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Limitations and Opportunities of Social Capital for Adaptation to Climate Change: a Case Study on the Isles of Scilly

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Limitations and Opportunities of Social Capital for Adaptation to Climate Change: a Case Study on the Isles of Scilly The Geographical Journal, Vol. 182, No. 2, June 2016, pp. 123–134, doi: 10.1111/geoj.12154 Limitations and opportunities of social capital for adaptation to climate change: a case study on the Isles of Scilly JAN PETZOLD Institute of Geography, University of Hamburg, Bundesstraße 55, Geomatikum, 20146 Hamburg, Germany E-mail: [email protected] This paper was accepted for publication in June 2015 Small islands are among regions most affected by the impacts of global climate change. They are regarded as particularly vulnerable, but from a different point of view, island societies also feature a particular sociocultural resilience, which distinguishes them from continental societies. How do social structures increase the adaptive capacity of small islands towards sea-level rise? I consider the concept of social capital as applicable in order to understand the role of communities and collective action in a context of vulnerability and resilience. In this paper, I present results from a case study on the Isles of Scilly, UK. A mixed methods qualitative approach has been applied to analyse the various roles of social capital for the adaptation to climate change impacts on this small archipelago, which is representative of European small islands in an economically advanced, but isolated context. The Isles of Scilly are among the most vulnerable island regions in Europe. The results of the research contribute to the general discussion on social capital and the relevance of collective action for the adaptation to global climate change. How useful is the concept? And how relevant is it for small islands, such as the Isles of Scilly? KEY WORDS: small islands, climate change adaptation, qualitative methods, social capital, resilience, sea-level rise Adaptation here refers to ‘[t]he process of Introduction adjustment to actual or expected climate and its ccording to the latest IPCC report it is ‘virtually effects’ (Noble et al. 2014, 838), and is associated certain’ that global mean sea-level rise will with technological and socio-political measures (cf. A continue ‘for centuries to millennia’ (Stocker Nunn 2009). Large-scale sea defences cannot easily et al. 2013, 100) – however efficiently mitigation be implemented in isolated and small island regions. targets will be pursued. Sea-level rise due to thermal The financial and physical resources required are expansion is a linear process, in contrast to sea-level not readily available, nor is such infrastructure rise due to melting ice sheets (Pilkey and Young 2009, sustainable, because large structural sea defences 65). Nonetheless, ‘regional sea level changes may often cause further problems, e.g. erosion, which differ substantially from a global average’ (Church have to be dealt with in the future (cf. Kundzewicz et al. 2013, 1191). An observed global mean sea-level 2002). It is a great challenge for island societies rise of 20 cm during the last century has already led to and decision-makers to find socially, ecologically, coastal land loss on many islands (cf. Forbes et al. and financially sustainable solutions to deal with 2013); other impacts in coastal zones are the changes to their coastal habitats. Effective planning increased frequency and intensity of storm surges, and implementation in such a setting depends on increased salt water intrusion, flooding of freshwater inclusion of community resources: local knowledge, wetlands and valuable agricultural zones (Walker and skills, and the integration of collective action for local Bellingham 2011, 298). A projected global mean sea- adaptation, as well as the acceptance and support of level rise1 of 1 m or more by the end of the century communities for decision-making (Jones and Clark will require effective adaptation in the most 2013; Mercer et al. 2012). vulnerable areas – coastal zones and small islands In this context, the study of small islands is (Nurse et al. 2014). important due to their specific geographic factors, and The information, practices and views in this article are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the opinion of the Royal Geographical Society (with IBG). © 2015 Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers). 