‘EQUALITY NOW!’: RACE, RACISM AND RESISTANCE IN 1970s TORONTO By Małgorzata Kieryło A thesis submitted to the Department of History in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Queen’s University Kingston, Ontario, Canada August 2012 Copyright © Małgorzata Kieryło, 2012 Abstract This thesis explores the recognition of institutional racism in Ontario. It examines discourses of institutional racism between the late 1960s and early 1980s and argues that the recognition of institutional racism at the provincial and national levels was facilitated by overt acts of racism in one of Canada’s most populous and diverse cities – Toronto. The targets of overt racism were new immigrants from decolonizing nations who utilized the discourse of rights in the context of an increase in racist incidents to press for state recognition of institutional racism. This rise in racially motivated violence concerned most Canadians as it went against Canadians’ self-perception as a raceless, tolerant and peaceful society. The recognition of structural racism was a gradual and contested process as municipal, provincial and federal government actors often denied its existence and deemed overt acts of racism aberrant. When racist acts did occur, state officials and media reports blamed the increased racial tensions on the personal prejudice of extremists. Activist groups composed of visible minorities and human rights activists were key in the formation of a counter-narrative that challenged this persistent denial of structural racism. These groups played a fundamental role in redefining the nature of racism in Canadian society. A central theme of this dissertation is that disintegrating race relations allowed for a redefinition of the Canadian state. It was the increase in racist incidents in 1970s Toronto that fostered a broad discussion on racism in Canada. This discussion emphasized that Canada’s people of colour experienced second-class citizenship because of structural inequalities which were rooted in Canadian institutions. Racial violence in 1970s Toronto was crucial in the recognition of institutional racism as racist incidents brought visible minorities into the public sphere and gave them an opportunity to identify the existence of systemic and institutional i racism in Canadian society. However, the recognition of institutional and systemic racism did not result in a deep transformation of the Canadian racial state as policy changes have not been successful in challenging structural inequality. ii Acknowledgements Various institutions, agencies and individuals provided financial assistance that made this project possible. Queen’s University provided a significant amount of support through graduate funding, and teaching assistant and teaching fellowship positions. Funding from the Women's Canadian Historical Society of Toronto, the R. Samuel McLaughlin Fellowship, and the Roger Graham Graduate Fellowship in Modern Canadian History also made this project possible. Throughout my years of study, I was influenced by great teachers and professors. My early mentors include Dan Ryan, Dr. Bessma Momani and Dr. James W. St. G. Walker. They all stimulated my interest in the history of racism and demonstrated to me that history had social importance. My sincere thanks go to my supervisor, Dr. Barrington Walker, for his encouragement and dedication to this project. His comments and suggestions forced me to refine my ideas and develop my arguments. I would also like to thank the other members of my dissertation committee: Dr. Jeffrey McNairn and Dr. Ian McKay for their helpful insights and suggestions throughout my years at Queen’s. Earlier versions of this work were presented at various conferences. In particular, I would like to thank the audience of the Canadian Ethnic Studies Association 2nd Annual Conference and scholars who attended a conference entitled ‘Engaging and Articulating ‘Race’: Historical Encounters with Race and Racialization’ at the University of Victoria in 2010. I am also grateful to my parents, Danuta and Józef, for instilling me with the values of hard-work and perseverance. To my partner, Richard, I owe the biggest debt of all. Thank you for being my most ardent supporter. iii Table of Contents Abstract ..……………………………………………………………………………………….....i Acknowledgements…...…………………………………………………………………………iii Table of Contents ……………………………………………………………………………….iv List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………………..v List of Abbreviations …………………………………………………………………………...vi Chapter One ‘Equality Now!’: Race, Racism and Resistance in 1970s Toronto……………………….1 Chapter Two Immigration, Changing Conceptualizations of ‘Race’ and Racism in Postwar Canada……………………………………………………………………………………53 Chapter Three In the Shadow of the Sir George Williams Affair: The Racial Order in 1960s Canada…………………………………………………………………………………..106 Chapter Four Multiculturalism and the Bureaucratization of Ethnic Politics, 1971-1974…................167 Chapter Five Race, Racism, and Resistance in 1970s Toronto..