Balochistan Review Volume 45 2020

Review Volume 45 No. 1, 2020

Recognized by Higher Education Commission of Pakistan

Editor: Abdul Qadir Mengal

BALOCHISTAN STUDY CENTREUNIVERSITY OF BALOCHISTAN, QUETTA-PAKISTAN

Bi-Annual Research Journal “Balochistan Review” ISSN: 1810-2174 Publication of: Balochistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan, Quetta-Pakistan.

@ Balochistan Study Centre 2020-1

Subscription rate in Pakistan: Institutions: Rs. 500/- Individuals: Rs. 500/-

For the other countries: Institutions: US$ 15 Individuals: US$ 15

For further information please Contact:

Abdul Qadir Mengal Assistant Professor & Editor Balochistan Review Balochistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan, Quetta-Pakistan. Tel: (92) (081) 9211255 Facsimile: (92) (081) 9211255 E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.uob.edu.pk/journals/bsc.htm

No responsibility for the views expressed by authors and reviewers in Balochistan Review is assumed by the Editor, Assistant Editor, and the Publisher.

iii

Editorial Board

Patron in Chief: Prof. Dr. Muhammad Anwar Panezi Vice Chancellor, University of Balochistan, Quetta-Pakistan. Patron Prof. Dr. Abdul Haleem Sadiq Director, Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta-Pakistan. Editor Abdul Qadir Mengal Asstt Professor, International Realation Department, UoB, Quetta-Pakistan. Assistant Editor Khalid raza Librarian, Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta-Pakistan. Members: Prof. Dr. Andriano V. Rossi Vice Chancellor & Head Dept of Asian Studies, Institute of Oriental Studies, Naples, Italy. Prof. Dr. Saad Abudeyha Chairman, Dept. of Political Science, University of Jordon, Amman, Jordon. Prof. Dr. Bertrand Bellon Professor of Int’l, Industrial Organization & Technology Policy, University de Paris Sud, France. Dr. Carina Jahani Inst. of Iranian & African Studies, Uppsala University, Sweden. Prof. Dr. Muhammad Ashraf Khan Director, Taxila Institute of Asian Civilizations, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad, Pakistan. Mr. Ayub Baloch Member, Balochistan Public Service Commission, Quetta. Prof. Dr. Mehmood Ali Shah Professor Emeritus, University of Balochistan, Quetta.

Guidelines/Parameters for Contributors:

Following are the Guidelines/Parameters for the scholars/researchers contributing articles to the bi-annual research journal of BSC “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW ISSN: 1810-2174”.

The title should appear at the middle position of the first page The brief title (5 to 7 words) with author’s name also appearing in the top- left header position in the rest of the pages (running head). All authors’ full name and affiliations should also be explicit on the first page with the corresponding author’s postal and email addresses. The article should comprise an abstract, introduction (including review literature and rationale), results, discussion (including limitations and suggestions), and the references. The abstract should be of about 150-170 words. The article should be of maximum 4000 words in New Times Roman, font 12 with 1 line Spacing. Main heading should be bold with italic subheadings. Tables and figures should be in a separate file, in a ready to print form with sources given below the tables. All statistical symbols present in the article should be italic. References should be in author/date style throughout the text in the APA format. The article should be in composed form Authors are entitled to five free off-prints and a copy of the issue in which their article is published. The articles should accompany a soft copy as well; to be sent through email preferably in MS word file format. Articles must focus on latest researches made in different fields/areas i.e. arts and crafts, architecture, archaeology, literature, language, economy, management, heritage and culture, politics, media, history etc. relevant to Balochistan. Any queries regarding the publication or acceptance of the article can be sought at the given address: Editor “Balochistan Review” Balochistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan, Quetta-Pakistan [email protected]

Bi-Annual Research Journal “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. 45 NO. 1, 2020

Contents Page No Education & Humanities

Pedagogic Practices and Perspectives in Teaching Competencies and Standards: Possibilities in Professional Parameters Dr. Sadia Suleman Khan, Prof. Dr. Muhammad Yousuf Sharjeel Dr. Abdul Nasir Kiazai 1

Gender Diversity and Participation in Economic Development: A case study of Jaffarabad Balochistan Dr Abdullah Dostain, Dr Shahida Habib Aliza, 20

RELATIONSHIP OF CORPORAL PUNISHMENT AND STUDENT’S BEHAVIOR IN PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS LEVEL AT QUETTA, Balochistan Muhammad Farooq Nichari Dr Noor Ahmed Rodeni Abdul Qadoos Kakar 31

The Bugti and Marri resistance against British Raj 1839-1919 Wali Muhammad Bugti, Prof. Dr. Saeeda Mengal Prof. Dr. Muhammad Zia ud din 39

ENHANCING THE LIVESTOCK PRODUCTIVITY IN BALOCHISTAN Dr Shahab -UD- Din, Dr Abdullah Dostain, Dr Ghazala Umer Baghal 47

Literature and Languages

Revisiting Dicken’s Great Expectations through Psychoanalytic Approach: A Freudian Analysis Mobina Jahan, Dr. Saman Salah, 55

DEPICTING MAGICAL REALISM IN MORRISON’S THE BLUEST EYE AND BELOVEDTHROUGH THE LENS OF POSTMODERNISM Nagina Tanveer, Saima Manzoor, Dr Liaquat Sani, Zainab Akram 66

Media and Journalism

Effect of Advertsing Appeal on Consumer Behaviour Imran Khan, Muhammad Fahim Baloch, 77

Management Sciences

Economic Analysis of Red Meat Consumption Pattern in Quetta, Balochistan Gender Based Study Dr Shahida Habib Alizai , Dr Ghazala Umer Bagahl & Dr Shahab -UD- Din 93

Evolution of Strategic Leadership Practices and its Impact on Organizational Performance in Pakistan’s SMEs Dr. Saud Taj, Bilal Zulfiqar, Ashraf Nasir 102

Impact Analysis of Organizational Stress on the Job Performance of Women Faculty Members Among Public Sector Universities in Quetta Neha Maryam & Dr. Uzma Mukhtar, Dr Saud Taj 144

Impact of Corporate Social Responsibility on Consumers’ Loyalty & Organizational Financial Performance with Special Reference to Telecommunication Sector Abdul Qadeer, Sana-ur-Rehman 157

Globalisation and Inflation: Evidence from Disaggregated Inflation Data Kaneez Fatima, Jameel Ahmed 178

Social Sciences An Assessment of Organizational Preparedness for Natural Disasters in Balochistan Maqbool Ahmed Butt, Syed Ainuddin & Jamal-ud-din 202

vii

CPEC and Tourism in Balochistan Dr. Hussan Ara Magsi, Dr. Adil Zaman Kasi, Dr Zainab Bibi & Dr. Mumtaz Ali Baloch 215

Party Democracy in the Light of Party Statutes: A Case Study of Two Parties in Pakistan Fazli Subhan, 223

Persistent drought spells since 1997 and its socio-economic impacts on small holder farmers in lower highlands of Balochistan, Pakistan Mohammad Yousuf 241

Socio-economic Factors of delinquent behaviour among juveniles in Baluchistan, Pakistan Manzoor Ahmed, Mohammad Yousuf Barech, Dr. Ghulam Farooq, 263

Perception of youth regarding honour killing in Balochistan, a case study of Quetta city Muhammad Din, Allauddin, Azeem Khalid, Dr Nasreen Gul 276

Allegations of Rigging in General Election-2018 in Pakistan Syed Nazir Ahmed Harifal, Shaukat Tareen, Wahid Khan 288

PASHTUNWALI AS GEOSTRATEGIC CHALLENGE IN PAK-AFGHAN RELATION Dr. Fida Bazai, Ms Ruqia Rehman, Mujeeb ur- Rehman, Abdul Qadir 299

Bi-Annual Research Journal “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Cen tre, University of Balochistan, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL.45 NO. 1, 2020

Pedagogic Practices and Perspectives in Teaching Competencies and Standards: Possibilities in Professional Parameters

Dr. Sadia Suleman Khan Assistant Professor, Education Department Sardar Bahadur Khan Women University Quetta.

Prof. Dr. Muhammad Yousuf Sharjeel Professor Hamdard University Karachi. [email protected]

Dr. Abdul Nasir Kiazai Assistant Professor, Institute of Education and Research, University of Balochistan, Quetta.

Abstract

The investigation was performed to assess professional teachers’ teaching competencies of teacher educators for professional standards in Pakistan. The core competencies evaluated were professional knowledge, instructional planning and strategies, assessment, use of ICT, and learning environment. (Adegbile & Adeyemi (2008). The study took place in the context of Balochistan Province. The study participants were teacher educators and prospective teachers from various degree awarding institutions of in Quetta. A mixed method approach was used for the study. The study found out that there was no significant difference between the mean scores of male and female and married and unmarried teacher educators regarding understanding and practices of the professional standards. Similarly, no significant different was found between the mean score of the educators based on age, degree, institution, trainings attended, and experience. However, there was significant difference in the mean

2 score of prospective teachers (students) regarding the competency levels of their teachers. Additionally, the qualitative analysis revealed the educators have only working knowledge on the professional standards and some of the standards are being used in their teachings only covertly.

