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THE WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION (WMO) is a specialized agency of the Un ited Nations WMO was created: - to faci litate international co-operation in the establishment of networks of stations and centres to provide meteorological and hydrologica l services and observations, 11 - to promote the establishment and maintenance of systems for the rapid exchange of meteoro­ logical and related information, - to promote standardization of meteorological and related observations and ensure the uniform publication of observations and statistics, - to further the application of meteorology to aviation, shipping, water problems, ag ricu lture and other hu man activities, - to promote activi ties in operational hydrology and to further close co-operation between Meteorological and Hydrological Services, - to encourage research and training in meteorology and, as appropriate, in related fi elds.

The World Me!eorological Congress is the supreme body of the Organization. It brings together the delegates of all Members once every four years to determine general policies for the fulfilment of the purposes of the Organization.

The ExecuTive Council is composed of 36 directors of national Meteorological or Hydrometeorologica l Services serving in an individual capacity; it meets at least once a year to supervise the programmes approved by Congress.

Six Regional AssociaTions are each composed of Members whose task is to co-ordinate meteorological and re lated activities within their respective regions.

Eight Tee/mica! Commissions composed of experts designated by Members, are responsible for studying meteorologica l and hydro­ logica l operational systems, app li ca ti ons and research.

EXECUTIVE COUNCIL Preside/11: R. L. KI NTA NA R (Phil ippines) Firs! Vice-Presidenl: Ju. A. IZRAEL (USSR) Second Vice-PresidenT: Zou JI NGMENG (China) Tlrird Vice-Presidelll: J. P. BRUCE (Canada)

Regional AssociaTion presidenTs Africa (1): 1orth and Central America (IV): W. DEGEFU (Ethiopia) S. AGU ILAR ANGU IANO (Mexico) Asia (ll): South-West Pacific (V): U THU TA (B urma) (acTing) Ho TONG YUEN (Malaysia) South America (I ll): Europe (VI): A. W. KABAKIBO C. A. GREZZI (Uruguay) (Syrian Arab Republic)

Elec!ed members S. P. ADHIKARY (Nepal) J. P. N. LABROUSSE (France) L.-K. AHIALEGBEDZI (Togo) E. Ll NGELBACH (Fed. Rep. of Germany) S. ALAIMO (A rgentina) G. MANKEDI (Congo) M. A. BADRA N (Egypt) SIR JOHN MASON (United Kingdom) A. BE NSAR I (Morocco) J. K. MURITH I (Kenya) C. E. BERRIDGE (British Caribbean Territories) A. NANIA (Italy) S. K. DAS (India) C. PADILHA (Brazi l) J. DELMAR CORREA (Peru) V. RICHTER (Czechoslovakia) J. OJJGBENOU (Ivory Coast) R. M. ROMAIH (Saudi Arabia) P. GoNZA LEZ- HABA GONZALEZ (Spain) M. SECK (Senegal) J. GONZALEZ MONTOTO (Cuba) V. A. SIMANGO (Zambia) R. E. HALLGREN (USA) S. SUYEHIRO (Japan) · E. J. JATILA (Finland) J. W. ZILLMAN (Australia)

TECHNICAL COMMISSION PRESIDENTS Aeronautical Meteorology: J. KASTELEIN Hydrology: R. H. CLARK Agricultural Meteorology: N. GERBIER Instruments and Methods of Observation: Atmospheric Sciences: F. MESINGER S. HUOVILA Bas ic Systems : J. R. NE JLON Marine Meteorology: K. P. VASILIEV Cli matology: J. L. RASMUSSE N

The Secretariat of the Organization is located at 41 Avenue Giuseppe-Motta, Geneva, Switzerland WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION SECRETARY -GENERAL : OCTOBER 1983 A. C. WIIN-NIELSEN VOL. 32 NO. 4 DEPUTY SECRETARY-GENERAL: R. UST

276 In this issue 2n The Bulletin interviews: Profe ssor J. Smagorinsky 291 Significant meteorological events in 1982 - Part 11 301 The major Pacific warm episode of 1982/83 306 Professor Heinrich Wild (1833- 1902) 309 Seventy-fifth anniversary of the Australian Bureau of Meteorology 313 Centenary of the Royal Observatory. Hong Kong 316 Regional Meteorological Training Centres: Oran 319 Ninth World Meteorological Cong ress- Review of the main decisions 327 WMO Executive Council - Thirty-fifth session. Geneva. June 1983 329 The First WMO Long-term Plan 1984--1993 331 World Weather Watch 331 Meteorology and ocean affairs 333 Research and development 336 World Climate Research Programme 336 World Climate Data Programme 337 World Climate Applications Programme 338 Hydrology and water resources development 341 Technica l co-operation 345 Education and training 348 News and notes 351 News from the Secreta riat 353 Calendar of coming events 353 Reviews 359 Index (1983) 363 Selected li st of WMO publications

275 When Ninth Congress closed on 26 May 1983 it had adopted directives for the Organization's programme of work for the period 1984-1987 and, in accordance with the agreed philosophy of 'zero growth' in real terms, approved a budget amount only some four per cent above that for the eighth financial period (1980-1983). However, for the first time WMO's supreme governing body went to the extent of endorsing an outline plan for the coming decade; this will be extremely useful for orienting the work of Members and the WMO Secre­ tariat. The report on Congress starts on page 319 and a short contribution on the First WMO Long-term Plan will be found on page 329. For many years the point of reference in global circulation modelling can be said to have been the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory at Princeton (USA), and we are pleased to publish in this number an interview with its director for the past 27 years, Professor Joseph Smagorinsky. Nobody is better placed than he to judge our potential capabilities of predicting the weather over longer time periods, and his conclusions are encouraging. 'Joe' Smagorinsky is handing over the reins at a moment when unprecedented scientific attention is being given to the phenomenon commonly referred to as El Niiio. On page 301 we publish an article on the particularly severe event in 1982/83 which had such catastrophic consequences for the peoples and economy of Pacific maritime countries in South America. This complements the second part of the regular article on significant meteorological events in 1982 which deals with Asia, the South-West Pacific, the Americas and the polar regions. Three articles are by way of observing anniversaries: the sesquicentenary of 1 the birth of Professor H. Wild (page 306), the centenary of the Hong Kong Royal Observatory (page 313) and the seventy-fifth anniversary of the creation of the Australian Bureau of Meteorology (page 309). Finally, on page 316 will be found an account of the Regional Meteorological Training Centre at Oran (Algeria).

Price increase lt is regretted that because of continually rising production and distribution costs it has become necessary to increase the WMO Bulletin subscription rates by approximately ten per cent. With effect from 1 January 1984 the charges will be as follows: 1 year-Sw. fr. 44; 2 years-Sw. fr. 71; 3 years-Sw. fr. 100. For dispatch by air mail the corresponding rates will be 57, 93 and 130 Swiss francs.

Cover picture: The extraordinarily strong sea-surface temperature warming associated with El Nino in 1982/83 did not only affect fisheries but also gave rise to excessive rainfall with floods which destroyed vast areas of crops and caused much damage. This photograph, provided by the National Meteorological and Hydrological Service of Peru, shows floods in part of the city of Piura in the north of the country. (Photo: Guil/enno Chamo"o)

276 THE BUllETIN INTERVIEWS:··Professor J. Smagorinsky

In th e rhird quarter ofrh e seventeenth cenfUIJ', settlers from other parrs of New Jersey bought and srarted ro culrivare th e rich land bordering rh e Millsrone River and Srony Brook. In I 724, rh e nucleus of this communiry of mosrly Quaker farmers was given th e name of Prince Town. A College of New Jersey was founded in I 746, and a few years later a small group of philanrhropic citizens offered land and money to build permanent premises for it in Princeron (as ir larer came ro be known). By 1756 courses had srarted in Nassau Hall which in irs day was th e largesr public building in rh e colonies. Th ere were only 70 students ar jirsr, with three tutors and a president, yer out of these modest beginnings grew up Princeron University, which today is recognized as one of th e most ourstanding narional insrirutions of rh e USA .

Professor J. Smagorinsky Phuw: G. A. Corhy 1

Th e Universiry aside, for many people Princeron is one of th e most delighrful resi­ dential cenrres in th e easr. Th e surrounding counti)'Side is green and wooded, th ere are rich and varied cultural activities, and th e town possesses a characrer and atmosphere not found in other conurbations-yer it is only some 70 km from th e cenrre of New York and rarher less from Philadelphia. The Instirute for Advanced Study was founded here in 1930. Its pwpose is to f oster scientific progress in its broadest sense. No degrees are offered; rather it is a forum for those whose intellectual powers have already achieved recognition to come and study diverse problems in th eir particularjield of expertise in a congenial academic environment. Th e Geophysical Fluid Dynamics LaboratOI)I (GFDL) is an organ of the USA 's National Oceanic and A tmospheric Administration. From a small group of specialists in numerical modelling of th e atmospheric general circulation, th e GFDL grew and broadened its scope to embrace observational and modelling studies of th e oceans, planetGI)I atmospheres and atmospheric phenomena on smaller scales. Th e combined experience of the eminent scientists who work here, togeth er with th e superb facilities available, make th e LaboratOIJ' second to none in its field. That it has attained this status is largely due to th e inspired leadership over 27 years of th e retiring director, Professor Joseph Smagorinsky. The dri ver of th e taxi taking the Editor of th e WMO Bulletin to meet Professor Smagorinsky at th e GFDL headquarters building stopped on rh e way to point out th e

277 place where Albert Einstein had worked from I933 to I955. We gazed at the building, thinking of the man whose relativity theories have given us means of comprehending the universe. Not only did Einstein disco ver the mass-energy equation (E = md)* and the modern la ws governing the behaviour of massive bodies and high-speed particles, but his equations can be extended to represent the origin and fate of the entire universe. Joe Smagorinsky admits that in his early youth his primmJ' interest was in hydro­ dynamics as applied to the design and construction of racing yacht hulls. However, as things turned out he became one of the first undergraduates to enrol in a course on meteorology introduced in 194I by New York University. T11is was interrupted in I943 when Smagorinsky was called up for militmy service (the Second World War was then at its height), but fortunately, although he was now in uniform, he was able to continue his studies in meteorology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (M IT). Smagorinsky tells us that in his boyhood he had thought that the weather was forecast deTerministically by applying physical principles. It was a great disappointment to learn that in fact it was an entirely subjective process, even if based on reasonably well defined concepts such as isobaric analyses, air masses and frontal systems. However, the work at Princeton brought new hope to the budding scientist. He saw the possibilities that were being opened for the study of the dynamics of convection, synoptic-scale baroclinic processes, the general circit!ation and ultimately climate. Looking back on this period in !mer years he wroTe : 'In one day, my visions were compleTely Tran sformed. LitTle did I know thaT I would be privileged to participate in a scientific revolution that, when I first made my career choice. I had mistakenly thought had already happened. .. '** When he obtained his Ph .D. in 1953, Smagorinsky returned to the Weather Bureau in Washington to start up a small group which became known as the Joint Numel:ical WeaTher Prediction UniT (being eo-sponsored by the Air Force and Navy DepartmenTs). In volved in operational applications of NWP, it was the progeniTor of The National Meteorological Center. However, by I955 Norman Phi/lips had constructed a general circulaTion model, and Dr ReicheldeJfer, Chief of the WeaTher Bureau, agreed to set up a research group to exploit This further. AlmosT from the first This group was led by Professor Smagorinsky; it was in 1963 That it acquired The title by which it is known 10day~the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics LaboraTO/y~five years laTer forming an association with Princeton University and moving into its present premises. Professor Smagorinsky has been a member of some 30 national and international committees and panels, and has received numerous honours and awards. Among th ese may be menTioned the US Department of Commerce Gold Medal (1 966), the Carl-Gustav Rossby Research Medal (1972), the Cleveland Abbe Award and the Presidential A ward of MeriTorious Executive Rank in the Senior Executive Service (1 980). Recognition has come from other countries as well, for example a D.Sc. (h.c.) from the Federal Republic of Germany, the Buys Ballot Medal from the Netherlands and the Symons Gold Medal from the United Kingdom. He received the !MO Prize in I974. Joe Smagorinsky retired from the GFDL in 1983. In spite of his earlier heart atTack he appears to be in excellent health. In fact the Editor could not resist asking him how he managed to retain such a youthful complexion. For the benefit of male readers for whom the advice does not come too late, his reply was that perhaps it was because he lathered his face rather briskly before shaving.

* E is the quantity of energy Uoules) released when a mass of m (kg) is a nnihilated , c is the speed of light (m s-I) in a vacuum. **Advances in Geophysics, 25 ( 11 ) pp. 3-37. Academic Press ( 1983).

278 Tile Editor is extremely grateful to Professor Smagorinsky for having agreed to the following interview which took place at the GFDL headquarters in Princeton on Monday 17 JanuaJy 1983.

H. T. - Professor Smagorinsky, I see you were born in 1924. Could you please say something about your family background?

J. S. - My parents came from Byelorussia. My father emigrated to the USA in 19 13 and my mother followed with my two elder brothers in 1916. Then my parents had two more boys-I was the youngest, born in New York City on 29 January 1924. In my teens I was already interested in meteorology, I remember often going to a weather observatory run by a New York newspaper just to watch what they were doing. But an even greater interest at that time was the design of yachts and racing hulls; I used to construct scale models from plans and race them on the lake in Central Park. I thought at first I would like to become a naval architect but that did not work out, so I opted for my second love which was meteorology. You see how fluid dynami cs had al ready captured my attention. Actually I became one of the first students to enrol for the undergraduate course in meteorology at New York Uni versity in 1941.

H. T. - The Second World war had already started in Europe by then. Did this affect your studies? J. S. - Yes. Mi litary service interrupted my studies at New York in 1943. However, I was sent to Brown University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and was then commiss ioned as a li eutenant in 1944. On demobi li zation in 1946 I returned to New York University and obtain ed my master's degree in 1948. During this time I met my wife; she had been trained as a stati sti cian and worked with Glenn W. Brier during the war at the Weather Bureau in Washington, D. C. The Weather Bureau then had sent her on a one-year course at New York University to learn some meteorology, and since she was obliged to return to Washington I had to try to find a job there too. So it was that after graduating I joined the staff of the Weather Bureau.

H. T. - Who were the professors at New York University that had the greatest influence on you? J. S. - I would say they were Bernhard Haurwitz and Hans Panofsky, both of whom had come from Germany in the 1930s. Panofsky conditioned my reasoning in objective analysis, and Haurwitz gave me my orientation in dynamical meteorology. Outside of the university, it was Jule Charney who probably exerted the greatest influence on me.

H. T. - What books were available at that time? J. S. - Haurwitz had recently completed his Dynamic Meteorology and of course there was Brunt's earlier Physical and Dynamical Meteorology. We also had Physics of th e Air by W. J. Humphreys and a few books on synoptic meteorology such as those by Byers and Petterssen. It was a shame that Rossby never wrote a book.

H. T. - After the war, you were research assistant at New York University. What were you doing? J. S. - I was research assistant to Panofsky and to J. E. Mi ll er. The two projects I remember best were on objective a nalysis and on calcul ating the verti cal motion field-from th e pressure field, directly from winds, and by usi ng the omega equation. I also taught a bit on mathematical methods in meteorology. A group of young students

279 came from the Philippines and they were really quite a brilliant lot. One of·them, Mariano Estoque, is now a professor in a Florida university.

H T - What was your first job in the Weather Bureau? IS. - In those days it was not strictly legitimate for the Weather Bureau to do any research, and Harry Wexler was called the director of special scientific services, although in fact he headed a research group which included Sigmund Fritz, Lewis D. Kaplan and Morris Tepper. Part of my job was to be research assistant to Wexler, and he put me to work on the influence of solar flares on terrestrial weather. It was an inter­ esting but frustrating problem which, incidentally, has still not been solved. The other part of my job was to answer letters from the general public. They were mostly crank letters asking about effects of atom bomb explosions on the weather and climate. I got quite good at drafting a reply which would not tempt the correspondent to write back a second time, but at the same time not so curt as to make him complain to his represen­ tative in Congress.

H T - How did it come about that you went to Princeton? I S - While I was still at the university in 1948 I heard a lecture by Charney on scale properties of the equations of motion, and this fascinated me because it offered a rational approach to using physical methods in prediction. Later when I was in Washington I went to another of his lectures and asked some questions, as a result of which he invited me to visit Princeton to help with one-dimensional linear barotropic calculations. In 1950 he asked whether I could come for an extended period of time. The Weather Bureau gave me leave of absence and for the next three years I worked there, travelling to New York University once or twice a week because I had decided to do my Ph.D. with Haurwitz as my adviser. Of course Charney also helped me enormously.

H T - In Princeton, you were working at the Institute of Advanced Study. What was going on there? I S - The Institute of Advanced Study had been created by some wealthy business men in the early 1930s as a centre for really brilliant scholars of the time, such as Albert Einstein. To start with, it had no accommodation of its own and was housed by Princeton University. Nevertheless, it was totally independent of the uni versity, being financed from private sources until after the war. Then it started, with some reluctance, to accept financing from government agencies because this had become more the style. Well, the Air Force and Navy Departments supported a project to deve lop a computer which would be radically different from any hitherto constructed, and to head this project they appointed the brilliant mathematician John von Neumann. In fact this was to become the grandfather of all modern computers in that it stored information and programs and had programs which could change themselves ; th ere was no soft ware in those days. For advice in identifyi ng physical problems to which this giant machine could be applied, von Neumann turned to Carl-Gustav Rossby and Harry Wexler. They decided that L F Richardson's original problem of 25 years earlier would be ideal if it were conditioned by Rossby's later work, which simplified the atmospheric model as then conceived. After a few false starts, Jule Charney had been brought in to lead a group of meteorologists and to apply his theories on baroclinic instability and filtering approximations.

H T - When you obtained your Ph.D. in 1953, the Weather Bureau asked you to come back to start up a small research group on numerical weather prediction in Washington. Did you have a computer available?

280 J. S. - Not to start with. We worked on objective analysis, precipitation, dynamics and prediction. It was decided to try using some baroclinic results obtained by Charney and Norman Phillips in a three-level model to make operational forecasts, and I had to help organize a group for this, train the people and set up the system. We tried out a couple of computers then available and chose the IBM 701. That was how the Joint Numerical Weather Prediction Unit was established in 1954, which in due course was to become the National Meteorological Center. George Cressman was its first director. Among other members of the group were Charles Bristor, Louis Carstensen, G. 0. Collins and Fred Shuman.

J'v!adison (USA ). Augus/ / 956 - Ma ny well-known scientists took pan in a conference on long­ range forecasting held at the Uni ve rsity of Wisconsin. Professor Sm agorinsky is second row from the back, second from left. Other personalities intervie wed in this seri es are Or R. M. White {{ro 111 r01r. second from le(l) and Professor H. Fl ohn (second row from 1h e back, second.fi'om rig/11)

H. T - Could you tell readers something about von Neumann? J. S. - John von Neumann was born in Budapest in 1903. He later studied in Berlin and Zurich ; already in the 1920s he wrote a classic book on quantum mechanics which is still valid today. He was mainly known as a mathematician but he had worked in ph ys ics, meteorology, chemistry, game theory and economics, and excell ed in them all. I have known many brilliant people in my life, but I think von Neumann is the only one I would qualify as a genius. He had a quite phenomenal memory, and could do things th at no ordinary human being could do. I feel sure that it was only because he spread his intellectual powers over so many subjects that he was never awarded a Nobel Prize. He left Princeton in 1955 to become an atomic energy commissioner, and

281 died in Washington in 1957. I think the Institute had accepted the computer project largely on account of van Neumann's standing, and after he left it was clear the Institute wanted to abandon it. Herman Goldstine had been general manager of the project, and probably because of this situation he left around 1955. Charney and Phillips hoped they might start up a meteorology department in Princeton Uni versity, but at that time the university was not interested. So they went to the MIT*. Van Neumann and Charney convinced Or Reichelderfer, Chief of the Weather Bureau, of the need for a general circulation research group to exploit Phillips's ideas. Harry Wexler had also certainly put in a good word and he headed the group to start with, but very soon I took it over. At the end of 1956 there were nine people in the section, and now there are about 85.

H. T - How did this differ from the Joint Numerical Weather Prediction Unit? J. S. - Of course they had many features in common: to start with they were both financed jointly by the Air Force, Navy and Weather Bureau; in our General Circu­ lation Research Section we had no computer of our own, we bought computer time from the JNWPU ; and we both used deterministic methods. However, the JNWPU's objective was the routine production of 12- to 36-hour numerical weather predictions to help in the forecast process (subjective modification and refinement was still considered indispensable in those days). Our work was basic research fo ll owing up Phillips's earlier results to try to understand the general circulation, and ultimately climate. At the end of the first year both the Air Force and the Navy decided to discontinue their support, and a crisis loomed for the Section. However, Reichelderfer undertook to fund the whole project fro m Weather Bureau resources even though it was still considered somewhat improper for the Bureau to involve itself in research. This was one of the many unorthodox but farsighted decisions for which Reichelderfer is remembered today. He even went as far as to agree that I be permitted to hire people from outside the Bureau if necessary- it had always been my policy not to fill a post unless I could have the right person for it.

H. T - Where was your section housed? J. S. - For some years we were in offices donated by Jerome Namias in Suitland, Maryland, just outside the boundary of Washington, D. C. Then when we got our own 'Stretch' IBM 7030 computer in 1962 we had to move to 615 Pennsylvani a Avenue in Washington. By that time we were known as the General Circulation Research Laboratory. Actually I realized we wo uld not get far in research on climate without having an oceanographic element, and so in 1960 I recruited Kirk Bryan to come and do some ocean modelling, although I knew this was not quite legal. I had mentioned my idea to Harry Wexler who quickly warned me not to tell him too much. In 1963 the name was changed to that by which it is known today, the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL).

H. T - Were there any changes when Dr White became Chief of the Weather Bureau in 1963? J. S. - One of Bob White's first major reforms was to create the Environmental Satellite Services Administration (ESSA) in 1965, whi ch merged the Weather Bureau, the Coast and Geodetic Survey and the Central Radio Propagation Laboratory, and to have a separate research organization to support the services that ESSA provided. This was the Institute for Atmospheric Research (IAR), comprising the GFDL, the

* Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

282 hurricane laboratory, the severe storms laboratory and a few other groups. After Harry Wexler died I was appointed acting director of meteorological research (but remaining director of the GFDL). When the JAR was constituted, I decided to decline the direc­ torship of the atmospheric science laboratories. I never regretted that decision. NOAA took over from ESSA in 1970 but I remained director of the G FDL; essentially the same position as that I had entered in October 1955. The size and scope of the organ­ ization had changed, that was all.

H. T - When and why did the GFDL come to Princeton? J. S. - By the mid-1960s we had an active post-doctoral research programme, but one of our problems was that we had to train all our own staff. Scientists such as Bryan and Manabe came and learned modelling, some stayed on and others left after a year or so. What the nation needed was an academic faculty to train people in modelling at the Ph.D. leve l. Several universities realized this and approached us on their own initiative to know whether we would be interested in a collaborative arrangement. I knew of a few examples of laboratories located on university campuses, but I was still hesitant about doing the same. Then we received formal and informal offers from seven or eight universities, some of them very good ones. Princeton was one of the last to come up, but it was clear that in this case there was interest from the junior faculty all the way up to the highest administration. Also the interest seemed to be in the intel­ lectual gain to the university rather than any financial gain (which in our case would be minimal anyway). So for these and several other reasons, it was decided that the GFDL would eo-locate with Princeton University. The university undertook to establish a graduate programme in geophysical fluid dynamics, and agreed that we would not be tied exclusively to any one university department. We soon forged links with the departments for civil engineering, aerospace and mechanical sciences and geology and geophysical sciences. We also had unofficial ties with other departments, such as astro­ physics, chemical engineering and statistics. After a number of years the university authorities felt that this was too untidy an arrangement and insisted we go into one department. By then we had established our reputation and were attracting students directly to the geophysical fluid dynamics programme, so it was no longer important that we be unattached. Thus it was that in the mid-1970s we became part of the Geology and Geophysical Sciences Department, but still retained a distinct identity.

H. T - Why geology? J. S. - The main reason was that we had a lot in common with geologists. In the broader sense, geophysical fluid dynamics includes the fluid dynamics of the mantle and the interior of the Earth. Also palaeoclimatic evidence is directly relevant and that was an area of particular expertise in the department. Then there was marine geochemistry where tracers are used to investigate the structure and dynamics of the ocean and to study biogeochemical cycles. This arrangement has worked out very well indeed, and we continue to attract students directly for the Ph.D. programme-that is the only degree we offer.

H. T - The staff of the GFDL is paid by the Government, and yet you have such close ties with the university. Does this present any problems? J. S. - No. Those of us involved in the geophysical fluid dynamics programme run by the university have adjunct appointments. For instance I am a visiting lecturer with rank of professor, and there are about a dozen others in a similar position. We have to be careful not to involve ourselves in university affairs which are outside our purview- for example it would not be appropriate for me to be on a committee which

283 decides salaries since I am not paid by the university. But apart from a few things like that we enjoy the usual privileges of the faculty. We occupy accommodation on the university campus and we pay rent for it. Two of my children attended the university and I paid the full rate for them just li ke anyone else. Students following the programme pay university fees, but they generall y have stipends from NOAA or the National Science Foundation. Nowadays there are several NOAA laboratories eo­ located with universities. Although they all studied our agreement with Princeton, none decided to ti e themselves so completely into the academic structure as we are here. If the GFDL were to leave Princeton, I doubt whether the university could maintain the programme.

H. T - Please tell me something about the work you are doing. J. S. - Back in the 1950s we had realized that the best way to test an advanced general circulation model was to put in real initial data and utilize it as a forecast model. To begin with, we integrated a primitive equation model over two days using real data and made precipitation forecasts ; then one day the model was accidentally allo wed to run on over four days and we found there was still inherent predictability. After th at we made several deliberate integrations over longer intervals, and we reported on this at an NWP conference in Moscow in 1965. I already mentioned that Kirk Bryan came to do some ocean modelling ; he started with a wind-driven barotropic ocean circulation and then went on to a heat-driven circulation. I got Douglas Lilly to come and start modelling convection, because in the late 1950s that had not yet been touched upon. In the earl y 1960s a young British scientist named Gareth Williams came and started to tackle the vacillation problem numerically, and subsequently turned his attention to other planetary atmospheres, and is now engaged in ve ry fine work on the atmospheres of Jupiter and Saturn. At about the same time we also embarked upon observational studies which are now bein g carried on to excellent effect by Bram Oort and his colleagues. In the late 1960s we went on to hurricane modelling and in the early 1970s started mesoscale modelling. So we have worked our way over most of the spectrum.

H. T - Do you do nothing but modelling? J. S. - Because we have always been associated with large computers it has often been assumed that we do nothing but numerical modelling, but this is not altogether the case. There are lots of things that can be tackled more easily and with more infor­ mative results by a non-numerical approach; I encourage our people to regard the computer as a tool rather than an end in itself. My philosophy from the very beginning was that the laboratory should attack important complex problems that would take a lot of time, so that we needed long-term commitments. This was not easy in the early days when research groups had to publish results quickly or perish. You must remember that although the general circulation models we started out with seem simple now, to us at the time they were highly complex. Another thing that we pioneered to some extent was interdisciplinary interaction ; we had to synthesize radiation, conden­ sation, boundary-layer and ocean processes into interacting modes so that they would work together. This implies that less, rather than more, speciali zation is needed to construct a comprehensive general circulation and climate model. Back in the 1930s Rossby had already seen the union between meteorology and oceanography and atmospheric chemistry, and he would be happy to know that things are moving that way.

H. T - What was the origin of your involvement in the Global Atmospheric Research Programme?

284 J. S. - I remember the first hint I had was at a conference in UCLA * in the early 1960s when Jule Charney remarked that there were exciting new observation techniques, and asked me how I would like to have lots more observations for describing the initial state. Of course I said this would be great, but nothing happened for a while. Then at the NWP conference in Moscow when I presented our first four-day forecast results, Arnt Eliassen and Tom Malone came to me and asked me to get involved in a project which at that time was mainly being fostered by ICSU, but which subsequently blossomed into the WMOjiCSU G lobal Atmospheric Research Programme. GFDL was, of course, eminently suited to play a big part in GARP. I was invited to be a lead speaker in the GARP Study Conference at Stockholm in 1967, and presented an account of our recent work on predictability. This came to form a basis of the conference report which put GARP into perspective. Then I was asked by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences to be a member of the U.S. National Committee for GARP, and WMO and ICSU invited me to be one of the 12 members of the Joint Organizing Committee.

Boulder ( USA), July 1964 - WMOj iUGG Symposium on Research and Development Aspects of Long-range Forecasting. In the front row, from left to right, are Professor Smagorinsky, Mr J. S. Sawyer, Professor Flohn, the Editor, Professor J. Bjerknes and Professor R. C. Sutcliffe

H. T - I would like to hear some of your reflections on the JOC; how it worked and how the personalities in different specialized fields got along together. J. S. - I think it worked very well, and let me tell you one of the main reasons for its success. WMO and ICSU were magnanimous when it came to constituting the JOC. They realized that the committee would work best if it could enjoy the advantages and

'' Un iversity of Cali fornia at Lo s Angeles.

285 ignore the disadvantages inherent in the structure and functioning of the parent bodies. This meant that the JOC was given far more autonomy than would usually have been the case. Moreover, the membership was chosen extremely carefully; although the various disciplines were properly represented, each person was there because he had demonstrated a high degree of personal scientific and managerial wisdom. To me, the committee was in itself a superbly successful ex periment in institutional interaction and in getting things done. It was unique, and perhaps no other group has had respon­ sibility for such a big and ambitious programme as GARP. Take the contrasting backgrounds of the two Americans on the JOC-Verner Suomi and myself: Suomi's ex pertise was in observational techniques and mine in atmospheric modelling. I said a moment ago how observations and theory go hand in hand, and indeed Suomi saw th at his observations had to have a rationale in the overall project. On the other hand I had to recognize that there were limitations on what could be observed, and so tried to measure the impact of data shortfall s. I often think of Pierre Morel's constructi ve role. He had no particular meteorological background, he was a physicist engaged in satellite techn ology and instrumentation, so he came into the JOC with perhaps fewer built-in prejudices than most of us. Therefore, whereas the members were all highly competent in their respective fields and obviously had well-defined opinions, they were neve r intractable, and everyone looked for the rational solution whi ch would best fit the specified objecti ves of GARP.

H. T - How do you rate the success achieved by the Global Weather Experiment, since this was the culmination which GARP aspired to? J. S. - It is still a little too early to say. We have not yet completed analysing data for the Level !li-b set *. You see, we had to develop a fo ur-dimensional data assimilation technique as we were going along, and this was very difficult. The cost in developing and operating th e analysis system was about seven million dollars. I think GFDL wi ll probably re-analyse the Level Il-b data sets in about fi ve years' time, and I am quite sure that it wi ll be done somewhat differently then. Even though the second analysis run will still be expensive-! imagine between three and four million dollars-it will sti ll be worthwhil e because we are not going to have another comparable data set for a long time to come. So to come back to your original question, the Global Weather Experiment, and GARP as a whole, was certainly a technological success because it stimulated development and taught us a lot about how best to use conventional and new facilities. It was also a success in that it has demonstrated that scienti sts from different institutes and different countries can work harmoniously together. But the scientific va lue of the data will only really come to the test when they are used in phenomenological studies on monsoons, tropical cyclogenesis and other distinct features, and when parall el prediction runs are made with and without certain types of data to ascertain their impact.