………….………………………………222 Chapter Six The State Response: A Recognition of Systemic Racism …..........................................307 Conclusion..................................................................................................................................344 Bibliography...............................................................................................................................373 Appendices.................................................................................................................................398 Appendix A: Operative Sections of the Hate Propaganda Bill, 1970 ………………………….399 Appendix B: Multicultural Programme – Budget 1974-1975………………………………….401 Appendix C: Multiculturalism Grants 1972-1973……………………………………………...402 Appendix D: Multiculturalism Grants - June 1973……………………………………………..405 Appendix E: Bilingualism Grants – 1973………………………………………………………406 Appendix F: An Act to revise and extend Protection of Human Rights in Ontario,1981……...407 iv List of Tables Table 1.1 Immigration Regulations, Units of Assessment According to P.C. 1967-1616....76 Table 1.2 Immigration to Canada by Country of Origin, 1946-1971………………………88 Table 1.3 Canada (Excluding Quebec). Birthplace of Immigrants, Percentage, Pre-1946 – 1971 …………………………………………………………………89 Table 1.4 Education Level of Immigrants to Canada, 1960-1980……………………….....91 Table 1.5 Canadian Immigration, 1962-1967. Professional and Technical Workers. Outflow from Developing Countries………………………………………….....91 Table 1.6 Percentage Distribution of Immigrants to Canada by Intended Province of Settlement, 1951-1973…………………………………………………………...96 Table 1.7 The Multiculturalism Bureaucracy …………………………………………….199 Table 1.8 The Multiculturalism Program – The Roles of Federal Cultural Institutions…..200 v List of Abbreviations CBC - Canadian Broadcasting Corporation CCF - Co-operative Commonwealth Federation CCLA - Canadian Civil Liberties Association CIRPA - Citizen's Independent Review of Police Activities CJC - Canadian Jewish Congress CRTC - Canadian Radio-Television and Telecommunications Commission KKK - Ku Klux Klan NBC - National Broadcasting Company NBCC - National Black Coalition of Canada NDP - New Democratic Party NFB – National Film Board OHRC - Ontario Human Rights Commission PC – Progressive Conservative RRPTF - Race Relations and Policing Task Force TTC - Toronto Transit Commission UARR - Urban Alliance on Race Relations UN – United Nations vi Chapter One: ‘Equality Now!’: Race, Racism and Resistance in 1970s Toronto In January 1977, an American television program ran a story on race relations in Toronto. The NBC-TV News’ “Weekend” edition presented a twenty-minute assessment of incidents of overt violence against ethnic minorities and concluded that the metropolitan city was “a time bomb of racial tension.”1 The show’s commentator blamed racial tensions in Toronto on the increased immigration of people who were visibly different from “Toronto’s WASP residents.” To demonstrate the growing racial tensions in the city, the show featured the Western Guard, a White supremacist group that claimed 300 to 500 followers in Toronto and also showed uncensored footage of immigration officials detaining illegal immigrants.2 The program also featured an interview with a Black youngster who described being beaten and taunted because of his colour. At the end of the interview, the Black boy lamented that he wished he was White.3 The commentator, however, assured his two million viewers that all would be well because Canadians would “overcome this sort of thing.” Torontonians, including the city’s mayor David Crombie, reacted with great disdain at these accusations and argued that the report was “an example of the most irresponsible kind of journalism.”4 With a sly grin, the mayor blamed the airing of the program on American networks who were upset over the blocking of U.S. commercials by the Canadian Radio-Television and Telecommunications Commission. The program also received criticism from the federal government because it attacked Canada’s most multicultural and diverse city. Canada’s Federal Immigration Minister Bud Cullen commented on the “irresponsible” program and argued that it was contrived and aired by “a group which is 1 “TV shows claims racial strife eroding Toronto,” Toronto Star, January 1, 1977. 2 “Black editor criticizes NBC view of Toronto racism,” Globe and Mail, January 3, 1977. 3 TV shows claims racial strife eroding Toronto,” Toronto Star, January 1, 1977.