat 147, 159, 252 99, 227 Fargo - see Triallate Disulfoton Fenamiphos 157, 287, 300 157 Di-Syston - see Disulfoton Fenitrothion Diuron 40, 43, 166, 220, 272, 276, 288, 310 289 Fensulfothion Duck, American wigeon 157, 159, 169, 193, 274, 291 23, 48, 49, 172 Fenthion

__,B lack 65, 89, 132, 147, 251, 284 36, 195, 218, 253, 291 Fenvalerate

__, Blue-winged teal 34, 126, 142, 216, 255, 314, 315, 328, 329 35, 49, 126, 129, 304 Fertilizer, Chemical

__, Canvasback 14, 198, 280 235 Fertilizer, Natural

__, Common goldeneye 249 98

63 Fish Isofenphos 5, 9, 21, 30, 34, 46, 73, 75, 76, 78, 87, 94, 98, 99, 100, 157, 286 120, 135, 142, 167, 172, 173, 181, 182, 190, 197, 204, Kepone - see Chlordecone 211, 214, 228, 231, 233, 248, 262, 268, 270, 272, 275, Krenite - see Fosamine ammonium 276, 277, 309, 310, 315, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 327 Lambda-cyhalothrin Flucythrinate 142 34, 142 Landrin - see Trimethylphenyl methylcarbamate Fluridone Lasso - see Alachlor 135 Leptophos Fonofos 7, 164 4, 157, 168, 178, 286 Lindane Fosamine ammonium 2, 25, 66, 80, 119, 163, 173, 198, 209, 264, 328 160 Lorsban - see Chlorpyrifos Fungicide, Unspecified Malathion 170, 180, 217, 263 80, 161, 162, 190, 214, 266, 293, 318, 321 Furadan - see Carbofuran Maleic hydrazide Glyphosate 237 17, 37, 51, 72, 100, 113, 139, 140, 161, 191, 224, 273, Mammals 285, 295, 328 13, 58, 65, 73, 74, 78, 85, 148, 173, 222, 237, 248, Goose, Canada 274, 275, 283, 314, 315, 320, 322 7, 23, 25, 121, 148, 172, 193, 291, 303, 305 Mancozeb

__,S now 216 11, 195, 303, 304 Maneb Groundwater contamination 216 47, 60, 75, 76, 102, 174, 212, 213, 240, 244 Maticil - see Aminocarb Guthion - see Azinphos-Methyl MCPA Heptachlor (including heptachlor epoxide) 5, 161, 216, 282 18, 22, 25, 26, 64, 66, 93, 98, 143, 148, 214, 231, 298, Methamidophos 322 38, 293, 312 Herbicide, Unspecified Methidathion 1, 31, 141, 170, 180, 208, 210, 217, 221, 257, 261, 9 263, 264, 279 Methomyl Hexachlor - see Benzene hexachloride 161, 272 Hexachlorobenzene Methoprene 18, 76, 98, 237, 277 32, 199 Human health Methoxychlor 60, 76, 102, 222, 233, 237, 247, 248, 321, 322 32, 211, 319, 322, 324 Imazaquin Metolachlor 259 287 Imidan Metribuzin 181 37, 69, 287 Immune system, Suppression of Mexacarbate 85, 105, 106, 128, 237 44, 80, 169, 209 Insecticide, Unspecified Minimum tillage 16, 31, 32, 50, 108, 127, 130, 170, 180, 210, 217, 247, 1, 17, 47, 54 , 121, 128, 141, 144, 203, 238 254, 257, 279 Mirex Integrated pest management 64, 98, 173, 271, 328 171, 208, 217, 240, 241 Moll uses - see Invertebrates Invertebrates, Aquatic Monocrotophos 2, 5, 6, 21, 28, 29, 32, 34, 37, 53, 67, 73, 74, 75, 76, 97, 159, 169, 300, 304 77, 78, 79, 80, 86, 88, 94 , 98, 99, 100, 103, 119, 120, Morsodren - see Cyano(methylmercury)guanidine 127, 129, 130, 131, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 142, Mutagenicity 168, 178, 179, 181, 182, 185, 186, 191, 197, 198, 211, 39, 76, 222 226, 227, 229, 233, 262, 263, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269, Nemacur - see Fenamiphos 270, 271, 272, 276, 277, 285, 297, 310, 313, 315, 318, Nosema locustae 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327, 328, 329 214