H. T - What are your views on the limits of predictability? J. S. - In th e mid-l960s quite a lot of very good meteorologists were convinced that deterministic prediction beyond two or three days was not possible. I beli eve our report at Moscow brought new hope to many. When I gave the Wexler Memorial Lecture at the end of the 1960s, I was able to show that predictability was inherently possible well beyond four days-we had actuall y made 21-day predictions by then, and it seemed clear that the potential range of deterministi c predictions was a week or more. Kikuro Miyakoda has been very active in this field, and a fe w years ago he was able to show that in certain cases predictability may extend to a month. I believe our results were

* Processed non-real-time data.

286 instrumental in giving the authorities concerned the confidence to set up the European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts. When I talk about predictability, I do not mean a forecast of an instantaneous state a month ahead, but rather averages taken around that time. Also I should emphasize that only certain situations seem to be susceptible of prediction over the longer time period; we do not know exactly what they are, but one may well be the mode which gives rise to blocking. It is of great interest to find out why some modes give better predictability than others, and we are now engaged in just that work. We find that some important ideas of Lorenz and

Munich (Federal Republic of Germany). July 1972 - Participants in the seventh session of the Joint Organizing Committee for the Global Atmospheric Research Programme. Standing, leji to right: Or J. M. Wallace, Or W. L. Godson, Professor K. Hasselm ann, Or G. B. Tucker, Or M. Tepper, Professor P. More!, Professor V. Suomi, Or V. Meleshko, Professor J. Smagorinsky, Professor R. W. Stewart, Professor B. Bolin, Or P. R. Pi sharoty, Professor B. R. Ooos, Academician A. M. Oboukhov, Mr S. Ruttenberg, Professor V. A. Bugaev. From roll': Professor E. M. Oobryshman, Or A. H. Glaser, Mr J. S. Sawyer, Professor K. Gambo, Or A. Robert, Or J. C. Kuettner, Professor F. Moller

Charney are beginning to be borne out. As regards seasonal-range forecasts, we are doing some work on this also ; not many other groups are at present, but I think interest is growing and this time frame may soon get more attention . . I find the interannual range very exciting and with good potential when you consider what we are discovering about El Nifio and the Southern Oscillation. If I were a young scientist again, this is where I would want to be. The opportunities for scientific progress are great and the practical applications are fantastic.

H. T - What contact do you have with the operational NWP group in Washington, D.C. J. S. - In the first place there is the usual sort of communication that you find between operational and research workers. But fairl y recently the National Meteoro­ logical Center has been following our work with much greater interest. You see, the operational people cannot adopt a new method in a matter of a few days or weeks; a system has to be developed and tested out, so that there is a Jag of perhaps a year or two between a scientific advance and its application in routine forecasting. They were impressed by the way we were able to help the European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts who sent people over here to study our models and to utilize some

287 aspects of them in refining their own. We have had some encouraging results, but not yet firm enough for us to be able to recommend to the NMC a new concept for opera­ tional use.

H. T - You said a moment ago that the staff of the GFDL numbers about 85. How is this broken down, and what is your annual budget? J. S. - We have about 17 top-level scientists, 35 professional associates, 20 computer tech nicians and operators, plus secretaries, librarians, etc. All are government employees. Then th ere are so me 20 students at various stages of their Ph.D. course, about ten visiting scientists and a few members from Princeton University faculties which are located here. The total number of people working here is therefore 130 or th ereabouts. The Laboratory's budget is approximately ten million dollars a year, about half of which goes to pay rent for the computer.

H. T - Could you please outline how you progressed from general circulation to climate modelling studies? J. S. - Our first model was very similar to Philipps's, except that we used primitive equations so that we could study the non-geostrophic mechanics of the circulation. Then we started making the models more sophisticated in terms of the physics, adding radiation algorithms, coupling the troposphere and stratosphere, refining the lower boundary layer, representing the oceans, the continents and mountains, and accounting for the essential differences between the northern and southern hemi­ spheres. This was built up step by step so that results accorded with contemporary terrestrial climate records, which are about the only cast-iron verifying data we have. Some people maintain that you can model climate with a one-dimensional model, and of course this is true. But simple models are good for testing out simple mechanisms, whereas in order to gain full insight into the climate system we must have a compre­ hensive interactive model. It has been traditional to regard climate as relating only to the conditions felt by a human being in his natural habitat, but clearly the concept extends far beyond that, since we have also to co nsider average conditions over the oceans (or perhaps even beneath the sea surface) and at least up to the stratosphere.

H. T - How do you regard the problem of increased atmospheric C02?

J. S. - This is generally treated in a global context, but even if the C0 2 concentration increases uniformly over the world, the strongest effects will be felt locally. For instance, yo u may get an expansion of the subtropical belt and changes in storm-tracks, precipitation and ice cover. These local or regional consequences are much more important than a global mean temperature change, since they determine such factors as what crops you are going to be able to grow at a certain spot.

H. T - What other elements have a potentially significant influence on climate? J. S. - Water vapour is of critical importance, and its quantity will increase as a result of the C02 increase. There are several particulate and gaseous constituents of the atmosphere- some of them man-made-whose effects are now believed to be comparable with that of C0 2. Although these effects are not all in the same direction, it seems that the majority tend to enhance rather than counteract the C02 effect. In the past, the kind of aerosols people mostly thought about were those injected into the stratosphere by volcanic eruptions, and of course the effect of these ran counter to the C02 effect. But I am convinced that even now we do not know ·the whole story, and that although the present evidence does give a good deal of weight to the hypothesis of

288 a substantial warming at the Earth's surface, some new factors will continue to be discovered which will keep on altering our assessment of the overall impact. What I am trying to say is that we must remain vigilant, because the potential consequences are far-reaching.

H. T. - And to further our understanding? J. S. - To further our understanding we need more theoretical work and more obser­ vations. History shows that progress in theory goes hand in hand with increased empirical knowledge ; you need the observations to verify your theories, and theoretical knowledge guides you in choosing the most intelligent observations. The main scientific hurdles have been postulated for quite some time now. The atmosphere/ ocean interaction immediately comes to mind-back in 1965 we started building the earliest coupled ocean/atmosphere model and the problem is not solved yet, but it is encouraging to know that now other groups are tackling it. Atmospheric ozone is another field for study; the photochemical and dynamic interactions in both the stratosphere and troposphere. The cloud formation process and its role in the radiation balance is yet another. Our models are still unable to simulate some aspects of climate that are important for predictive applications or tests.

H. T. - You have received so many honours and awards that I shall not ask you to enumerate them all, but which are the ones that mean most to you? J. S. - That is a tough question. Each one means a lot because it was intended to represent something distinct. When I look at my awards collectively, there is no doubt in my mind that I am overvalued, that I have gotten more than my fair share of recog­ nition. The American Meteorological Society's Carl -Gustav Rossby Research Medal is about the highest honour a meteorologist can get in the USA, and I am in very distin­ guished company there. One is always pleased to have recognition from other countries, so th at the awards conferred on me in the Federal Republic of Germany, the Netherlands and th e United Kingdom were especially gratifying. But I suppose it is the !MO Prize which has a very special significance because I was chosen from the largest imaginable pool of candidates-world-wide and also with respect of function, because it includes those from the fields of operations, research and administration. I feel very humble when I see the li st of recipients of the IMO Prize.

H. T. - So now you are on the point of leaving the post of director of the GFDL which you have he ld for 27 years. How do you feel about it? J. S. - Nostalgic and rather sad, naturally. I was originally asked to organi ze a laboratory, but stayed on as director perhaps longer than I should have. As I said earlier, I gave up the chance of a career in higher scientifi c management 13 years ago, but never regretted it. I have seen the Laboratory grow, not just in size but more importantly in quality; I always felt it far more rewarding to try to 'discover' somebody rather than take on a scientist who already had a reputation, and I greatly enjoyed the ex perience of watching and sometimes guiding the career of a person until he or she became something of a leading international figure. And it has been tremendously satisfyi ng to see th ese people working together; the totality somehow seems stronger than the sum of the parts. Several other institutions were established on the strength of the success of the GFDL, and that is very nattering. So you can see that it is not easy for me to leave. But, as perhaps you know, I had a heart attack ten years ago and seriously thought of giving up then. To do a job really we ll one has to get completely in volved- emotionally as well-and as Laboratory director I was under stress all the

289 time. I learned to place value on my time and to do only the things which really had to be done. Soon after my heart attack, Bernhard Haurwitz wrote to me. To paraphrase his advice: 'Well, Joe; now you can say " no" without explaining', and that proved to be a very useful tip. I was anxious to leave things as tidy as I could for my successor, and I think this is a good moment to hand over. The Laboratory is in as good a shape as it ever has been.

H. T - What are your plans for the future? J. S. - My intention is not to have any specific plans. I have plenty of personal projects which have nothing to do with meteorology. I want to read, read for enjoyment and also to learn something about certain subjects which particularly interest me like history, anthropology and economics. I have some hobbies, too, which I should like to indulge in a little more. I have been asked to give advice on several meteorological projects, but here I shall be very choosy and only take up those which really interest me.

H. T - Finally, Professor Smagorinsky, what advice would you give to a bright young student contemplating a career in meteorology? J. S. - First, I would advise him or her to make sure they reall y know what they want to do. Nowadays one does not go to college or university to learn a trade. Why do I say this ? Because in my own career hardly any of the things I learned as a student are directly applicable today. If you had gone to university a couple of centuries ago and learned the fundamentals of a profession, the odds are that 50 years later you would still be doing things the same way. But today the best universities teach one how to learn, how to be critical, because the individual is going to have to rethink and relearn many times in his career. So it is important to choose a university carefully, and to enter it with that in mind. Second, it is essential that the student sets himself a very high standard of excell ence, always remembering that quantity is no substitute for quality. If he opts for meteorology, he must not aim at speciali zing in a certain field at the expense of others. Finally it is most important to learn to communicate-how to read, how to speak and how to write effectively, and this is much easier while you are still young. By vi rtue of their tradition the British are as good at communicating as any national group I know. Take Sir John Mason for example; but then he is an exception even for an Engli shma n. On the other hand Eric Eady-another Englis hman-did not seem to feel he had to communicate, and th is was very sad because in my opinion he was one of the most brilliant men of the century. I am glad to say that my children are getting much better training in communication in American schools than I got.

H. T - Professor Smagorinsky, that is a very appropriate note on which to close the interview since, as you probably know, 1983 has been declared World Communication Year, and I believe that the United Nations wished to imply the broadest interpretation of the term. Thank you very much for sparing me so much of your valuable time. You mentioned a moment ago about the large number of friends throughout the world that meteorology has brought you; I very much hope that your departure from the GFDL will not definitively sever all contact with them.

290 SIGNIFICANT METEOROLOGICAL EVENTS IN 1982 - PART 11 By D. M. LECOMTE *

ASIA Temperature: On the whole a mild year over large areas of Asian USSR, but below­ average temperatures characterized the weather over northern INDIA. The year started very mild in central southern Siberia, and exceptiona ll y so in the far eastern Chukotski National District wi th a positi ve temperature anomaly of as much as 11 degrees. After a cool March, temperatures were generally above normal for the rest of the year in western parts of Siberia. Further north and east the autumn was cold or very cold, with October negative anomalies of up to eight degrees, numerous stations setting new record minimum temperatures for the month. A burst of arctic air brought frost and heavy snowfalls as far south as Kirgiz; not for 45 years had this occurred so early in the season. The period from February to May inclusi ve was cold in northern INDIA, February temperature values being from four to seven degrees below normal. Another cold spell late in December reportedly led to a considerable number of deaths there. Near-record low temperatures were registered in KUWAIT in February, November and December; November's mean of l6°C was the lowest since records began in 19 58. In THAILA ND, unusually high temperatures occurred in late April and earl y May. At Uttaradit, 42°C was read on four separate days during this period. July was a cool month in JAPAN- 26 out of 154 reporting stations ex perienced their lowest mean July temperature on record. At Sendai the mean over the last ten days of the month was four degrees below norma l. October was unusua ll y chilly in the north of the ISLAM IC REPUBLI C OF IRAN where the monthly mean temperature of I6°C at Tehran was the lowest for that month in the past 30 years. Precipitation, droughts and floods : Destructive noods were reported in 1982 from CHI NA, INDI A and JAPAN. In INDIA , persistently wet spring weather from March through May damaged the wheat crop, in fact rainfall over a large area in the north was more than 500 per cent of normal during May. However, a late onset and early ending of the south-west monsoon later led to drought conditi ons with crops wilting and drinki ng water becoming scarce in north-western states. Further east, torrential rain in August and September caused nooding on a massive scale in the Gangetic plain with over 600 people losing their li ves and damage to crops and buildings estimated at some US $700 million. Two million people in three states were reported to be homeless, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar being worst affected. August rainfall in many pl aces totalled more than 500 mm, a few stations reporting over I 000 mm; these values were between 150 and 250 per cent of normal. Widespread nooding in BANGLA DESH also left up to 25 000 homeless and thousands of hectares of crops destroyed. Numerous deaths were blamed on noodwaters. August nooding in PAK ISTAN caused the loss of at least 67 li ves and made I 0 000 homeless. In CH INA, heavy rain during April and May led to extensive floods in Guangdong province and Guangxi Autonomous Region in th e south. In just four days during May,

*Environm ental Data and In formation Service, NOAA (US A).

291 824 mm fell in Guangdong. The death toll in southern China reached 385, 36 000 buildings being destroyed and 800 000 people left homeless. Then in June, downpours in central and southern provinces flooded over 200 000 ha of farmland and damaged numerous structures; in Jiangxi province, monthly rainfall totals exceeded 600 mm and in Fujian province up to 473 mm fell during the week 13-19 June. Areas to the north were affected by floods during August when the Huang He (Yellow River) reached its second highest level on record. In Henan province 447 mm of rain fell in 24 hours on 13 August. In north-eastern China, on the other hand, June and July rainfall was the lowest in the last 30 years. Crop losses resulted from the drought which also affected the REPUBLIC OF KOR EA and western JAPAN. For HoNG KO NG, 1982 was the wettest year this century. The total amount of 3248 mm rainfall exceeded the previous record by fi ve per cent; wet weather in May and August was mai nly responsible for this. In May alone, there was 767 mm of rain, of which 654 mm fell in the last four days of the month. Floods and landslides led to 25 deaths and made 8000 homeless. Then in August the total of 872 mm rainfall set a new record for the month, with a remarkable 24-hour amount of 334 mm on 16 August. Again there was serious flooding, with five deaths reported and 1460 rendered homeless. In Taiwan, heavy rain on ll August resulted in landslides which took at least 19 li ves and destroyed numerous houses on the outskirts of Taipei. In JAPAN, enormous flood damage was inflicted upon southern areas during July. Two weeks of heavy rain were followed by a wave development on the polar front, and this disturbance brought more than 500 mm of rainfall to central Kyuchu during the period 23-25 July, with the incredible amount of 335 mm in three hours falling at Nagasaki on 23 July, creating floods 2.1 m deep. The toll included 345 dead or missing, more than 50 000 homeless, and damage estimated at 200 thousand million yen (US $800 million). A part of the world not usually associated with heavy rain-the Arabian peninsula-experienced flooding in February and March. On 21 February, flash floods damaged roads and bridges in the south of SAUDIA ARABIA. The February rainfall total of 97 mm in the UNITED ARAB EMIRATES exceeded the total rainfall for the previous four years. The March rainfall at Batin totalled 87 mm compared with the long-term mean of 8 mm. YEMEN reported floods in eastern and southern parts of the country during the spring, and D EMOCRATIC YEMEN experienced catastrophic flooding when torrential rain on 29 and 30 March inundated much of the country; 482 people were reported dead or injured and 50 000 homeless. As much as 270 mm of rain fell in one day. There were both floods and droughts in SRI LANKA this year. Failure of the north­ east monsoon early in the year contributed to one of the worst droughts in the past century, but this was broken by heavy rain towards the end of March. By late May the rainfall was excessive, with the south-west monsoon flooding southern districts. These floods reportedly left 100 000 homeless. Floods in late November and early December, this time in north-eastern and eastern areas, damaged rice crops and left 30 000 people homeless. In NEPAL, a June-August drought led to crop losses and serious food shortages. Drought affected north-east THAILAN D and parts of the LAO PEOPLE'S D EMOCRATIC REP UB LIC during the period April-July, also damagi ng crops. In north-east Thailand this was the worst drought for seven years, and in the north of the Lao People's Democratic Republic the worst for ten years. However, in the far south of Thailand abundant rain with the north-east monsoon inundated I 0 000 ha of farmland in mid­ December.

292 In the Asian USSR, precipitation was 150-200 per cent of normal during the first three months of the year in regions between the Caspian Sea and central Asia, but a drought from April through August reduced spring wheat yields in areas near and to th e east of the Urals. In some places only half the normal rainfall was measured during thi s period. Heavy rain occurred in August in the extreme east (the Amur vall ey and Primorsky territory).

Srorms and rropica/ cyclones: There were 28 tropical cyclones over the western North Pacific and South China Sea during 1982. This was the same number as in 1981.

JAPA N was again especiall y hard hit by typhoons. Four struck the country, of which two caused extensive damage and human suffering. Typhoon Bess made landfall in central Japan on 2 August, and rain from this storm and a small extra­ tropical low brought more than 800 mm of precipitation to mountainous districts during the period 30 July to 3 August. The resulting landslides and floods left 95 people dead or missing and caused damage totalling 62 thousand million yen (US $247 million). The wi nd gusted to 48 m s- 1 on the south coast. Typhoon Ellis followed on 26-27 August, and although less destructive in Japan, it brought storm­ force winds and heavy rain to the Primorsky territory of the USSR. On 11-1 2 September the most destructive storm of the year, typhoon Judy, hit the main island of Honshu with winds reaching 49 m s- 1 and up to 600 mm of rainfall. There were severe floods ; 38 people were reported dead or missing and damage was assessed at 126 thousand million yen (US $500 million). Judy went on to affect Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands and Kamchatka (USSR). The fourth typhoon, Ken, struck Honshu on 24 September, but the damage was less than that caused by Bess and Judy.

Two typhoons, Cecil on 12-13 August and Ellis exactly two weeks later, hit the REP UR LI C OF KoREA where the combined toll from both storms was 43 dead and 11 000 homeless. Typhoon Andy crossed Taiwan with winds gusting to 60 m s- 1 on 29 July; it took eight human li ves and left Taipei without power or water supplies. Tropical storm Hope brought heavy rain and floods to YIET NAM and the north-east of TH AILA ND on 7- 8 September. In Thailand, 200-300 mm of rainfall led to flooding whi ch claimed 23 li ves and submerged 450 000 ha of farmland ; 18 000 people had to be evacuated. Typhoon Nancy caused extensive damage in Yiet Nam when it struck Nghe Tinh province on 17-18 October with winds of up to 39 m s-I and torrential rain; 70 lives were lost, 68 000 homes, 13 hospitals and 48 000 ha of winter rice were destroyed.

The Indian Ocean spawned several costly cyclones this year. Already on 4 May one moved into BuRMA from the Bay of Bengal leaving 31 people dead and razing to the ground over 7000 houses. Another cyclone struck the state of Orissa in INDIA during the night of 3 June with winds which exceeded 60 m s- 1 together with 200 mm rainfall; there were some 500 deaths and heavy damage to property-200 000 people were reported homeless. The second catastrophic cyclone to affect India in 1982 hit the north-western state of Gujarat on 8-9 November where winds exceeded 50 m s- 1 ; this storm claimed 421 li ves, destroyed thousands of houses and sank numerous vessels.

A violent thunderstorm occurred on 28 October at Al-Khafqi on the Gulf coast of SAUDI ARABIA. Hailstones, some of which were reported to be the size of teacups, fell for half an hour and intense rain persisted for four hours. Houses and other structures were wrecked and vehicles blown over. Eleven people died and 50 were injured. Another storm spawned a tornado over the New Territories of HoNG KoNG on 2 June. This was the first tornado ever to be reported there, and it killed two people and injured five others.

293 SOUTH-WEST PAC IFIC Temperature and sunshine: In AuSTRA LI A, abnormall y fi ne sunny conditions prevail ed in the east during the winter (June-August) and spring (September-November). Melbourne's mean sunshine during August of 6.4 hours per day was the hi ghest ever for that month. Record high temperatures occurred in southern and eastern areas in January, February, August and November, and yet record low temperatures were experienced in the same areas during June and July. Especially notable was a heat wave which affected Adelaide from 17 to 24 January. For seven days in succession the maximum temperature reached 38°C, the longest such period since March 1940. The minimum of 33.5°C on 24 January was the highest minimum ever recorded. The heat wave was blamed for the death of ten elderly people. At Tarcoola in South Australia, the temperature of 48.5°C read on 23 January was the highest on record, and Melbourne had nine days in January and February wi th readings of 38°C-the most since 1898. By contrast, on 7 June the temperature at Adelaide fell to -0.2°C, whi ch set a new record minimum, but this was broken the very next night when - 0.4°C was registered. These were the lowest readings for at least 124 years. Severe frosts in southern and south-eastern Australi a damaged ci trus, tomato and vegetable crops during the period 3- 9 June. More frost affected this region from 17 to 21 July. The seaside town of Robe in South Australi a reported its lowest temperature since records began in 188 5 ( -2.6°C); new record minima were also establi shed at Devonport in Tasmani a ( -4.0°C) and Tambo in Queensland ( -0.8°C). However, at Melbourne the temperature reached 25 .r C on 28 August and 26.5°C the following day, in each case setting a new record maximum for that month. Canberra reported its warmest August with a mean temperature of 17.3°C. In November temperatures averaged from two to fi ve degrees above normal in southern and eastern areas. Sydney set a new monthly record maximum with 41. 8°C on 25 November. Precipitation. floods and droughts: Highlights this year included major drought episodes in ALSTRALI A and ll'DO'\ES IA, a res ult of an extremely low Southern Osci ll ati on Index (three standard deviations below average). Persistent haze due to forest fires in 1'-iDOMSIA reduced visibility in Malaysia for about six weeks during August and September. Yisibil iti es of no more than 1-2 km over a number of days di srupted shipping and aviation. Though record or near-record rainfall led to fl ooding near the west coast of AUSTRALI A during January and interior areas of western and central Austra li a in March, the principal meteorological event in 1982 was the phenomenal drought which gripped la rge areas of the south-east from April up to the end of the year. It was one of the most severe ever experienced on the contin ent and caused enormous social and economic disruption. Up to th e end of November, Canberra's rainfall for the year was just one-third of normal. April-October rai nfa ll was 20 per cent of norma l over much of New South Wales and Victoria ; 40 per cent over Queensla nd. By the end of the year, water restrictions were in effect in Melbourne, reservoir levels having fa ll en to onl y half their capacity. Crop losses exceeded two th ousand million US dollars, the wheat and barley output being halved. Tinder-dry brushland encouraged the spread of fires, some of whi ch were to cause extensive da mage to homes earl y in 1983 . INDO NES IA also reported several episodes of heavy rain and flooding during the first half of the year, to be followed by drought in the second half. Torrential rain during the first week of March caused floods in Kalimantan (Borneo), requiring the evacuation of over 25 000 people. In May, fl oods in Irian Jaya (New Guinea) caused

294 nearly 12 500 people to be evacuated from their homes. In southern Sumatra, rains reported to be the heaviest in 75 years fell during the period 3-5 June, causing flash floods which destroyed 600 homes and left 225 dead. The July-November period (the dry season) was much drier than usual across much of Indonesia, with rainfall less than 50 per cent of normal. The resulting food and water shortages led to the death of hundreds from famine and disease, particularly in Irian Jaya. Widespread forest fires affected southern Sumatra and Kalimantan in August and September. Heavy rain ended the drought in December over much of the region, with flooding again affecting Sumatra where three people lost their lives and thousands of head of livestock were drowned. NEw ZEALAi\D also experienced floods and drought. Rainfall in excess of 800 mm during the period 9-12 March 1982 resulted in damage to roads, power and telephone lines in parts of the South Island ; but over the whole period November 1981 to October 1982 there was a rainfall deficit of as much as 50 per cent which was detri­ mental to farming interests on the east coast. A drought such as this has a return period of 35 years. Storms and tropical cyclones: In all, 21 tropical cyclones crossed the PHILIPPI NES in 1982, with four major typhoons taking a heavy toll. Typhoon Nelson struck central areas during 25-26 March with peak winds of 50 m s - 1• The toll included 112 dead, 85 injured, 91 missing, and 58 000 houses destroyed. The total crop and property damage for this one storm, P 581 million (US $60 million), exceeded the yearly average for all tropical cyclones. Typhoon Faye, which steered an erratic course around the islands from 20 August to 4 September, flooded the Visayas region and lashed the coast of western Luzon. The storm left at least 29 dead and caused damage estimated at P 82 million (US $8 million). Typhoon b·ving crossed the central Philippines on 8-9 September with peak winds near 30 m s - 1• Heavy rain and widespread floods killed at least 65 people and damaged crops, livestock and buildings, the cost being estimated at P 199 million (US $20 million). Typhoon Nancy struck Luzon during 14-15 October. Most of the damage was caused by the strong winds which reached around 50 m s - 1• The death toll was 96 and 12 000 houses were destroyed, total damage being assessed at P 627 million (US S65 million). Though these storms caused fewer deaths than might have been expected, they left almost one million people homeless a nd caused record damage amounting to P 1500 million (US S 150 million)­ this was three times the recent annual average, and so affected the country"s economy to a considerable degree. In all, nine named tropical cyclones occurred in the South Pacific this year. On 2 March tropical cyclone Isaac devastated ToNGA , leaving nearly half the population homeless; there were sustained winds of 50 m s- 1 as the storm crossed the islands. The damage was estimated at US $ 18.7 million on the main island Tongatapu. Tropical cyclone Bernie brought ocean flooding to NEw CALEDONIA on 6 April and went on to damage timber, crops and buildings in the North Island of NEw ZEALA ND on 8-9 April. Maximum gusts exceeded 48 m s- 1 on New Zealand's east coast. A tropical storm visited NEw CALEDO NIA from 11 to 13 December, causing damage to buildings and killing two people.

NORTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA Temperature and sunshine: In the UNITED STATES OF AMERICA and CANADA the year 1982 tended to be cold and wet. Abnormally low temperatures characterized both winter and summer, especially in eastern areas. In Canada, the annual mean temperature was between 0.5 and 2.0 degrees below normal over virtually the entire

295 country, in contrast with 198 1 which had been one of the mildest years ever recorded. MExico's weather on the other hand was generall y dry and warm; the mean temperature for the period January-October was more than two degrees above normal. Exceptionally low temperatures were observed during January east of the Rocky Mountains in the USA and CANA DA. Two intense cold waves separated by onl y one week swept south-eastwards from the northern Mississippi va ll ey to the Atlantic coast, eq ualling or breaking minimum temperature records in numerous localities. For example, during the first outbreak Chi cago had an all-time low temperature of - 32.2°C on I u J <.~ 11 ua r y, and Augusta (Georgia) the following day also broke its record wi th a reading of - 17.2°C. The following morning, Florida was gripped by frost whi ch caused extensive damage to citrus fruit and vegetable crops. Total losses to crops and fruit trees reached $ 1.4 thousand million. The second cold wave brought record minima to the eastern USA on 17 January; Mil waukee set a new lo w temperature record of - 32.2°C, Baltimore equalled its lowest of -21.7°C, as did Toledo (Ohio) with - 27.2oC. In CANADA too records fell ; Charlottetown on Prince Edward Island in the Gulf of St Lawrence reached an all-time low with a reading of - 30.4°C. Abnormally cold conditions continued until mid-February, when milder weather arrived. In the USA, residential and commercial heating costs during the first six weeks of the year were much higher than usual, reaching nearl y two thousand million dollars. More long-standing lo w temperature records were broken in late March and early April. In CANADA, Toronto experienced the coldest 27 March in 142 years when the maximum temperature reached only - 6°C, and on 6 April, the maximum of - 5.5°C was the lowest in April for 243 years. These low temperatures also affected the USA; fruit was damaged in south-eastern districts (especiall y South Carolina and Georgia). Summer (especiall y June and August) was cool over the eastern part of the North­ American continent. In CANADA, southern Ontario had its coldest summer since 1929- the maximum summer temperature in Toronto of 30°C was the lowest for a century. Toronto also had its lowest sunshine total for the month of June. July was characterized by more seasonable temperatures and unusuall y sunny skies in eastern Canada (Ottawa reported its sunniest July in 44 years of records). A spell of cold weather in late August brought southern Canada and parts of northern USA th e earliest frost for several decades. The minimum temperature at Broadview (Saskatchewan) on 21 August was - soc whi ch was fi ve degrees below the previous monthly record. In the province of Quebec, low temperatures on the 29 August set new records for the month at 38 weather stations. The frost damaged grain, oilseed and tobacco crops, tobacco losses alone being estim ated at several million Canadian dollars. In the USA snow deep enough for skiing fe ll on th e mountain s of northern Vermont. In sharp contrast to the rest of the year, Canada and the USA experienced one of the warmest Decembers of the century, temperatures averaging more th an four degrees above normal over large areas. The first week saw dozens of monthly absolute maximum temperature records broken-Hamilton registered 22.5°C, the highest December reading in the province of Ontario. The city of New York had its warmest December si nce records began in 1826. Consumers in both countries saved a combined total of more than US S 1. 6 thousand million in reduced heating costs. Precipitation, droughts and floods : The year was noteworthy for the absence of droughts in CAl\ADA and the USA except for southern Texas and New Mexico. In March, heavy rain and melting snow caused major flooding in the USA's midwestern states of Indiana, Michigan and Ohio. Floodwaters forced the evacuati on of9000 people from their homes in Fort Wayne (Indiana). In April, heavy rain and fast

296 melting snow caused the worst floods for 42 years in the region east of the city of Quebec in Canada. March 1982 was one of the wettest on record in California with some locations reporting four times the normal precipitation. The entire Great Plains region from Texas to Montana had about twice the normal precipitation in May, several places having their wettest May on record, including Oklahoma City which measured 302 mm. Heavy rain fell again the following month, particularly on 19 and 20 June, which caused extensive damage to the Texas cotton crop where losses were valued at close to US $800 million. The eastern seaboard also suffered flooding from a record-breaking downpour on 5 June in southern New England ; in Connecticut, l 0 people died and 1300 were evacuated. Hartford (Connecticut) and Boston (Massa­ chusetts) both measured record June rainfall totals 300 mm in excess of normal. The cost of the New England floods exceeded $200 million.

Much of MEXICO and Central America was affected by a summer drought. June and July rainfall in north-eastern Mexico was less than l 0 per cent of normal, and in many eastern and central areas the total was less than 50 per cent of normal. The yield of maize was down by some 40 per cent from 1981 's record crop. In Central America, major agricultural regions of western CosTA RI CA and NI CARAG UA suffered the impact of a severe drought during July and August ; parts of the Central Valley and Guanacaste regions of Costa Rica received less than 20 per cent of normal rainfall in August which was the driest for the last 45 years. Combined agricultural losses for both countries approached US $100 million. Heavy rainfall helped to end the drought during September in Central America and in Mexico the following month.

Excessive rain over the USA's Mississippi valley during November and December brought about extensive flooding at the end of the year. The greatest damage occurred in the states of Arkansas, Louisiana and Mississippi, where the December rainfall total exceeded 300 mm, much of which fell during the first and last weeks of the month-at Winnfield (Louisiana), 431 mm of rain fell within 4g hours on the 26 and 27 December. Floods drove more than 26 000 people from their homes in the lower Mississippi valley and caused more than $500 million worth of property damage.