Key words: Teacher, Competencies, Standards, Teacher Educator, Prospective Teacher 1. Introduction Teacher lies at the heart of all educational activities. This assertion gives teachers a central part in bringing around educational change and development. However, the current face of affairs, regarding teachers’ competencies in playing their due role, seems contrary to the desired. Although the authorities have been feeling the extra-ordinary role of teachers, their response has been meager and half-hearted. The objective approach brought them to create professional standards for teachers, urging them to capacitate themselves so they can interact with students in a prepared manner. These professional standards necessitated teachers to enhance their teaching competencies holistically – by having expertise in pedagogy, knowledge of the subject matter, assessment techniques, skills in instructional planning and strategies, communication and ICT skills, and creating conducive learning environment for students. Competence is an all-encompassing term, covering a cluster of knowledge, skills, and attitude, observed in a real performance context. As regard to teaching competencies, the requirements become more intense. How to bring teaching profession to a level that contribute to the holistic growth of students seems a challenging scenario. Setting professional standards for teachers in Pakistan is an episode to respond to the challenge at hand. This study focused to evaluate the current competency understanding and practices of teacher educators in Balochistan province. Though there are no separate professional standards for teacher educators, the professional standards set for teachers are deemed to fulfill the need in some ways. It is generally assumed that teacher educators working in teacher training institutes understand teaching competencies and professional standards for teachers because they are enshrined with task to

3 prepare future teachers. Therefore, it has to be made sure through organized investigation the way they understand, portray, and demonstrate the required teaching competencies. The same exercise must be done with the prospective teachers to ensure they are prepared for classroom practices. Furthermore, as students at teacher education institutions, how do these prospective teachers view and visualize the competencies of teacher educators. There has been an array of research studies focusing to investigate what types of competencies really educators need. At the initial level, these competencies have been classed and bifurcated into hard and soft ones. (Agarwal 2006). According to Akber et.al (2013), the analytical and organizational competencies are considered as hard competencies whereas creativity, interpersonal, and behavioral skills are soft competencies. The soft and hard competencies both are indeed essential for effective work performance. Soft competencies, in fact, control and determine dispositions of observable behavior and performance. However, this concept of classification is often criticized claiming differentiation between hard and soft competencies is always difficult to understand and establish conceptual and practical significance (Anangisye, 2010). Despite the criticisms, the scheme of classification of competencies into soft and hard skills is still popular and in practice. These competencies are often theoretical, conceptual, and observable. (Anugerahwati & Saukah 2010). 1.1Teaching Competencies and Characteristics What separates effective teachers from ineffective ones, and how can this information be used to support better teaching? We can now begin to build a profile of exemplary classroom instruction derived from effectiveness research (Wenglinsky, 2002; Hattie, 2009). An examination of the research on education practices that make a difference shows that four classes of competencies yield the greatest results. 1. Instructional delivery 2. Classroom management 3. Formative assessment 4. Personal competencies (soft skills)

Further, the research indicates that these competencies can be used to organize numerous specific skills and knowledge available for building effective teacher development. Following are the characteristics of the competencies, • A competency consists of one or more skills whose mastery would enable the attainment of the competency. • A competency is linked to all three of the domains under which performance can be assessed: knowledge, skills and attitude. • Possessing a performance dimension, competencies are observable and demonstrable. • Since competencies are observable, they are also measurable. Archer & Hughes (2011). Therefore, every society for its education system has been framing policies and setting standards for teachers as professional education educators to contribute in the change processes. The first perspective can be associated with the skills-based approach in the UK or the US, which has often been criticised. Scholars question the rationale for standards, focused on individual teachers’ performance, rather than on holistic professional development (Arokiadoss 2005); in the US, the so-called ‘standard stampede’ would thus drain life from education, through an inordinate and excessive preoccupation with technical standards (Bhargava, & Pathy, 2011).). In the UK, experts point out that standards seem to have been recruited to underline content and marginalise matters linked with values, attitudes and personal qualities (Bhargava & Pathy, 2011).

1.2 National Professional Standards for Teachers in Pakistan A professional standard describes what knowledge and skills are expected from teacher to accomplish a stipulated task (Jaimini, 2014). In 2009, the Policy and Planning Wing Ministry of Education (MoE) in collaboration with the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) developed ten national professional standards for Pakistani teachers. These standards were set on different parameters to achieve specific expectations. Each standard is divided into three parts – knowledge, skills and attitude. Teacher needs to have sound subject based

5 pedagogical knowledge and its effective delivery, (Sheeja & Annaraja, 2011) for effective practice in multicultural environment. Thus, cultural responsiveness becomes imperative for teachers and teacher educators to create conducive learning environment. Teachers need to think critically about their attitude and practices in order to obtain best possible results. In the presence of the agreed upon set of professional standards, the educators can track their performance and enhance their teaching skills. Some of the professional standards framed for teachers in Pakistan are discussed as follows:

Subject Matter Knowledge: This standard requires understanding of national framework for curriculum, in depth knowledge of basic and new emerging concepts, domains, theories and its relationship with other subjects, history of a subject and latest trends at national and international level. The disposition includes helping students to develop self-confidence, subject matter competencies, use of appropriate tools for inquiry and its application from practical life.

Instructional Planning and Strategies: This standard includes the capabilities of planning instruction, formulation of objectives, selection of appropriate resources and material, strategies based on student’s prior knowledge, need and development, out of school activities and classroom management. The disposition includes development of critical thinking, problem solving, team work and pedagogy of care. Performance and skills include interdisciplinary learning experiences, formal and informal method of assessment and lessen planning.

Assessment: This standard includes multiple learning strategies, type of assessment, measurement theories, and results of assessment to evaluate teaching learning process. Disposition demands constructive feedback, fair objective assessment and reporting of the student performance. Skills include use of teacher made test, continual internal evaluation, formal and informal assessment and self-assessment activities.

Learning Environment: This standard includes respectable, safe and supportive learning classroom environment that promote positive relation, interdependence, behavior and commitment to learn. It also describes democratic values and ethical climate of learning in the school as a whole. Skills include management of classroom and time, decision making and maintenance of competitive behavior.

Effective Use of Information and Communication Technologies: This standard focus on knowledge of different communication techniques (written, verbal and nonverbal), use of computer programs for instruction, classroom activities, research and evaluation. Deposition includes appreciation of cultural dimension of communication, responsive and thoughtful listening. Activities for performance are clear communication, reading and writing in local, Urdu and English, questioning techniques to stimulate students thinking, accurate reporting of facts, beliefs and opinion, development of portfolios, assignment, test items and assessment through computer. In a crux, teacher educators’ current level of competencies needs to be gauged in response to the professional standards set forth. There is lack of evidence whether the teachers and teacher educators keep abreast with the required teaching competencies and professional standards. Do they practice some of the levels of competencies they deem supportive? Do they need improvement in the set standards? These are some of the queries that need to be investigated. (Chawla, 2011).

2. Literature Review An evolved type of competence introduced was given in occupational competency movement which was more elaborated then the traditional key points and characteristics of skills knowledge and qualities. The settling of competencies into several groups and types depending on their similarities and some authentic reasoning is known as classification of competencies. This division increases the practical and theoretical comprehension and importance of these competencies. (Koksal, 2013). There is a number of ways through which competencies can be classified. Two possible ways to divide them in sections is to classify them

7 on the basis of their previous theories and numerical data. Researchers gave many links that might exist in competencies apart from the core differences. Those links can be antagonistic, compensatory, alternative, complimentary and interactive in nature. (Das & Kaur 2014).

Main standards on which competencies are classified is the base theories, logical proves and reasoning. Certain reasons and ways for the classification of competencies are found in the literature. Most abundantly used classification types are further discussed. (Dagiene, 2013). In perspective of the author competencies related to interpersonal level, creative level and behavior are initial competencies whereas competencies relative to organizational and analytical level are crucial competencies. Both initial and crucial competencies are equally important for the effective professional performance. Initial competencies manipulate and regulate the shifting of obvious behavior in certain situations. (Koksal, 2013). First difference given between entry level and professional competencies was in 1982. According to him “entry-level” competencies were the basic and fundamental competencies which were rendered as the minimum level of requirement whereas the “professional competencies” were known as the mandatory skills and knowledge and whole competencies that discriminate among normal and exceptional performers. This division as “Entry-level and Professional classification” faced criticism from Woodruffe (2003, 1993) who argued that it is the issue of degree instead of category that can inclined from one end to other and vice versa. Most favorite of all times division is the Hierarchy-based Classification, which is organized and designed on the base of three levels of management, highly favorable for managers. Apart from the basic hierarchal division certain researchers and scholars are also interested in the categorization of these levels in generic form. Further in this context, gave the generic based management competencies that were called as “Supra Competencies”. The second competence aspect deals with the subject specific and functional job knowledge that is mandatory for functional objectives. It can

8 also be comprehended as skills and theoretical knowledge mainly targeting trainings in education related institutions. In nutshell the technical skills consist on knowledge and education of processes, methodological knowledge and certain technique structured and designed precisely to carry out special tasks and activities in addition to the ability of using machines and tools to complete those tasks. Nevertheless, the scope and application competencies according to the nature of the task specification which is defined as “a level to which competencies are related to for the execution of broader or narrow range of tasks varying from low to high task specificity.” The second category is “generic management competencies” that includes the competencies of jobs related to management and are required in all sorts of managerial official jobs, irrespective of industry, function of job, hierarchy and nature of the business. These can also be related as a non-industry and non-firm specific competences which includes skills & knowledge with respect to all the managers for all kind of jobs and the industry they work in. According to studies, the ability of resolving problems of an individual depends on his effective ability that includes analytical capacity, creativity, systematic thinking and cognitive thinking. Experts define process of thinking as “a systematic manipulation of information, building of concepts and way of searching for reasons and solving the problems so cognitive thinking skills set the framework for solving work-based issues. Meta-competencies are relatively more related to one’s particular personality traits and characteristics in a way that such cognitive abilities are basically determined wholly by the family traits that are inherited and the further brought-up. This last competencies’ class can be comprehended as underlying personality characteristics & traits of managers that are the content of psychology. This class is distinct from rest of the classes in this context that all these are core traits, values & motives, intents & images of managers. Such individual attributes describe one’s specific personality. These personality traits as underlying values also explain how individual behaves or reacts on given situation. Therefore, it is a significant variable in the determination of human demeanor. These traits are hard to count objectively.