124 Social capital for climate change: a case study on the Isles of Scilly features of their vulnerability (Moro et al. 2005). But SIDS are extremely reliant on external assistance; islands may also feature a specific social-ecological dependent island territories rely on funding from resilience (cf. Baldacchino 2005; Barnett and Adger national governments, which is often not available for 2003; Campbell 2009). In this paper I focus on social peripheral regions, or is instead invested in projects capital – communities’ cohesiveness and capacity for that generate revenue (Nunn 2009, 219). Limited collective action – as a critical factor for climate human resources and ‘. limited capacity to spatially change adaptation on small islands. The focus here segregate activities produces tight feedback loops lies not only on institutions and planning, but also on between any environmental stressor and its impact’ levels of trust, cooperation, and collective action (Kerr 2005, 508). The ‘greatest potential threat’ (Byrne schemes (cf. Young et al. 2014). Research on social and Inniss 2002, 10) to small islands, though, is global capital and the adaptation to climate change often climate change. focuses on Small Island Development States (SIDS), From a historical point of view, Campbell (2009) mostly in the Pacific (Barnett and Campbell 2010; Hay suggests focusing on the resilience rather than the 2003 2013; Kelman 2010). But there is little research vulnerability of islands, because ‘. vulnerability was about the role of social capital for dependent small not a particularly marked characteristic of island island territories in the Western and European societies and communities . On the contrary they periphery (cf. Young et al. 2014). were resilient’ (Campbell 2009, 94). Social resilience This paper is based on research conducted on the describes the potential of social systems to deal with Isles of Scilly, a group of five inhabited small islands, upcoming challenges (cf. Adger 2000, 347; Marshall which are highly exposed to storm surges and et al. 2009, 5). What then shapes an island’s vulnerable to sea-level rise – hazards that are resilience, especially in the context of climate expected to increase with future climate change. Due change? Islanders have developed ways to deal with a to their geologic history and vulnerability towards limited base of resources for centuries and with rare or further sea-level rise, the islands have been described unreliable contact to other world regions (Kerr 2005, as a ‘drowned landscape’ (Thomas 1985), and the 504). The experience of life in a constrained and ‘Maldives of the Atlantic’ (Anon 2009). The islands’ sensitive environment allowed for the development of smallness and peripheral setting, on the one hand, traditional and specifically local adaptation strategies. make them dependent on external assistance, Turner et al. (1996, 170) point out that some especially in terms of financial resources for large- traditional island societies have developed more scale projects. On the other hand, the islands depend effective networks for emergency response than on their own capacity to solve problems (cf. Grydehøj official programs in western countries. And Rainbird 2013). I consider the Isles of Scilly as representative of (2007, 173) observes a ‘distinct community identity a small dependent island territory that is vulnerable to located historically on sea and land’. the projected impacts from global climate change, but, in contrast to the discussion on SIDS (cf. Hay Social capital 2013), set in an economically advanced context. By means of qualitative interviews, participant Social capital theory observation, and literature review, I analyse the potential and limitations of social capital in its Social capital is a concept that is applied across the different dimensions for climate change adaptation on range of foci in social sciences. Originating in the Isles of Scilly. sociology with a focus on the individual – social capital as a resource that is beneficial for one’s individual status within society (Bourdieu 1983; Small island vulnerability Coleman 1988) – the concept has found large interest Small islands are often considered as particularly among scholars dealing with economics, institutions, sensitive and vulnerable places, summarised, amongst and regional development discrepancies since the others, in the concept of the ‘isola effect’ (Moro et al. work of the political scientist Robert Putnam (2000; 2005). Kerr (2005) distinguishes issues of location Putnam et al. 1993). He analysed social capital from a and scale. Issues of location include expensive and collectivist point of view and defines it as ‘. features unreliable transport (Brookfield 1990, 25), and of social organization, such as trust, norms, and physical vulnerability to environmental changes. networks, that can improve the efficiency of society by Issues of scale refer especially to economic and facilitating coordinated actions’ (Putnam et al. 1993, structural features. Limited economies of scale and a 167). narrow range of exports lead to low diversification Adger (2003, 392) distinguishes between bonding and high dependency on one economic sector and networking social capital. Bonding social capital (McElroy 2002, 49). This makes islands vulnerable to includes friends and
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