S!Orms, tropical cyclones and tornadoes: Numerous storms gave rise to damage from both water and wind, but the 1982 Atlantic hurricane season was tranquil.

The first major event was a Pacific storm which struck California (USA) on 3-5 January. Floods and mudslides accounted for the death of some 36 people and property damage which exceeded $200 million. Marin County just north of San Francisco reported more than 250 mm of rain in 24 hours. Another storm affected large parts of the eastern USA on 12-14 January bringing heavy snow, sleet and freezing rain from Texas to Maine; it was a major factor in the fatal crash on 13 January of an airliner taking off from Washington, D.C. airport. Two noteworthy storms struck the upper mid west states of the USA later in the month; at Minneapolis records for both 24-hour and greatest single-storm snowfall were broken twice in the same week, with storm totals of 44 cm on 20-21 January and 47 cm on 22-23 January. Still another exceptional snowstorm struck Missouri and Illinois on 31 January when the city of St Louis was buried under 47 cm of snow. The cost of the severe winter weather during the first three months of the year was estimated to exceed $8 thousand million in the USA, and more than 350 deaths were blamed on it.

In CA NADA, there were damaging storms near the Atlantic coast in January and February. An intense depression in the second week of January brought gales with a gust to 48 m s- 1 to Newfoundland, and on 13-14 February an even more vicious storm in that area produced winds gusting to 49 m s- 1 which sank the world's largest oil rig,

297 the Ocean Ranger, with the loss of 84 li ves. The next day a cargo ship of the USSR went down with the loss of 17 seamen. There were two late blizzards in April over CA NADA and the north of the USA. The first covered the southern parts of Saskatchewan, Manitoba and Ontario and the upper midwest states of the USA with 15-30 cm of snow. Roads were closed as wi nds gusting to 28 m s- 1 whipped the snow into drifts. The second storm struck the north­ east of the USA and adjacent areas of south-eastern Canada on 6-7 April , bringing up to 50 cm of snow to the New England states and 30 cm to New York city. Further south, central parts of the USA were hit by the biggest tornado outbreak since 1974 on 2-3 April when no less than 55 of them claimed 30 human li ves, injured 383 and caused substantial property damage across 11 states. A total of 329 tornadoes was reported in May throughout the USA which was a record for any month, but the death toll was nevertheless only 14, which is eight less than average. The preliminary 1982 tornado count of I 027 was 53 per cent above normal, and only the second tim e the total has exceeded I 000. Again, however, the death toll of 64 was less than average, even though it exceeded by 40 the previous year's record low. Tropical disturbances during the period 20-29 May brought torrential rain of more than 300 mm to HONDURAS and NICARAG UA. There was severe flooding in both countries which left over 200 dead, 80 000 homeless and extensively damaged crops, roads and buildings. In Nicaragua, the loss in economic terms was reported to be US $350 million. These floods combined with the subsequent summer drought reduced the Nicaraguan grain yield by 27 per cent. On 3 June, a small hurricane named Alberta struck western CUBA , and on 18-19 June a second disturbance struck the same region. Both brought torrential rain to the provinces of Havana and Pinar del Rio; I 05 000 people had to be evacuated because of flooding. A thi rd storm affected Havana province on 27 June. In all, these storms resulted in 40 deaths and injuries and damage exceeding US $85 million. The tropical cyclone season in the western Atlantic and Caribbean was quiet with no more than five named storms, of which only two were hurricanes. The last year with only two recorded hurricanes was 1931. However, on the Pacific side of Central America a tropical storm affected both GuATEMALA and EL SALVADOR during September. In El Salvador, rainfall on 18-19 September ranged from 300 to 450 mm, with as much as 680 mm in the mountains 50 km west of San Salvador. In Guatemala, rainfall on 19 September exceeded 300 mm in some western areas. Unofficial figures li sted some 600 dead in El Salvador and 615 dead in Guatemala. Initial estimates of the cost of damage in Guatemala was US SI 00 million, but in El Salvador the losses were appraised at no less than US S280 million. The storm moved north-westwards into the Pacific Ocean and developed into hurricane Paul whi ch struck north-western MEXICO on 30 September. Winds to 46 m s- 1 and heavy rain left 225 dead or injured and rendered 50 000 people homeless, costing the states of Son ora, Sinaloa and southern Lower California over US $30 million. In the Pacific Ocean, the first hurricane for 23 years to strike Hawaii caused damage estim ated at some US $200 million in the western islands on 24 November. Remarkably, only one death was reported. During the latter part of the year, the west coast of the USA was again battered by storms. High winds and heavy rain caused extensive damage in California on 23-25 September, on 30 November, and on 22- 23 December. On 16 December another storm with wi nds to 45 m s- 1 struck the Pacific north-west coast. The associated hazards caused at least 14 deaths, power

298 failures affecting over half a million people, severe crop losses, and total damage well in excess of $100 million.

SOUTH AMERICA Temperature: Due to the strength of El Niiio in 1982, coastal regions of ECUADOR, PER U and northern C HILE reported temperatures between two and four degrees above normal during November and December. Precipitation, floods and droughts: Rainfall amounts less than 25 per cent of normal during January reduced soybean, rice and maize crops in southern BRAZ IL In PER U, fl oods due to heavy rain during the period January- March caused numerous deaths and considerable property and crop damage in central and northern areas. The most notable were in the Huall aga vall ey north-east of Lima on 25 January where 123 people were reported dead, 209 missing and 20 000 had to be evacuated. In CO LO MB IA, severe floods in the south-west reportedly claimed at least 90 lives in early January. In mid-April overflowing rivers and mudslides led to 2 1 deaths and thousands of injuries in south-eastern and north-eastern sections. In BOLI VIA, after weeks of heavy rain in the north-east during March there were extensive floods in seven of the country's nine provinces. News reports indicated that 170 000 km2 of territory was inundated, and some 50 000 people affected. Estimated costs reached US S400 million.

Ecuador- The town of Portovie jo suffered seri ous fl oods as a result of th e excessive rainfa ll associated with the exceptionally hi gh sea-surface temperatures at the end of 1982 1Ph ow: I Aki/H I)

Heavy rainfall in May and June in southern BRA ZIL and north-eastern ARGENTI NA contributed to severe ri ver flooding in fi ve provinces of Argentina as well as over large areas of PARAGUAY where some 60 000 people were di splaced ; this was the third major flood there in the past four years. June rainfall totalled close to 300 mm in north­ eastern Argentina. In September, rainfall was between two and fi ve times the normal over most of Argentina, causing floods in Buenos Aires province and neighbouring areas. Continuing heavy rainfall over southern BRAZI L from May to December and in

299 PARAG UAY and north-eastern ARGENTINA in November led to disastrous f1ooding of the Paraguay and Parana rivers during November and December. More than 50 000 people in six provinces were affected by the flood waters. In Brazil, the excessive rain reduced the wheat yield substantially-it was the lowest since 1977. However, in north­ eastern Brazil, it was the lack of rainfall which at the end of the year took its toll. Drought during November and December in the cocoa-producing state of Bahia reduced the main crop by approximately 15 per cent from the previous year's levels. From April to early September it was dry in southern ECUADOR and northern PERU and crops suffered, but the warm waters associated with El Nii1o gave rise to heavy rain and the end of the drought by November. In Ecuador, the rainfall totals of 400 mm in November and December led to landslides and serious flooding in coastal areas. By 30 December, the nation's largest city and chief seaport, Guayaquil, was virtually cut off from the remainder of the country by floods. The death toll reached 30 and damage was estimated at US $90 million. Storms. hurricanes and tornadoes: During the period 24-26 June, winds of up to 42 m s-I struck northern Parana and southern Sao Paulo provinces in Brazil, destroying property and bridges and leaving at least 33 dead, hundreds injured and over 4000 homeless.

ARCTIC AND ANTARCTICA Most of the information in this section was taken from the quarterly publication Climate Monitor.

Arctic Temperatures in general tended to be below normal in 1982, although there were some notable exceptions, especially in February and December. Apart from the eastern Canadian Arctic and the Bering Strait areas, January was cold, mean temperatures being four or more degrees below normal around the Barents Sea a nd over the northern Arctic islands of Canada. By contrast, February was mild almost everywhere, particularly in places on either side of the Bering Strait. Cold weather characterized the spring months, two stations in the area north of Hudson Bay (Coral Harbour and Frobisher) experiencing their coldest spring season on record. The summer remained cooler than normal ; the coldest month of June ever recorded was reported from Lappland and northern Yakutsk A.S.S.R. The cold conditions were maintained through the autumn as well , negati ve anomalies in October and November being greatest over the northern Urals and the north coast of Alaska. It was the coldest autumn since records began in 1951 at Prins C hristians Sund near the southern tip of Greenland, and the second coldest at Resolute and Inuvik in the Canadian Arctic. These areas remained colder than normal in December, but in most other parts of the Arctic conditions became unusually mild. The positive anomaly for the month was as much as 12 degrees in the vicinity of Alaska and ten degrees over much of northern Siberia. Ice conditions in the Canadian Arctic were normal, and persistent off-shore winds kept the Beaufort Sea coastline mostly free of heavy pack-ice. It was reported that ships were able to continue drilling for oil some 50 km off the Mackenzie Ri ver delta up to the end of November.

Antarctica The 1981/82 summer season was normal over most of the continent. The Antarctic Peninsula region experienced a mild autumn with temperatures between one and four

300 degrees above normal, but in eastern Antarctica they were th e same amount below normal with new record monthly minima being reported at several stations. In spite of an unusually mild month of July, the winter as a whole was the coldest on record at Mawson and Davis. Spring started cold, some bases in eastern Antarctica having a mean September temperature as much as four degrees below normal, but by November it was unusuall y mild almost everywhere; Amundsen-Scott (South Pole) and Yostok both reported their highest November monthly mean temperature which, for the record, were - 32.3°C and - 38.8°C respectively.

THE MAJOR PACIFIC WARM EPISODE OF 1982/83 By E. M. RAsvruSSO!\ * and J. M HALL* * Near the end of each year a weak southward-flowing warm ocean current develops along the coast of Ecuador and Peru where it causes sea-surface temperatures to rise. Coming as it does around the Christmas season, the local population named the current El Niiio which means The Child. Every few years, however, a much greater rise than normal in sea-surface temperatures (SST) is observed, and nowadays the term El Niiio primarily denotes these major warm episodes, even though it has become apparent that the physical processes associated with them are quite different from those of the weaker annual event. The major warmings are not confined to the South American coastal region but extend westwards along the Equator beyo nd longitude 180°-more than a quarter of the Earth's circumference. If El Niiio were simply an isolated regional phenomenon, or even confined to the eastern equatorial Pacific, it would be of limited interest. It is, however, a very important element of a vast system of ocean-atmosphere climate fluctuations. For example, each time a major Pacific warming occurs, the difference between the atmospheric surface pressure at Tahiti in the south-east Pacific and Darwin in northern Australia becomes strongly negative, indicating that the anomalous sea-surface temper­ atures are related to very large-scale changes in atmospheric pressure distribution. The pattern of atmospheric surface pressure changes associated with the warm episodes was first discovered in the 1920s by Sir Gilbert Walker when he was attempting to develop methods of forecasting monsoon rainfall over India ; the phenomenon was called the Southern Oscillation (SO). As an index of the SO scientists use the pressure difference at two widely separated locations such as Tahiti and Darwin to keep track of thi s oscillatory redistribution of atmospheric mass. The SO has now been linked not only with El Niiio events along the South American coast, but more generally with a fami ly of ocean-atmosphere fluctuations which accounts for a substantial portion of year-to-year global climate variability. The lo w- level wind field is the link between the SO pressure see-saw and changes in the ocean. Under normal conditions, the trade winds over the north-eastern and south-eastern Pacific converge just north of the Equator, along the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). From here, the air moves westwards near the Equator into the low-pressure region in the vicinity of Indonesia. When the Southern Oscillation Index (SOl) increases, the east-west pressure gradient along the Equator increases, and the westward flow of air intensifies. The persistent easterly wi nds literally drag the

OAA Cl im ate Analysis Centre, Washington, D.C., USA. '* NOAA Office of Climate and Atmospheric Research, Rockvi ll e, USA.

301 surface water towards the west, resulting in a build-up of sea-level in the western Pacific and a lowering of the level in the east. The oceanic thermocline, separating the warm mi xed layer of the upper ocean from the colder water below, assumes an in creased slope in the opposite direction, with a deep mixed layer in the west and a shall ow thermocline along the Ecuador-Peru coast. This shallow mi xed layer is usually associated with upwelling of deep water, rich in nutrients, that supports a sizeable fis h population there. With a falling SOl, pressure rises over the Indonesian region. The pressure gradient along the Equator decreases, and, in the case of unusually strong events such as that of I 982, actuall y reverses. The equatorial easterly winds in the western Pacific diminish, then change direction and blow from west to east. With this dramatic change

4

3

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-4 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 Figure I - Time history of the Southern Oscill ati on Index (SOl) as represented by the Tahiti minus Darwin surface pressure va lues. The curve is based on fi ve-month averages and units are standard dev iations

in the drag on the ocean surface, the sea-level begins to return towards the horizontal. This adjustment takes place in a way that is suggestive of an internal oceanic phenomenon called a Kelvin wave. The propagating response is initiated in the western Pacific with the change in the windfield, moves eastwards along the Equator at a speed of a few metres per second, and reaches the South American coast several weeks later. Oceanographers believe that the arrival of one or more of these sub-surface slow-moving Kelvin waves in the eastern Pacific is associated with a depression of the thermocline and diminished or ineffective upwelling, resul ting in £/ Niiio conditions. Figure 1 shows the Tahiti minus Darwin surface-pressure SOl sin ce 1968. The minima in I 969, I 972, and I 976/77 reflect the three previous warm episodes. In I 982, there was a precipitous drop in the index between May and June, fo ll owed by a continued fall to record low values late in the year. The wind field in the eastern equatorial Pacifi c responded accordingly as shown in Figure 2. The easterly flo w collapsed between May and June, and by July the average flow over the index area (5°N- 5°S, I 35°E- I70°W) changed to westerly and remained so until December. These anomali es far exceeded anything previously recorded. The wind and pressure changes were associated with massive changes in the large-scale precipitation regime of the Pacific (the ITCZ in the eastern Pacific and another zone of heavy precipitation, the South Pacific Convergence Zone (S PCZ), extending from around New Guinea south­ eastwards beyond longitude I 80°). As the warm episode developed, the ITCZ shifted

302 sli ghtly southwards and the south-west Pacific convection zone shifted eastwards. Normally dry areas in the central and eastern equatorial Pacific received copious amounts of rainfall, whilst south-eastern Australia and Indonesia experienced severe, even record droughts. In Kiribati (Gilbert Islands) and the Line Islands further east, reverse conditions were observed with day after day of heavy rainfall which disrupted tlie economy and the ecology of these equatorial islands. The large-scale effects of this El Niiio are illustrated most graphically by the evolution of the tropical Pacific sea-surface temperature anomaly field (see Figure 3). Widespread areas of positi ve anomaly first appeared in the equatorial Pacific in May, and by June SSTs were between one and two degrees Celsius above normal from the South American coast to 170°E. By August, the positi ve anomalies had disappeared

' 4

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-4 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 197 7 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 Figure 2 - Time history of easterl y winds averaged over the equatorial Pacific (a rea 135°E­ I700W ; 5°N-5°S), units being standard deviations. The large negative peak in 1982 resulted in a change to westerly winds

west of 180° but increased slightly east of 140°W. In September, two or three months after the collapse of the equatorial easterlies, there was a rapid development of positi ve SST anomalies in the eastern equatorial Pacific. The timing of this (together with observed changes in sea-level) is consistent with the arrival in the eastern Pacific of one or more Kelvin waves. It marked the onset of El Niiio along the South American Coast. The ITCZ shifted southwards, bringing an early rainy season to Ecuador during the last three months of the year-floods over Ecuador and the northern provinces of Peru were the worst in 50 years. There were also major dislocations in the fi shing industry there, a feature characteristic of El Niiio events which suppress the nutrient­ rich upwelling. By December, SST anomalies exceeded four degrees over large areas and were locally in excess of six degrees. The large area of anomalous westerly winds (first evident over the western Pacific in June) had migrated eastwards, reaching a position well east of longitude 180°. West of longitude 180°, easterly winds had returned, perhaps even stronger than normal. In the past, this second reversal of winds over the western Pacific has signalled the mature phase of the warm episode and the imminent decrease of SST anomalies. February 1983 anomalies in the eastern equatorial Pacific were indeed somewhat less than the peak values recorded in December 1982 and January 1983, but there was a renewed upward trend west of 90°W in March 19 83.

303 120E 140E 160E 1SO 160W 140W 120W 100W sow 60W 40N

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20S

405 I I I~ I ' -.Jc le===" df'::·. ·:-:.·-::::;.... I ), !//~ - £ 1 40S 100E 120E 140E 160E 180 160W 140W 120W 100W sow 60W Figure 3 - Sea-surface temperature anomalies in degrees Celsius over the equatorial Pacific in June, September and December 1982. Key : Negative Positive 1111 >3 degrees C'Zl 1-2 degrees 1111 2-3 degrees lllli1ll 2-3 degrees ~ 1-2 degrees - 3-5 degrees - >5 degrees

304 This event was much stronger than the typical warm episode. It was also notable that, near the South American coast, its timing was highly unusual. It began around the middle rather than early in the year as is common for El Niiio events. Many typical important climatic anomalies have also appeared: long-term drought was experienced over Australia and Indonesia, excessive rainfall over the central equatorial Pacific extended south-eastwards over French Polynesia all the way to Chile, and there was the heavy rain over Ecuador and northern Peru. While the northern provinces of Peru suffered from floods, some areas further south experienced above-normal temperatures due to the dissipation of the usual low cloud cover. With the arrival of the northern hemisphere winter, the warm episode pattern of anomalies typical of this season appeared in many regions. The continued shift of the precipitation zones in the Pacific resulted in the development of dry conditions from the Philippines eastwards through the Hawaiian Islands. Areas as remote as southern Africa and the north-east of South America recorded subnormal precipitation, also typical of this phase of the warm episode. Stronger than normal jet streams appeared over the Pacific in both hemispheres. The northern hemisphere jet stream extended eastwards across southern parts of the USA, bringing wet spells and storminess from California to Florida. The Gulf of Alaska low-pressure region was much stronger than normal, and at times shifted south-eastwards bringing destructive winds and tides to coastal regions of California. Significant changes in the distribution and abundance of marine life took place in South American Pacific coastal waters as El Nii'io developed. A drastic reduction in fish eggs and larvae was observed along the Ecuador coast around the end of 1982 (this condition may also have been present in other regions as well). Fluctuations in biomass of fish eggs and larvae are related to major year-to-year variations in fish population. The fact that the anchoveta fishery of Peru had collapsed during the 1972/73 El Niiio was probably due to the combined effects of El Niiio and overfishing. A weak recovery followed, but was terminated by the 1976/77 warm episode. The lack of a subsequent recovery in the Peruvian anchoveta fishery may be attributed at least in part to the absence of a strong resurgence of the normal cold upwelling water after the 1976 event. Anchoveta catches in 1980 and 1981 were only a fraction of the pre-1972 level. Reports from scientists associated with the ERFEN (£studio Regional del Fen6meno El Niiio) programme indicate that during the 1982 El Niiio, the anchoveta off Ecuador first moved to greater depth or fled to coastal regions as the waters warmed. They also seem to have migrated southwards, appearing in the waters off northern Chile. There is also evidence of a similar southward migration of sardines; those in Peruvian waters exhibited an erratic behaviour and were extraordinarily thin. Mackerel continued to appear in near normal numbers off Ecuador, but exami­ nation of stomach contents indicated they were eating their own eggs. Yellow jack appeared to have decreased off northern Chile and were being found nearer the coast. Large numbers of dead young anchoveta and sardines were found at the surface off Peru ; this may be an index of the severity of the 1982/83 El Niiio because mortality of such magnitude was not observed during the 1972 and 1976 events. Finally, there was a decrease in the shrimp catch off Colombia in late 1982, and in Ecuador the major aquaculture shrimp industry of the Guayas Estuary was devastated by the influx of fresh water resulting from catastrophic inland flooding. It seems apparent that this warming episode will go down in the records as one of the strongest, and in many respects one of the most unusual events of the past century. From a human and economic standpoint, it may also have been one of the most costly, at least in many areas of the world. It is still too early to evaluate the major socio­ economic problems which it has created.

305 In retrospect, it seems safe to say that given the present state of knowledge, nobody could have anticipated the dramatic climatic events of the past few months. Although limited and incomplete, the data collected are far superior to any acquired during past events. Furthermore, we have witnessed a more rapid exchange among countries, institutions and individuals of meteorological, oceanographic and fishery information than ever before during El Niiio. In the past, it often took not just months, but years to assemble a complete set of El Niiio data. During the 1982/83 event these were often available locally within two or three weeks. A complete look at these data will undoubtedly advance our understanding of this disruptive yet fascinating and extremely important system of climatic vari ability. Much of the data, particularly the subsurface oceanographic data, have not yet been thoroughly analysed, but this work is under way at a number of institutions. Plans are now being formulated for TOGA (Tropical Ocean/ Global Atmosphere), a major decade-long international research programme into this complex system of climate fluctuations. There are questions which, if answered, would permit improved long-range weather forecasts, improved seasonal and interannual climate forecasts, tailored climatic data products for government and industry, and increasingly realistic models of the role of environmental and societal influences in the variability of marine living resources. Perhaps, when the next warm episode arrives, we wi ll be armed with the better understanding and improved observational systems needed to answer many of the important remaining questions.

PROFESSOR HEINRICH WILD (1833-1 902)

By E. P. BORISENKOV *

Heinrich Wild figures among the galaxy of famous geophysicists who founded the International Meteorological Committee, thereby opening a new era in studying the global atmosphere. We celebrate this year the !50th anniversary of his birth. He was born on 17 December 1833 in the Swiss town of Uster about 15 km from Zurich, and spent his childhood there, later studying at the University of Zurich. He obtained a Ph.D. in 1857 and three years later became a professor at the University of Berne and di rector of the Observatory. By the time he was 30 he had set up several weather stations in the cantons of Berne and Solothurn, layin g the foundations of a meteorological network in Switzerland. His theoretical studies in the field of geophysics attracted attention in Russia and he was invited to fill the post of director of the Main Physical Observatory in St. Petersburg (now Leningrad). On 10 May 1868 Wild was elected Extraordinary Academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. In a letter to the President of the Academy, F. P. Litke, Wild expressed his sincere gratitude for this honour, saying he would be particul arl y happy to fill the post of director. Wild arrived in St. Petersburg on I September 1868 and was to devote 27 years of his life to the Main Physical Observatory. The Observatory had been founded in 1849, but was in a sad state when Wild took over, probably because his two predecessors, A. Ja. Kupfer and L. M. Kemts, had both died in office, and there had been no director for an extended period. Activities had

* Director, A. I. Yoeikov Main Geophysical Observatory, Leningrad.

306 run down, there was little contact with observers and other research institutions, and information was not available on what had been done at the different stations. Wild was to complete the work started by Kupfer which involved first of all setting up more than forty stations for the regular weather service of Russia. Thanks to his energetic action the publication of daily meteorological bulletins was resumed, and daily synoptic maps of Europe and Siberia started to be compiled and a general weather survey issued. Shortly afterwards the Main Physical Observatory started to supply storm warnings to seaports. Two years later Wild, supported by Litke, estab­ lished the Department of Marine Meteorology, which gave a stable basis to the Russian Weather Service, and soon daily weather forecasts were being made for St. Petersburg. On I January 1878, Academician Wild proudly watched his latest institution start regular activities. This was the Pavlo vsk Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory. The official inauguration ceremony took place on 20 May 1878. Under Wild's inspired leadership, Pavlo vsk Observatory became not only a first-class magnetic and meteoro­ logical experimental base, but also a model meteorological institution for both the Old and the New World. The establishment of Pavlo vsk Observatory is a major landmark in the development of Russian meteorology. Many scientists and sailors came to the Observatory before they went to the Arctic on a first International Polar Year expedition; this was both to try them out and to acquaint them with geophysical measurement procedures. At about this time, Wild began writing a basic study on air temperature over the territory of Russia whi ch is justly considered one of the masterpieces of Russian meteorology. Other scientists at the Observatory, under Wild's guidance, wrote a number of monographs dealing with precipitation, humidity, atmospheric pressure, cloudiness, evaporation and other meteorological topics. Almost all the 17 volumes in the Meteorological Collection, edited by Wild and published by the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, contained fairly important works on the climatology of Russia. As director of the Main Physical Observatory, Wild enthusiastically and energeti­ cally fostered international co-operation. He realized that it was pointless to try to study the meteorological conditions of a country in isolation of conditions in neigh­ bouring lands. He played a major role in preparing the Leipzig Meteorological Conference (1872) and in convening the Vienna Meteorological Congress (1873), where he was elected a member of the Permanent Committee. His outstanding talent as an organizer, his energy, his profound understanding of what was involved in planning and executing geophysical studies, his initiation of climatological studies, his development of unique instruments, and his success in reorganizing meteorological observations brought international fame to Heinrich Wild, and in 1879 he was elected President of the IMO, an office he held for 17 years. He became President on the eve of the epoch-making first IPY (see WMO Bulletin 31 (3) pp. 197-214) and he began organizing this with his customary energy and efficiency. Wild maintained close contact with the national polar commissions, and when necessary he chivvied the geophysical services of some countries in an attempt to gain as much support as possible for the polar studies. He followed avidly reports of progress from the 14 national expeditions, and his archives in Leningrad contain hundreds of letters and telegrams dating from this period. Next, Wild set about working out a programme for processing and publishing the data obtained by the expeditions. This was discussed in April 1884 at the meeting of the International Polar Commission in Vienna (see WMO Bulletin 31 (3) p. 191). The publication of the observations gave Wild a lot of trouble and took many years to

307 complete. Only when the two last volumes of magnetic and meteorological measurements were sent to press did Wild feel that the time had come to wind up the activities of the International Polar Commission. That was in September 1891. The Commission's archives were gi ven to the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences and manuscripts of observations were given to the Main Physical Observatory by all participating countries. The Observatory thus became the World Data Centre for the First IPY. Heinrich Wild had devoted 11 years of his life to the organization and execution of the I PY which added knowledge of physical phenomena in the Arctic and Antarctic to an extent unprecedented in the nineteenth century.

Professor Heinrich Wild, Presid ent of IMO 1879-1 896

Towards the end of the 1880s Wild helped the IMO out of a crisis. At its session at Zurich in September 1888, the International Meteorological Committee found itself unable to convene a new Congress such as had taken place at Vienna and Rome, mostly on account of the position of governments. Therefore the Committee dissolved itself, but not before appointing two Executive Officers in the persons of Wild and R. H. Scott (Great Britain) to try to organize a somewhat less formal meeting of repre­ sentatives of recognized meteorological services. It was thanks to their unflagging efforts and diplomacy that an international meteorological conference was held at Munich in August 1891. This Conference once again elected Wild as President. Academician Wild was elected member of no fewer than 30 academies and scientific societies throughout the world, testimony to the extraordinarily high scientific esteem in which he was held by his contemporaries. However his continuous efforts on behalf of meteorology in Russia and in the world at large had undermined even his robust health. Because of this, he felt obliged in 1895 to resign his post as director of the Main Phys ical Observatory. In recognition of his quite outstanding services the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences elected him honorary member for life. Wild spent the last years of his life in his native Switzerland. He maintained contact with the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences and Russian scientists were his frequent guests. Up to the day he died in 1902 he showed his characteristic lively interest in the activities of his Observatory where so many of the projects in geophysics which he had nurtured were now coming to fruition.

308 SEVENTY -FIFTH ANNIVERSARY OF THE AUSTRALIAN BUREAU OF METEOROLOGY By W. J. Gmss*

Th e first Act When the colonies of New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Queensland and Western Australia became the Commonwealth of Australia in 190 I, the Co n~ti­ tution of the new Commonwealth gave its parliament the power to enact laws with respect· to making astronomical and meteorological observations. ( Gentilli ( 196 7) and Gibbs (1975) have described the development of meteorological activities in the colonies.) In August 1906 the Commonwealth Parliament produced the Meteorology Act which provided for the appointment of a Commonwealth Meteorologist with authority (subject to the directions of the Minister) to arrange for meteorological obser­ vations, forecasts, storm warnings, the display of weather, flood, frost and cold wave signals and the distribution of meteorological information.

Mr Henry A. Hunt, Austra li an Commo nwealth Meteorologist 1907-1 931

H. A. Hunt was appointed the first Commonwealth Meteorologist on I January 1907 , having been employed in the meteorological service in the colony of New South Wales since 1884. He immediately prepared an imaginative plan for organizing a Commonwealth Bureau of Meteorology which was discussed by a conference of repre­ sentati ves of the Australian states. Hunt was sent to visit the principal meteorological services of Great Britain, Europe, Asia and North America, and hi s report of that nine­ month tour makes fascinating reading. Hunt's term as Commonwealth Meteorologist ended in 193 1, hi s successors being W. S. Watt (193 1-1940), H. N. Warren (1940-1951), E. W. Timcke (195 1-1955), L. J. Dwyer (1955-1 962), W. J. Gibbs ( 1962-1978) and J. W. Zillman (from 1978). The title of Commonwealth Meteorologist was changed to Director of Meteorology in the late 1930s and ratified by the Meteorology Act of 1955 which replaced that of 1906.

* Director of the Bureau of Meteorology from 1962 until 1978, a nd First Vice-President of WMO from 1967 to 1975.

309 Staff When the Bureau commenced operations on I January 1908 it acqui red th e staff, premises, equipment and infrastructures of the former coloni al meteorological services whose headquarters were in Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide, Hobart and Perth. The entire staff of the new Commonwealth service numbered 49, of whom 28 were located at the Bureau's headquarters in Melbourne, the provisional seat of the Australi an Government. Hunt had the daunting task of providing a meteorological service for four million people spread over a land mass the size of continental USA. Because of space limitations I shall focus mostl y on the first 30 years of the Bureau's hi story (those wishing for more detail s about the period since 1939 are referred to Gibbs ( 1982) and Priestley ( 1982). The new Federal Government and its senior administrative officers did not show much sympathy towards Hunt's requests for additional staff and equipment. Although hi s total staff increased to 84 by 1920, it had declined to 77 by the time of hi s retirement in 193 1. We shall see th at Hunt was nevertheless able to accomplish a great deal in hi s 24 years as Commonwealth Meteor­ ologist. The Bureau staff increased rapidly in the late 1930s and earl y 1940s (the result of demands from a growing ci vil aviation industry and the outbreak of war in th e Pacific). Numbers flu ctuated around 600 in the late 1940s and early 1950s, and then showed a steady increase to a maximum of 1925 in 1973. Today the strength of the Bureau staff is about 1650.