These individually personal traits or motivational traits include one’s achievement orientation, ambitiousness, confidence, honesty and integrity with assertiveness and patience. These traits describe the way a manager reacts or behaves in a situation and how he approaches and view a certain issue. So, these personality and individual variables have significant implications and effects on a manager’s skills, behavior and ultimately his performance. In nutshell, these traits are one of the stable parts of one’s personality and competency required for the significantly better performance in job and also influences the capabilities and behaviors of managers in different areas as well. Competence in this category portrays the constant traits that cannot be changed easily. Also, this cannot be developed or learned formally. Therefore, very significant attention must be given in testing of all these traits while recruiting, making workplace decisions and promotions. Specific set of abilities and knowledge that makes a teacher successful are the teacher competencies. To improve the abilities of pupil, diverse and broad range of qualities are required from the teachers especially in difficult situations where certain types of decisions are taken daily. Some of the jobs require the ability of precise judgement and the practice of competencies including the domain of teaching. We all have seen the super power of a teacher to transform the whole life and personality of a student. Also there is an obvious relationship of teaching and the accomplishments of students. Many researchers have worked on this hypothesis and proved it to be true. They also gave the conclusion that among a number of factors affecting a child’s performance teachers are most influential. Now we can also form a profile of ideal classrooms through our researches on certain questions including; what are the main differences in perfect teachers and imperfect one? And how the acknowledgement of these differences can be used to develop better teaching skills? Experimentations done under a research work on educational ways that are effective gave these types of competencies that produce the best outcomes. The expected outcomes of better learning are given by many researches from the teachers using explanatory techniques and strategies.

Effective learning is the result of versatile setting, when the teacher welcomes more questions and open instructions are given instead of the block pet content related instructions and pace is used. Following are the clear benchmarks of ideal methods for teachers (Archer & Hughes, 2011; Knight, 2012). 1. Instructor/ teacher decide the instructions domain. 2. Teacher draws the success rate borders. 3. Instructor/Teacher guides the students about the guideline apart from the lesson. 4. A proper model of successive use of skills and knowledge is shown to students for better understanding. 5. Pre-evaluation of students’ ability to learn by the teacher. 6. In problematic situations specific remedies to acquire skills and knowledges provided by teacher. 7. A proper conclusion of the lesson is given by the teacher. One of the major aspects in the analysis of the students’ learning is the evaluation methods. This factor is even more important than the subject content and other standards of education. Evaluation is not merely for giving and marking students for grades and giving them degrees but also they are super essential for the determined focus of students and to instigate the study drive in them. Six core functions of evaluation are given by Gibbs (2003): • Attentiveness and time of student. • Proper learning activities for students • The proper and effective feedback on time for students’ self- analysis. • The impression of equality and discipline on students. • Assessment through grading. • The idea of broader horizon of knowledge encompassing both the course and subject materials apart from course. In last few years some benchmark standards of education systems are introduced in United Kingdom. One of them implemented in Scotland is the “Chartered teacher Programme”. It also includes the professional scheme marked on the standards of designed standard for higher education

11 teachers for the selection of Associates (seniors) in the Academy of Higher Education. Such strategies are attainable and go smoothly with the state policies for the development of education system and by pressuring the people for better performance. Though these evaluation processes are to strengthen the professionals but they sometimes take it as external stimuli for their probing and analysis. This is the very reason that they are sensitive about these standards and systems. The issue with these is that apart from the development and betterment they also cause some fragmentation. It is being discussed that the clash and conflict arising on the fundamentals of teaching standards are based on the mixed sentiments regarding the concept. Mostly between the two categories of layman and professionals who dee the concept regarding results and betterment respectively in regard to the contradiction in the particular circumstances. In this perception the professional standards of teaching are considered helpful and prolific for the diverse education so they also become a benchmark for the quality of teaching and teacher’s capabilities. If designed precisely the standards must have the core aim of focusing on the students’ learning, scale of teaching competence, analysis methods, collective evaluation and profound performance. These standards can prove to be a useful tool for the betterment of quality, professionalism and trainings. But there must be defined lined between the cruxes of generic standards and specified ones. When defined distinctively the generic standards deal with the common perceptions whereas the specified or operationalized ones are linked with the judgmental ability. Some arguments also describe that:

• The core control is developed by these standards over the session of training or practice, which makes the authenticity of the profession stronger. • The expectations on the shoulders on teachers developed by these standards to go in accordance with the set rules makes the classroom activity as unique and creative which is suitable to some but not all.

• For the evaluation, accountability and analysis of teachers’ performance standards and competencies provide the enormous fundamentals and scales along with the tools for further learning. • The evaluation methods and system formed under these standards and competencies flourishes the learning process of teachers as well only if they let them assist the team in their personal inquiries (Darling-Hammond, 2000). The critiques on the system of these standards relate to the conflict that these standards should focus basically on the neutralized learning of teachers, rendering their own perspectives as well. But this perception can lead to a common and not-so-strong bond between teachers and students regarding their performance and results, also neglecting the base content issues. Some other critiques debate that: • These standards are producing robotic fragmented results on teacher’s part and are demolishing the uniqueness of personalities. • They stress more on the numerical behaviors and results instead of the individual qualities & pressure controlling abilities. • Gives more weightage to the perspectives of those who made the standards and not of the distinctive teachers’ perceptions on things. • Neglect the mutual behavior of teaching competencies. • According to the instrumentalist approach these standards lead to the situation where teachers’ abilities work and methods are defragmented and redesigned to make them just the basic instructors and assessment taker.

The standards system is explained as a redesigning of the old perceptions and rules of teaching along with the researches’ results and better performance. These also give birth to the risk of anti-professionalism attitude and deconstruction of roles of teachers. The results from the apprehensive research on teachers have illuminated the world with the idea of reviving the knowledge of one’s self as a teacher according to the latest need for context.. This in the long run is expected to negatively affect the

13 teachers’ response towards the needs of students. So some staunch objections are seen in regards to the setting of these standards as the benchmark for the assessment of teachers’ performance.

3. Research Methodology 3.1 Research Design

Research design refers to as the plan or proposal to conduct research. It involves the interaction of philosophy, strategies of inquiry, and specific method. The philosophical ideas in research always need to be identified because they influence the practices of a researcher. These philosophical ideas are termed as world view, paradigms; epistemologies’ and ontology or broadly conceived research methodologies by different researchers.

The philosophical paradigm behind the current study “Assessing the teaching competencies of teacher educators with special reference to national professional standards for teachers in Baluchistan” was pragmatic. The nature of this study was exploratory as well as descriptive. The combinations of qualitative and quantitative techniques were applied in whole research study commonly known as mixed method approach. The rationale behind taking the mixed method approach is to use the best opportunity to achieve the purpose of the study and address the planned research questions.

Mixed methods research is one of the three paradigms of social research where the other two paradigms – qualitative and quantitative are put together to increase trust in the results of the research. Mixed method approach offers methodological pluralism. It is an eclectic approach that makes it superior research in comparison to single method research. It combines methodological choices of both qualitative and quantitative approaches to provide more rigor to the research endeavor. To produce the desirable results, both the approaches within mixed methods approach should have an equal status and they should interact with each other. We can infer here that both qualitative and quantitative approaches should have equal representation and power towards balanced and reliable results. All the three approaches support in advancing social justice agenda,

14 particularly mixed methods approach. Mixed methods approach provides a platform to undertake social research studies that expand the horizons of social justice.

3.2 Strategy

The study was carried out using mixed method as a research approach. A structured survey questionnaire was developed to meet the purpose. The questionnaire was developed based on a five-point Likert scale. The survey was administered to illicit the required data from the study participants. Five out of ten professional standards were selected for analysis to gauge teaching competencies of the educators. These standards included: subject matter knowledge, instructional planning and strategies, assessment, effective communication and use of ICT and learning environment. Semi structure interview of teacher educators was conducted in order to address the proposed research questions.

3.3 Population

The population of the study consisted of those teacher educators who were teaching the course of Associate Degree in Education (ADE) at teacher training institutions in Balochistan. Additionally, students enrolled in the ADE program were also part of the study population.

3.4 Sampling Techniques

Only those teacher educators and students were the sample of this research study who was involved in ADE program of studies at 16 elementary colleges and 6 universities across Balochistan. For the purpose of sampling the researcher applied multistage sampling techniques. Initially stratified sampling technique was used in order to select sample institutions. Total 8 teacher training institutions and three universities from two different strata were selected on the basis of equal wattage. In the following stage, 20 students from each sampled institution (N = 220) were sampled applying simple random sampling technique. Whereas,55 teacher educators were also sampled based on the technique of simple random sampling. Finally, 10 teacher educators were selected from the same

15 sample (one from each institute) were selected through convenient sampling technique. These teachers were the part of survey and interview.

3.5 Research Instrument

A survey form was developed and administered to describe the demographic information of the study participants. Based on the analysis of the national professional standards, a survey questionnaire was developed to gauge expected difficulties of the participants. This survey was prepared to analyze teaching competencies of the educators. The survey questionnaire was used to collect the general opinion of teacher educators and students about teaching competencies based on national standards. The survey questionnaire was divided into two parts; first part was based on demographic profile. The second part of questionnaire was designed to identify five different competencies based on national professional standards.