_____, Terrestrial Organic farming 22, 38, 73, 74, 82, 102, 131, 189, 192, 193, 215, 233, 14, 188, 208, 238 246, 247, 248, 249, 251, 290, 293, 314, 315, 322 Orthene - see Acephate

64 Oxychlordane - see Chlordane Runoff Paraquat 1, 37, 47, 52, 62, 69, 72, 75, 133, 141, 168, 172, 203, 9, 161, 163, 227, 228 205, 238, 244, 245, 280, 287, 309 Parathion Sampling methods 19, 29, 35, 58, 69, 80, 81, 84, 85, 92, 126, 129, 130, 86, 317 131, 132, 157, 159, 162, 169, 187, 209, 216, 230, 237, Sencor - see Metribuzin 247, 255, 256, 266, 286, 291, 296, 297, 302, 303, 305, Sevin - see Carbary! 306, 330 Seater, White-winged Pentachlorophenol 71 76, 237 Sil vex Permethrin 265 34, 246, 327, 329 Simazine Persistence - see Degradation 114, 115, 116, 117, 328, 331 Pesticide, Unspecified Sonar - see Fl uridone 213, 283, 299 Sumithion - see Fenitrothion Pesticide resistance Sutan - see Butylate 102, 108, 179, 210, 257, 299 Synergism Phorate 9, 73, 80, 105, 106, 134, 179, 210, 276 4, 157, 178 Systox - see Demeton Phosalone 2,4,5-'f 301 163, 225, 286, 322 Phosmet 'fattoo - see Bendiocarb 161 'fefluthrin Phosphamidon 34 142 'fe mephos Phytoplankton - see Algae 32, 91, 270, 325, 326 Piel oram 'fe mik - see Aldicarb Plants, Aquatic 'feratogenicity 30, 67, 75, 129, 138, 139, 140, 168, 178, 233 74, 81, 160, 161, 163, 206, 218, 222, 233

' 'ferrestrial 'ferbufos 38, 71, 175, 194, 221, 224, 225, 248, 249, 261, 314, 4, 157 322 'ferbutryn Polychlorinated biphenyls 114, 116 7, 10, 18, 20, 24, 57, 63, 64, 66, 69, 98, 107, 143, 149, 'fhimet - see Phorate 154 , 173, 200, 204, 231, 253, 269, 276, 309 'fhiabendazole Primacarb 216 237 'fhiobencarb Prometon 268 161 'fhiodan - see Endosulfan Propachlor 'foxaphene 37, 69, 287 7, 57, 66, 78, 138, 161, 163, 169, 209, 214, 216, 218, Propanil 230, 231, 267, 289, 309, 322, 328 46, 161 'freflan Propoxur 178 27, 32, 80, 169 'friallate Pyrazophos 37, 178 240 'fributyltin Ramrod - see Propachlor 77 Rapt ors 'frichlorfon 10, 12, 18, 20, 26, 64, 66, 73, 92, 101, 104, 143, 146, 190, 272, 276, 310, 311 147, 148, 154, 239, 242, 255, 281 'fricyclohexyltin Reptiles 77 321 'frifluralin Risk assessment 62, 161, 168, 216, 264, 265, 287, 328 243, 308 'frimethylphenyl methylcarbamate Rodeo - see Glyphosate 80 Roundup - see Glyphosate 'friphenyltin compounds 77, 216, 237 Zectran - see Mexacarbate

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