Observations From the start, Hunt set about ex panding and improving the comprehensive netwo rk of observing stations he had inherited. His plans also included upper-air measurements, and between 1913 and 19 16 thirteen soundings were made using meteorographs attached to tethered kites and balloons and free balloons. Regul ar measurements of upper winds by pilot ball oon commenced in th e 1920s and temperature and humidity soundings by aircraft in th e 1930s. The 1940s saw the commencement of radiosonde and rawin networks, together wi th the establi shment of observing stati ons on sub-Antarctic islands, extending in the fo ll owing decade to the Antarctic continent. In the 1950s radar started to be used fo r rainfall detecti on and automatic weather stations were developed. T he Bureau was keen to exploit obser­ vati ons from polar-orbiting meteorological satellites and established readout stati ons at Darwin, Melbourne, Perth and Bri sbane. Later a readout station fo r th e Japanese Geostationary Meteorological Satellite was set up in Melbourne. The Bureau deve loped drifting buoys for remote sensing of meteorological conditions over the ocean, and thereby made a major contributi on to the G lobal Weather Experiment in the southern hemisphere.

Services provided Forecasts, warnings and information on current weather were much in demand in the early days of the Bureau. By our. standards the meagre information plotted o n the twice-daily synoptic surface charts was totally inadequate, but forecasts and warnings and isobaric charts were nevertheless prominently fe atured in daily newspapers. Weather forecasts and warnings were diffused by signal flags flo wn on th e roofs of Bureau offices and other prominent locations, and the information was also telegraphed or telephoned to harbour-masters and oth er selected addresses. Today the scene is very different, with high-speed telecommunicati o ns, large computers and

310 highly trained staff producing forecasts which are disseminated not only through newspapers but by radio, television and other media. In 1957 the Australian Government authorized the Bureau to establish a hydro­ meteorological service which, among other functions, produced forecasts of river height during floods. This was a natural extension of services provided during Hunt's time when regular bulletins of river water-levels were issued which helped, inter alia, to avoid paddle-steamers being stranded, perhaps for months at a time, by falling river levels. The Bureau's climatological services have always been much in demand, which is not surprising in a country with an erratic rainfall, often experiencing droughts, duststorms, bush-fires, floods and tropical cyclones. Hunt and his predecessors laid a firm foundation for the comprehensive data bank which is now available . • f~ ., . , ,.

Surrounded by a variety of anemometers, some staff members of the Bureau of Meteorology on the roof of the headquarters building in Melbourne prepare to measure upper winds by pilot ba ll oon in th e 1920s. The instrument on the right is beli eved to be a pressure-plate anemometer dev ised by H. A. Hunt t Pli01os: Bureau of .\1ereorolog_r)

Research The Meteorology Act of 1955 gives a clear indication of the Bureau's respon­ sibility for meteorological research. The earlier Act had given no such charter, but in addition to hi s administrative duties and daily participation in the preparation of forecasts, Hunt found time to be personally involved in research and to encourage his staff in this activity. He was joint author, with Griffith Taylor and E. T. Quayle, of a book entitled The Climate and Weather of Australia published by the Bureau in 1913. Against world-wide competition he won a prize for a recording anemometer (his pressure-plate prototype operated for many years on the roof of the Bureau headquarters). In later years he propounded his theory of the heat pool according to which prolonged droughts induced increased vertical motion over the continent, this permitting the monsoon to penetrate further southwards, with resulting heavy rain and floods. Were he ali ve today he would surely point to the fl oods in Queensland and New South Wales in May 1983, which followed one of the most severe droughts over eastern Australia for over I 00 years, as a clear vindication of hi s theory.

311 E. T. Quayle had previously served in the Victoria meteorological service. He had a profound interest in clouds and rainfall; in the absence of other upper-air infor­ mation, he observed the speed and direction of movement of cirrus clouds as an aid to forecasting rainfall in Victoria. He also studied the relation between sunspot numbers and rainfall, and the connection between conditions over tropical Australia and rainfall in Victoria. Some 70 years later Australian research meteorologists are pursuing this latter subject. Griffith Taylor was a scientist with wide-ranging interests. A geographer, physio­ grapher and geologist, he joined Scott's ill-fated Antarctic expedition shortly after his appointment to the Bureau in 1910. On his return in 191 2 he rejoined the Bureau, but within a year was granted leave to make a geological and topographic survey of the site of the new Federal capital at Canberra. Returning to the Bureau in 1914, he collab­ orated with Quayle in producing papers on the results of upper-air soundings in Australia, and began a life-long study of the influence of climate on human character­ istics, settlements and welfare. He and Quayle firmly believed that the development and move ment of surface synoptic systems were controlled by conditions in the upper air. In 1921 , Taylor joined the Geography Department of the University of Sydney to pursue his study of the influence of the environment, later moving to the Unive rsities of Chicago and Toronto before coming home to retire in 1951. Edward Kidson joined the Bureau in 1921 at the time of Taylor's departure, and began by developing the network of pilot balloon stations which was the precursor of today's upper-wind network. His meteorological research wo rk ranged widely, including studies of turbulence, air pollution, polar-front theory and periodicities in Australian weather. When he left in 1927 to become Director of the New Zealand Meteorological Office, and after the retirement of Hunt in 1931 , the Bureau lost its main source of scientific inspiration, and tended to stagnate in the 1930s due to lack of leadership and government support. Its revitali7.ation began in the late 1930s with an influx of young science graduates and the creation of a Department of Meteorology at the University of Melbourne. No account of Australian meteorology in the twentieth century would be complete without at least a passing reference to Inigo Jones. Said to be a descendant of the famous English architect of the same name, Jones was a student of Clement Wragge. Wragge began issuing long-range forecasts in 1907 which gained some degree of public support, and on his departure for New Zealand in 1908, Jones took over his work. Under the patronage of the Queensland state government, and with private sponsors, he established a regular long-range forecasting service which continues to this day. Two expert committees and a Bureau expert have thoroughly in vestigated Jones's method and can find no adequate scientific basis for it.

International co-operation Apart from overseas visits by Hunt in 1907 and 1919, I have been unable to find any record of Australian participation in international meteorology during the period up to the Second World War. Hunt, Quayle, Taylor and Kidson would all have encouraged international collaboration, and it seems likely that they were involved in activities of the International Meteorological Organization. I should be most interested to hear from any reader who has evidence about this. Since 1945 the Bureau has participated in a wide range of international meteoro­ logical activities. In 1947 I had the good fortune to accompany Mr H. N. Warren, the then Director of Meteorology, to the IMO technical commission meetings in Toronto

312 and the IMO Conference of Directors in Washington, D.C., as well as the IMO Regional Association for the SW Pacific in Wellington (New Zealand) in 1948. These meetings picked up the threads of international co-operation which had been tangled up by the war. Warren was chairman of the committee which produced the draft of the WMO Convention adopted at the Washington Conference. There has been an Australian on every Executive Committee, and one served as First Vice-President of WMO for eight years. The Bureau of Meteorology and its representatives made signi­ ficant contributions to the International Geophysical Year 1957/58, the World Weather Watch, the Global Atmospheric Research Programme and the World Climate Programme. Bureau officers have been active as members of WMO technical commissions, panels and groups and on the staff of the Secretariat. In association with the Australian Academy of Science, the Bureau established in 1958 the International Antarctic Analysis Centre (later known as the International Antarctic Meteorological Research Centre) staffed by meteorologists from Argentina, Australia, USA and USSR. This provided the foundation for the World Meteorological Centre established in Melbourne. The history of the development of meteorology in Australia over the past 75 years shows that international co-operation is essential if a Meteorological Service is to operate efficiently. Hunt inherited a legacy from earlier Australian meteorologists who had strong international ties. Hunt, Taylor and Kidson themselves had international experience, whilst Warren and his successors cultivated international collaboration, being well aware that a remotely-situated country like Australia stood to benefit greatly by working closely with the Meteorological Services of other lands.

REFERENCES

GE~T ILU , J. ( 1967): A history of meteo rolog ical and climawlogical studies in Australi a. Unirersity Studies in /-list01y 5 pp. 54-88. University of Western Au stralia Press. Nedland s. G mss, W. J. ( 1957): Th e origins of Australian mereorology . Australian Govern ment Pu blishing Service, Canberra. G IBBS, W. J. ( 1982): A perspCCiivc of Austra li an meteorology-1939-1978. Ausr. Me1. Mag. 30 pp. 3- 17. PRIESTLEY, C. H. B. ( 1982): Remin isce nces of 30 yea rs meteorolog ica l re search in Austra li a. Ausr. 1\tlet. Mag. 30 pp. 19-30.

CENTENARY OF THE ROYAL OBSERVATORY, HONG KONG

By P. SHAM *

On 30 April 1983, Her Royal Highness The Princess Anne, Mrs Mark Phillips, opened the new Centenary Building at the headquarters of the Royal Observatory, Hong Kong. It stands close to the old building which had been constructed in 1883 to house a modest staff of four. The original functions of the Observatory consisted in making meteorological and geomagnetic observations and providing an accurate time check on the basis of astronomical observations. In the hundred years that followed, the Observatory evolved and expanded in response to the changing and growing needs of the community. It now issues weather forecasts, tropical cyclone warnings and va rious other meteorological and geophysical services for the general public, shipping, aviation and other industries. The idea of setting up a meteorological observatory in Hong Kong was first proposed by the Kew Committee of the Royal Society in 1879, the year in which the

* Acting Director, Royal Observatory.

313 Second International Meteorological Congress met in Rome. It was considered that Hong Kong was 'fa vourably situated for the study of meteorology in general and typhoons in particular'. Indeed, typhoons at that time were of great concern to the infant port of Hong Kong, and the proposal was therefore welcomed by the Hong Kong Government. Dr W. Doberck was appointed the first director of the Observatory in March 1883, and regular meteorological observations commenced on I January 1884.

H. R. H. The Princess An ne unveil s a plaque inaugurating the new Centenary Building of the Royal Observatory, Hong Kong. Mr P. Sham, Acting Director of th e Observatory, is on the left

I Pho10: G IS. Hong Kong) A tropical cyclone wa rning system was instituted in the sa me year by the Obser­ vatory. Ships in harbour were warned by visibl e signals and a 'typhoon gun' was fired to warn the local public when gales from tropical cyclones were ex pected. Bearing in mind the scanty data that were then available, one must admire the courage of the first director in initiating such a service. With a view to learning more about the meteorology of tropical cyclones, the Observatory kept close contact with ships calling at Hong Kong. Log-books containing relevant weather observations we re copied for further analysis. In 1892, Miss Annie Doberck, the younger sister of the director, joined the staff as meteorological li aison officer with ships, and could therefore be considered as one of the first port meteorological officers. Her appointment marked the beginning of a long tradition of close collaboration between mariners and the Observatory. The set of weather data gathered from ships enabled Dr Doberck to produce in 1898 his book entitled Law of storms in th e eastern seas, one of the earliest treati ses on tropical cyclones. In 1906, Hong Kong suffered heavy losses from a typhoon whi ch arri ved with very little notice. This disaster led the Government to a new appreciation of the importance of obtaining timely information. The telecommunication netwo rk was soon expanded to include a link between Hong Kong and Manila, and weather reports were received from vessels of the British Royal Navy via wireless telegraphy from 1908 onwards. In 19 15 this was extended to merchant shipping in the area, and weather forecast bulletins for the high seas started to be broadcast in the same year. In recognition of the important services it provided, King George V granted the Observatory royal patronage in 1912, whence it became known as the Royal Obser­ vatory.

314 Pilot balloon observati ons began in 1921 , partly in preparation for the devel­ opment of air routes in the area and partly as an attempt to collect upper-air data for research studies ; weather reconnaissance flights were also undertaken occasionally. As the volume of air traffic increased, an aviation weather service was established in 1937. The Royal Observatory's work was disrupted by the Second World War between 1941 and 1946, and there was a break of several years in the otherwise long and continuous series of meteorological records. After the war, Hong Kong experienced a period of phenomenal growth. The Observatory devoted much effort to expanding its forecasting services for the local public and civil aviation, and carried out various investigations related to development projects. During the 1950s a dense raingauge network was set up in Hong Kong and the Observa tory took part in decisions on the siting of reservoirs. Major typhoons which struck Hong Kong in the early 1960s reminded the community of the need for a reliable warning service. In 1966, cloud pictures were received routinely from the ESSA-2 and NiMBUS-2 satellites and a I 0-cm radar was installed which enabled forecasters to track continuously any tropical cyclones in the vicinity. During the 1970s, the Observatory was involved in the study of sea waves and storm surge, both of which could affect coastal development projects. Investigations into extreme wind and rain conditions were carried out for engineering applications. Advice was also given to the Government on meteorological aspects of air pollution, since this was beginning to become a problem as a result of industrialization.

5-f-- x..-. , ,.~f!:f . l. iJ·

~~

The old and new buildings of the Royal Obse rvatory, Hong Kong I Plwro: ROH Kt

The Observatory has always participated actively in international projects. For example, special radiosonde ascents were made during the International Year of the Quiet Sun in 1965; Hong Kong has been one of the eight responsible Members under the Marine Climatological Summaries scheme since its inception; objective forecasts of tropical cyclone movement have been disseminated via the GTS to members of the WMOJESCAP Typhoon Committee si nce 1975; substantial contributions were made to winter MONEX and the Global Weather Experiment. Hong Kong is currently participating in the Typhoon Operational Experiment (TOPEX). Thus, having started as an observation post, the Observatory has grown through the years into an institution engaged in a wide range of activities. In addition to

315 weather forecasting, it provides a climatological information service and carries out studies in synoptic and applied meteorology, automated data acquisition, seismology, physical oceanography, air pollution meteorology and aviation meteorology. It has at its disposal modern equipment such as computers, digital weather radar and Doppler acoustic radars and, most importantly, a staff with a long tradition of being enthu­ siastic and innovative. The Royal Observatory will continue to evolve and develop to meet the changing needs of Hong Kong, and it will maintain and honour its commitment to collaborate with the international meteorological community.

REGIONAL METEOROLOGICAL TRAINING CENTRES: Oran

(Submitted by the Permanent Representative of Algeri a with WMO)

Background When Algeria became independent in 1962, there were almost no Algerian meteorological staff. The Government therefore immediately mounted a sustained effort to train meteorologists both at home and abroad. A School of Civil Aviation and Meteorology (EACM) was created to train Class Ill and Class IV meteorological personnel. This was soon found to be inadequate, and in July 1967 the Algerian authorities submitted to UNDP a project proposal for the establishment of a hydro­ meteorological training and research centre for arid and semi-arid regions. This was endorsed, and the result was the establishment of the Institut Hydrometeorologique de Formation et de Recherches (IHFR). The chronology of the main events was as follows: 4 November 1969: The Algerian Government, WMO and UNDP signed an agreement on the plan of action ; 20 July 1970: The IHFR was established by ministerial decree; November 1970: Initial intake of students at the Institute's temporary premises in Oran ; July 1972: Graduation of the first Ingenieurs d'Etat and meteorological technicians; July 1974: Graduation of the first lngenieurs d'Application in meteorology; December 1978: Termination of the initial UNDP project and signature of a new project entitled 'Meteorological training within the IHFR and ONM' (Office national de la Meteorologie-the National Meteorological Service). There have been three directors of the Institute: Mr M a hi Tabet Aoul from 1970 to 1975, Mr Med Sadek Boulahya from 1976 to 1979, and Mr Abderrahmane Benlahrech from 1980 to the present. The IHFR was designated a WMO Regional Meteorological Training Centre in 1974.

Resources and facilities In addition to normal class rooms, the Institute has a number of training units which simulate in real time the main divisions of a Meteorological Service. These units, essential for specialized training, also serve as a means of putting into practice the lectures on theory. The functions of the major training units can be summarized as follows:

316 Transmission-Provision of meteorological data to the forecast unit; Forecasring- Drawing up the main synoptic charts each day ; Climatology-Processing and archiving data from three synoptic stations; Swface observarions- Routine day-to-day work of a station with two observers ; Hydrology-Processing data from a drainage basin in Algeria, building up the data bank and undertaking studies and research ; Agrometeorology- Data processing, crop trials, studies and research ; Computing-Preparation of all computer programs, including those relating to studies and research. In the domain of instrumentation, the Institute has an electronics laboratory, a telecommunication laboratory, a laboratory for surface measurements (pressure, hydrometry, temperature and wind), and a laboratory for upper-air measurements (radiosonde, radiowind and radar windfinding). Assistance from project funds has permitted the IHFR to acquire in addition an IBM 11 /30 computer with peripheral facilities, a language laboratory and a library containing more than I 5 000 titles. Instruction is given in French, although Arabic is used for some courses such as those for assistant technicians (Class IV). As for accommodation, the Institute has a hostel with a refectory which can seat 200 students.

Number of meteorologists and hydrologists trained at the IHFR from its creation up to 1982

No. of diplomas No. ofstudents awarded up to 31 July attending courses on 1982 31 December 1982 Level To students From foreign Total from foreign Total countries countries 1ngimieur d'Etat (Class I) 34 7 10 lngenieur d 'App/ication (Class II) 177 34 47 17 Technician (Class III) 258 22 47 7 Assistant Technician (Class IV) 330 33 31 2 Specialized training courses of more than six months 2 2 TOTAL 801 98 135 26

317 Training courses The IHFR continues to offer training for the various categories of meteorologists needed by the country, and to admit foreign students either through bilateral agreements or through arrangements sponsored by WMO and UNDP. There are annual courses fo r lngimieurs d'Application (Class II) and technicians (Class Ill), and courses every two years for Ingenieurs d'Etat (Class I) and assistant technicians (Class IV). The number of places set aside for foreign students in each course is two for Class I, five for Class II and ten for Class II I. Entry qualifi cations fo r the courses are as follows: Class I (two-year course): Four years of advanced educati on or Class I I diploma; Class Il (four-year course): Baccalaureat (complete secondary education) or Class III diploma ; Class Ill (two-year course): Secondary education (final year) or Class IV diploma ; Class IV (18-month course): Intermediate certificate of education. In addition, speciali zation or refresher courses are arranged each year, depending upon the availability of instructors, for meteorologists seconded from the operational service or from institutions using meteorological information. In its programmes, the IHFR pays particular attention to training staff who can be employed immediately in the operational work of the Service. For this reason emphasis is placed on fundamentals, general meteorology, climatology and instrument maintenance. In their final year, Class I! meteorological personnel are trained either in operations (observing, forecasting and climatology) or in meteorological instrumen­ tation. Graduation theses are intentionall y kept to a minimum so as to a ll ow the maximum time for training in general meteorology. To the greatest practical extent, specialization courses are only given after students have had some experience in opera­ tional meteorology.

Research Research actiVI ti es are conducted in the Institute's technical di visions (general meteorology, dynamic meteorology, applied meteorology and instrumentation) with the assistance of students who are complet ing their Class I or Class I I courses or who are following a speciali zation course. The research fields at present mostly relate to forecasting, clim atology and tropical meteorology. Class I and Class I I students have defended about I 00 theses, and some of these have been published in Ca hiers de la Mereorologie.

Teaching staff At present, 52 persons are employed at the IHFR as lecturers or technical support staff. There are 12 Class I meteorologists, 19 Class 11 , 11 Class Ill and ten Class IV personnel. To this total should be added the consultants who come to spend between one and four weeks at th e Institute to cover areas in which it does not yet have its own specialists.

318 Organizational aspects The IHFR maintains close relationship wi th the ONM which is the principal emplo yer of Algerian students recruited by external competition. The Institute organizes courses for the purposes of hydrology and agriculture when specially requested by these two sectors. There is collaboration with the University of Oran in matters of common interest. The Institute is entitled to award diplomas in respect of courses at the four levels corresponding to WMO Classes I to IV (see above), and may also award special certi­ ficates to students who have followed specialization courses in such subjects as agrometeorology and hydrology.

Future plans In the next five-year plan, the IHFR has budgetary provision for: Additional lecture rooms and laboratori es, a conference hall and a library; More training equipment (such as APT, RTT and facsimile receivers) to supplement that acquired under the UNDP project ; Improved student accommodation through the construction of a residence block with cafeteria and sports facilities. Finally, discussions are in progress with the University of Oran wi th a view to initiating joint postgraduate courses for meteorologists.

NINTH WORLD METEOROLOGICAL CONGRESS

REVIEW OF THE MAIN DECISIONS

It was a bright morning typical for the time of year in Geneva, a burst of cold air having temporarily re-whitened the tops of the Jura mountains, as the President of WMO, Or R. L. Kintanar, opened Ninth Congress on Monday 2 May 1983 in the International Conference Centre, kindly placed at WMO's disposal by the Swiss authorities. In addition to delegations from 121 Member countries attending the opening ceremony, there were also present a number of distinguished personalities, including Mr A. Egli, Swiss Federal Counsellor and Head of the Department of the Interior, senior officials of the Republic and Canton of Geneva, the Director-General of the United Nations Office at Geneva and the Secretary-General of !TU. Also among the distinguished guests was Sir Arthur Davies, WMO Secretary-General Emeritus. In his address on behalf of the Secretary-General of the United Nations, Mr Eric Suy, Director-General of the Geneva Office, touched upon a theme which permeated discussions at both committee and plenary level: the world economic situation. He said that the past decade, and the past few years in particular, had witnessed severe economic strain throughout the world, in developed and developing nations alike. Development in the third world had lost much of its promising earlier momentum, and the United Nations and its sister organizations had been hard pressed to halt the erosion of standards of li ving. Regrettably it was, as usual, the poorest countries which

319 bore the brunt of the consequences of such economic instability. In these troubled times it was gratifying to note the far-reaching developments taking place within the sphere of responsibility of WMO. Weather and climate were among the few truly natural resources freely available to all nations, and they affected nearly all facets of mankind's economic and social development. The proper application of meteoro­ logical and hydrological knowledge could bring inestimable benefits to all countries. It was necessary to look ahead, to recognize emerging new challenges, to foresee economic and social circumstances to the year 2000, and thereby mobilize the resources of Member countries so as to attain agreed goals. Only in this way could a better world be achieved for all. In his presidential address to Congress, Dr Kintanar echoed the points made by the representative of the UN Secretary-General: the financial restraints imposed by the current world situation demanded careful consideration of the priority lines of action open to the Organization. At the same time, with the tremendous scientific and techno­ logical advances now taking place, the science of meteorology must not be allowed to stagnate. Traditional priority activities and fresh initiatives had to be judiciously balanced so as to provide optimum benefits for the economic and social well-being of Member countries.

Personalities at the opening of Ninth Congress. Leji 10 riglu: Sir Arthur Davies, WMO Secretary-General Emeritus ; th e Secretary-General ; Mr P. Wellhauser, President of the Consei/ d'E1a1 of the Republic and Canton of Geneva ; Mr A. Egli, Swiss Federal Councillor and Chief of the Federal Department of the Interior; Or R. L. Kintanar, President of WMO

Programme and budget for th e ninth financial period Introducing his proposed consolidated programme and budget for the period 1984-1987 , the Secretary-General explained that the budget was as close as practicably possible to an overall 'zero-growth' programme. If all the activities proposed were to be maintained, a zero-growth budget in monetary terms was not fe asible. It was customary for Congress to vote a resolution authorizing the Secretary-General to incur additional expenditure only for eventual staff salary increases or to compensate for the effect of variations in currency exchange rates ; no allowance was made for extra costs arising from items such as travel, communications, maintenance and supplies during the financial period. The maximum expenditure authorized by Congress for the ninth financial period was US $77 516 400 (the sum voted by Eighth Congress had been US $74.4 million),

320 with no increase in the number of established posts in the Secretariat. Thus the principle of a zero-growth budget in real terms over the next four-year period was adopted, although this was not to mean zero growth or stagnation with regard to ideas. Zero growth did not mean that WMO could not fu lfil its mandate, it simply involved a reallocation of resources.

World Weather Watch Ninth Congress fell in the year which marks the twentieth anniversary of the launching of the WWW. Speakers emphasized that the WWW was the basic WMO programme and that WWW activities were essential for the implementation of the other programmes as well as those undertaken jointly with other international bodies. Thus Congress was of the firm opinion that the highest priority in budgetary allocations must be gi ven to the WWW. In particular, support should be avai lable for implementation and for remedial action to improve WWW facilities in developing countries, as well as for training staff where this was needed to enhance the operation of the WWW. Congress adopted the WWW plan for the period 1984-1987 which is based on the same directives and principles as the current plan, thereby maintaining continuity in the evolution of the programme. However, it was decided to include two new parts, namely the Integrated System Study and the WWW Implementation Support Activity. The main object of the first is to provide a plan by mid-1985 for an improved WWW up to the year 2000, which will include a detailed implementation programme for the period 1986-1991. The aim of the second is to support Members in the design, estab­ lishment and operation of WWW facilities through a co-ordinated exchange of knowledge, proven methodology and means. Intensified training activities, focused on improving WWW operations, will form an essential part of this new support element. Congress observed that new technological opportunities, when applied, would enable Members to accomplish the objectives of the WWW in a more effective, simpler and often less costly manner than had been poss ible hitherto. Although there had been considerable progress during the past four-year period in certain aspects of the WWW, notably meteorological satellites, operational numerical weather prediction products and, in certain areas, improved telecommunication li nks, Congress had to recognize that there were sti ll deficiencies which called for speedy remedial action. These considerations led to the adoption of several resolutions urging Mel'n bers to participate in world-wide efforts to make use of modern efficient technology in the GOS, GDPS and GTS, and thus it would be essential to keep up the practice of monitoring the operation of the WWW system. Other resolutions adopted by Congress laid down guidelines for the pursuit of activities related to marine meteorology and aviation meteorology.

World Climate Programme The World Climate Programme (WCP), establi shed by the previous Congress ( 1979) in response to widespread concern about possible changes in the global climate and their consequent economic, social and environmental effects, will be maintained with its four components (climate data, applications, impact studies and research). For the overall co-ordination of the WCP, the Executi ve Council relied on reports from the Advisory Committee for the World Climate Applications and Data Programmes, the WMOjiCSU Joint Scientific Committee for the WCRP, UNEP's Scientific Advisory Committee for the WCIP, as we ll as the executive heads of other international organizations invited to participate in the WCP.

321 Congress deemed that this arrangement had worked well and decided to maintain it through the coming financial period. Members were urged to promote climatological activities at the national level and to take advantage, where appropriate, of existing infrastructures in strengthening their own services, for the benefit of national economic and social development. The timely availability and accessibility of reliable climate data wi ll continue to be important in studies related to climate applications, impact and research. Congress was therefore pleased to note that considerable progress has been made towards promoting the transfer of data-processing technology, the establishment of climate data banks and centres on a regional and sub-regional basis, and a user-oriented information service on data sources (INFOCLIMA). In applications (WCAP), high priority was given to forest, water and energy problems. The programme also gives attention to other important subject areas such as urban meteorology, biometeorology and the combat against desertification. The well-establi shed activities in agricultural meteorology should continue to play a major role in strengthening operationall y oriented services related to the applications programmes of the Organization. WCRP efforts are directed towards determining to what extent climate can be predicted and the extent of man's influence on cl imate. The programme's goals are structured in terms of three specific streams of climate research concerned with the va ri ability of climate on time scales as short as several weeks, seasonal and inter-annual variations as well as long-term periods extending to several years. Responsibility for the WC! P, which is concerned with the overall impact of climatic va riability and change on various sectors of human activity, will continue to remain with UNEP, in close co-operation with WMO.

Hydrology and Water Resources Programme Congress confirmed that the main emphasis will continue to be placed on the Operational Hydrology Programme (OHP), including the Hydrological Operational Multipurpose Sub-programme (HOMS). As in the past, activities wil l be oriented towards the economic and social goals establi shed by the UN Water Conference, taking into consideration the needs of developing countries. Congress studied and approved a li st of WMO priority activities in the field of hydrology and water resources for the period 1983 to 1991 , including a plan for the second phase of HOMS, and requested the Commission for Hydrology to prepare further detailed descriptions of the activities indicating their rel ati ve importance. With respect to HOMS, Congress noted that during its first phase, 62 members had estab­ lished HOMS National Reference Centres (HNRCs), and as to the second phase Congress recognized the importance of seconded experts and the need for long-term planl'ling for transfer of knowledge and prove n technology. The second international conference on hydrology convened jointly by WMO and Unesco (198 1) had succeeded in co-ordinating the programmes of both organ­ izations in this field . Congress expressed the view that WMO should continue to co­ operate with other organizations of the United Nati ons system and participate with them in joint projects on water-related activities.

Research and development Congress reaffirmed th at CAS had a very important role to play in promoting, co­ ordinating and publicizing Members' research activities. Particular emphasis was placed on the transfer of information and the provision of advice on the use by Meteorological Services of research results.

322 The major goals of CAS for the 1980s would be: (a) to promote individual Members' research, (b) to contribute to the improvement of short- and medium-range weather prediction, (c) to encourage the co-operation of Members in stepping up research in long-range (monthl y and seasonal) forecasting, (d) to assume the lead role for the overview and co-ordination of research and appli cation of research results based on data from the Global Weather Experiment, (e) to assist Members in the further co-ordination of research and exchange of knowledge in tropical meteorology, (f) to foster research in the field of atmospheric chemistry and air pollution, (g) to assist in defining the scientific basis for weather modification activities, (h) to encourage the establishment of data banks for research purposes and (i) to contribute to the research activities of the World Climate Research Programme component. Specifically, Congress approved an expansion of the programmes on short- and medium-range as well as long-range weather prediction research. The WMO programme on research in tropical meteorology was strengthened to include priority projects related to tropical cyclones, monsoons, semi-arid zone meteorology/tropical droughts, rain-producing systems, interactions between tropical and mid-latitude systems and tropical prediction modelling. In the field of environmental pollution monitoring, Congress reaffirmed its concern over the physical, economic and social implications of environmental deterioration. It recognized the potential benefit in weather modification research, but believed that emphasis should be directed towards providing general guidance to Members. In the field of climate research, CAS was requested to continue to contribute to tropical meteorology, boundary-layer physics, the study of sea ice, stratospheric (and other) aerosols and radiation.

Technical co-operation The total value of technical co-operation activities in the period 1979-1982 was US $76 million, from which 128 countries benefited in one way or another. UNDP continued to be the major source of financing, representing 56.3 per cent of the total, while the Voluntary Co-operation Programme provided 25.4 per cent, trust-funds 15.8 per cent and the regular budget 2.5 per cent. Congress noted this information with satisfaction, but expressed concern at the decrease in the level of UNDP support in 1982 brought about by the current economic difficulties. Members were urged to make added efforts to ensure that the relevance and importance of meteorology and operational hydrology in economic development were not overlooked in UNDP country and inter-country programming. It was decided that technical co-operation activities carried out by WMO should continue along the same lines in the coming financial period. There had been satisfactory progress through the VCP during the period 1979-1982. A total of 159 projects in 80 countries had been completed, and Congress felt that the VCP had played an effective role in the implementation of the World Weather Watch. Thus it was agreed that the VCP should also be continued along similar lines as in the eighth financial period, but that it should be extended to support activities within the World Climate Applications Programme relating to food, energy and water. It was, moreover, an appropriate mechanism for fostering technical co­ operation among developing countries.