3.6 Semi-Structure Interview Protocol

A semi structured interview protocol was designed to answer research question no. 3 and 4. The semi-structured interview protocol was developed as a mean of obtaining information. In interviews the instructors asked about to identify five different competencies based on national professional standards. Interviews were conducted according to the availability of the director, deputy directors, assistant director and principals of Technical Education and Vocational Training Authority.

4. Discussion

This study has enormous implications for policy actors, educationists, education managers, teachers, and teacher educators. Based on the findings, it can be inferred that teacher education in in Pakistan needs a profound policy. The absence of teacher education policy poses challenges to the direction of teacher education program. However, the policy was not stipulated for teacher education. The broader education policy theoretically outlined new courses and curriculum for teacher

16 education in Pakistan. In the post-18th amendment scenario, there should be an all-encompassing teacher education policy that could respond context-specific. The new policy should be in line with Cultural fabric and dimensions of the province so that it could be translated into practice. Earlier, most of the policies used to driven by top-down approaches which created unbridgeable gulf between policy and practice. The study implies to the current states of professional standards for teachers in Pakistan. The participants suggested that the standards are already time-barred. Therefore, these standards need to be revised, improved and contextualized as per the orientation of the latest theories of the field. Another finding recommends that there should be separate standards for teacher educators and teacher education programs. The current standards are formed in consideration to the needs of teachers. Therefore, new Standards for teacher educators should be framed. Policy of teacher education. There was a mixture of opinions among the participants in the matter of more autonomy to teachers and teacher educators. Some of the educators suggested more autonomy and empowerment of teachers. Others supported the idea of benchmarking competencies of teachers and setting standard for both teacher and teacher educators based recent research. This study provides directions for future research in the field. The study highlights that research needs to be carried out in both Pre-service and In-service teacher education. The research will explore context-specific issues so that the programs and policies are in line with the contextual realities of the province. This study further suggests studies to be initiated pertaining to reforms in teacher education in Balochistan. This could be replicated in other provinces of Pakistan. Thus, broadening the scope of the research endeavor on a national scale. Furthermore, this study focused only five of the professional standards for teachers in Pakistan. More studies need to be done capturing the remaining standards. Additionally, research needs to be launched to analyze the needs of Balochistan province in consideration to indigenous realities and set new standards for teacher education. Another area research project could be the revision and improvement in the current standards for teachers in Pakistan as these standards have already lost currency. Another area for research in

Pakistan may be on induction programs for teachers. There is no induction program currently underway on induction of teachers after recruitment. This notion could be advanced with more research on teacher certification and licensing.

References

Adegbile, J.A. & Adeyemi B.A. (2008). Enhancing Quality Assurance through Teacher’ effectiveness. Educational Research and Review, 3(2), 61- 65.

Aggarwal, J.C. (2006). Teacher and education in a developing society. Vikas publishing house.

Akber, D. A. et.al (2013). The Experiences of In-service Teachers Nominated for Professional Competency Enhancement Programme for Teachers (PCEPT): Reflections and Learning Outcomes, Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business, 4 (9).

Anangisye, W. A. (2010). Promoting Teacher Ethics in Colleges of a Training College of Teacher Education Tanzania: practices and challenges. African journal of Teacher education, 1(1), 64-77.

Anugerahwati, M. & Saukah, A. (2010). Professional Competence of English teachers in Indonesia: A Profile of Exemplary Teachers. Indonesian Journal of English Language Teaching, 6(2), 47-59.

Archer, A. L., & Hughes, C. A. (2011). Explicit instruction: Efficient and effective teaching. New York, NY: Guilford Publications.

Arokiadoss, S.A. (2005). Teacher Effectiveness of College Teachers. Perspective in Education, 21(2), 106-116.

Bhargava, A. & Pathy, M. (2011). Perception of Student Teachers about Teaching Competencies. American International Journal of Contemporary Research 1(1).

Chawla, V. (2011). Effects of Student Feedback on Teaching Competence of Student Teachers: A Microteaching Experiment. Contemporary educational technology, 2(1), 77-87.

Dagiene, V. (2013). Development of ICT Competency in Pre-Service Teacher Education. International Journal of Digital Literacy and Digital Competence, 2(2), 1-10.

Das, S. K. & Kaur, S. (2014). Professional Ethics Grow with Teaching Experience: A Study of Women Teachers in Higher Education Institutions of Punjab. European Academic Research, 2(4), 5904-5922.

Darling-Hammond, L. (1998). Teachers and teaching: Testing policy hypotheses from a national commission report. Educational researcher, 27(1), 5-15.

Jaimini, N. (2014). Exploring peer feedback in building Professional Competence of teacher interns. International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Literature, 2(4), 87-94.

Joyce, H. (2013). Teachers training and Professional Competency. Voice of Research 1(1), 32.

Kaur, B. & Sharma, S. (2014) Teaching competence in relation to general and emotional intelligence. GHG Journal of Sixth Thought 1(1).

Koksal, N. (2013). Competencies in teacher education: Pre-service teachers ‘perceptions about competencies and their attitudes. Research gate, 8(6), 270-276.

Sheeja V. Annaraja, A. (2011). Teaching Competency of Secondary Teacher Education Students in Relation to Their Metacognition. International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications, 2(3), 508-513.

Wenglinsky, H. (2002). How schools matter: The link between teacher classroom practices and student academic performance. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 10(12).

Woodruff, C. (1993). What is meant by a competency? Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 14, 29–36.

Bi-Annual Research Journal “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. 45 NO. 1, 2020

GENDER DIVERSITY AND PARTICIPATION IN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT: A CASE STUDY OF JAFFARABAD BALOCHISTAN

Dr Abdullah Dostain Livestock and Dairy Development Department Balochistan Dr Shahida Habib Alizai Assistant Professor, Gender Development Studies Department University of Balochistan Quetta Abstract Gender participation in the development process was the key and successful elements for socio-economic development. In this regard, present research was carried out in Jaffarabad district. A descriptive survey was used by using the random sampling. In this regard, 112 respondents were interviewed by. However, the quantitative information was put into the Tally Excel Sheet and further the information was coded in the SPSS. The chi-square test was applied. In this regard, the p- value close to zero means. The p-value was set on 0.01 alpha level. The finding reveals that Pearson Chi-Square values are computed as 10.606a; and calculated significances was recorded or checked as .031 based on alpha level. While value of Chi-Square i.e. 23.264a was highly significant, .000, at 0.01 alpha level. Further, the Pearson Chi-Square values were 27.857a, 38.932a, and 72.610a respectively; however, the calculated significances were .000, .000, and .000 respectively. Therefore, it were concluded that the both types of respondents like males and females were percieved that violence against women, maternal mortality, and financial insertion were the major obsticels for gender development. Chi-Square values were 55.143a and 36.741a respectively. Present conclusions were confirmed through the Phi and Cramer’s V. Based on the outcome following recommendations were planned. Female empowerment through

21 sustainable economic development should be promoted at union council level so as to empower the female socio-economic condition and made them self-reliance. It was also suggested to provide job opportunities for female so as to develop their income generation process and increase the the female livelihood options at all levels.

Keywords: gender, economic development, Balochistan, Jaffarabad.

1.1 Introduction Gender term is referring to qualities relating to, and separating among, manliness and womanliness. Contingent upon the unique situation, these qualities may incorporate biological sex (Udry, 1994; Haig, 2004; WHO, 2017; and Kevin, 2017). A few social orders have explicit sexes other than "man" and "lady, for example, the hijras of South Asia; these are frequently alluded to as third sexes. John presented the phrased qualification between natural sex and sexual orientation with in term of gender role in 1955 (Udry, 1994; and Haig, 2004). However, John significance of the word didn't get across the board until the 1970s, when women's activist hypothesis grasped the idea of a differentiation. Today, the differentiation is followed in certain specific situations, particularly the social sciences (SSD, 2011; and Lindsey, 2010) and archives (WHO, 2017).

Gender role is broadly perceived as essentially imperative to universal advancement issues. This regularly implies an emphasis on gender equity, guaranteeing support, however incorporates a comprehension of the various roles for the gender development inside the community (Adema et al., 2014; OECD et al., 2014). In present day times, the investigation of gender and improvement has become an expansive field that includes government officials, market analysts, and human rights activists. Gender and Development, dissimilar to past speculations concerning female being developed, incorporates a more extensive perspective on the impacts of improvement on gender including financial or economic, political, and social issues. The hypothesis adopts an all encompassing strategy to advancement and its consequences for female

22 and perceives the negative impacts gender dazzle improvement approaches have had on female. Preceding 1970, it was accepted that advancement influenced people similarly and no gendered point of view existed for improvement ponders. Be that as it may, the 1970s saw a change being developed hypothesis that looked to consolidate ladies into existing improvement ideal models.

At the point when Ester Boserup distributed her book, Woman's Role in Economic Development, there was an acknowledgment that advancement influenced people diversely and there started to be all the more attention on ladies and improvement. Boserup contended that female were underestimated in the modernization procedure and practices of development, advancement, and improvement approach took steps to really aggravate ladies off. Boserup's work converted into the start of a bigger talk named Women in Development (WID) instituted by the Women's Committee of the Washington Chapter of the Society for International Development, a system of female advancement experts. The essential objective of WID was to incorporate ladies into existing improvement activities, since it was contended that ladies were underestimated and barred from the advantages of advancement. In this manner, the approach brought up that the serious issue to ladies' inconsistent portrayal and cooperation were male one-sided and man centric improvement arrangements. To put it plainly, the gender approach accused male controlled society, which didn't think about ladies' beneficial and contraceptive work. Truth be told, ladies were attached to household work subsequently were practically imperceptible being developed projects.