Education and training There was considerable discussion on this subject both under the above agenda item and also in connection with other WMO technical and scientific programmes. It was therefore evident that the Education and Training Programme not only cut across

323 a wide range of activities of the Organization but also constituted an important mechanism for the effective transfer of knowledge and proven methodologies to opera­ tional personnel in national Meteorological, Hydrometeorological and Hydrological Services, particularly those in developing countries. Under the WMO Long-term Plan*, one of the main goals of the Education and Training Programme is to overcome the shortage of trained staff. Congress therefore decided that a long-term activity towards this end would be to embark on a meteoro­ logical and hydrological manpower development programme. As a first step, during the ninth financial period studies and surveys would be undertaken on the requirements of Members to assess the manpower training requirements. Congress felt that although the WMO Regional Meteorological Training Centres were functioning efficiently and training considerable numbers of students, the Secre­ tariat should closely monitor the activities of these centres and maintain close links with them. Training publications, including compendia of lecture notes in various fields, were being extensively used by national and regional training centres, but their value could be increased by translating them into all the official languages of the Organization. The training library should be expanded and modernized, particularly as regards textbooks, audio-visual aids and computer-assisted learning techniques. To aid the WMO Regional Meteorological Training Centres, a WMO training books loan service is to be implemented on a trial basis during the ninth financial period. Roving experts and visiting scientists are to be used for training purposes at Regional Meteorological Training Centres and in developing countries. Congress agreed that the organization of training courses, seminars, workshops and symposia should be continued, bearing in mind the need for training instructors and technicians. A number of subject areas were also identified in the scientific and technical fields under the Organization's major programmes on which training events should be set up. In approving the continued use of regular budget funds for the award of short­ and long-term training fellowships, Congress also urged Members to exert renewed efforts to increase fellowship components in relevant UNDP country and inter-country projects. Moreover it was felt that YCP and trust-fund donor Members might increase their contributions in this domain.

Publications programme Congress recognized the vital significance of the publications programme for the meteorological community as well as for other related fields. The special importance of operational and technical publications was highlighted (including the education and training publications). The Executive Council was requested to review annually and to examine ways and means of reducing production costs without sacrificing output or the already high standard of WMO publications. The WMO Bulletin was agreed to be of special importance as an information and public relations medium, and satisfaction was expressed at improvements which had been made to the format and content of the journal. Particularly appreciated were the interviews with eminent meteorologists which had appeared regularly since January 1981.

* See page 329.

324 Other items Congress studied a document submitted by the Secretary-General on the first WMO Long-term Plan for the years 1984-1993. This is the subject of an article which starts on page 329 of this issue. Congress decided to change the name of Executive Committee to Executive Council. It was felt that the term 'Council' was more consonant with its status as a governing body of the Organization. Moreover, to allow wider consultation in the Executive Council subsequent to the increased Membership of the Organization in recent years, it was decided to increase from 19 to 26 the number of directors of national Meteorological and Hydrometeorological Services elected to serve on the Council. Thus the total membership is now 36.

This copper bas-relief entitled ' Man's universal supreme.judgement' was made by the artist Koba Guruli of the Georgian SSR who dedicated it to th e World Meteorological Organization as a reward and encouragement in its future services and concern for peace and the welfare of mankind. The plaque was presented on behalf of the USSR during Ninth Congress

As regards proportional contributions, the majority of Members were in favour of a scale of assessment which would be in line with that of the United Nations. Congress therefore decided to give equal weighting to the WMO scale adopted .by Eighth Congress and the United Nations scale for the years 1983 to 1985. As the introduction of this new method would result in a substantial difference in the share of the total assessed contributions for some Members, the new scale is to be introduced on a step­ by-step basis throughout the ninth financial period. As from I January 1984, propor­ tional contributions will no longer be expressed as units but as percentages of the whole. It should be noted that the minimum level of contribution at the end of the ninth financial period will be 0.03 per cent of the total assessments compared with 0.045 per cent during the eighth financial period and 0.09 per cent prior to that period. Ninth Congress reconsidered amendments (already proposed to Eighth Congress) to Articles 3 and 34 (c) of the Convention enabling the United Nations Council for Namibia to become a Member of WMO. These proposed amendments were to enable WMO to comply with Resolutions 31/149 (1976) and 32/9 (1977) of the General Assembly of the United Nations, which requested all specialized agencies and other organizations and conferences within the United Nations system to consider granting full membership to the United Nations Council for Namibia so that it might participate in that capacity as the 'administering authority for Namibia in the work for these agencies, organizations and conferences'. In view of the importance of this

325 matter, and to enable all Members to vote (including those not present at Congress), it was decided to request the Executive Council to arrange for a vote by correspondence on the adoption of the proposed amendments to Articles 3 and 34 (c) of the Convention. Noting that the use of the Arabic and Chinese languages at sessions of Congress, the Executive Council and the technical commissions was provided for in Regulations 115 and 117 of the General Regulations, Congress decided that the use of the Arabic language should be included at sessions of Regional Associations I (Africa), II (Asia) and VI (Europe) and the use of the Chinese language should be included at sessions of Regional Association II (Asia). The Convention and the General Regulations of the Organization should also be published in Arabic and Chinese. The fifth IMO lecture was given by Professor P. K. Das (India) who spoke on monsoons; his presentation engendered a li vely and extensive discussion. Five topics had been chosen by the Executive Committee for the scientific discussions during Congress. Academician A. F. Treshnikov (USSR) spoke on international co-operation in research in polar regions and Dr F. W. G. Baker (Executive Secretary of ICSU) gave a talk on the anniversaries of the International Polar Years and IGY, Professor H. Landsberg (USA) dealt with the value and challenge of climatic predictions, Dr W. J. Maunder (New Zealand) spoke about climate and social economics, Professor Ju. A. Izrael (USSR) spoke on integrated global monitoring of climate and the envi­ ronment, and Dr V. Richter (Czechoslovakia) and Dr S. P. Adhikary (Nepal) each presented an outline of a management model for a Meteorological and Hydrometeoro­ logical Service. Each lecture was followed by keen and wide-ranging discussions. Ninth Congress unanimously re-elected Dr Roman L. Kintanar (Philippines) as President of WMO for the ninth finanCial period. Professor Ju. A. Izrael (USSR) was unanimously elected First Vice- President (he has been Second Vice-President since 1975 and a member of the Executive Committee since 1974). Mr. Zou Jingmeng (People's Republic of China) was unanimously elected Second Vice-President (he has been a member of the Executive Committee since 1981 ). Mr. J. P. Bruce (Canada), member of the WMO Executive Committee since 1981 , was unanimously elected Third Vice- President. Congress appointed Professor G. 0 . P. Obasi (Nigeria) as the Secretary-General of WMO to succeed Professor A. C. Wiin-Nielsen. Professor Obasi was born in Nigeria on 24 December 1933. He holds an honours degree in mathematics and physics from the McGill University (Canada), a master's degree with distinction and a doctorate in meteorology from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (USA). From 1967 to 1974 he worked as a senior lecturer in meteorology (UNDP expert) at the University of Nairobi (Kenya), later becoming Professor of Meteorology, Chairman of the Department of Meteorology and Dean of the Faculty of Science. He joined the staff of WMO in 1978 as Director of the Education and Training Department. Having decided that its tenth session should be held in Geneva from 4 to 29 May 1987, Congress concluded its four-week session at 2.00 p.m. on 27 May 1983. The Ninth World Meteorological Congress coincided with an abnormally wet and cold month of May in much of western Europe. The meteorological office at Geneva airport said it had been the rainiest May since records began more than a century ago and as the President closed the proceedings, snow was lying on the surrounding hills at even lower levels than on the opening day. In conjunction with Ninth Congress an exhibition of meteorological and hydro­ logical in struments and data acquisition equipment was arranged in the International

326 Conference Centre and in the entrance hall of the nearby building of the European Free Trade Association so that delegates would have the opportunity of seeing some of the latest technological developments. Video films were projected which showed how weather information and forecasts are presented on the national television services of a number of countries. There were also demonstrations of various ways of presenting and applying climatological data using computer techniques.

Vi siting METEOHYDEX-83, the exhibition of meteorological and hyd ro­ logical equipment arranged in conjunction with Ni nth Congress. Left to right: Mr R. Mathieu, WMO Public Information and Press Officer; Or S. Huovil a, president of C IMO ; the Secretary-General ; the President of WMO I Plwtos: IV.\40/ Biall co )

WMO EXECUTIVE COUNCIL

THIRTY -FIFTH SESSION, GENEVA, JUNE 1983

The members of the new and enlarged Executive Council remained in Geneva during the week which followed the conclusion of Ninth Congress to attend the thirty­ fifth session which took place at the International Conference Centre in Geneva. The Council's main tasks were to take certain action called for by Congress and to decide on the Organization's budget and work programme for 1984, the first year of the ninth financial period. The President of WMO, Dr R. L. Kintanar, opened the session on 30 May 1983. The Executive Council noted the report of the eighth session of CBS and approved the detailed work programme of the commission and its working groups for the period 1983-1986. The Council felt that the further strengthening of marine meteorological and operational oceanographic services and the study of large-scale ocean/atmosphere interaction processes required urgent attention. In view of the change of the Integrated

327 Global Ocean Stations System (IGOSS) to Integrated Global Ocean Services System, the Council adopted revised terms of reference for the Joint IOCfWMO Working Committee. The Council was in favour of proposed activities under the agricultural meteorology programme for 1984, in particular short- and medium-term missions. The Council welcomed the proposal for a WMOjFAOjUnesco Study of the Humid Tropics in South America. It also supported the continuation of short-term expert missions to countries to promote the use of meteorological data and information for the devel­ opment of renewable sources of energy. The Council examined and adopted the text of a statement entitled 'Research and monitoring of atmospheric carbon dioxide', which had been prepared by CAS in consultation with the JSC.

Geneva, June 1983 - Participants in the thirty- fifth session of the WMO Executive Council (Photo: WMO/Bianco )

WMO's involvement in the ECEjUNEPfWMO co-operative Programme on Long-range Transmission of Air Pollution in Europe (EMEP) was encouraged. With regard to integrated monitoring, an international symposium on integrated ocean monitoring would be held in Tall in (USSR) from 2 to I 0 October 1983. It would be eo­ sponsored by UNEP, IOC and WMO. In connection with the Hydrology and Water Resources Programme, the Council noted the proposal of the president of CHy to hold, in 1984, the seventh session of the Commission for Hydrology and one session of its Advisory Working Group. WMO should eo-sponsor with IAHS and Unesco the organization of an international symposium on challenges in African hydrology and water resources. The Council re-established its Panel of Experts on the WMO Voluntary Co­ operation Programme (VCP) and updated the Rules in the light of decisions of Ninth Congress. It was decided to maintain the revolving fund for the VCP. The Council maintained its Panel of Experts on Education and Training and agreed to a session during 1984. The need for a manpower development programme and the continuation of training surveys was underlined. This should lead to an overall assessment under a long-term training plan.

328 The Executive Council conferred the 1983 WMO Research Award for Young Scientists on Or Yaya Coulibaly (Ivory Coast) for his paper entitled ' Local evolution on different time scales of heat and mass fluxes at the surface in the tropical zone'. The International Meteorological Organization (IMO) Prize, which is awarded annually for outstanding work in meteorology, operational hydrology and inter­ national co-operation, was awarded to Professor Juan Jacinto Burgos, Professor Emeritus at the University of Buenos Aires (Argentina), and to Mr Mohamed Fathi Taha, Counsellor in Meteorology to the Egyptian Ministry of Civil Aviation. Professor Burgos is well known, both at national and international levels, as a teacher and for his extensive research in agricultural meteorology and allied fields. Mr Taha served as President of WMO from 1971 to 1979, and is also a well-known figure in international meteorology. They will each receive a gold medal, a cash award and a printed citation. The Prize was established in 1955 by the World Meteorological Organization in honour of the former non-governmental organization which had initiated international collab­ oration in meteorology in 1873. The list of recipients includes many of the world's most distinguished meteorologists. The theme chosen by the Executive Council for World Meteorological Day in 1985 was ' Meteorology and public safety'. The budget approved for 19 84 amounted to US $ 18 750 000. The Executive Council decided that its thirty-sixth session would be held in Geneva from 6 to 23 June 1984.

THE FIRST WMO LONG-TERM PLAN 1984-1993

As reported elsewhere in this issue, the Ninth World Meteorological Congress has approved the first part of a long-term plan for the future scientific and technical activities of the Organization. It contains a broad outlook on policies and strategies and a review of current deficiencies as well as new opportunities opened up by techno­ logical developments and scientific achievements. This leads to a summary definition of the Organization's main objectives for the next decade. Part 11 , which still has to be written, will go into more detail. Plans will be drawn up for the individual programmes of WMO with an analysis of priorities, and certain milestones wi ll be marked out in the achievement of their defined goals. The Executive Council has established a Working Group on Long-term Planning which will meet in November 1983 ; one of its first actions will almost certainly be to seek the views of Members, regional associations and technical commissions on a number of issues that might affect the future of WMO's programme. Although the plan for 1984-1993 is generally referred to as the First WMO Long­ term Plan, it is certainly not the first time that WMO has had to look a decade or more ahead (take the planning of the Global Atmospheric Research Programme and certain facets of WWW for example). However, it will be the first time that WMO embarks upon planning the whole range of its scientific and technical programmes for a longer spell than the customary four-year inter-congressional period. It is also the first time that the interdependent programmes of WMO are looked at as a comprehensive whole. Several years ago it became apparent that a lead time of substantially longer than four years was needed to plan the main directions of the scientific and technical

329 activities of the Organization. It had often been pointed out jhat the development of modern technological infrastructures (such as satellite systems) required an outlook for a decade or more. Before they could commit resources to a specific WMO programme, Member-countries needed several years' advance infonpation about it. Therefore, a long-term plan, approved by Congress (and thus generally accepted by Members) would enable each individual Member to study what the projected international devel­ opments implied for its own national plans and priorities. Such a long-term plan would, it was also argued, provide a needed focus for the constituent bodies of WMO, giving a clearer idea of the overall objectives and the role they were expected to play in attaining them. That was the rationale which had led the Executive Council to initiate work on this First WMO Long-term Plan. Ninth Congress examined the draft of Part I in great detail, making a number of specific changes in the text and redefining somewhat the programme structure of the Organization; the following seven major programmes are to form the framework of the overall scientific and technical activities of WMO: World Weather Watch; World Climate Programme; Research and development; Applications of meteorology; Hydrology and water resources ; Education and training; Regional activities. Top priority is to be given to the World Weather Watch since this is fundamental to all the other programmes. High priority is also allotted to the World Climate Programme and the Education and Training Programme; Congress affirmed that promotion of the transfer of knowledge and proven methodology between Members, and assistance to Members in the developing world to permit them to participate more fully in WMO's programmes, should be an important element in all scientific and technical programmes. One of the basic principles enunciated by Ninth Congress was that, because the Meteorological and Hydrometeorological Services of Members are at such widely different stages of development, WMO's scientific and technical programmes must be planned and implemented so as neither to hold back the most advanced Members nor exclude the least developed. Herein lies a key role to be played by regional associations in identifying regional priorities within the WMO programmes. Congress felt that Part I of the First WMO Long-term Plan (even without the more detailed material which will be forthcoming in Part 11) would be a very useful guide to national Meteorological and Hydrometeorological Services when considering their own planning policies. It was therefore agreed that the full text of Part I should be published and distributed to all Members as quickly as possible. Furthermore, the Secretariat was requested to publish a shorter version of Part I as a booklet intended for governments and designed to explain the value and importance of meteorological and operational hydrological services. The preparation of an overall long-term plan is a new venture for WMO and it may give rise to a certain scepticism-after all, experience has shown that even over considerably shorter time periods things do not always go strictly accordingly to plan. This is true, and it must be accepted that there will be some unforeseeable devel­ opments in the decade ahead. Nevertheless the exercise does yield an immediate

330 reward in that it helps us to formulate questions more clearly (and perhaps even suggests some answers), and gives us a sound rationale for assigning priorities and reaching conclusions about many of the tasks facing WMO in the more immediate future.

World Weather Watch

Global Telecommunication System

Central American Meteorological Telecommunication Network At the kind invitation of the Government of Costa Rica, a co-ordination meeting on the implementation of the Central American Meteorological Telecommunication Network (CEMET) was held in San Jose from 18 to 22 April 1983. Convened at the request of the eighth session of Regional Association IV, the meeting reviewed the operational status of the CEMET network and evaluated its efficiency, taking into account results of monitoring it in operati on. It became clear that the network's current organization and engineering did not satisfy the requirements of the Members concerned. The meeting agreed that a revised network should be implemented based on modern telecommunications technology and compatible with expected progress in implementing the WWW. In this respect, the meeting invited the Secretary-General to obtain the services of an electronic telecommunications engineer to elaborate a plan for an efficient telecommunication system and inform Members concerned about the various interfaces of the system before finalizing his plan for formal submission.

San Jose (Costa Rica). Apri/1983 - Participants in the CEMET co-ordination meeting !PI!vto: IMN)

Meteorology and ocean affairs

Integrated Global Ocean Services System A meeting of the editorial group to prepare the final manuscript of the Guide to the IGOSS Data Processing and Services System was held in Hamburg (Federal

331 Republic of Germany) from 13 to 17 June 1983 at the kind invitation of the Deutsches Hydrographisches Institut. Dr K. Huber of the host country was chairman. The main tasks were to ensure consistency among the various sections, to reduce the volume of text while still retaining the substance, and to improve the presentation in the light of com ments offered by various Members. This guide is planned to be published before the end of 1983 .

North Atlantic Ocean Stations

Eighth session of th e NA OS Board

The Board which administers the North Atlantic Ocean Stations (NAOS) Agreement held its eighth session from 28 June to I July 1983 at the WMO headquarters in Geneva under the chairmanship of Dr D. N. Axford (United Kingdom). Fourteen of the countries which are Contracting Parties to the Agreement were represented, as well as one other country. The Board approved the financial accounts of NAOS operations for the calendar year 1982 which showed an adjusted final total expenditure reimbursable to the Operating Parties of £6 552 347. The Board also discussed the budget estimates for 1984, and refundable costs amounting to £7 793 405 were accepted by the Contracting Parties. The Board conveyed its appreciation to governments which make voluntary co ntributions to the NAOS system for their valuable support. The Board's main concern at this session was to ensure continuation of the present four-station network operated by France, Netherlands, Norway, United Kingdom and USSR. Its work was greatly facilitated by an informal expert meeting on AOS operation which had been held in Geneva from 28 to 30 March 1983 when representatives of the Operating Parties to the Agreement had discussed all aspects of cost reductions in NAOS operation. There was general agreement in the Board that the current four-station NAOS network should be continued in a cost-effective manner until 31 December 1985. In view of financial restrictions, however, it was feared that this could not be maintained after 1985, at which stage a reduction to a two- or three-station network should be envisaged. Therefore the Board felt that to meet the requi,rements for data over the North Atlantic it was essential to offset a reduction in NAOS coverage by the rapid phasing-in of certain elements of the optimized Global Observing System planned under the Integrated WWW System Study. This was expected to include polar-orbiting and geostationary satellites, aircraft equipped with ASDAR, ships participating in the automated shipboard aerological programme, voluntary observing ships, buoys and other ocean observation platforms. Nevertheless the NAOS upper-air data were essential for the calibration of satellite sounding data, so th at for this reason some strategicall y located fixed ocean stations would still be required as part of a minimum global upper-air network. The Board stressed the urgent need to design and implement a cost-effective observing system for the whole of the North Atlantic and decided that the president and the vice-president of the Board should offer their assistance to the Secretary­ General of WMO in connection with the Integrated WWW System Study. Dr Axford was re-elected president of the Board for the calendar year 1984, and Mr U. Gartner (Federal Republic of Germany) was elected vice-president.

332 Service Argos Users' guide Drifting buoys were very effective in improving weather analysis and forecasting during the Global Weather Experiment and other large-scale projects, and were very useful for oceanographic research purposes also. Moreover the experiment demon­ strated the capabilities of the Argos system to collect world-wide meteorological obser­ vations. Recognizing their potential, WMO has formulated policy guidance on the co­ ordination of drifting buoy activities and the Executive Council is in favour of limited operational drifting buoy programmes for regional and global meteorological purposes. At the second Service Argas joint tariff agreement meeting it was felt that a users' guide was badly needed. Such a guide would serve the threefold purposes of encour­ aging more countries to use platforms by explaining the Argos system possibilities, acting as a reference source for the design and construction of buoy hardware and promoting the real-time exchange of data. Work started on preparing the guide in June 1983. Dr Glenn Hamilton of the NOAA Data Buoy Center (USA) and Mr Raymond Rosso of Service Argas met first in Geneva and then in Toulouse to gather material and write the text. The guide will consist of eight chapters. The introduction discusses the purpose of the Argos system and its use for meteorological and oceanographic data collection as well as the need for international co-ordination. Buoy hardware is then described (i ncluding hulls, sensors and drogues), and the Argos data-collection and platform­ location systems are outlined (this includes platform transmitter terminals, satelli te on­ board equipment and telemetry). This leads to a definition of the Argos data- and location-processing functions. Next to be discussed are data dissemination over the GTS, Argos standard products and data archiving. ·Quali ty control of data and buoy identification are referred to, and finally there is information on how to apply, and the financial arrangements for participating in, the Argos system. It is confidently expected that the users' guide will stimulate an increased use of drifting buoys by providing the rationale and information necessary to initiate and expand drifting buoy programmes. The publication is expected to be available before the end of 1983.

Research and development

Research in tropical meteorology

Radiation A technical consultation of experts on radiation flux studies in the tropics was held at the headquarters of the Australian Bureau of Meteorology in Melbourne from 21 to 23 March 1983. The meeting was attended by Professor R. P. Pearce (chairman of the CAS Working Group on Tropical Meteorology), Professor E. Raschke (CAS rapporteur on atmospheric radiation), Dr R. R. Brook and Dr T. L. Hart from Australia, and Dr A. A Rama-Sastry from India. Several other local experts were also present as observers.

333 The meeting reviewed progress made in the pilot studies on radiation data analysis and global circulation diagnostics undertaken by the activity centres in Australia and India. The Australian pilot study focuses particularly on the influence of local radiative forcing on large-scale processes. Results indicate that in summer local radiati ve factors play a fairly important role in creating a response to surface heating over a large area of northern Australia, but have a relatively small effect in winter. The l ndian pilot study concentrated on the preparation of monthly maps of global radiation anomalies for 1970-1980 in order to study their influence on the rainfall distribution and circulation patterns. In di scussing radiation data requirements for the project, the importance was emphasized of numerical modelling incorporating a suitable radiation scheme, and a li st was prepared of the radiation budget parameters required. The meeting also enumerated future pilot studies to be carried out by individual participants. On these will be based the implementation plan for the long-term study project whose primary aim is to identify the role of radiative forcing in the atmospheric circulation over those tropical areas which are highly sensitive to drought. Members in such areas will be invited to participate. On the two days following the expert meeting there was the Australian Conference on Tropical Meteorology, organized by the Australian Branch of the Royal Meteoro­ logical Society. Members in Regional Association V had been invited to participate. The Conference dealt with broad areas of tropical meteorology, but especially the Australian monsoons.

Environmental pollution

Background Air Pollution Monitoring Network (BAPMoN) The report on the fifth inter-laboratory comparison has recently become available and will shortly be distributed to Members concerned. About 40 laboratories participated. In general, the results were comparable with former exercises, although not quite so good. However, if one discounts the results of a very few newly-designated laboratories which encountered initial problems, there was an improvement. Samples for the sixth intercomparison have been forwarded to about 55 laboratories which have indicated willingness to participate. For the first time accompanying instructions are also available in French and Spanish. In response to the questionnaire for the 1983 BAPMoN status report, 26 Members requested that at least part of their precipitation and aerosol samples be analysed by the IAEA laboratory in Vienna under an agreement between IAEA and WMO, with support from UNEP. These Members have been informed by the WMO Secretariat about the procedures to be followed. Additional requests from Members will be welcome. The 1983 status report (as of May 1983) will be distributed shortly.

Instruments and methods of observation

Symposium on meteorological observations and instrumentation The fifth in a series of symposia on this subject was held in Toronto (Canada) from 11 to 15 April 1983. Jointly sponsored by the Canadian Meteorological and

334 Oceanographic Society, the American Meteorological Society and WMO, it attracted more than 250 participants. As on previous occasions, the membership of CIMO was we ll represented. The programme chairman was Mr W. L. Clink of the Canadian Atmospheric Environment Service. The purpose of these symposia (the first of whi ch was in 1969) is to bring together instrument designers, network operators, users, manufacturers and theoreticians to exchange information and explore common problems relating to observing programmes. More than l 00 papers were presented by experts from ten different countries on subjects as diverse as pressure transducers for automatic weather stations and the latest generation of remote sounders to be carri ed by satellites. A substantial part of the proceedings were devoted to the operation of networks of observing systems; the president of CIMO, Or S. Huovila, presented a paper entitled 'Instru­ mental and observing aspects of the future development of the Global Observing System', and the special problems of mesoscale networks were allocated one full session.

Among the other topics discussed at the symposium were: The measurement of certain surface parameters (pressure, visibility, radiation and precipitation); radiosonde measurements; satellite observations ; surface-based remote profiling; aircraft systems ; user requirements ; automatic weather stations; meteorological radar; air quality and boundary-layer measurements.

In additi on to the papers, an exhibition was organized in which some 50 manufac­ turers participated.

A few copies of the symposium preprints are avai lable from the American Meteorological Society, 45 Beacon Street, Boston, MA 02 108, USA

Conference on Results of the Global Weather Experiment and their Implications for the World Weather Watch (announcement)

On several occasions allusion has been made in these pages to a future interna­ tional conference to appraise the results of the Global Weather Experiment-or First GARP Global Experiment (FGGE)-which took place in 1979. It has now been decided that this major event wi ll be held in the International Conference Centre in Geneva from 27 to 31 May 1985. The objective is to demonstrate clearly the value of the results obtained, the scientifi c and technological achievements, and the benefits to meteorology that have accrued from the Global Weather Experiment. Great emphasis will be placed on the practical utility of the results in the operations of national Meteorological Services and in refining the World Weather Watch. There wi ll be a comprehensive account of progress in all aspects of meteorological research comprised in the objectives of the Global Weather Experiment, and invited speakers wi ll review certain special areas such as the prediction of weather systems, the utilization of meteorological data, observing techniques and understanding the atmospheric circu­ lation. The concluding session wi ll be a general discussion leading to approval of a statement on the overall accomplishments of the Experiment. It is expected that many senior representatives of national Meteorological and Hydrometeorological Services wil l wish to attend, including those responsible for developing forecasting services and those involved in related research. Formal notifi­ cation about the conference and invitations will be sent out early in 1984.

335 World Climate Research Programme

Aerosols and their climatic effects At the end of October 1980 a group of experts met in Geneva under the chair­ manship of Professor H.-J . Bolle to review the current state of knowledge about the potential effects of aerosols on climate (see WMO Bulletin 30 (2) p. 126). Since that time, several countries have initiated studies aimed at improving understanding of the role of aerosols in global circulation models, and by early 1983 the time had come to bring together the experts working on aerosol modelling, atmospheric circulation modelling and radiation, in order to exchange experiences and discuss recent devel­ opments. They were then to formulate a research strategy for the coming decade. This joint CAS/IAMAP Radiation Commission meeting was held in Williams­ burg, Virginia (USA) from 28 to 30 March 1983. Dr A. Deepak was host and chairman, and preparations for the meeting were greatly facilitated by papers prepared by the eo­ chairman, Dr E. Gerber. There were 27 participants from eight countries. The experts affirmed that the increasing sophistication of climate models, combined with a greater depth of knowledge about aerosols, had permitted a better understanding of the processes in volved in aerosol climate interactions. It was generally agreed that the net influence of aerosols on global average surface temperature seemed likely to be a cooling, although regional exceptions (for instance the Arctic) were possible. However, it was pointed out that small changes in an aerosol's radiative characteristics, within realistic limits, could reverse its effect from cooling to heating. These aerosol effects will complicate detecting a first signal of the global wa rming expected due to the increasing atmospheric C0 2. Among the specific topics discussed by the experts were the remote sensing of climatic parameters, physical properties of aerosols and sensiti vity tests to define the required level of aerosol parameterization in atmospheric models. A key area of uncertainty was the interaction of aerosols with clouds and cloud optical properties. Numerous specific recommendations were made for both shorter­ term and long-term tasks (up to ten years), directed in general towards: - Verifying and extending our knowledge of aerosol radiative characteri stics and of the physical processes that influence them ; - Studying the interaction of aerosols with cloudiness and the effects of aerosols on cloud radiative properties, and to include these effects in climate models; - Better defi ning the global climatic pattern of aerosol optical parameters and their inter­ dependence with climate processes; - Verifying model-predicted aerosol impacts against observation. The outcome of the meeting will be published as a WCRP report.

World Climate Data Programme

Data management in Regions Ill and IV With the co-operation of the Brazilian Instituto Nacional de Meteorologia, a Workshop on Data Management for Regional Associations Ill and IV took place in

336 Brasilia from 11 to 15 April 1983. This was the first event in Latin America and the Caribbean within the framework of the World Climate Programme, and its success augurs well for the implementation of the WCP in that part of the world. There was a total of 82 participants from 22 countries in Regions Ill and IV, plus representatives from IOC and CPPS * and the Director of the Meteorological Service of Cape Verde. The lectures and discussions were centred around data management systems, station networks and the organizing of a functional data base. The present status of climate data in the Regions was reviewed, as well as future needs for supporting the WCP. The conclusions will be presented at the Technical Conference on Climate for Latin America and the Caribbean (Bogota, 28 November- 3 December 1983).

World Climate Applications Programme

Agricultural meteorology and desertification

Short-term missions Short-term agrometeorology missions were carried out in the Bahamas, Fiji, Jamaica, Papua New Guinea, Turkey and Zambia. The aim was to assess the current state of agrometeorology in the countries concerned and to advise on ways of improving the services rendered in this domain. The missions also helped to identify major potential agrometeorological problems for investigation. Further short-term missions are being planned for Belize, Central African Republic, Guinea Bissau and Kenya, and some medium-term missions are also envisaged later.

Desertifica tion The eighth session of the Inter-Agency Working Group on Desertification was held in Geneva from 6 to 8 April 1983 . The main topic for discussion was the preparation of the first general assessment report on world-wide progress on imple­ menting the United Nations plan of action to combat desertification. Another matter discussed was updating the compendium of projects and programmes of the UN system and future programmes and projects under the sub-programme 'Arid and semi-arid lands ecosystems and desertification control' of UNEP's System Wide Medium-term Environment Programme (SWMTEP). With the help of a consultant, WMO organized a roving seminar in Gambia, Guinea Bissau and Morocco to train participants in the use of meteorological and hydrological data to estimate the erosive capacity of rainfall. It is planned to organize similar seminars in other desert-prone areas in Africa and other WMO Regions in the future.

Remote sensing and rural disaster preparedness A training course on applications of remote sensing to rural disaster preparedness was held in Bogota from 13 to 24 June 1983. The course was attended by 25 participants from 16 countries in WMO Regions Ill and IV. Lectures were in

* Permanent Commission for the Southern Pacific, comprising representatives of Chil e, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru.

337 Spanish and included remote sensing applications to meteorology, hydrology, agriculture, seismology, vulcanism and di saster preparedness.

Meteorology and plant protection The president of CAgM, Mr N. Gerbier, represented WMO at an international meeting held in Costa Rica for strengthening regional plant protection organizations.

Energy

Short-term missions By early June 1983 , 24 countries had let the WMO Secretariat know that they would welcome short-term missions by experts on energy matters (this figure does not in clude countries where mi ssions had been already carried out). The main objective of these missions is to assist national Meteorological Services in developing countries to make the best use of climatological and meteorological knowledge and data when tackling energy problems. Five or six missions are ex pected to be carried out in 1983.

Reports Concerning top priority items in the WMO plan of action in the field of energy matters, three reports are being prepared and will be submitted by December 1983. The subject matter of the reports are: Use of satellite data for solar energy resource assessment; Methods of estimating variations of wind with height, with special regard to wind energy activities; Statistical methods for spatial interpolation in climatology. At the same time, the CCl * rapporteur on energy matters is preparing a special environmental report to draw the attention of meteorologists and others to the various uses of meteorology in solving problems relating to energy, and Or Ahti (Finland) is finalizing for publication his report on meteorology and power and communications lines.

Workshop WMO contributed to a Training Workshop on Meteorological Data for Solar and Wind Energy Applications organized by the Commonwealth Secretariat and held in Seychelles (20- 25 June 1983).

Hydrology and water resources development

ALERT flood warning systems In the past it has been difficult to establish and computerize on-line flood forecasting systems for relatively small rivers with communities which depend for their

*The former Commissio n for Cl im atology and Applied Meteorology (CCAM) was renamed the Com mission for Clim atology (CC!) by Ninth Congress.

338 safety on flood warnings. Indeed, a modern, on-line flow-forecasting system normally requires a relatively large investment in telecommunications and real-time data­ handling facilities connected to a fairly large computer. Such an investment is rarely possible for smaller communities located in small river basins. Recently, however, we have seen the advent of simple and inexpensive, yet very effective, real-time data-transmission facilities and a spectacular drop in the price of microcomputers. Although relatively cheap compared with earlier models, these computers nevertheless have very large capacities both in CPU* and memory, and they have permitted the installation of small decentralized on-line forecasting systems servicing local communities in the USA Work on developing such systems was initiated by the U.S. National Weather Service's River-Forecasting Center (RFC) in Sacramenta covering the states of California and Nevada. The so-called 'Sacramenta' hydrological model was evolved there some years ago, and this model is now being used in the new forecasting system which is called ALERT. There are currently two basic versions of the ALERT system. ALERT lA is dependent upon the responsible RFC providing stream flow advisory information, whereas ALERT l B has the capability of generating streamflow advisories using a soil moisture accounting model (however this is not regularly required since the resident forecast model in l B provides automated advisories updated every twelve minutes).

The ALERT functions in versions lA and l B include: - Automated collection and diskette filing of event-type sensor information, which includes precipitation, wind speed and direction, temperature, water level , humidity, atmospheric pressure and water equivalent of snow; - Automated ALERT warnings consisting of an audible alarm and a fluctuating screen display with procedural instructions. Warnings are generated by the microcomputer whenever a pre-set sensor value (amount or rate) is reached or exceeded ; - An RFC-user communication function which provides a dial-in capability permitting remote transfer and/or display of data, advisories, unformatted messages for RFC and user applications and streamflow si mulation parameters; - Microcomputer site display functions giving tabular data for one or a group of sensors, graphical plot of precipitation data for a time period of the user's choice, advisory displays, composition and display of messages between RFC and users, and stream flow simulation forecast display ; Microcomputer site application programs : Ojfline functions: To set up routines for recognizing sensors, for establishing sensor groups for display, for communications characteristics and for establishing map background and plotting locations. On-line functions: To set up a routine to establish or revise ALERT warning criteria; To automatically generate advisory from a resident forecast routine (ALERT I B only) ; RFC site application programs : Automated data acquisition through the DATACO L system, data display options, advisory generation routines, message generation routines and communications transfer techniques. In the current ALERT system, each microcomputer can handle five river basins and up to I 00 sensors. These functions provide a highly effective flood warning programme. However, two important hydrological functions are not yet available in ALERT, and there is considerable doubt as to whether the existing microcomputer could cope with them. They are the inclusion of an automated snow model, and the ability to add sub-basins and route them to an outflow point.

* Central processing unit.

339 Because of these and other limitations a new system, ALERT II, is envisaged using a new microcomputer. The development phase should be completed in 1985, and avail­ ability for operational use is likely by 1986 or 1987. In the meantime experience with regard to ALERT I capabilities and cost-effectiveness should assist in perfecting ALERT 11. Thus the ALERT system provides a low-cost, community-oriented flood forecasting system, independent of large centralized organizations for its operation. It is hoped that at some stage, after having been fully tested in operation, it wi ll become a component (or sequence) in the Hydrological Operational Multipurpose Subprogramme (HOMS).

Inter-agency co-ordination The framework for inter-agency co-ordination within the United Nations system in the fields of hydrology and water resources were described in an earlier issue ( WMO Bulletin 31 (1) p. 48). Such co-ordination was particularly important for the convening in 1977 of the United Nations Water Conference at Mar del Plata (Argentina), and continues to be so in the follow-up activities. The agencies concerned report regularly on progress to ECOSOC's Committee on Natural Resources. As concerns water­ resource assessment (the area of specific concern to WMO), progress has not been very encouraging recently. At its session in June 1983, the Committee on Natural Resources was told about many worrying problems which currently face the hydrological community in this respect. A comprehensive survey of national hydrological and water-related activities is being undertaken on an inter-agency basis in order to provide the Committee, at its next session in 1985 , with more detailed information to serve as a basis for an in-depth appraisal of progress in implementing the Mar del Plata action plan. Inter-agency co-ordination at working level is particularly evident between WMO and Unesco, largely through meetings of the UnescojWMO Liaison Committee for Hydrological Activities. This committee held its eighth session on 9 and I 0 May 1983 in Geneva, which permitted account to be taken of the view of Congress with regard to WMO's Hydrology and Water Resources Programme and of plans for the seventh session of the Commission for Hydrology, scheduled to take place in Manila from 13 to 25 February 1984. The committee had the task of reviewing the activities of the two organizations and discussing what action might be taken in the coming months on projects of common interest. Attention was focused on the joint UnescojWMO project on water-resource assessment, regional training (and other) seminars, and on the need for renewed joint efforts relating to hydrological terminology. On the latter point, Member States were interested in updating and augmenting the first edition of the International glossmy of hydrology (WMO-No. 385) published in 1974. It was agreed that preparation of a revised edition should be entrusted to a joint WMOj Unesco panel and that national and regional correspondents might be designated to advise the panel. WMO also seeks to collaborate with agencies outside the United Nations system. One such is the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) which establishes standards for measurement of flow in ri vers and channels. A number of the annexes to Volume Ill (Hydrology) of the WMO Technical Regulations are based on ISO standards, thus ensuring that the standards are observed by the many WMO Members not represented in ISO. Links between the two organizations are therefore very close at working level, it being important to ensure that there is no duplication of effort and that the regulations and standards promulgated by both organizations are compatible. WMO was represented at a meeting of !SO's Technical Committee 11 3 (Measurement of liquid flow in open channels) which was held in The Hague (Netherlands) from 30 May to 10 June 1983.

340 Technical co-operation

UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

Country programmes

Brazil The project 'Hydrology and climatology of the Brazilian Amazon River basin' ( WMO Bulletin 32 (I), p. 62) was successfully completed in June 1983. Its main contri­ butions are as follows: - A network of hydrological and climatological stations has been set up consisting of conventional and telemetric stations. Through the project, the conventional hydrometric network has been increased by 60 per cent, the rainfall network by almost 100 per cent, and a network of ten telemetering stations realized. Each station transmits five parameters: river level, rainfall, air temperature, relative humidity and atmospheric pressure, and the GOES satellite is used as a relay station. The data received by the ground station (also provided by the project) are transmitted to several institutions and used for various purposes, but especially for a Tocantins River forecasting system, where the large Tucurui power plant is under construction. - An integrated hydrological-climatological-physiographic data bank has been estab­ lished using the square grid technique. The last phase included installation of the system in Brazil and transfer of the related technology. Another important benefit of the square grid study was the recommended network design. - A representative basin was installed north of Manaus to obtain information from small basins and to test the performance of equipment under severe tropical conditions. - In addition to the modelling of the Tocantins basin mentioned above, a model for the middle and lower Amazon River was developed for making river forecasts for navigation, agriculture in the flood plains and for the protection of life and property. - A climatological atlas of the Brazilian Amazon River basin was prepared. Water balance studies were carried out and climatic zones were defined in the area. - Several agrometeorological studies were prepared to help determine the meteoro­ logical requirements of certain major crops. The information, used in conjunction with soil studies, will indicate which crops are best suited to particular zones in the area. Sixty fellowships were awarded and extensive local trammg was carried on throughout the project. Over I 00 publications and technical reports will furnish permanent reference material. The WMO hydrologist, Mr M. Dengo (Costa Rica), completed his mission in April 1983, whilst two consultants, Mr R. Broqua (Argentina) and Mr J. Gusmao (Portugal), helped to wind up activities. Following a meeting in Bogota in May 1982 of the eight Amazonian countries (Bolivia, Brazi l, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Suriname and Venezuela), a

341 request was made to UNDP for si milar activities and transfer of the advanced technology applied in the Brazilian project to the other countries. It was hoped that this new project would start before the end of 1983.

Central African Republic Following a WMO mission to the country in May 1982, a project document entitl ed 'Organization and development of the national Meteorological Service: National study of water resources' has been prepared and submitted to the Government and UN DP for consideration. The immediate objectives of this project would be to organize and build up a climatological service and to establi sh and develop a national Hydrological Service within the Meteorological Service. In preparation, a small project entitled 'Fellowships in hydrology' was approved by the Government and the UNDP late in 1982. Under this, two hydrological technicians are being trained at the AGRHYYIET Centre in Niamey.

Costa Rica A UNDP/WMO agrometeorological project started at the end of 1982. It is designed to help increase production of th e basic cereals rice, maize and beans, and has three major components: The establishment (o r expansion) of seven regional agrometeorologi cal stations representing the country's three main agricultural zones; research in the interrelationships of climate, weather and plant production ; educational acti vities in order to introduce agrometeorological science and methodologies to va rious communities of Costa Rica.

San Jose, December 1982- After sign in g the agreement on the UNDP/WMO agrometeorological project in Costa Rica. Lejr to right: The Secretary-General ; H. E. Mr Francisco Morales Hernandez, Minister of Agriculture; Mr Francesco Yincenti, acting UNDP Resident Representative I Plww : tMN)

Equipment has been ordered, especially radiation instruments and two small soil moisture sampling laboratories. Station sites have been selected in each of the three major climatic zones of the country: the Atlantic coast, the central valley and the GuanacastefPacific coast regions. The stations are currently being equipped. The research component consists of a detailed wind survey of the Guanacaste region, where gales of more than 20 m s-I cause considerable damage to agriculture, especially during the months of January and February. A model artificial windbreak

342 VACANCIES IN WMO TECHNICAL CO-OPERATION PROGRAMMES (As of 8 August 1983)

CounfiT TiTle ofposr Dare of Durarion Language commencemenr needed

Country projects Dominican Consultants in: Late 1983 I month each t Spani sh Republic (a) hydrological telemetry ; (b) data processing Haiti Consultan.t in Mid 1984 3 months French meteorological training Jamaica Expert in hydrology Early 1984 I year*t English (mapping of flood-prone areas) Paraguay Expert in organizati on Early 1984 I year*t Spanish of meteorological and hydrological services Qatar Expert in January 1984 I year English meteorological and training Arabic if possible Republic of Korea Project Mid 1984 9 monthst English manager/heavy rainfall research Trinidad & Tobago Expert in · Earl y 1984 I year * t Engli sh climatological data processing Uruguay Consultant in solar Late 1983 2 monthst Spanish radiation Venezuela Consultant in Late 1983 & 2 months each Spanish hydrological data mid 1984 processing

Inter-c ountry projects

AGRHYMET Cen rre Niger Technical adviser January 1984 3 years *t French, ( agrometeorology j English meteorology) Insrirure for Mereorologica/ Training and Research, Nairobi Kenya Expert in data January 1984 2 years *t English processing

t Subject to UNDP andjor government approval * Initial contract of one year Furrher informarion may be obrained on wriffen request to the Secretmy-General, WMO, Geneva.

343 will be used with an irrigated rice crop to assess the wind damage. In the light of the results it wi ll be possible to consider changing the date of planting so as to avoid the strong winds or, alternatively, the economic implications of shelterbelts. A detailed analysis is also being made of climate in relation to the yield of maize, rice and beans, and the effects of rainfall and calculated soil moisture on the yield are under special investigation. Fellowships and study tours have been programmed for technical and academic staff of the !nstituto Meteoro/6gico Nacional (IMN). During the initial period of the project, Or J. Lomas (Israel) acted as WMO expert. Mr H. Herrera, IMN agrometeoro­ logist, is project leader.

Pakistan With the conclusion in 1980 of the project to improve the river forecasting and flood warning system for the Indus River basin, an effective flood warning scheme in a particularly complex river system has been established ( WMO Bulletin 31 (3) p. 272). UNDP approved funds for two consultancy missions during 1983 with a view to assessing the achievements of the project and pinpointing shortcomings in the system which could be tackled locally with a reasonable costfbenefit ratio. Thus in April 1983, Or A. Svoboda (Czechoslovakia) and Or R. A. Bailey (United Kingdom) visited the site, and on the basis of their recommendations a mission is under way to formulate a new project. The Government of the Netherlands has expressed interest in partici­ pating with UNDP in financing this project. Two Pakistanis have been trained in telemetering, and it is p lanned to provide training abroad in computer maintenance for another two fellows during the second half of 1983.

Peru The two WMO experts on the project related to the development of the Peruvian Amazon region (WMO Bulletin 32 ( I) p. 66) arrived at the beginning of 1982. They are Mr I. Noe-Dobrea (Israel), agrometeorologist based in Lima, and Mr 0. Arteaga (Guatemala), hydrologist based in lquitos. Activities are now well under way. Most of the equipment has been delivered, including a medium-sized computer which is already operating at the headquarters of the Peruvian National Meteorological and Hydrological Service. At present, efforts are concentrated on setting up the network which will include, as in the Brazilian project (see above), conventional and satellite telemetry stations. Several agrometeorological studies are also being carried out, and it is hoped that some results will soon be available to assist in particular the arid and semi-arid zones. Training is a major element of the project, and plans have been drawn up for a Class Ill course in agrometeorology to start in 1984.

Qatar Very satisfactory progress has been reported in implementing the project ' Devel­ opment of meteorological services in Qatar' ( WMO Bulletin 31 (4) p. 384). In October 1982 the WMOj UNDP sectoral adviser in meteorology assisted in making an assessment of the project and advised on future needs. As a result of his mission, a new project was approved by the Government in March 1983 aimed at further strength­ ening the recently-created Department of Meteorology. Or H. T. Morth (Austria) has been appointed chief technical adviser. There is provision for an expert in meteoro­ logical training, for various consultancy missions in different fields of specialization,

344 and for some meteorological equipment. It is expected that the Government itself will spend approximately five million US dollars on equipment during the three-year duration of the project.

VOLUNTARY CO-OPERATION PROGRAMME Representatives of major VCP donor Members met at the WMO headquarters from 27 to 29 April 1983. The desirability of broadening the scope of VCP support and the need for new donor Members was again emphasized. More Members, among both developed and developing countries, must participate as contributors in the VCP-it was a highly suitable mechanism for the promotion and support of technical co­ operation among developing countries (TCDC). It was recognized, nevertheless, that several developed countries currently provided technical support under bilateral assistance programmes. In order to enhance the upper-air observing programme, the meeting felt it would be useful to provide donor Members with a list of key upper-air stations to which they could give priority in allotting their support. It would be for the regional associations and technical commissions concerned to identify which stations qualified for such preferential treatment. The representatives welcomed the progress made with respect to co-ordinated programmes aimed at implementing or upgrading GOS and GTS facilities on an integrated regional or subregional basis. In future preference would be given to projects of this type. The donor Members indicated that their contributions would be of the same order of magnitude as in the past, still generally directed towards implementation of the WWW plan. In addition to long-term fellowships, some short-term fellowships would be granted, especially for training maintenance technicians. The provision of corres­ pondence courses in meteorology, hydrology and basic electronics was expected to be introduced in the near future.

Education and training

Course on basic electronics for technicians

As part of the United Kingdom's contribution to the Voluntary Co-operation Programme, the Meteorological Office College conjointly with the Reading College of Technology and WMO organized and supported a 21-month training course on basic electronic instrument maintenance. The course was specifically designed to give students a thorough background in electronics to enable them to maintain the various modern instruments and installations which their respective national Meteorological Services are in the process of acquiring. Training of this depth is essential if local engineers are to assemble, maintain and repair such facilities as weather radars, facsimile machines, communications equipment, cloud-base recorders, visibility recorders, satellite-tracking equipment, radiosonde equipment, automatic weather stations and so forth, all of which are likely to be utilized more and more in the future. The training at the Reading College of Technology terminated on I April 1983 but this was followed by further job-oriented training up to 24 June using the facilities of

345 the Meteorological Office. At the conclusion, Mr S. G. Cornford, principal of the Meteorological Office College, and Mr R. A. de Guzman, chief of the Fellowship Branch of the Education and Training Department in the WMO Secretariat, presented certificates to the seven participants who successfully completed the course. They came from Barbados, Belize, Jamaica, Kenya, Lesotho, Seychelles and Zimbabwe. Another comprehensive course in basic electronics was planned to start in September 1983 and to be of similar durati on. It wi ll be in three phases, the first being a diagnostic phase (in which onl y students reaching the required standard wi ll be permitted to continue the course), followed by two phases of theoretical and practical work which will include such fields as mi croelectric systems, line transmission and radio systems, analogue and control principle, testing methods and techniques, fault diagnosis and reliability, UHF technology and radar systems, digital techniques, integrated circuits and industrial communications.

Brackne/1, June 1983 - Participants in the course on basic electronics. Mr R. A. de Guzman (WMO) is on th e left, and Mr S. G. Cornford, principal of the Meteorological Offi ce College, on the right (P/tow: Mer. Q[ficejA!an Chambers)

Training publications

Compendium of lecture notes for £raining Class I V meteorological personnel, Volume I1 - Meteorology The first edition of this compendium was prepared by Professor B. J. Retallack (Australia) and published in I 970. It proved to be a great success, and although reprinted in 1976 stocks ran out agai n. To meet the continuing demand, and bearing in mind the recent introduction of a new code for surface observations, a second edition of the compendium has been prepared and published in English. The relevant sections were revised by Mr M. Mlaki (United Republic of Tanzania). Like the first edition, the revised compendium is based on the releva nt sy ll abuses contained in Guidelines for th e education and training of personnel in meteorology and operational hydrology (WMO-No. 258). It is designed primaril y for training Class IV meteorological personnel. However, until the corresponding compendium for Class Ill

346 personnel (WMO-No. 291) has been similarly updated, some chapters may well prove useful for training Class Ill meteorological personnel. It is planned to issue Arabic, French, Russian and Spanish versions of the publi­ cation in due course.

Weather study with satellites-an audio-visual training aid A set of colour slides and accompanying commentary recorded on cassettes has recently been received from the producer, Diana Wyllie Limited of London. The authors of the script are R. R. Fotheringham and R. S. Scorer. The purpose of the set is to show certain atmospheric circulation features as revealed by satellite imagery, although there are several pictures taken from the ground also. The set comprises three parts, each consisting of 39 slides. Part l is on cyclones, fronts and anticyclones; Part 2 is on wave clouds, stratus, fog and sea breezes ; Part 3 presents convection patterns, vortices and finally three hemispheric views from geo­ stationary satellites. These kits are of considerable value for training purposes. They may be obtained from Diana Wyllie Limited, l Park Road, Baker Street, London NW! 6XP, England. The price for the full set of slides in plastic wallets is £45.- or for full-frame film strips £30.- . The cassettes cost £ 12.- . Each part may be obtained separately at one-third of the above prices.

Forthcoming training events

Seminarfor Regional Association I The Region I training seminar for national meteorological instructors ( WMO Bulletin 32 (I) p. 69) will take place in Dakar (Senegal) from 7 to 18 November 1983. It will be conducted in English and French through si multaneous interpretation for an expected 30 to 35 participants drawn from Class I and II meteorologists, especially instructors.

Regional course on the management of meteorological satellite data The Instituto de Pesquisas Espacias (INPE) at Sao Jose dos Campos (Brazil) is organizing this training course in collaboration with WMO. It will be held at the INPE headquarters from 3 to 25 November 1983, and to attain its objective of training Class I and suitably experienced Class II meteorologists, familiarizing them with some of the new available technologies, it will involve a great deal of practical work. There are expected to be 25 participants from Regions Ill and IV, and the course will be conducted in English and Spanish.

Regional seminar on marine meteorological services This joint Region IljRegion V seminar will take place in Singapore from 7 to 12 November 1983. It will be conducted in English for an expected 30 participants, and the programme will include such topics as marine forecasting and warning services, marine climatological applications, ocean systems and techniques, and the organization and development of national marine meteorological services.

347 Special workshop on the utilization of satellite cloud pictures in weather analysis and forecasting The Regional Meteorological Training Centre in Baghdad (Iraq) is organizing this workshop which will be held from 3 to 15 December 1983 for Class I and Class II meteorologists from Region II. Class II personnel should have had at least five years' experience in weather analysis and forecasting. The workshop will be mainly of a practical nature, the programme topics including differences between visible and infra-red images, resolution and scales of cloud patterns and weather phenomena, identification of various synoptic systems and the estimation of wind direction and speed from cloud displacement. The workshop will be conducted in English.

New and notes

World Meteorological Day 1983 The World Meteorological Day is celebrated every year on 23 March to mark the anniversary of the date on which the WMO Convention came into force in 1950 and to focus public attention on the services rendered by meteorology and operational hydrology throughout the world. Each year a theme is chosen for the celebrations, the theme for 1983 having been 'The weather observer'. The WMO Secretariat distributed a general text describing the nature and the importance of the work of meteorological observers, together with some shorter press handouts. United Nations Information Centres gave valuable support in many countries by issuing press kits, arranging newspaper atticles and other forms of publicity. Some examples of the way in which the day was celebrated in Member-countries are gi ven below. In Bangladesh, the Chief Martial Law Administrator, who is also Head of Government, issued a message stressing the significance of the theme and the importance of applications of meteorology. An exhibition of meteorological equipment and radio and television programmes were also arranged. In Tunisia, the Minister of Transport and Communications opened an exhibition of instruments at the UN Infor­ mation Centre, organized by the National Meteorological Institute, and the Director of the Institute gave radio and television interviews. The Minister of Posts and Communi­ cations of Rwanda gave a radio interview, and the Meteorological Office was open to visitors and film shows arranged for them. In India, the Department of Meteorology and Oceanography of the Andhra University at Waltair organized an exhibition of meteorological and oceanographic instruments and several competitions for students from high school to postgraduate levels. Celebrations took place at the Regional Meteorological Training Centre at Baghdad in Iraq. The Director-General of Meteorology and the Project Co-ordinator in the Yemen Arab Republic gave television and radio interviews. In Jamaica, a small exhibition of instruments used primarily by the weather observer, a television programme and a series of lectures to educational institutions, private groups and the public were arranged with the participation of the Director of the Meteorological Service and the WMO Regional Director for Latin America. In Canada, 33 voluntary weather observers received the first Morley K. Thomas awards (in the form of plaques) for 30 years or more of continuous observations. Canada counts more than 2000 voluntary observers, the veteran being Mr Vernon Tuck, 91 years old, of Grimsby (Ontario) who has taken readings since 1944.

348 The theme for the World Meteorological Day in 1984 will be 'Meteorology aids food production'.

Dr Gustav Swoboda and the Bergen school We are extremely grateful to Or J. Munzar of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences Institute of Geography at Brno for providing the following notes about the pioneering wo rk in sy noptic meteorology of Or Swoboda before he joined the Secre­ tariat of the IMO in 1938, later to become the first Secretary-General of WMO. Gustav Swoboda was born on 7 September 1893 in Prague, where he followed uni versity studies which culminated in the award of a Ph.D. in 1920. He entered the Czechoslovak Meteorological Service the same year. In 1923 he visited Bergen to work under Professor Vilhelm Bjerknes, generally co nsidered the founder of the Bergen school of meteorologists-the other principal disciples were Jack Bjerknes (his son) and Tor Bergeron.

Or G. Swoboda and the weather chart prepared on the occasion of the night over Czechoslovak ia of the airship Italia on 15 April 1928 t Phoros: C:.ech /·lydmmNeorological lnstiiUie)

P. _ A ~r pol•iTY •rct i9u~ ~ -- FrOt>t c~tl abed _ Front~ ~ Pricipd•tion J Pn _ Airpol•ti-tmvii'~· ~VJ - ~cur-t ~ Tronl frcid IJ _ T.~#lure ,..;rluit• •u n• vuu dt Pt. _ id' ,..., .. ~ ..., ,-s -...... FrtiQI.OC'duJ I# m.r (o ~S/t()OmW..Sj ~· _ id' llfXIVNU ==:Q> du JOI ..6..A..6..a.4. FrfN't {f'otd 3r«VVrHi,_ J Roul il ilil lir(turt • lp, :r<'•':1' T _AN' rropt~' ' -...u r~ .1wiJ ,.,J momtnt~ 't ::H I'll ¥~ :

It happened that Bergeron was invited by Professor Ludwig Weickmann (see WMO Bulletin 32 (3) p. 188) to visit Leipzig, and he decided to travel there by way of England. On I 0 October 1923 Bergeron flew for the first time in a small aeroplane from London to Rotterdam. The meteorological conditions on the route so excited him that on arrival at Leipzig he immediately wrote to Jack Bjerknes asking him to send copies of all the weather maps they had analysed in Bergen around that date. In hi s reply the younger Bjerknes told him that someone else was also very interested in that rticular situation, that someone being Gustav Swoboda.

349 Thus it was that Swoboda joined Bergeron in Leipzig, and together they prepared the paper which was to become a classic: Wellen und Wirbel an einer quasistationiiren Grenzjliiche iiber Europa-Analyse der Wetterepoche 9-14 Oktober 1923 (Waves and vortices on a quasi-stationary boundary over Europe-Analysis of the weather situation 9-14 October 1923). Incidentally, the universall y adopted symbols for fronts were used for the first time in this paper-Bergeron called them the 'Leipzig symbols'. The paper in full has never been translated into other languages, although various authors have drawn upon the essential parts of it. On his return home, Swoboda introduced the Bergen school concept of analysis and prognosis in the Czechoslovak Meteorological Service, and its effectiveness was put to a stringent test on 15 April 1928 when Umberto Nobile's airship Italia flew over the country in distinctly hazardous conditions and had a narrow escape among the numerous severe storms. Swoboda himself supervised the issuing of forecasts for this flight at Prague, and General Nobile later wrote thanking him for the valuable support he had received from the Czechoslovak Meteorological Service. That was a fitting tribute both to Swoboda and hi s staff and to the effectiveness of the Bergen school methods.

Handbook for users of Canadian climatological data A second edition of the Handbook on climate data sources of the Atmospheric Environment Service has recently been issued to inform users about the wealth of Canadian climatological data available in published and unpublished form. After a detailed index by climatological element (37 are listed), there are six sections: Current climatological data periodicals ; historical climatological data periodicals; statistical and special publications; abstracts and tabulations ; standard observing forms and charts; climate studies. Numerous samples are given of the presentation of va rious types of data, and users are told how to obtain copies of the data they require and the relevant charges. The handbook can be ordered from the Canadian Government Publishing Centre, Supply and Services Canada, Ottawa K I A OS9 ; the price is Can. $10.60 to addresses in Canada and Can. $12. 70 elsewhere.

COSPAR Symposium on Space Observations for Climate Studies (announcement) As part of its biennial meeting in Graz (Austria), ICSU's Committee for Space Research (COSPAR) is organizing a special Symposium on Space Observations for Climate Studies which will take place from 26 to 30 June 1984. WMO is one of the eo­ sponsoring bodies. The eo-chairmen of the programme committee are Dr G. Ohring (USA) and Dr H.-J. Bolle (Austria). The objectives of the symposium are: To provide a broad view of the goals, current status and observational requirements of the World Climate Programme; to discuss results and interpretations of space observations related to climate studies; to define more precisely future observational requirements. The programme will consist of invited and contributed papers on space observations and their interpretation as related to the following topics : Basic atmospheric variables (temperature, pressure, humidity, winds, precipitation), climatically important atmospheric constituents, clouds, the Earth's radiation budget, oceans, the cryosphere, land surface and hydrology, detecting climatic change and space data (requirements, management and international co-ordination). In a special opening session, scientific leaders in the WCRP, WCAP, WCDP and WCIP will present summaries on the current status of, and data requirements for, their respective programmes.

350 For further information please contact either Mr Z. Niemirowicz, Executive Secretary of COSPAR, 51 Boulevard de Montmorency, F-75016 Paris, France, or MrS. Ruttenberg, Secretary of COSPAR Committee A, NCAR, Boulder, CO 80307, USA.

WMO RESEARCH AWARD FOR YOUNG SCIENTISTS The purpose of this annual award is to encourage young scienti sts (preferabl y fro m developing countries) who are working in the field of meteorology. The award consists of a citation and the sum of US $!000. The conditions governing the award are as follows: (i) Each award shall be made for an outstanding scientific research paper; (ii) Awards sha ll be made to young scienti sts not exceeding the age of 39 at the tim e of nominati on ; (iii) On ly one paper should be submitted for each candidate ; (iv) Workers in all fields of meteorology will be eli gible, but members of the WMO Executive Council may not submit papers authored by themselves for the award ; (v) Awards to nominees from a Region may be divided. The award may also be divided between two co-authors provided that both meet the other criteria for the granting of the award; (v i) Only papers whi ch have been publi shed in scientific journals will norma ll y be eligible for consideration ; however, a summary of a successfully defended Ph. D. thesis would also be acceptable; (v ii) Papers publi shed in languages other than the working languages of WMO will be eli gible for considerati on if accompanied by full translati ons in one of the working languages and an ex tended summary; (viii) Only papers publi shed duri ng the fo ur-year peri od immediately preceding the year in which the nominati on is made will be eligible for consideration ; (ix) Papers that have previously won international prizes will not be eli gible. An eligibl e scientist or st udent in meteorology who wishes to enter fo r the 1984 competition should send four copies of a published paper or Ph. D. thes is to the permanent representati ve of his country with WMO (normall y the director of the nati onal Meteorological or Hydrometeorological Service), together with a summary of th e paper adequate to permit an assessment to be made (if necessary for adjudicati on purposes, onl y the summary will be translated by WMO). A curriculum vitae should also be attached. The paper a nd summary must be submitted in one of the wo rking languages of the Organization, and must be sent in sufficient time to permit the permanent representative to forwa rd them to the WMO Secretariat before the closing date of 28 November 1983.

News from the Secretariat

Secretary-General's visit France -The Secretary-General participated in the first regular session of 1983 of the Administrative Committee on Co-ordination (ACC) at the Unesco headquarters in Paris on 30 and 31 March 1983 . The President of France, Mr Franc;ois Mitterrand, received the members of ACC on 31 March at the Pa/ais de /'Eiysee.

351 Staff changes

Departure Mr David M. Feit returned to the National Weather Service of the USA on 30 June 1983. He had joined WMO in June 1981 to serve as scientific officer in the Ocean Affairs Division of the World Weather Watch Department.

Long-service certificates Mrs Eve Van Elslande, translator in the Languages Division, completed 25 years of service with WMO on 14 July 1983. Mr Yves Corazzola, printing operator in the Documents Production Section, completed 20 years of service on I July 1983.