A quantity of feminists contended that the key idea for ladies and improvement ought to be subjection with regards to new entrepreneur types of uncertain and various leveled work structures, as opposed to underestimation as approaches underlined. The ascent of analysis against the gender approach prompted the rise of another hypothesis, that of Women and Development (Muyoyeta, 2004).

At their generally crucial, viewpoints interface the social relations of generation with the social relations of proliferation – investigating why and how female and men are doled out to various roles and duties in the public eye, how these elements are reflected in social, monetary, and political hypotheses and foundations, and how these connections influence improvement approach viability. Female are given not a role as uninvolved beneficiaries of improvement help, but instead as dynamic operators of progress whose strengthening ought to be a focal objective of advancement arrangement. In contemporary occasions, most writing and establishments that are worried about female role being developed consolidate a point of view, with the United Nations leading the pack of mainstreaming the gender approach through its framework and improvement policies (UNO, 2002).

Specialists at the Overseas Development Institute have featured that strategy discourse on the Millennium Development Goals needs to perceive that the gender elements of intensity, neediness, powerlessness and care interface all the goals. The different United Nations global female meetings in China, Mexico, Denmark, and Keniya, just as the advancement of the MDGs 2000 have adopted a gender strategy and all encompassing perspective on improvement. The UN Millennium Declaration marked at the UN Millennium Summit in 2000 including eight objectives that should have been come to by 2015, and in spite of the fact that it would be a troublesome errand to contact them, every one of them could be checked (ODI, 2008).

The eight objectives are:

Divide the extent of individuals living in outrageous destitution at the 1990 level by 2015. Accomplish general essential training Advance gender equity and engage ladies in empowerment Improve maternal wellbeing Battle HIV/AIDS, Malaria and different illnesses Guarantee ecological supportability Worldwide organization

Gender equity is additionally emphatically connected to instruction. The gender goal of the Dakar Framework for Action is to some degree not quite. MDG Goal doesn't contain a reference to student accomplishment and great quality essential training, yet goes past the school level.

A few associations working in creating nations and in the improvement field have consolidated support and strengthening for ladies into their work. The FAO of the UNO received a 10-year key structure in November 2009 that remembers the vital goal of gender value for access to assets, merchandise, administration and basic leadership in rustic territories, and standards ender value in the entirety of FAO's projects for farming and country development (FAO, 2009).

The Gender-related Development Index (GDI), created by the UNOs intends to show the imbalances among people in the accompanying territories: long and sound life, information, and a not too bad way of life. The UNDP has acquainted markers structured with add a gendered measurement to the Human Development Index (HDI). Also, in 1995, the Gender-related Development Index (GDI) and the Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) were presented. All the more as of late, in 2010, UNDP presented another pointer, the Gender Inequality Index (GII), which was intended to be a superior estimation of gender disparity.

1.2 Problem statement Balochistan province is considered has the biggest province as area-wise and least province with the term of population. Most of the Balochistan portion has contained arid and semi-arid territory. In Balochistan, the female classes are ignorable object and undeveloped as a results the participation of female in development process not encouraging. So it is a dire need to develop the solid suggestions for the successful future policy implication in grass root level.

1.3 Objectives of study I.To examine the gender diversity and participation in economic development process.

II.To design the need-based suggestions for future strategies.

1.4 Methodology Descriptive survey was done to utilize in this research so that to check the perception of gender-based information and observations of the respondent’s. Jaffarabad the district of Balochistan was selected randomly. Keeping in the view objectives of the present research the simple random sampling technique was used. In this regard, the respondents were interviewed by using the comprehensive questionnaire. Keeping in view the objectives of the present research the one hundred and twelve (112) respondents among them (89) male and (23) females were chosen from Jaffarabad district. All the data was collected through the research instrument. The research was conducted in the year of 2019. However, the quantitative information was put into the Tally Excel Sheet and further the information was coded in SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences). The chi-square test was applied. In this regard, the p-value close to zero means. Hence, the diverse variables were associated each other and variables as a parameters were strongly associated each other, the p-value was set on 0.01 alpha level.

1.5 Result The data was analyzed and information was depicted. Present research was determining the perceptions of both categories as shown in table-1. However, in this regard, the Chi-Square test was used to measure the association of gender equality in society. The outcome depicted there is no statistically significant association between variable regarding the of gender equality in society. However, in this connection the Pearson Chi-Square values are computed as 10.606a; and calculated significances was recorded or checked as .031 based on alpha level which were set on 0.0 1 level. Therefore, it was concluded that both genders like males and females were perceived that the female as possessed the gender equality within society.

Table-1, Correlation of diverse aspect about economic development of gender

economic development of Asymp: Sig. (2- gender Value df sided) Female in economic development Pearson Chi-Square 23.264a 4 .000** Likelihood Ratio 33.944 4 .000 Linear-by-Linear 7.977 1 .005 Association Phi .273 - .000 Cramer's V .273 - .000 Gender equality in society Pearson Chi-Square 10.606a 4 .031 Likelihood Ratio 8.688 4 .069 Linear-by-Linear 1.651 1 .199 Association Phi .184 - .031 Cramer's V .184 - .031 Violence against women Pearson Chi-Square 27.857a 4 .000** Likelihood Ratio 25.960 4 .000 Linear-by-Linear 21.945 1 .000 Association Phi .299 - .000 Cramer's V .299 - .000 Maternal mortality Pearson Chi-Square 38.932a 4 .000** Likelihood Ratio 40.981 4 .000 Linear-by-Linear 35.134 1 .000 Association

Phi .353 - .000 Cramer's V .353 - .000 Financial insertion Pearson Chi-Square 72.610a 4 .000** Likelihood Ratio 96.322 4 .000 Linear-by-Linear 41.457 1 .000 Association Phi .482 - .000 Cramer's V .482 - .000 Legal protection Pearson Chi-Square 55.143a 4 .000** Likelihood Ratio 51.271 4 .000 Linear-by-Linear 23.760 1 .000 Association Phi .420 - .000 Cramer's V .420 - .000 Political representation Pearson Chi-Square 36.741a 4 .000** Likelihood Ratio 38.992 4 .000 Linear-by-Linear 32.520 1 .000 Association Phi .343 - .000 Cramer's V .343 - .000 No. of Valid Cases = 312 * Significant at 1% alpha level

However, in this regard, the statistically significant and association were observed in the variable regarding the female in economic development of both males and females respondents. While value of Chi- Square i.e. 23.264a was highly significant, .000, at 0.01 alpha level. Hence,

28 it is likewise upheld by the noteworthy significant value or estimation of Phi and Cramer's V. Pearson Chi-Square values were 27.857a, 38.932a, and 72.610a respectively; however, the calculated significances were .000, .000, and .000 respectively, based on 1 percent alpha level. Therefore, it were concluded that the both types of respondents like males and females were percieved that violence against women, maternal mortality, and financial insertion were the major obsticels for gender development. Therefore, it is also upheld by the significant value or estimation of Phi and Cramer's V. The statistically significant were found between the groups perception about the legal protection and political representation of gender. The belief and judgement of male and female were varied at 0.0 1 level. In this aspect the Chi-Square value were 55.143a and 36.741a respectively at (0.001) level of significance. Yet, the calculated significances were observed on .000, and .000 respectively. Present conclusions were confirmed through the Phi and Cramer’s V. 1.6 Conclusion and recommendations for future implication Gender economic empowerment was the immense proportion of the gender development. However, in this connection the raw information was tabulated and analyzed.The outcomes likewise demonstrated that the size of the shadow economy should be mostly fortifying itself through good standards and mentalities expected to spread through comfortable connections and causal systems in a general public. From the strategy side, there ought to be a very mind boggling comprehension of the shadow economy, as avoiding charges assume not exclusively to be influenced by financial perspectives yet in addition by the moral mentalities that originate from every single past training, profound quality standards. Based on the outcome following recommendations were planned. Female empowerment through sustainable economic development should be promoted at union council level so as to empower the female socio-economic condition and made them self-reliance. It was also suggested to provide job opportunities for female so as to develop their income generation process and increase the the female livelihood options at all levels.

References

Adema, W., Ali, N., Frey, V., Kim, H., Lunati, M., Piacentini, M. and Queisser, M. (2014). Enhancing Women's Economic Empowerment Through Entrepreneurship and Business leadership in OECD Countries. OECD.

FAO, (2009). Gender equity. Food and Agriculture Organization. November 2009.

Haig, D. (2004). The Inexorable Rise of Gender and the Decline of Sex: Social Change in Academic Titles, 1945–2001" (PDF). Archives of Sexual Behavior. 33 (2): 87– 96. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.359.9143. doi:10.1023/B:ASEB.0000014323.56281 .0d.

Kevin, L., N. (2017). The Sage Encylop: of Psychology and Gender (2017, ISBN 1483384276), page 401.

Lindsey, L., L. (2010). Ch. 1. The Sociology of gender" (PDF). Gender Roles. A Sociological Perspective. Pearson. ISBN 978-0-13-244830-7. Muyoyeta, L. (2004). Women, Gender and Development (PDF). Zambia: Women for Change. ISBN 095351367X.

ODI, (2008). Gender and the MDGS. Overseas Development Institute. September 2008. Archived from the original on 10 March 2011.