Mr Y. Corazzola !Photo: WMOjKem )

Mrs E. van Elslande (Photo: WMO/Niedhart}

Recent WMO publications

Long-range transport of sulphur in the atmosphere and acid rain. (Lectures presented at the thirty-third session of the WMO Executive Committee.) WMO-No. 603. 1983. v+53 pages; 17 figures and 5 tables. In English. Price: Sw.fr. 8.-. These are the full texts of the following lectures presented to the Executive Committee in 1981: Acid rain and its environmental effects, by Professor Ju. A Izrael ; A review of the European EMEP Programme on the long-range transport of pollution, and some ideas on how to treat wet deposition, by Dr F. B. Smith; Acid deposition: distribution and impact, by Dr D. M. Whelpdale. Summaries of these lectures can be found in the WMO Bulletin 31 (I) pp. 28- 32.

The results of the Global Weather Experiment. (Lectures presented at the thirty-fourth session of the WMO Executive Committee.) WMO-No. 610. 1983. v+ 134 pages; 74 figures and 12 tables. In English. Price: Sw.fr. 13.-. These are the full and liberally illustrated texts of the following lectures presented to the Executive Committee in 1982 : Results of the Global Weather Experiment, by Dr L. Bengtsson; The Impact of the Global Weather Experiment in the Southern Hemisphere, by Dr J. W. Zillman. Summaries of these lectures can be found in the WMO Bulletin 32 (1) pp. 18-23.

352 CALENDAR OF COMING EVENTS (Sessions wi ll be held in Geneva, Switzerland, unless otherwise stated)

1983 World Meieorological Organizalion

21 -25 November Joint WMO/IOC IGOSS Regional Implementation Co-ordination Meeting for the Expanded Pacific Ocean; San Jose, Costa Rica 21 - 26 November HOMS Workshop on Tidal and Salinity Models; Bangkok, Thai­ land 21 November - Workshop on Crop-Weather Models; Wageningen, Netherlands 3 December 28 November- Technical Conference on Climate for Latin America and the Carib­ 3 December bean; Bogota, Colombia 29 November - Executive Council Working Group on Long-term Planning, 1st ses­ 6 December sion 6 - I 2 December ESCAP/ WMO Typhoon Committee, 16th session ; Tokyo, Japan 13 - 14 December TOP EX Management Board, 8th session ; Tokyo, Japan

1984

I 3 - 25 February Commission for Hydrology, 7th session; Manila, Philippines 30 April- Executive Council Panel of Experts on Environmental Pollution, 4 May 5th session; Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Fed. Rep. of Germany 6 - 23June Executive Council, 36th session

1983 0Iher iniemaiional organizaiions

27 - 30 November Internati onal Conference on Biometeorology with focus on Bio­ meteorology for Development (International Society of Bio­ meteorology); New Delhi, India

1984

26 - 30 June Symposium on Space Observations for C limate Studies (COSPAR); Graz, Austria

Reviews

From Wearher Vanes 10 SQfel/iies. An inlroduciion 10 meieorology. By Herbert J. SrJEGEL and Arnold GRUBER. New York, C hichester, etc. (John Wiley & Sons Ltd) 1983. xi+241 pages; fi gures and tables. Price : US SI 2.20. This is a very attracti ve large-format paperback edition in black and white. It is intended as a textbook for non-science majors and the authors therefore avoid resorting to mathematics. Chapter I surveys the uses of meteorology, and presents a brief history from the early Greek scholars through the development of the first in struments in the sixteenth and seventeenth

353 centuries up to the formulation of the cyclone and polar front theories. It goes on to outline the development of the U.S. National Weather Service and the appearance on the scene of meteoro­ logical radars and satellites. The next two chapters are devoted to the atmosphere and the sun­ Earth energy system, and these are followed by descriptions of various meteorological elements such as temperature, humidity, pressure and wind, as we ll as definitions, units and instruments. Chapters 9 and I 0 deal with air masses and weather systems and Chapter 11 with thunderstorms and tornadoes. Chapter 12 explains how weather maps and forecasts are prepared, and the final chapter is on climate, with some global maps of average temperature and precipitation which are rather difficult to read, in contrast with the very clear diagrams and pictures elsewhere. Each chapter begin s by defining its teaching objectives. There are 13 exercises (including conversion of units, data plotting and the analysis of a simple weather map), a sho11 glossary, an index, but only a ve ry few bibliographic references. The book is intended mainly for schools and colleges in North America since most of the data and maps are from that area. It is certainly a useful introducti on to meteorology within its stated objectives. S. JAFFE

Observer's Handbook. Fourth editi on. United Kingdom Meteorological Office. Met. 0. 933. London (Her Majesty's Stationery Office) 1982. vi + 220 pages. Plates, figures and tables. Pri ce: £13.95. The Observer's Handbook is a Government publication designed for use at va rious surface observin g sites in the United Kingdom. These include synoptic and auxiliary stati ons, agromete­ orological stations and climatological stations, and observing stations at health resorts. The book is produced as an attractive illustrated volume and with a clear style that wi ll appeal to all interested in observing the weather. It will be of special interest to amateur observers, teachers, and students. This is the fourth edition of a handbook first published in 1952, and incorporates a number of changes. The handbook notes that it is largely based on guidance provided by the World Meteorological Organization, in particul ar the WMO Guide to meteorological instrume/11 and observing prac1ices and the Imernational cloud atlas. Revised observational procedures and defi­ nitions of clouds and hydrometeors are included, as are descriptions of new in struments brought into use in the United Kingdom. The appearance of new equipment is accompanied by the disappearance of in struments and procedures wh ich have long been a part of regular weather observing. An example is the phasing out of the mercury barometer. The handbook notes that with this event, the section dealing with corrections to mercury barometers has been deleted from th e present editi on, along wi th the correction tables. This may evoke a trace of nostalgia by those whose observing life has been closely wedded to that instrument. The handbook advises those who still need these sections to refer to the earlier editions. Such is the price of progress. Metric units are used throughout, but imperial units have been included where they are deemed to be of importance or where they st ill remain in use. Chapter I describes the operational routines to be followed at observing stations, and stresses the importance of timeliness, the avoidance of error and the care of instruments and equipment. Codes and encoding procedures are not dealt with, but the reader is referred to the relevant sources. Chapter 2 defines clouds, offers a short history on the development of the cloud atlas, and describes the classification system. This is illustrated by means of 24 black-and-white cloud photos. With the exception of altostratus (which sti ll defies attempts to capture its illusive image in Oat grey tones), the cloud pictures are clear, and present good examples of the various types. Chapters 3 to 9 cover the other elements normall y included in weath er observations, sunshine recording being left to Chapter 10. Chapter 11 covers special phenomena, with well­ written descriptions and ex pl anations of such optical events as halos, sky colorati on, coronae, nacreous and noctilucent clouds. The last paragraph of the chapter (and of the text) gives advice on photographing phenomena. Three appendices fo llow the main text, dealing with the selecti on and equipping of observing sites, the reporting and returning of cl im atological observati ons, and th e tables used in observing procedures. The first is in itself a concise handbook and authority; a 'must' for anyone contemplating setting up an observing stati on. The style is particularly lucid in describing and illustrating the requirements of a proper observing compound, and in the specifications for mounting and exposin g instruments. A bibliography at the end of the book offers a source of further information, li sting all publications referred to in the handbook. 0 . TESCH

354 lmense Aunospheric Vonices. (Proceedings of a symposium at Reading in July 1981.) L. BE~GTS S ON and J. LtGHTHILL (Editors). Berlin, Heidelberg, New York (Springer-Yerlag) 1982. xii+326 pages ; 195 figures. Price: OM 56.-. This is a collection of 24 articles presented at a Symposium on Intense Atmospheric Vortices held in 1981 at the European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts. Many atmospheric phenomena are often treated as wave motions of one kind or another, but there are some exceptions where the wave concept is hardly applicable. Of special importance among these are severe tropical cyclones and tornadoes, both of which may cause destruction and loss of life. The object of the symposium was to discuss different mechanisms wh ich engender intensified vorticity in tropical cyclones and tornadoes in general. An unusual feature was the participation of fluid dynamicists interested in laboratory and theoretical vortex modelling along with the atmospheric scientists. From that point of view, this publication is useful not only as a record of the proceedings, but also as a reference work for those interested in the mechanisms of vortex intensi­ fication, particularly as applied to atmospheric phenomena. The success of the symposium was in no small way due to the organizers' careful selection of contributors. Eleven papers are devoted to research on tropical cyclones. The first, by W. M. Gray, reviews the physical processes likely to determine whether a tropical disturbance wi ll develop into a cyclone or not. K. Ooyama recalls that significant progress was made during the 1960s concerning the theory of tropical cyclone formation, yet the fundamental questions still remain to be solved, for instance why some disturbances do not develop into tropical cyclones even though the environmental conditions appear to be fa vourable. Gray hypothesizes that the relative frequency and intensity of rainband formation are the critical distinguishing features between development and non-development. Hopefully, forthcoming numerical simulation experiments such as discussed in the paper by T. Kurihara and R. E. Tuleya wi ll throw light on the environ­ mental flow conditions fa vourable for the genesis of a tropical storm. It is extremely important to survey pre-hurricane disturbances as well as mature tropical cyclones by satellite and aircraft observations, as discussed in a paper by R. C. Sheets. The lack of sufficient observations to define the initial state of the tropical atmosphere appears to be one of the major hindrances in in vesti­ gating the formation of tropical cyclones. The six papers devoted to the development of a tornado are fascinating. The subject matter is introduced by D. K. Lilly in a general overview. The advent of Doppler radar for sounding convective storms and the increased numerical experiments and laboratory simulations have vastly improved our understanding of the evolution of tornadoes. The recent progress in tornado dynamics is clearly evident if the reader compares these six papers with the proceedings of the 1976 Symposium on Tornadoes (Lubbock, USA). The physical mechanism of tornado development is significantly different from that of a tropical cyclone. While the effect of the Earth's rotation and the latent heat released in organized cumulus convection are important factors in the formation of tropical cyclones, these factors are considered to be minor in tornadoes (though the effect of latent heat release is discussed in a paper by L. M. Leslie and R. K. Smith). The source of vorticity in tornadoes is a localized 'mesocyclone' of diameter 5-10 km produced by a thunderstorm, as discussed in the paper by J. Simpson. Simulation experiments with a high-resolution numerical model, discussed by J. B. Klemp and R. Rotunno, clearly suggest that tornadic vorticity is produced through tilting and stretching processes associated with the configuration of updraughts and down draughts in a mature super-thunderstorm. The remaining seven papers deal with vortex generation in laboratory experiments. T. Maxworthy gives an excellent review of laboratory models which have been, or could be, used to reveal the characteristics of concentrated atmospheric vortices. Because of the disparity in physical dimensions, it is not always possible to interpret the results of laboratory simulations in terms of what would actually happen in the atmosphere. In fact, only a few attempts have been made to simulate a tropical cyclone in the laboratory ; one is mentioned by Maxworthy and another in a paper by A. D. McEwan. On the other hand, laboratory experiments simulating tornado-like vortices as di scussed in papers by J. T. Snow and B. A. Lugovtsov are clea rl y useful. Perhaps the real value of laboratory ex periments may be in demonstrating the transition from vortex flo w to turbulence and vice versa as discussed in papers by E. J. Hopfinger and F. K. Browand and M. P. Escudier. At present it appears extremely difficult, if not impossible, to simul ate those laboratory features by numerical models. The last paper, by R. Hide, reminds both fluid dynamicists and atmospheric scientists that yet one more kind of dynamically stable vortex is waiting to be explored by man in the atmosphere of Jupiter. It is fortunate that those who could not attend this fascinating symposium may now, like me, catch the echo of excitement felt by the speakers and participants. A. KASAHARA

355 Carbon Dioxide: Friend or foe 7 By Sherwood B. Ioso . Tempe, Arizona (!BR Press) 1982. xiv + 92 pages; figures and tables. Price: US $9.95. There is an ongoing controversy about the li kely climati c consequences of an increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Newell and Dopplick in 1979 and Idso in 1980 expressed the view that the projected change of climate as deduced from climate models such as those by Manabe and Wetherald is a gross exaggeration of what was likely to happen. However, the modelling community, both individuall y and coll ecti vely (see for example the two reports issued by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences), has refuted that view. The present booklet by Idso sets out his arguments in more deta il , and is a useful contri­ bution to the debate in that they are presented in a unified manner. This is important because scientific progress must derive from a true dialogue in which incorrect conclusions can be gradually but decisively eliminated. The problem of possible future changes of climate due to increasing atmospheric C0 2 has such fa r-reaching implications that the key issues in the present controversy need to be analysed extremely carefull y. Idso's book is clearly written and easil y understood. However, it is a pity that he considered it necessary to present it in such a polemic way rather than as a scientific treatise. It hardly helps us in our attempt to find out what is right and what is wrong. The first chapter presents the background to the controversy whi ch first arose some four years ago. In the following chapter the author brings together in a very selective manner statements on the uncertainties of cl imati c projecti ons as expressed by those engaged in cl imate modelling. I have not checked each quotation in detail , but I am sure they are correct. Only they are presented out of context and do not represent an accurate overa ll assessment of how much we can trust results obtained so far with climate models. No one engaged in this kind of work would deny that there are substantial uncertainties in these results ; several feedback mechanisms have onl y been accounted for crudely up to now, and some others have not been considered at all. Perh aps the postulated uncertainty range of 1. 5 to 4.0 degrees Celsius in the estimated warming at the Earth's surface associated with a doubling of the atmospheric C01 concentration is too narrow, but in any case it cannot be defi ned precisely. But what is important is to realize that this uncertai nty does not permit Idso to draw the concl usion that hi s own deductio ns are any more likely to be the ri ght ones. The pl ausibility of his results must be judged on the basis of his own experimental and theoreti cal studies. Before coming to a descripti on of hi s own wo rk, Idso reviews the concl usions reached in a series of recent papers in whi ch observed climati c changes over the past hundred years have been compared with moc) el computations. Some of his critical remarks are justi fied, but I find no clear statement of what they imply. T he average global warming at the surface due to increased atmospheric C02 as suggested by current model projections (namely 0.2 to 0.7 degrees Celsius since the begi nning of the industrial revolution) is still too sma ll to be detected against natu ra l variations in space and time whi ch hi storical climatological records show may well occur. This is why the development of methods to detect a possible C0 2-induced climati c change against the background of natural fluctuati ons is so important. The fo urth and fi fth chapters summa ri ze Idso's own analyti c interpretation of ·Nature's testimony'. It is, of course, essential to veri fy theoreti cal deducti ons with the aid of real data ; nobody questi ons that. However, empirical studies without a careful theoreti cal study of what the results imply can also be misleading. Idso refers to many papers where such analyses can be fo und, but his own contributions in this respect are meagre and inconclusive. It is striking, for example, that Ramanathan's recent paper (Journal of Almosph eric Sciences 38 pp. 9 18- 930) is hardly discussed at all even though it contains a careful analysis of the heat budget at the Earth's surface. As a matter of fact, it sets out the ve ry reasons why Idso's results cannot be generali zed in the way he presents them, and that because of th is they do not support his conclusions. Why did Idso not enter into a detail ed, and hopefull y constructi ve, discussion of the heat budget at the Earth 's surface? In one of the concluding chapters the author maintains that the increased atmospheri c C0 1 may actuall y be beneficial to mankind, because pl ants will grow more quickly and world food producti on will be augmented. This theory merits consideration and he is right in saying that thi s aspect has not been sufficiently studied. It seems pl ausible that the increased agri cultural yields obtained during the past 30- 40 years may be attributable to a certain degree (say ten per cent) to increased atmospheric C0 2. However, limitati ons due to the lack of nutrients and insolati on are not even mentioned. When considering the response of natural ecosystems, the transposing of results from controlled experiments to natural conditions is the main difficulty. Even though I have been fairly critical of Idso's book in this review, I nevertheless beli eve it should be welcomed. In the very last paragraph he says : 'Something must be done to break the

356 deadlock . .. I could be wrong. Cannot the National Academy admit as much?' Certainly some of the statements in the Academy's reports wi ll probably turn out to be wrong. However, I believe it is more likely that Idso's projections rather than the Academy's will be found to be in error. Only the future will tell. In the meantime work should be pursued that will help make our projections of future climatic changes ever more reliable. I do not agree with Idso's opinion that ' ... it would be best if the Committee (of assessment) were not even composed of atmospheri c scientists at all '. Hopefully, the international assessment now being undertaken by ICSU, UNEP and WMO will help us even further to state the problems and discuss the controversial issues on more solid ground.

B. BOW-l

illlernationa/er Reisewettetfiihrer (International weather guide for travell ers). By Heinz PANZRAM. Ravensburg (Otto Maier Yerlag) 1982. 191 pages; photos, maps and tables. In German. Price: DM 12.80. This small book is intended for residents in central Europe who wish to know what climatic conditions and special weather fe atures to expect when they t!·avel abroad. The first half contains ex planatory comments and helps to understand and interpret the ' weather maps for tourists' and the tables presenting climatological data. Weather and recreatio n, climate and holidays are dealt with in 3 1 pages. More sophi sticated meteorological background subjects such as the predictability of weather and climate and the interpretatio n of weather maps are duly commented on. The tourist is given guidance on how to 'derive' a si mple weather forecast on the basis of characteristic types of skies. Some observations are made on the influence of holiday weather upon man. Panzram's approach to the massive task of informing the interested tourist merits appreciation. He adopts a conversational style in dealing with some of the more difficult problems, explaining them in simple terms and stimulating the reader's thirst for more knowledge. In spite of the space limitations he imposed on himself, he has maintained an adequate degree of scientific integrity. However, one is left with the impression that after havi ng assimilated the chapters ' How to interpret a weath er map' and 'What do clouds say about win d and weather of tomo rrow?', the reader will be doomed to some disappointment when he comes to apply this crash- course knowledge. The generall y straightforward layout of the text is impaired in places because weather phenomena of the tropics are more or less arbitrarily all ocated to the chapters on the autumn and winter seasons. The climatological in formation provided includes average daily maximum and minimum temperatures, average da il y sunshine duration, the average number of rainy days, and, when appropriate, th e average monthly water temperature. Further stati stical data are added for about 550 stations covering all the continents. The booklet makes pleasurable reading, but it would have helped if the names of towns on the maps had been printed according to more universal geo­ graphical standards. J. K O LBI G

Uinder und Klima (Lands and climate). Wi esbaden (F. A. Brockhaus) 1983. Text, photographs and tables. In German. Four separate volumes: Europaj UdSSR (Europe and USSR); 240 pages. Price: DM 24.80. Afrika (Africa) ; 130 pages. Pri ce: DM 19. 80. AsienjAustralien (Asia and Australia) ; 240 pages. Pri ce: DM 24.80. Nord- und Siidamerika (North and South America) ; 172 pages. Price: DM 22.80. This work consists of four volumes but li sts neither an autho r nor an editor. The entries comprise a geographical text followed by a set of climati c tables. The latter were compiled by Drs Gi.inter Gri.i newald, Erich Holl er, and Di etrich Stranz. Coming from th e well -known publisher of major encycl opedias, the intention is to permit a quick orientation on the geography and climate of various countries. The nati ons are li sted in alphabetical order with a thumbnail sketch indicating area, capital city, population statistics, type of government and currency. In most descriptions there are paragraphs on topography, climate, transportati on systems and economics. For some countries there is a sentence or two on ethnography and on major settlements. Each sketch is headed by a locator map, the nati onal fl ag and the coat-of-arms of the country, and one or more photographs in colour show characteristic landscapes.

357 On the whole, these brief descriptions are informative but some of the information is likely to become dated fairly rapidly. Also some small countries fare much better in coverage than larger ones; for example, the Netherlands has one and a quarter pages devoted to it, while the Soviet Union, over 500 times larger, has only about twice that space. The discrepancy continues into the climatic tables which list eight stations for the Netherlands (which has a fairly uniform climate) and only 30 for the Soviet Union (with enormous climatic differences). These examples could be multiplied for other regions. Apparently the table listings for each country were determined by the ready availability of data. For the USA, the good coverage with principal weather service stations yielded 47 stations, while Brazil, only 10 per cent smaller in size, has only 13 stations li sted and no more than four in the interior of the country. The tables give longitude, latitude and elevation of the station as well as the time difference from Central European Time. Monthly and annual means of daily maximum and minimum temperature and absolute extremes are listed. Mean and extreme monthly amounts of rainfall and the number of days with precipitation are shown, as are mean vapour pressure and relative humidity for the morning and afternoon. For some stations, average sunshine hours are given. Heating and cooling degree-day values are shown for some countries, days with frost for others and for certain (mainly tropical) countries the number of days with climatic stress is given. To the extent the data were available, the period 1931-60 is used for averages. For many practical uses some indication of variability (besides absolute extremes) of the various climatic elements would have been useful. However the compilers have relied almost exclusively on earlier standard sources, including the United Kingdom Meteorological Office publication Tables of temperature. relative humidity and precipiiation for the world (Met. 0. 617, HMSO London), World Survey of Climatology (Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., Amsterdam) and various published 'normals' by national Meteorological Services. On the whole, as a means of quick-if not profound-orientation, this collection fills a useful purpose. For meteorologists the short geographical descriptions will be a handy compendium of the many nations, new and old. H. E. LANDSBERG

New books received

Wald- Weuer- Kiima (Introduction to forest meteorology). By Giinther fLEM~· II 'IG . Berlin (VEB Deutscher Landwirtschaftsverl ag) 1982. 120 pages; figures and tables. Price: 18.- M.

River Basin Developmen r. (Proceedings of a symposium in Dhaka, Bangladesh, December 1981). M. ZA~ t AN (Editor-in-Chi ef). Dublin (Tycooly International Publishing Ltd) 1983. xiv+ 239 pages; figures and tables. Price: US $55.- or £35.50 (hard cover); US $27.50 or £ 17.75 (soft cover).

Short Period Climaric Variations. (Collected works from 1975 through 1982). By J. NA~ II AS. San Diego (Uni versity of California) 1983. vii + 393 pages; numerous figures. Price: US $8.-.

Climare of Papua New Guinea. By J. R. McALPtNE and Gael KEtG with R. FALLS. Canberra (Australian National Uni versi ty Press) 1983. xii +200 pages; numerous figures and tables. Price: SAI2.95.

Elwgy Alremmives in Latin America. Francisco SzE KELY (Editor). Dublin (Tycooly International Publishing Ltd) 1983. ix+ 168 pages ; figures and tables. Price: US S40 or £26 (hard cover); US S20 or £13 (soft cover).

Introduction ro Climatology for rhe Tropics. By J. 0. AYOADE. Chichester (John Wiley & Sons Ltd) 1983. xv + 258 pages ; numerous figures and tables. Price: £ 14.95 (cloth cover) or £6.95 (paperback).

358 WMO BULLETIN - VOLUME 32 (1 983)

INDEX

Bu/lelin interviews, The Professor H. Flohn 185 Sir Charl es N ormand 91 Professor K. R. Ramanathan 3 Professor J. Smagorinsky . . 277 The Secretary-General of ITU 206 Cent enary of th e Royal Observatory, Hong Kong . 313 Commission for Aeronautical Meteorology - Seventh session, Montreal, AprilfMay 1982 34 Commission for Agricultural Meteorology - Eighth session, Geneva, FebruaryjMarch 1983 ...... 229 Co mmi ss ion for Basic Systems - Eighth session, Geneva, February 1983 . 231

Education and training Catalogue of audi o-visual and meteorological training ai ds 69 Course on basic electro ni cs for technicians 345 Forthcoming training events 69,25 1,347 Rece nt events ...... 161 Training publicati ons 346 First WMO Long-term Pl an 1984-1993, The. 329

Hydrology and water resources development Adviso ry Working Group of th e Commi ssion for Hydrology 248 African hydrology and water resources symposium (an noun cement) !54 ALERT flo od wa rning systems . 338 Co-operati on with Unesco 60 HOMS fourth anni versary . . 148 Hydrology in Asia . 151 Inter-agency co-operati on . . . 151 , 340 Intern ational Prize in Hydrology . 152 Meteorological forecast input for hydrological pu rposes 247 New publications ...... 250 Operati onal hydrology in tro pical regions 56 Recent symposia 152 Seminar on fl ood fo recasting . 250 Seminars under th e Typhoon Committee 61 Symposium on hydrological research bas ins . 249 Symposium on hydrometeorology 62 Techni ca l meetings in th e Middle East .... 60 WMO support for IAHS acti vities . . 58 Identification of th e climate change induced by in creasin g carbon di ox ide and other trace gases in the atmosphere ...... 23

In the Regions Asia ... 163 Major Pacifi c wa rm episode of 1982/83, The 30 1 Message from the President of WMO 89

Meteorology and ocean affairs Co-operative investigations in the Indian Ocean 239 Drifting buoy programmes 131 El Nifio in vesti gati ons . 238 INMA RSAT. 44

359 Integrated Global Ocean Services System . 237, 33 1 Marine forecast areas in the Baltic Sea . 43 North Atlantic Ocean Stations . 42, 332 Pleasure cruise on a 'selected ship', A 132 Provision of marine meteorological information to shipping 43 Publications ... 239 Service Argos . 132, 333 WMO sea-wave programme 238

ews and notes Awards in biometeorology ...... 71 COS PAR Symposium on Space Observations for Climate Studies (a nnouncement) . 350 Conference on southern hemisphere meteorology (announcement) . 71 Dr Gustav Swoboda and the Bergen school ...... 349 Eastern Snow Conference (announcemem) . . . . . 7 1 Handbook for users of Canadian climatological data . 350 International Geophysical Calendar for 1983 . 72 Membership changes ...... 163 New publicati ons ...... 260 Recordings of volcanic dust in the stratosphere 163 Second International Nowcasting Symposium (announcemem ) 260 Story of the Dutch IPY expedition 1882/83 . . 257 Twe nty-seventh !MO Prize ...... 70 WMO Research Award for Young Scientists 35 1 Weather forecasts disseminated by postmarks . 258 World Meteorological Day 1983 ...... 348

ews from the Secretariat Long-service certificates . . .. 76, 170, 352 Recent WMO publications 76, 170, 264, 352 Secretary-General's visits . 74, 169, 263, 351 Staff changes 75 , 170, 263, 352 Ninth World Meteorological Congress -Review of the main decisions 3 19

Obituaries Dal maz, Muzaffer . 72 Abu-Ghalya, EI-H ashmi 262 AI-Sayrafi, Mohamed H. 168 Deeb, R. 74 Federer, Bruno . 167 Langbein, Waiter B. . 166 Normand, Sir Charles . 74 Otnes, Jacob . . 262 Reichelderfer, Francis W. . 168 Tison, Leon . . . . 26 1

Physical basis for climate prediction on seasonal, annual and decadal time scales - WMO/ ICSU study confe rence, Leningrad, September 1982 . . . . . 33

Professor Heinrich Wild ( 1833-1 902) . . . . 306

Regional Association for Africa- Eighth session, Cairo, November 1982 12 1 Regional Associati on for Europe - Eighth session, Rome, October 1982 124

Regional Associati on for South America - Eighth session, Montevideo, March 1982 123 Regional Association for the South-West Pacific - Eighth session, Melbourne, September 1982 ...... 37

Regional Meteorological Training Centres Baghdad ..... 222 Buenos Aires ...... 109 Oran ...... 3 16 Philippine Meteorological Training Centre, The. 14

360 Regional Scientific Conference on Tropical Meteorology - Tsukuba (Japan), October 1982 ...... 126

Research and Development Conference on Results of the Global Weather Experiment (announceme111) ...... 335 Environmental pollution ...... 46, 138,241,334 Instruments and methods of observation . 140, 334 Research in tropical meteorology . 136,333 Tropical cyclone programme . . . 45 Weather modification programme 136, 241 Weather prediction research ... 44,134, 240

Results of the Global Weather Experiment - Summaries of the scientific lectures at the thirty-fourth session of the Executive Committee ...... 18

Reviews Anthes, R. A.- Tropical Cyclones: Their evolution, structure and effects ...... 79 Barry, R. G. & Chorley, R. J.- Atmosphere, Weather and Climate (4th edn.) . . . . 266 Beard, L. R. & Maxwell, W. H. C. (Editors)- Water Resources Manageme/11 in Industrial Areas ...... 268 Benarie, M. M. (Editor)- Atmospheric Pollution 1980 ...... 83 Bencze, P. , Major, G. & Meszaros, E.- Fizikai Meteorologia ...... 177 Bengtsse n, L. & Lighthill, J. (Editors) - Intense Atmospheric Vortices ...... 355 Benque, J.-P., Hangnel, A. & Yiollet, P.-L.- Engineering Applications of Compura- tional Hydraulics: Volume // ...... 177 Brockhaus, F. A. (Publisher)- Uinder und Klima ...... 357 Browning, K. A. - Nowcasting...... 265 Budyko, M. I. - The Earth's Climate: Past and future ...... 172 Eagleson, P. S.- Land Swface Processes in Atmospheric General Circulation Models. 265 El-Hinnawi, E. & Biswas, A. K. (Editors)- Renewable Sources of Energy and the Enrironmelll ...... 176 El-Shaarawi, A. H. & Esterby, S. R. (Editors) - Time Series MeThods in Hl·dro- sciences ...... 269 Georgii, H. W. & Jaeschke, W. (Editors) - Chemisny of Th e Unpolluted and Poll w ed Troposphere ...... 268 Georgii, H. W. & Pankrath, J. (Editors) - Deposition of ATmospheric Pollwants . 174 ldso, S. B.- Ca rbon Dioxide: Friend 01-.(oe:' ...... 356 Lamb, H. H. - ClimaTe. His/Or)' and the Modem World ...... 267 Linsley, R. K., Kohler, M. A.&. Paulhus, J. L. H. - Hydrology for Engineers . 176 Nieu wstadt, F. T. M. & van Dop, H. (Editors)- ATmospheric Turbulence and Air Pollwion Modelling ...... 173 Panzram, H.- Intemationaler Reisewetterfi'ihrer ...... 357 Pedlosky, J.- Geophysical Fluid Dynamics (Study edn.) ...... 264 Perrin de Brichambaut, Ch. & Yange, Ch. - Le giseme111 solaire: evaluaTion de la ressource energetique ...... 175 Sauvageot, H. - Radarmereorologie: te!edetection acTive de l'atmosplu!re 80 Spiegel, H. J. & Gruber, A.- From Weather Vanes To Satellites ...... 353 Stirling, R.- 171 e Weather of BriTain ...... 267 U.S. National Research Council - Causes and Effects of Stratosphere Ozone Reduction: An updaTe ...... 81 United Kingdom Meteorological Office- Observer's Handbook (4th edn.) . . . . . 354 Yersi no, B. & Ott, H. (Editors) - Physico-Chemical Behaviour of ATmospheric fu~~u ...... ~ Whitten, R. C. (Editor) - 17Je STratosphere Aerosol Layer ...... 82

Seventy-fifth anniversary of the Australian Bureau of Meteorology ...... 309

Significant meteorological events in 1982- Part I . 212

Significant meteorological events in 1982 - Part 11 ...... 291

361 Technical co-operation Country programmes Afghanistan 252 Indonesia ... 253 Angola . 252 Lao People's Bangladesh 155 Democratic Republic . 253 Botswana 155 Mongoli a 158 Brazil .. 62,341 Morocco . 65 Burma 63 Nicaragua 158 Burundi 156 Oman 65 Central African Republic 342 Pakistan 344 China ... . 64 Panama 65,254 Costa Rica .. . 157, 342 Pem . . 66, 344 Democratic People's Qatar . 344 Republic of Korea 157 United Republic of Cameroon 66 Dominican Republic 157 Uruguay 254 Ethiopia 158 Venezuela 254 Haiti ..... 158 Zimbabwe 255