OECD, ILO, IMF and WBG, (2014). Achieving stronger growth by promoting a more gender balanced economy. Report prepared for the G20 Labour and Employment Ministerial Meeting. Melbourne, Australia: G20 Labour and Employment Ministerial Meeting.

SSD, (2011). Gender. Social Science Dictionary. Archived from the original on 2 February 2011. Retrieved 20 March 2015.

Udry, J., R. (1994). The nature of gender. Demography. 31 (4): 561– 573. doi:10.2307/2061790. JSTOR 2061790. PMID 7890091.

UNO, (2002). United Nations. Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues, & Advancement of Women (2002). Gender Mainstreaming an Overview . New York: United Nations Publications.

WHO, (2017). What do we mean by “sex” and “gender”?. Archived from the original on 30 January 2017. Retrieved 26 November 2015.

Bi-Annual Research Journal “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. 45 NO. 1, 2020

Relationship of Corporal Punishment and Student’s Behavior In Public Secondary School Students Level at Quetta, Balochistan

Muhammad Farooq Nichari MPhil scholar Pakistan study Centre (Education) University of Balochistan Quetta Dr Noor Ahmed Rodeni Associate Professor Pakistan study Centre University of Balochistan Quetta Abdul Qadoos Kakar Lecturer Institute of Education and Research (IER) University of Balochistan Quetta

ABSTRACT Present research was carried out in Quetta, Balochistan so as to determine the corporal punishment and their effects on the secondary school behavior students A descriptive type research was conducted. One 100 respondents were selected from the ten different schools in district Quetta by using random sampling through a field survey with a comprehensive questionnaire. The data was put into the (SPSS) packages for the further statistical analysis. ANOVA (LSD), and Regression tests were applied so as to compare the mean scores at .0.0 1 level. The finding reveals that 50% of the respondents fall into 31 to 40 years. However, 30-10-10% of the respondents believed that they possessed the graduate, master and M.Phil. degree respectively. Vast majority (80%) of the teacher by gender male and remaining 20% of the respondent by gender female. The regression model was shown that the adjusted R Square value was -.006 and the value of R Square was .004. Therefore, it was concluded that corporal punishment at secondary school level was not appropriate as a predicator variable. There was no statistically significant was observed regarding the corporal punishment that effects the student’s educational dynamic and

32 social dimension as groups-wise based on P> 0.01 level. Based on results following recommendation was suggested. Government of Balochistan should be implemented the solid policies so as to overcome the corporal punishment at school level.

Keyword: corporal punishment, Quetta, school, Balochistan

1.1 Introduction Physical or the corporal chastisement can have characterized as “the use of physical force intended to cause pain, but not injury, for the purpose of correcting or controlling a child’s behavior” On the other words, the exploitation of corporeal dynamics towards basis on nuisance, yet not injury, toward right or else directing a child’s conduct in social setup as reported by (Straus et al., 2005). The idea is additionally expounded and rendered by the Gershoff (2002), the researcher was expressed his view about the corporal punishment considered as the practices to punished the children that adversely affects the children physical structure damage, injury, the physical maltreatment of the children such as canning, slap, punching, hit, kicking and so forth (Gershoff, 2002). It was worthwhile mention that in various previous research conducted national and international level has the elements of corporal punishment has been closely reflected the negative effects over on school children behavior as well as ignited the school students towards misconduct or action as well as expanded hostility among school kid’s behavior as reported by the various study was conducted through the; Patterson, (1982); Radke et al., (1968); Steinmetz, (1979); and Becker, (1964). However, in this regard, teenagers who had encountered the flogging activities or corporal punishment was show more elevated levels of discouragement and sentiments of sadness just as an expanded penchant to utilize savagery (DuRant et al., 1994). Brutal discipline or sentence of punishment comprising whipping, or the corporal punishment has been related fundamentally within pre-adult melancholy and trouble ingredient in this regard. School kids who faced the corporal punishment within school system were promptly indulged

33 with misconduct directions such as uneasiness, awkward concern and so forth (McLoyd et al., 1994; and Goodman et al., 1998). Whipping as the corporal element had been examined and embroiled in an assortment of educations system of the school kid as the major limiting factor, that contributing in reprobate practices of truancy, escaping in school of kids (Straus et al, 1996; McCord et al., 1959; Burt, 1925; Gove et al., 1982; Hetherington, et al., 1971; and Glueck et al., 1996). 1.2 Significance of the investigation The discoveries of the investigation are required to be useful for the future policy implication for the class head instructor’s behavior against students, and arrangement producers for the government sectors school at national level. Also the investigation discoveries might be useful to the Balochistan government in taking care of the heightening issues of indiscipline that are generally spread in many schools. Thirdly the investigation has assisted with giving a manual for head educators not just in Quetta city level on the best way to oversee school rules and guidelines, yet additionally in different schools in the entire nation everywhere and has likewise given preventive measures against the unsuitable indiscipline of corporal punishment. 1.3 Problem statement The corporal punishment as regard the education limiting factor and restricted dimension for the education lenses. Furthermore, due to the corporal punishment the school student feel disgrace plus captured by the inferiority intricate that causes the negative effective over on the knowledge of the students. However, in this regard, the corporal punishment was not the solution of any matter. Educators who consider that the corporal sentence was the insensible factor, did not mentally health. Beating is hurting some portion of the body as well as dispensing agony to an individual in light of the offense he has submitted. At present, a huge level of students is dropping out of their essential educational level and educational training. This unwanted circumstance is credited to numerous difficulties; prime among which is the across the board utilization of flogging in schools. The high dropout rate represents a risk not exclusively to finish rates yet additionally to the achievement of female student’s balance in schools. So also, when educators as a teacher slap

34 them, squeeze them, turn their ears, the instructors in a roundabout way instruct them that brutality as well as outrage are the favored approaches to tackle issues. Therefore, present research was endeavor to examine the effects of beating or applied of the corporal punishment on high students and measures the corporal punishment impact in Balochistan. 1.4 Objectives of research The investigation was directed through accompanying goals. 1. To investigate socio-economic information of the students. 2. The assess the effects of corporal punishment on student’s behavior. 3. To develop the suggestion for future policy implication.

1.5 Methodology

A descriptive study was carried out in current research. Research extent as an area was Quetta city. However, in this regard, the ten (10) different secondary school were chosen by using simple random sampling. However, in this regard, 50 teachers and 50 students were taken as sample so as to recorded the respondents perceived perceptions regarding the corporal punishment at secondary school level. Thus the one hundred (100) respondents were selected by using simple random sampling. All information was gathered; the raw information was put into the SPSS. After that the information was coded for further analysis. This examination yielded both subjective and quantitative information. Subjective information was breaking down subjectively utilizing information investigation dependent on examination of implications and suggestions exuding from respondent’s data and archived information. The regression model ANOVA (LSD) test was applied at 0.01 level.

1.6 Results

1.6.1 Socio-economic profile of the respondents

The socio-economic profile of the headmasters was an imperative dynamic of the present study as shown in figure-1. In this regard, the profiles of the respondents were categories in the following section that are given below.

Figure,1. Age of respondents

When the age was asked the 50% of the respondents holding the 31 to 40 years. While 33% of respondents holding the 41 years and above. Figure,2. Educational status of respondents

When respondents were enquired about the educational status. Most of the respondents received the diploma from their educational career as shown in figure-2. However, 30-10-10% of the respondents were believed that they possessed the graduate, master and M.Phil. degree. Figure,3. Gender of respondents

Vast majority (80%) of the teacher by gender male and remaining 20% of the respondent by gender female as shown in figure-3. 1.7 Regression model The regression model was shown that the adjusted R Square value was - .006 and the value of R Square was .004 respectively as shown in table-1. Table-1, Perceived value regarding corporal punishment

Predicators: (constant) However, in this regard, the value in the current model attributed 4 percent within terms of predictor variables. However, in this regard, the variation was observed between the items and furthermore the value did not show any satisfactory predicator regarding the corporal punishment. However, on the other hand the Adjusted R Square was -.006., however, in this connection, the perceived perception in the current model attributed .483& within terms of predictors variables. Therefore, it was concluded that corporal punishment at secondary school level was not appropriate as a predicator variable as shown in table-1.

Table 2. ANOVA about corporal punishment

Independent variables P-value Sig*. Std. N Mean Deviation Age 100 1.5600 .49889 .460 .633NA

Gender 100 1.5000 .50252 .262 .770 NA

1.8 Analysis of Variance (“ANOVA”) The Analysis of Variance was run so as to determine the perception of her respondents based on variation by using the LSD as shown in table- 2. However, in this regard, the demographic information was used so as to develop the variation based on perception of the respondents at 0.01 alpha

37 level. Findings reveals that there was no statistically significant was observed regarding the corporal punishment that effects the student’s educational dynamic and social dimension as groups-wise based on P> 0.01 level. However, in this regard, there was no statistically significant difference observed among the age composition and gender status. On the other hand, the P-value was recorded .460 and .262 respectively.

1.9 Conclusions and recommendations Physical discipline has been seriously considered; a few partners give an awful picture towards discipline plus this makes dread as well as detest in the kid. Mistaken assumptions between partners happen in light of legislature yet actualized approaches to control utilization of discipline at school’s level. Based on results following recommendations were suggested. Government of Balochistan should be implemented the solid policies so as to overcome the corporal punishment at school level. Present examination is an applied research that proposed to discover answers for the issue of the utilization of physical punishment in schools. At that point, educationists proposed the accompanying proposals routed towards legislators, approach producers, training organizers, school executives, educators, guardians as well as NGOs working with kids.

References

Becker, W.C., & Krug, R.S. (1964). A circumflex model for social behavior in children. Child Development, 35, 371-396. Burt, C. (1925). The young delinquent. New York: Appleton. DuRant, R.H., Cadenhead, C., Pendergrast, R.A., Slavens, G., & Linder, C.W. (1994). Factors associated with the use of violence among urban Black adolescents. American Journal of Public Health, 84, 612-617. Gershoff, E. (2002). Corporal punishment by parents and associated child behaviors and experiences: a met analytic and theoretical review. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 539-579.

Glueck, S., & Glueck, E. (1964). Ventures in criminology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Goodman, S. H., Hoven, C.W., Narrow, W.E., Cohen, P., Fielding, B., Alegria, M., et al. (1998). Measurement of risk for mental disorders and competence in a psychiatric epidemiologic community survey: The National Institute of Mental Health Methods for the Epidemiology of Child and Adolescent Mental Disorders (MECA) study. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 33, 162-173. Gove, W.R., & Crutchfield, R.D. (1982). The family and juvenile delinquency. Sociological Quarterly, 23, 301-319. Hetherington, E.M., Stouwie, R.J., & Ridberg, E.H. (1971). Patterns of family interaction and child-rearing attitudes related to three dimensions of juvenile delinquency. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 78, 160-176. McCord, J. (1991). Questioning the Value of Punishment: Social Problems. 38 (2):190-200. McLoyd, V. C., Jayaratne, T.E. Ceballo, R., & Borquez, J. (1994). Unemployment and work interruption among African American single mothers: Effects on parenting and adolescent socioemotional functioning. Child Development, 65, 562-589. Patterson, G.R. (1982). A social learning approach to family intervention: 111 coercive family process. Eugene, OR: Castalia, Cited from Turner HA, Finkelhor D 1996. J Marr Fam, 58: 155-166. Radke-Yarrow, M.R., Campbell, J.D., & Burton, R.V. (1968). Childrearing: An inquiry into research and methods. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Steinmetz, S.K. (1979). Disciplinary techniques and their relationship to aggressiveness, dependency, and conscience. In W.R. Burr, R. Hill, F.I. Nye, & I.L. Reiss (Eds.), Contemporary theories about the family: Vol. 1 Research based theories (pp. 405-438). New York: Free Press. Straus, M. A. and Donnelly, M. (2005) “Theoretical approaches to corporal punishment,” in Corporal Punishment in Theoretical Perspective, M. Donnelly and M. A. Straus, Eds., pp. 3–7, Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn, USA. Straus, M., A. (1996), Spanking and the Making of a Violent Society. Pedeatrics, Vol 98 Tanzania Corporal Punishment Regulation (1979).

Bi-Annual Research Journal “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. 45 NO. 1, 2020

The Bugti and Marri resistance against British Raj 1839-1919

Wali Muhammad Bugti M.Phil. Scholar Department of History University of Balochistan. Quetta. [email protected]

Prof. Dr. Saeeda Mengal Professor and Chairperson Department of History University of Balochistan. Quetta

Prof. Dr. Muhammad Zia ud din Department of General History & Dean Faculty of Arts Federal University Abdul Haque Campus, Karachi

Abstract: In nineteenth century Great Game begun between Russia and Britain, as British viewed Russia as an enemy, brought British in Balochistan to protect its interests in the region. In 1839 British advancement was heavily resisted by Bugti and Marri tribes. These tribesmen are brave to madness, they live in the rigged mountainous areas east of Quetta and sibi bordering Sind and Punjab Province, these areas were called Marri Bugti country at the time of British invasion. Both tribes nominally remained under authority of khan of Kalat but always enjoyed complete autonomy. They continually harassed British convoys on their way to Afghanistan. More than 180 battles were fought between British and Balochs, and more than half of them were fought by Bugti and Marri gladiators. Marri tribes defeated British forces more than a couple of times, raised a torch to the neighboring tribes and proved that British is not invincible. The British declared the whole Bugti tribe as their enemy and reward of 10-rupee offered to bring them dead or alive. This paper is based on the interesting affairs of British with Bugti and Marri Tribes of Eastern Balochistan.

Key Words: - Great Game, British Interests, Invasion of Balochistan 1839, Harassment of British Convoys, Bugti British affairs, Marri British affairs, Baloch Resistance, British policies. Introduction Balochistan is God gifted with various natural resources, a long coastline along the warm waters, has rich cultures, tribal customs, moreover has got an interesting history as well. 7000 BC old stone age site of Mehargarh, Alexanders march through Balochistan and British invasion of Baluchistan in 1839 are some such examples. Wild tribes living in Balochistan are as unique as its Geography and location. Bugti and Marri are such war like, dignified Baloch tribes, unique in their own way. British affairs with these tribes, and colonial policies, such as forward policy, closed border policy, jirga system, strengthening sardars by given immense powers to suppress Baloch resistance, totally changed the Baloch history, politics and geography. A comprehensive and detailed historical and political sketch research work comprising the Bugti and Marri tribe’s affair with the British and a historical note on the arm resistance of these mighty Baloch tribes of eastern Balochistan was so much needed, to understand the course of history of Heroic resistance of Freedom Fighter Baloch tribes. To know about tribal Heroes, to understand wild tribal way of life, Baloch resistance, moreover an episode of our past. This research is so much helpful for those who are interested in interesting history of Baloch, Balochistan, and want to know about the British interests in the region at that time, and the cruel policies they adopted dealing these tribes. Scattered information and data found in different varieties of books, journals, official documents, personal diaries, biographies of British soldiers, officers and record maintained by them about the affairs of British with these Baloch tribes, is gathered and analyzed in this research paper.

Significance History is a continuous story and a book consisting of facts and realities, that can enlighten new generations. Knowing Some bitter events of their past make them gloomy and sad but teach them a lesson for the future, and the other hand some glorious and heroic events of their history make them

41 happy and proud of their past and make them optimistic to move ahead. So, it is very important to know their past. The Brave Baloch freedom fighter tribes of Marri and Bugti always played an important role in the politics and history of Balochistan and Baloch. A detailed research work about the British affairs with these two wars like Baloch tribes of Eastern Balochistan from the year 1839 with the advent of British in Balochistan till the end of World war One, 1919 when Political map of the world almost begun to change, was a significant and important research work of its type, for the students, researchers and for those interested in the history and politics of Balochistan. Analyzing such worthy data and information revealed, British interests in the region and Baloch mentality and past. To study an important chapter of history regarding locals of the province which enlightens Baloch Heroes, freedom fighters and martyrs, who gave tough time to British, defending their honor faith and land, is a worthy research work. Research Objectives ➢ To compile a detailed note on Bugti and Marri affairs with British. ➢ To know about Baloch resistance against British raj. ➢To reveal British Atrocities and cruel policies against frontier tribes. ➢ To narrate an important chapter of the history of Bugti and Marri Tribes from 1839 to 1919. ➢ To analyze scattered data found in different books, personal narratives, diaries and British records about the events, battels and characters, regarding Bugti Marri British affairs. ➢ To explore our interesting past, tribal way of life, British Interests in the Region and local resistance. Research Methods As the area under study of this research work covers the years from 1839 till the end of 1919 world war 1. To this particular historical research, Narrative, descriptive and analytical research methods were adopted to reach the goals and objectives of the research. Qualitative research was pursued to provide a complete and detailed description of the research work.

Data collection Researcher tried to explore Primary and secondary data available for this particular research. While Secondary data found in documents, Books, Magazines, journals present in personal possession of Scholars, present in libraries, Such as Balochistan Archives, Balochi Academy Jam Durrak Kitabjah were frequently visited. Personal narratives and daily dairies of various English officials and Government records were searched. Archives on web helped a lot having so many precious rare books in PDF. The research was skillfully contrived to get the real facts, data and information about the historical events and Characters.

Organization of research work The researcher divided research work in following 5 chapters. ➢ Chapter 1 Balochistan and Baloch (This chapter is consisting of brief introduction of Balochistan’s geography, history, Baloch origin, character, and customs, to understand Nature of country and Baloch character. ➢ Chapter 2 Bugti and Marri Tribes (This chapter is about these Tribes location, nature of country, Brief history and origin, way of life and uniqueness) ➢ Chapter 3 Bugti British Affairs (This chapter is about the main events battles, affairs of British with Bugti tribes) ➢ Chapter 4 Marri British Affairs (This chapter is about British affairs with Marri tribe from 1839 to 1919) ➢ Chapter 5 Conclusion. (In this chapter research work is analyzed and concluded)

Literature Review Baba-e-Balochistan Mir Ghous Bakhsh Bezinjo writes in the prologue of Tareekh-e-Balochistan that, Baloch don’t have an authentic history about their Nation and Land except some foreign historian especially British who left some books in which some of the events and conditions of their nation and land is mentioned. Further about the book he says that, it seems history of Kalat rather than the history of Balochistan (NASEER, 2016 p. xix). His opinion opens up new doors for the