Inter-country programmes Advanced training in the Engli sh-speaking Caribbean . .. .. 256 Agrometeorological and hydrological services in the Sahelian countries . 68, 256 Hydrometeorological project in the Central American Isthmus 68 Planning and development of hydrometeorological networks and related services in Africa . 160

Voluntary Co-operati on Programme . 160, 257, 345

Telecommunications- The li fel ines of meteorology 198

Thirty years in weather ships ...... 225

WMO(ICSU Joint Scientific Committee- Fourth session, Ven ice, March 1983 233

World Climate Applications Programme Agricultural meteorology and desertification 52, 144, 246, 337 Climate Appli cation Referral System 54 Energy ...... 53 , 146, 246, 338 Symposium on Building Climatology 54 WCP-Water ...... 146

World Climate Data Programme Data management in Regions Ill and IV 336 Radiation data . . . . 245 Setting up data banks . 55, 147, 245

World Climate Programme . . . 47, 242

World Climate Research Programme Aerosols and their climatic effects 336 Atmospheric carbon dioxide . . . 141 CAS group of rapporteurs . . .. 243 Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project 140 JSC Working Group on Numerical Experimentation 49, 142 Radiative effects of aerosols ...... 244 Role of sea ice in climatic variati ons, The ...... 48

World Weather Watch Aeronautical meteorology 235 Aircraft to Satellite Data Relay (ASDAR) 130 Global Telecommunication System 40, 236, 33 1

WMO Executive Council-Thirty-fifth session, Geneva, June 1983 329

362 SELECTED LIST OF WMO PUBLICATIONS

Atlases S w. fr. Climatic atlas of Europe. Vo lume I: Maps of mean temperature and precipitation. Quadrilingual (E/ F/ R/S). * 150.- Climatic atlas of South America. Volume I: Maps of mean temperature and precipita­ tion. Quadrilingual (E/ FJPortuguesejS). 175.- Climatic atlas of Nonh and Central America. Vo lume I: Maps of mean temperature and precipitation. Trilingual (E/ F/S). 150.- (Atlases published by WMOJUnescojCartographia.) Manual on the observation of clouds and other meteors. International cloud atlas - Vo l. I (revised edition). E- F. 62.- International cloud atlas- abridged edition. E. 36.- International cloud atlas - abridged edition (reprint 1976). F. 36.- International cloud album for observers in aircraft. E- F. 9.- Marine cloud album (40 bare plates). 10.- Cloud sheet. 5.-

Technical Regulations WMO No. 49 - Technical Regulations. E - F - R - S. Volume I - General. 1979 edition. 28.- Volume 11 - Meteorological service for international air navigation. 1976 edition. 30.- Volume Ill - Hydrology. 1979 edition. 12.- Cover for the three volumes. 8.- 555 - Technical Regulations. (Hydrology and international hydrological codes). E. 20.- 558 - Manual on marine meteorological services. E- F- R- S. 20.-

Guides 134 - Guide to agricuilural meteorological practices. 198 1 edition. E- F - S. 25.- 168 - Guide to hydrological practices. 1981 edition. Volume I - Data acquisition and processing. E. 33.- Volume 11 - (In preparation) 305 - Guide on the Global Data-processing System. 1982 edition. E. 2 1.- 468 - Guide on the automation of meteorological telecommunication centres. E. 15.- 471 - Guide to marine meteorological services. E. 26.- 488 - Guide on the Global Observing System. E - F - R - S. 42.-

Operational manuals 197 - Manual on meteorological observing in transport aircraft. E. 4.- 306 - Manual on codes. Volume I - International meteorological codes. 1974 edition. E- F-R-S. (with cover) 35.- Volume 11 - Regional codes and na1ional coding practices. 1982 edition. E - F. (with cover) 50.- (without cover) 40.- 386 - Manual on the Global Telecommunication System. Volume I -Global aspects. 1974 edition. E- F - R - S. 11 0.- Volume II - Regional aspects. 1975 edition. E - F - R-S. 414 - Nonh Atlantic Ocean Stations vessel manual. E - F - R. 30.- 446 - Handbook on wave analysis and forecasting. E- F- S. 37.- 485 - Manual on the Global Data-processing Sys1em. Volume I - Global aspects. E- F-R-S. 25.- Volume 11 -Regional aspects. E- F-R-S. 7.- 491 - Imernmional opera/ions handbook for measureme111 of background armospheric pollution. E - F - S. 30.- 544 - Manual on the Global Observing System. 1981 edition. E- F-R - S. 20.-

* E = English, F = French, R = Russian, S = Spanish . Xote: Excep1 for publicarious indicated as being mulrilingual. rhe di.ffere/11 la nguage 1·ersious are published separa t e~r and the price srm ed refers 10 the 1·ersion in one language ou/.1

363 WMONo. Sw.fr. Training manuals 240 - Compendium of mereorologicalrraining faciliries. 1982 edition. E. 50.- 258 - Guidelin es for the educarion and training of personnel in mereorology and oper­ ational hydrology. 1977 edition. E- F. 20.- 327 - Compendium of /ecru re notes in climarology for Class I V meteorological personnel. E - S. 20.- 364 - Compendium of mereorology for use by Class I and Class 11 me/eorologica / personnel. Volume I : Part I - Dynamic meteorology. E- S. 35.- Part 2 - Physical mereorology. E - S. 25.- Volume 11: Part I - General hydrology. E. 10.- Part 2 - Aeronawica/ mereoro/ogy. E. 14.- 382 - Compendium of /ecru re notes for training personnel in rh e application of meteOJ·o­ /ogy to economic and social developmenl. E- F- S. 25.- 43 2 - Proceedings of rhe WMOjiAMAP Symposium on Education and Training in Meteorology and Mereorologica/ Aspecrs of Environmemal Problems. E. 50.- 434 - Compendium of lecture notes in marine m eteorology for Class Ill and Class IV personnel. E - S. 25.- 489 - Compendium of training facilities in environmenral problems related 10 meteoro­ logy and operational hydrology. E. 22.- 492 - Lectures on forecasting of tropical weather, including rropica/ cyclones wirh pm·tiett­ lar relevance 10 Africa. E. 42.- 493 - Proceedings of the meering on education and training in mereorologica/ aspec/s of armospheric pollurion and re/a red environmemal problems. E. 40.- 55 1 - Lecrure notes for training Class 11 and Class 11 I agricultural mereorologica/ per­ so/me/. E. 18.- Recent Operational Hydrology Reports (In English ) 461 - Casebook of examples of organizarion and operarion of hydrological services. No. 9. 22.- 464 - Statisrica/ information on acrivities in operational hydrology. No. I 0. 22.- 476 - Hydrological applicarion of atmospheric vapour-flux analyses. No. 11. 10.- 513 - App/icarions ofremore sensing to hydrology. No. 12. 10.- 519- Manualonstreamgauging. No. 13 . E. Volume I - Fieldwork Volume 11 - Compuration of discharge both volumes 52.- 559 - Hydrological dara rransmission. By A. F. FLANDERS. No. 14. 5.- 560 - Selecrion ofdisrribwion typesforextremes ofprecipirarion. No. 15. 6.- 56 1 - Measurement of river sediments. No. 16. 7.- 576 - Case studies of national hydrological data banks. No. 17. 10.- 577 - Rashfloodforecasring. By A. J. H ALL No. 18. 6.- 580 - Conceprs and rechniques in hydrological network design. By M. E. Moss. No. 19. 6.- 587 - Long-range water-supply forecasring. By M. DYAR-NIELSE N. No. 20. 6.-

Reports on Marine Science Affairs 472 - 77Je influence of ocean on climate. No. 11. E. I 0.- 499 - Meteorological aspecrs of th e conrribwions presented ar th e Joint Oceanographic Assembly. No. 12. E- F. 10.- 500 - Presenl techniques of tropical storm surge predicrion. No. 13. E. 20.- 548 - Sarellite data requirememsfm· marine meteorological services. No. 14. E. 17.- 595 - 771 e preparation and use of wear her maps by mariners. No. 15. E. 11.-

Publications of general interest 410 - WMO - 77J e achievemem and rhe challenge. F- S. 6.- 463 - Wearher and water. E - F- S. 5.- 543 - Man and climaric variability. E - F- S. 3.- 771 e Global Weather Experimen r, 1978-1 979. E. 4.- WMO Bullerin (The quarterly official journal on the work of WMO and recent deve l- opments in international meteorology. ) E - F - R- S. Annual subscription - I year: Sw. fr. 40.- ; 2 years: Sw. fr. 65.- ; 3 years: Sw. fr. 90.-. (30% supplement for dispatch by airmail.) Some back numbers of the Bulletin are available.

364 WMONo. Sw.fr. Weather reporting: stations, data processing and transmissions 9 - Weather reporting Volume A- Observing stations. Bi lingual (E/F). (Explanatory texts E/F/R/S). Rev ised edition issued twice yearly: Annual subscription: surface mail 115.- airmail 140.- Cover 12.- Volume B- Data processing. Quadrilingual (E/F/R/S). 60.- Annual subscription for supplement service : surface mail 27 .- airmail 37.- Volume C - Transmissions. Bilingual (E/F). (Regulatory material E/F/R/S). 125.- Annual subscription for supplement service (complete vo lume) : surface mail 120.- airmail 160.- Catalogue of meteorological bulletins. (Reprint from Chapter I) (E/ F). Revised edition issued twice yearly. Annual subscription: surface mail 75.- airmail 95.- Volume D - Information for shipping. Bilingual (E/F). (Regulatory material E/F/R/S). 150.- Coastal radio stations accepting ships' weather reports. (Reprint from Volume D, Part B.) Bilingual (E/F). 15.- Meteorological facsimile broadcasts. (Reprint from Volume D, Part A;;.) Bilingual (E/F). 15.- Annual subscriptions for supplement service : Compl ete volume: surface mail 80.- airmail 120.- Part B only surface mail 20.- ai rm ai l 30.- Part A;; onl y surface mail 20.- ai rm ai l 30.-

Orders for WMO publications should b e addressed directl y to : World Meteorological Organization, Publications Sales Unit, Case postale 5, C H-1211 Geneva 20, Switzerland.

Residents in the United States of America should place their order with : UNIPUB Inc. WMO Publications Center, P.O.Box 433 , New York, NY 10016, USA

Readers are reminded that if they have difficulty in purchasing WMO publicati ons due to exchange co ntrol regulations, in many countries they may make use of Unesco Coupons for this purpose. The procedure is descri bed in the WMO Bulletin 27 ( I) p. 64 (January 1978).

General reference publications 2 - Meteorological Services of the World. 1982 edition. Bilingual (E/ F). 24.- 5 - Composition of the WMO. Bilingual (E/ F). 17.- Note: This pu blication is iss ued fo ur times a year. Subscription ra tes fo r I yea r: 60.- : fo r 2 years: 110.- : and 3 years: 150.- . By ai rm ail 70.- , 130.- and 180.- respective ly. 47 - International list of selected, supplementaty and auxiliaty ships. Bilingual (E/ F). 33.- 11 7 - Climatological normals (CLJ NO)for CLI MAT and CLIMAT SH IP stations for the period 1931-1960 (E/F). 30.- 170 - Short-period averages for 1951-1960 and provisional averages values for CLI:VI AT TEMP and CLI MAT TEMP SHIP stations. Bilingual (E/F). 36.- 174 - Ca talogue of meteorological data for research (Part I) E. 30.- (Part li) Bilingual (E/ F). 20.- (Part Ill) E. 50.- (Part IV) E. 17.- 232 - Instrument development inquity. 2nd edition, 1976. E. 15.- 259 - WMO sea-ice nomenclature. Quadrilingual (E/F/ R/S). 50.- 276 - Selected bibliography on urban climate. Origi nal titles wi th Engli sh translation. 35.-

365 WMONo. S w. fr. Recent technical notes 473 - Th e use ofs atellite image1y in tropical cyclone analysis. No. !53 . E. 25.- 478 - Scientific planning and organization of precipitation enhancement experiments, with particular attention to agricultural needs. No. !54. E. 10.- 482 ·- Forecasting techniques of clear air turbulence including that associated with moun­ tain waves. No. !55. E. 10.- 487 - Techniques of frost prediction and methods of frost and cold protection. No. 157. E. 35.- 495 - Handbook of meteorological forecasting for soaring flight. No. !58. E- F. 18.- 497 - Weather and parasitic animal disease. No. !59. E. 30.- 498 - Soya bean and weather. No. 160. E. 20.- 507 - Th e application of atmospheric electricity concepts and methods to other parts of meteorology. No. 162. E. 20.- 526 - Th e economic value of agrometeorological information and advice. No. 164. E. 10.- 530 - Th e planetwy boundm y layer. No. 165 . E. 20.- 532 - Meteorological factors affecting the epidemiology of the cotton leaf worm and the pink bolhvorm. No. 167. E. 10.- 539- Reviewofurban climatology 1973-1976. No. 169. E. 10.- 550 - Meteorological and hydrological aspects of siting and operation of nuclear power plants. No. 170. E. Volume I - (in preparation). Volume 11 - Hydrological aspects 25.- 557 - Meteorological aspects of the utilization of solar radiation as an energy source. No. 172. E. (includes world maps of relative global radiation as separate annex) 45.- 566 - T11 e ejJec1 of meteorological factors on crop yields and methods offorecasting the )'ields. No. 174. E. 7.- 575 - ·Meteorological aspec1s of 1h e utilization of wind as an energy source. No. 175 . E. 36.- 58 1 - Review(){ atmospheric dif}usion models for regulatOJy applica tions. No. 177. E. 7.- 583 - Troposph eric chemistrv and air pollution. No. 176. E. 14.- 597 - A studv of the agroclimatology of the humid tropics of South-East Asia. No. 179. E. 40.-

!MO Lectures

309 - Radiation processes in the atmosphere. By K . Ya. K o~D RATYEV . E. 50.- 523 - Atmospheric boundwy layer. By R. W. STEW ART. E. 20.- 542 - Climatic changes and 1h eir ejJec1s on the biosphere. By B. Bou N. E. 30.-

Special Environmental Reports 440 - Determination (){the atmospheric contribution of petroleum hydrocarbons to the oceans. No. 6. E. 16.- 448 - Weather, climate and human settlemems. No. 7. E. 12.- 455 - T11e quamitative evaluation of the risk of disaster.from tropical cyclones. No. 8. E- F- S. 50.- 459 - An evaluation(){ climate and water resources for developme/11 of agriculture in 1h e Sudano-Sahelian zone(){ West Africa. No. 9. E- F. 40.- 460 - Air pollution measureme/11 techniques. No. 10. E. 35.- 496 - Systems for evaluating and predicting th e effects of wemher and climate on wild­ landjires. No. 11. E. 10.- 504 - Implementation plan for the determination of th e atmosph eric comribution of pet­ roleum hydrocarbons to the oceans. No. 12. E. 10.- 517 - Meteorology and the human environment. No. 13. E. 6.- 549 - Papers presemed a1 the WMO Technical Conference on regional and global obser­ vation of atmospheric pollution relative to climate. No. 14. E. 31.- 563 - Proceedings of th e Symposium on the development of multi-media monitoring of environmental pollution (Riga, 12-15 December 1978). No. 15. E. 45 .-

366 ORDER FORM FOR SUBSCRIPTION TO THE WMO BULLETIN

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I • • Cassette recorder tor eaS)r stor.ago and changmg Of dat;;tt;;tpes. ' s f : ~ : ; • • • ~ ,.~ ;;;; =~~e~an~~':strnct .. ( . ' . ~ . : - ...... ~utpment. types ot!faesimile Image •Reat-time gridding and Rerorrlets. ... • t * ' .. ~ .... < • : - ,_ annotation of received APT e Soft copy opf\on of T V -. r.~ ~ ~. ;:,. ~ ) v - 1mages. morutors enables several • Daily pass scheduling of locations to V1ew images ~ APT transmissJons. simultaneously. Greatly e VHF Omm-direct10nal reduced operating antenna reQutre no operator costs. intervention. Designed for e Neatand compact use in the harshest of equipment cabmet. environments, includ1ng e Equipment 1s NATO prolonged exposure to salt codi1ied. atmosphere,

l~j~ nF? .~ Spembly Electronics, 5 Vicarage Hill, Alton, Hampshire, GU34 lHT, England. Telephone:- Alton (0420) 88683 Telex :- 858028 The International Journal for Environment and Development Editor: Asit K. Biswas (Canada)

Pub li shed by Tycooly International with the Editorial Board support of UNEP. Mazingira W.K. Chagula (Tanzania) • provides original and authoritive Robert S. McNamara (USA) information on the protection and Mohammed Kassas (Egypt) management of the environment at global , regional and national levels Sean MacBride (Ireland) Enrique Perialosa (Colombia) • informs technical experts, policy makers and concerned individuals lgnacy Sachs (France) about environmental aspects of the M.S. Swaminathan (India) development process Shigeto Tsuru (Japan) Subscription Rate: 1 year (4 issues) $10.00 UK £6 2 years (8 issues) $18.00 UK£11 Individuals and development institutions in developing countries are entitled to a reduced subscription rate of $6 .00 per year.

MAZINGIRA SPECIAL ISSUE Produced to commemorate the UNEP Session of a Special Character (May 1982, Nairobi) the Special Issue contains selected speeches from sixteen attending dignitaries. For bulk purchases of 50 or more copies, the Special Issue is avai lable at 50c/ 35p per copy All new Mazingira subscribers will automatically be sent a copy of the Special Issue.

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129 All orders and enquiries should be sent to: • Tycooly International Publishing Limited, t I 6 Crofton Terrace, Dun Laoghaire, Co. Dublin, Ireland. 3/ AO l A ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENT

Air Pollution * Industrial Aerodynamics * Micrometeorology *Aerosols * Atmospheric Chemistry

Editors: DJ MOORE, Central Electricity Research Laboratory, Leatherhead, Surrey KT22 7SE, UK, J P LODGE Jr, 385 Broadway, Boulder, CO 8030, USA, W KLUG, Technische Hochschule, Oarmstadt, FRG, R B HUSAR, CAPITA, Washington University, St Louis MO 53130, USA, M BENARIE, lnstitut Nationale de Recherche Chimique Appliquee, BP No 1, 91719 Vert-le-Petit, France, H HARRISON, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA. One ofthe oldest established journals in A selection of papers: the field, ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENT Trace element concentrations in erodible publishes papers on all aspects of Man's soils, L SCHUTZ and K A RAHN. interactions with his atmospheric Should we trust models or observations? environment, including the administrative, H W ELLSAESSER. economic and political aspects of these Horizontal diffusion in the atmosphere: a interactions. Air pollution research and its Lagrangian-dynamical theory, applications are covered, taking into FA GIFFORD. account changes in the atmospheric flow The potential for secondary pollutant patterns, temperature distributions and formation in the atmospheric boundary chemical constitution caused by natural layer in a high pressure situation over and artificial variations in the earth's Engl and, R G DERWENT and 0 HOV. surface. Review: atmospheric deposition and plant assimilation of gases and particles, ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENT has one of RP HOSKER Jr and SE LINGBERG. the largest circulations of scholarly journals Aircraft cabin air ozone contamination and of this kind, and its high reputation is compliance with regulations, J F LEACH et reflected in the f requency of references to al. it. Recently it extended its scope to include Relationships involving particle mass and the publication of book reviews and a sulfur content at sites in and around St bibliography. Louis, Missouri, A PALTSHULLER . Exotic tracers for atmospheric studies, The editors welcome the submission of J E LOVE LOCK and G J FERBER. papers, notes and reports of meetings for A re -examination of lateral dispersion from publication. Papers should describe continuous sources, P PHILLIPS and original work and be of general interest. HA PANOFSKY. Contributions should be submitted to one A note on the use of asymptotic similarity of the Executive Editors. theory in neutral atmospheric boundary layers, D M DEAVES and RI HARRIS. Subscription Information Extreme value statistics related to Published monthly Annual subscription ( 1983) US$450.00 performance of a standard air quality Two-year rate (1983/84) US$855.00 simulation model using data at seven power plants sites, DB TURNER and J S IRWIN.

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8Bf261 1182 43 Do you really have control over your weather observation network? Now you can have, with the Meteor Scatter data collection system. You are in total con­ trol, system operation is independent of. external agencies. Meteor Scatter is the economical way to gather data from remote weather stations up to 2000 km away. Scores or hundreds of stations can be included in a single network. Vaisala supplies all the elements necessary for a network: both data-collection and tele- ·. communications equipment. And the service to back it up. Our advice is always free, so do not hesitate to contact us and tell us about your require­ ments. We'll give you a system to meet these requirements. Whatever your needs for surface weather data collection-synoptic observations, hydro­ logical studies, site surveys, airport weather observations or any other requirement-con­ tact Vaisala. We have the answer. -- c==::-==- Why not select the optimum system for atmospheric measurements? In the Vaisala RS 80 radiosonde you have 'A"~;:..e••Z : i an exceptional new radioson~e . Operational ~ :::::~: Nv ::::z :=:b results confirm that our latest mstrument pro­ vides a new level of accuracy in atmospheric

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17 RANGE LIMIT Continuous information on the measuring ~ange limit CONTROL UNIT FAILURE indicates when a fault has TEST TRANSCEIVER FAILURE occurred in the control unit For testing all indicating Will light up a fault should if The display will also show a occur in the transceiver unit flashing fault code. The display will also ·show a flashing fault code. VERTICAL VISIBILITY INTENSITY If no definite cloudbase is For adjusting the light inten­ detected, the vertical visibility sity of the displays and indicat­ will be displayed here (below ing/amps. CLOUDBASEI SOOm). Lowest cloud height. Dis­ played in feet or metres. TRANSMITTER SWITCH CONTROL UNIT SWITCH For swiching the transmitter For switching the control laser on and off. When the on and off. switch is on, infonnation on TRANSMITTER POWER the measured height and Indicates when the laser measuring cycle time will be out put power is too low. to the transceiver unit

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ALDEN APTS-3C Orbiting Weather ALDEN 1100 WEFAX Ground Satellite Ground Receiving Station Receiving System The ALDEN APTS-3C Satellite Ground Receiving The ALDEN 1100 WEFAX Ground Receiving System Stati on is designed as a dedicated system for com­ is a dedicated system for the reception of WEFAX pletely automatic reception of all VHF transmissions transmissions from GOES, METEOSAT and GMS from orbiting weather satellites through the use of an (LR-FAX) geostationary meteorological satellites. omni-directional antenna. The signal inputs are Simple and reliable, the system permits unattended digitally processed to an 11-inch wide format utilizing . operation and provides continuous, clearly detailed the ALDEN Universal Weather Satellite Recorder, JOY,-inch square satellite pictures in the WEFAX Model 9511S. This recorder may also be used to mode. receive HF radio facsimile weather chart broadcasts.

117 NORTH MAIN STREET BROCKTON , MASSACHUSETTS 02403 , U.S.A. ALDEN INTERNATIONAL, S. A. CABLE ADDRESS : ALDENSA TELEX : 92 • 4451 22 GOES-E An assembled VIS mosaic of four WEFAX sectors from the GOES-E satel­ lite of the U.S.A. located above 75•w longitude. Size of the mosaic is approxi­ mately 20 inches (50.8 cm) square. The transmissions were received at Westboro, Massachusetts, through the ALDEN APTS-3B Ground Receiving System. The mosaic consists of GOES-E VIS WEFAX sectors NW, NE, SW and SE. Transmis­ sion frequency was 169 1.0 MHz. Areas shown are North, Central and South America with major portions of the Pa­ cific and Atlantic Oceans. Cloud cover patterns appear over North and South America, with a storm off the eastern coast of the United States and Canada. Sun reflection in the central part of the mosaic highlights a coastline segment of Central America.

METEOSAT An assembled VIS mosaic of 24 WEFAX sectors from the METEO­ SAT satellite of the European Space Agency located above the Greenwich meridian. Size of the mosaic is approximately 50 inches (1.27 m) square. Transmissions were received at Prague (Czechoslovakia) through the ALDEN APTS-3B Ground Re­ ceiving System. The mosaic consists of METEOSAT VIS sectors 1- 14 from Channel I at 1691.0 MHz and sectors 15 - 24 from Channel 2 at 1694.5 MHz. Land areas shown include Europe, continental Africa and Madagascar, the Mediterranean , the Red Sea and Near East, Middle East and portions of North America and the Soviet Union. Cloud cover appears over central Europe and North America, equatorial Africa, the eastern Mediterranean, the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans.

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" SMART" DATA CONTROL ASSEMBLY

Since the 1950's, AN/GMD and WBRT Rawin Sets have been operational all over the world, providing reliable service in vital winds-aloft radiosonde observations. Now, a unique, low-cost upgrade program offers as much as fifteen more years of new life with improved performance. The original WBRT was designed and produced by Servo Corporation of America for the U.S. National Weather Service in 1957. Servo has produced all of the WBRT's in operation in the world today and is the only company with successful engineering and manufacturing experience on both WBRT and GMD systems. Servo has entered the production phase on a major contract from the U.S. National Weather Service for the design and production of an " ART" (Automatic Radio Theodolite) reconfiguration program to modernize all WBRT's and GMD's operated by the NWS. The " SMART" system can be used to upgrade any WBRT or GMD anywhere in the world-with fast, simple on-site installation and minimum downtime-at surprisingly low cost, both initial and life-cycle. Key design and performance features include:

• Solid state electronics- microprocessor controlled receiver, tracking loop, range and angle converters • Improved accuracy • Improved conical scanning feed assembly • Antenna tracking simulator for microprocessor-controlled flight scenarios • Full compatibility with future requirements such as upper-air minicomputer interface and software, as well as communication interface.

Get " SMART" _ Contact Servo for complete details about this new opportunity to extend the operational service life of your inherently rugged GMD's and WBRT's. 145 CJOtex METEOROLOGICAL BALLOONS

MADE OF .·

SYNTHETIC RUBBER OR NATURAL LATEX

MANUFACTURER SOLE EXPORT AGENT TOTEX CORPORATION DAI TOKYO KOEKI CO., l TD. AGEO-SHI, SAITAMA PREFECTURE KATAKURA Bldg., 2 San-chome, Kyobash l, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, Japan JAPAN TEL. (281) 6988 CABLE ADDRESS : GOROKUIMAI TOKYO

Automatic Precipitation Collector The development of the collector is a result of meteorologists many years of experience in the field defined by the OECD-Programme and is qualified for collecting wet depo­ sition (rain and snow).

Special characteristics of ARS 721 (Standard version): l sampling bottle (10 l) Rugged glass fibre polyester construc­ tion with200 mm insulation lid with seal to prevent contamination and evapo­ ration during dry periods. Stainless steel funnel, diameter 250 mm incl. sieve. When the lid is opened it is completely turned down to prevent the collector from introducing aerodynamic inter­ fer-ence to the sampling process.

Optional Electric heating with thermostat. Batte­ ries (24 VDC) for operating without mains power, recorder for beginning and end of deposition, polyethylene (PET) funneL

The rain sensor REF 7 4 with built-in heating unit for operation down to - 30°C, transforms the precipi­ tation into electrical signals. The appro­ priate control electronics AW E 79 opens the lid according to the setting of the number of drops and closes it at the end of delay time. The rain sensor AQ is a low-cost con­ struction, also with heating and fixed AQ delay-on and ofi Emi + Co. Elektro--Industrie CH-8306 Bruttisellen (ZUrich) TeL 0 1/833 33 33

For single or combined satellite data reception, e METEOSAT, GOES and GMS Data Collection processing, recording and distribution we Platforms for mobile and land-based applications deliver ... with universal sensor interface. e Ground stations for HRPT-Service containing realtime processing as - contrast enhancement - pseudocolouring - image enlargement -correction of earth curvature - stereographic projection Programs. Products. Perspectives. -overlay of coastlines and gridding -movie-loops, etc. liiDDRNIER • Ground stations for APT- and WEFAX-Service, microprocessor controlled, completely prepro­ grammable, performing For further information please write or phone -image enhancement Dornier System GmbH, P.O.B. 1360 -automatic overlay of longitude and !attitude D-7990 Friedrichshafen 1, Phone 7545/81, gridding in realtime Telex No. 734 209-0 Department VRK.

Printed in ·Switzerland - lmprimerie La Concorde. Epalinges ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE WMO BULLETIN

The second column gives rhe full rirle in English (rhough rhe abbreviarion may deri1 •e from rhe French rirle) folloll'ed by rh e inirials of rh e parenr or sponsoring body (in brackers)

BAPMoN Background Air Pollution Monitoring Network (WMO) CA eM Commission for Aeronautical Meteorology (WMO) CA gM Commission for Agricultural Meteorology (WMO) CAS Commission for Atmospheric Sciences (WMO) CBS Commission for Basic Systems (WMO) ccco Committee on Climate Changes and the Ocean (SCORjiOC) CCI Commission for Climatology (WMO) CHy Commission for Hydrology (WMO) cn.ss Permanent Inter-State Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel CIMO Commission for Instruments and Methods of Observation (WMO) CMM Commission for Marine Meteorology (WMO) COSPAR Committee for Space Research (I CSU) ECMWF European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts ECOSOC Economic and Social Council (UN) ESA European Space Agency ESCAP Economic and Social Commi,sion for Asia and the Pacific (UN) FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations GARP Global Atmospheric Research Programme (WMO/ ICSU) GDPS WWW Global Data-processing System (WMO) GEMS Global Environmental Monitoring System (UNEP) GOS WWW Global Observing System (WMO) GTS WWW Global Telecommunication System (WMO) HOMS Hydrological Operational Multipurpose Sub-programme (WMO) IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency IAHS International Association of Hydrological Sciences (I UGG) IAMAP International Association of Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics (IUGG) IAPSO International Association of Physical Sciences of the Ocean (IUGG) lATA International Air Transport Association ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization ICES International Council for the Exploration of the Sea ICID International Commiss ion on Irrigation and Drainage ICSU International Council of Scientific Un ions IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development (UN) IGOSS Integrated Global Ocean Services System (WMO/IOC) IGU International Geographical Union (ICSU) IHP International Hydrological Programme (Unesco) IIASA International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis IMO International Maritime Organization IMO International Meteorological Organization (predecesso r of WMO) IOC Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (Unesco) ISO International Organization for Standardizati on ITU International Telecommunication Union IUGG International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (ICSU) JSC Joint Scientific Committee (WMOjiCSU) MAP Middle Atmosphere Programme (ICSU) NAOS North Atlantic Ocean Stations NMC National Meteorological Centre (WWW) OHP Operational Hydrology Programme (WMO) PEP Pr~cipitation Enhancement Project (WMO) RMC Regional Meteorological Centre (WWW) RTH Regional Telecommunication Hub (WWW) SCAR Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (ICSU) SCOPE Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (ICSU) SCOR Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (ICSU) SCOSTEP Special Committee on Solar-Terrestrial Physics (ICSU) TCP Tropical Cyclone Programme (WMO) UN United Nations UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNDRO Office of the United Nations Disaster Relief Co-ordinator UNEP United Nations Environment Programme Unesco United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization VCP Voluntary Co-operation Programme (WMO) WCAP WCP World Climate Applications Programme (WMO) WCDP WCP World Climate Data Programme (WMO) WCIP WCP World Climate Impact .Studies Programme (UNEP) WCP World Climate Programme (WMO) WCRP WCP World Climate Research Programme (WMO/ICSU) WFC World Food Council (UN) WHO World Health Organization WMC World Meteorological Centre (WWW) WMO World Meteorological Organization www World Weather Watch (WMO)