43 researchers and writers to do more research work on Balochistan, its history and people. Finding a gap and reason, researcher decided to write on the Bugti tribe who were first to face the British as their frontiers touch Sindh and Punjab and brave Marri tribe as their history customs mentality is identical With Bugti tribes. “In 1838, the Indian Government having resolved to restore Shah Sujah to the Afghan throne, intercourse between the British and the khan of kelat took place early in the year as a preparatory measure to the passage of the troops through his dominions.” (BIDDULPH, 1881, p. 627). “In that year lieutenant Leech was deputed to the Khan to arrange Terms for the passage of British troops through his Territory on their Way to Kandahar.” (PAGET, 1983, p. 38) “It was in April of 1839 that Sir John Kean’s army found its way up the Bolan Pass to Quetta. Behind Keane’s army, which pushed on to Kandahar and Ghazni, predatory tribes closed in, cut off his convoys and cut up his Kasids (messengers) as opportunity offered, the leading spirit being Bijar Khan Dumki” (YATE, 1918, p. 43) “The march of the columns through the Kachi and the Bolan to Quetta was attended with constant harassing by the warlike tribes on all sides of the routes and passes. The most daring raids and attacks were made on detached parties and on the baggage trains, causing loss of life and general obstruction. So, straightened were the troops that they were placed on half rations, and the cavalry suffered severely, and at one time it was a question whether the army had not better give up the expedition and retire.” (BIDDULPH, 1881, p. 627) “Mr. Bell, the political agent, in vain made every effort to obtain a free passage through cutchee by negotiations and pecuniary arrangements with the plundering tribes; their chiefs were deaf to all persuasion, and scorned every offer”. (JACOB, 1852, pp. 1-2)

Immediate cause of war between British and Hill Tribes “The Murrees and Boogtees inhabited the neighbouring hills; the chief town of the former, Kahun, of the latter, Deyra. These mountain tribes were nearly all footmen, and seldom or never ventured in hostile guise into the plain country. While the Doomkees and Jekranees were in power, the horsemen were far too strong for them in the plain, while, on the other hand, they were safe in their mountain fastnesses from the attacks of the

44 lowlanders. Such being the respective positions, these warlike tribes, with occasional exceptions, were usually on friendly terms, and afforded each other mutual support.” (JACOB, 1852, pp. 3-7) Normally much of the plunder gained by the Jakhranis and Dombkis was passed through the Bugti hills to be disposed of among the Hindu merchants of Harrand and Dajil, and Bibarak(Bugti Chief) received a share in transit. (LAMBRICK, 1975, p. 41) “At the request of the political officers, a detachment was ordered in the month of June, 1839, to proceed from Sukkur and Shikarpoor against Beejar Khan.” (JACOB, 1852, p. 9) Bijar Khan Domki’s refuge in Bugti hills “On the arrival of the force at poolajee, it was found that the kutchee plunderers had deserted the country, abandoned their homes in the plain, and taken refuge in the Bhoogtee Hills.” (JACOB, 1855, p. 129) Ross Bell summoned Bugti Marri chiefs Ross Bell’s plan was to send a force of Regular troops to punish the latter and capture or kill their leaders; and at the same time to summon Doda Khan Marri and Bibarak Bugti into his presence, to obtain their submission to Shah Shuja, the restoration of as much plunder as could be recovered, and finally security for their future conduct. (LAMBRICK, 1975, p. 41) The Bugti and Marri chiefs who were now called upon, to their great astonishment, to pay the usual share of one-third of their produce to the King of Kabul, and to acknowledge his sovereignty. The two tribes had never paid the Khan tax or tribute, and could seldom be induced to admit the most vague and nominal suzerainty of Kalat. The British indeed seemed to be irresistible.0n the 19th December Bibarak Bugti made his appearance in Postans’s camp at Chattar. He denied all knowledge of the whereabouts of Bijar Khan and his men, but offered vaguely to help in securing them; he admitted in some bewilderment the sovereignty of Shah Shuja; and with great reluctance consented to the march of the troops to Dera, his headquarters. He flatly refused to go to Ross Bell’s camp and Postans did not press the point, after obtaining as a hostage the chief’s principal adviser, Mir Hassan, together with guides for the troops. Bibarak therefore returned to Dera. (LAMBRICK, 1975, pp. 44-45) “final instructions were received from the political officers, and in the beginning of the month of November, 1839, the force proceeded in two

45 detachments to enter the Murree and Boogtee hills, wherein the Dombkees and Jekranees had found refuge. One party proceeded, via the Goree pass near Poolijee towards Deyra, and the other via Lahree, and the pass near that town towards Kahun”. The first party consisted of Major Billamore and Captain Brown, who acted as staff officers to the force. The light company of the 5th regiment, under Lieutenant Stanley, a company of the grenadiers, the artillery under Lieutenant Jacob, and one hundred and twenty men of the Sinde irregular horse under Lieutenant Clarke.” (JACOB, 1852, pp. 22-23) Salvia A Metheson states that “It all begun in 1839 when a Major Billamore captured Dera Bugti after many skirmishes with the raiding Bugtis who had been constantly harassing the British on their march, under lord Kean, to Afghanistan” (MATHESON, 1997 P. 179) When British were twice defeated in Battles of Sartaff and Naffusk, states an English writer that “The torch raised by the Marris was carried to the Kakars, the Kajjaks and the Brahuis; Quetta was attacked, Kelat retaken, and no immediate counter-move could be made. (LAMBRICK, 1975, p. 54) Eastwick states the impacts of defeat as “This was the first severe loss we suffered coupled with defeat, since our array crossed the Indus; the effect was great, and the Marris were elated with success, and thenceforth no detachment could enter the hills without danger. The sipahis, when ordered on service in that direction evidently considered they were about to take the shortest road to the country of Yama (Death). Going to Takka, as they called the hills, was with them equivalent to is de Kopaxas, and they forthwith deposited their savings with some friend, or in the treasury, for transmission to their families. About the same time with Sartaf happened another untoward event. The sword of the Marris first showed that the Faringi was not invincible, the Brahui and Kakar insurrections followed, and the train spread to distant Cabul.” (EASTWICK E. B., 1849, pp. 111-112,54) Sylvia A. Metheson narrates a story of a Marri notable that “One of the Marri Waderas (headman of clan) reached the cannon ahead of his chieftain, whipped off his Pushti & thrust it down the mouth of the Cannon with his arm, then he shouted to the Marris to come on because he had

46 covered the entrance to the devil’s cave and the Wadera was blown to pieces!” (MATHESON, 1997 P. 49) Sir Charles Napier proclaimed the whole Bugti tribe as enemies. (BRUCE R. B., 1871, p. 67) In January 1846 directed to capture or kill the Bugtis, and all cattle belonging to them, when they came near the frontier. (LAMBRICK, 1975, p. 126)

REFRENCES BIDDULPH, M. A. (1881). THE MARCH FROM INDUS TO THE HELMUND AND BACK, 1878, 1879. JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL UNIITED SERVICE INSTITUITION, WHITEHALL YARD VOL 24, 613-665. BRUCE, R. B. (1871). SELECTIONS FROM THE RECORDS OF THE GOVERNMENTS OF THE PUNJAB ANDITS DEPENDENCIES. NOTES ON THE DERA GHAZEE KHAN DISTRICT, N, W, FRONTIER, AND ITS BORDER TRIBES: . LAHORE: THE CIVIL SECRETARIAT PRESS. EASTWICK, E. B. (1849). DRY LEAVES FROM YOUNG EGYPT: BEING A GLANCE AT SINDH BEFORE THE ARRIVALOF SIR CHARLES NAPIER. LONDON: JAMES MADDEN, 8, LEADENHALL STREET. JACOB, J. (1852). MEMOIR OF THE FIRST CAMPAIGN IN THE HILLS NORTH OF CUTCHEE, UNDER MAJOR BILLAMORE,IN 1839-40. LONDON: WM. H. ALLEN, AND CO., 7, LEADENHALL STREET. JACOB, J. (1855). REPORT ON THE STATES AND TRIBES CONNECTED WITH THE FRONTIER OF UPPER SIND. BOMBAY: BOMBAY EDUCATION SOCIETY'S PRESS. LAMBRICK, H. T. (1975). John Jacob Of Jacobabad. kARACHI : OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS LONDON NEWYORK DELHI. MATHESON, S. A. (1997). THE TIGERS OF BALUCHISTAN. KARACHI: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS. NASEER, G. K. (2016). TARIKH-E-BALOCHISTAN. QUETTA: KALAT PUBLISHERS & BOOK SALER. PAGET, W. H. (1983). FRONTIER AND OVERSEAS EXPEDITION FROM INDIA V-III. DELHI: MITTAL PUBLICATIONS. YATE, A. C. (1918). "JANG NAFUSKH" AND "THE RED THREAD OF HONOUR". THE JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, 43-62.

Bi-Annual Research Journal “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. 45 NO. 1, 2020

ENHANCING THE LIVESTOCK PRODUCTIVITY IN BALOCHISTAN Dr Shahab -UD- Din Assistant Professor, Department of Zoology, University of Balochistan, Quetta Dr Abdullah Dostain, livestock And Dairy Development Department Quetta Dr Ghazala Umer Baghal Lecturer, Abida Tehrani, Sindh Development studies Centre, University of Sindh

Abstract Enhancing of the livestock sector one of the prime objective of the present government in Balochistan. In this regard, the present study was chosen. Descriptive survey research design was used by using the convenience sampling process in 3 tehsils of Quetta district namely Quetta, Kuchlak and Punjpai tehsils purposively. In this regard, the questionnaire was constructed at district level. Sixty respondents were selected from each tehsils through the questionnaire for the primary data collection at field level. Thus the raw information were installed into the SPSS for further analyses. The finding reveals that the average flock sizes were 75, 72 and 74 animals respectively in Quetta, Kuchlak and Panjpai tehsils respectively. Approximately, more than 500 people were engaged in the field of marketing in Quetta district. The total area of the Kuchlak market was 17. 000 ft. The total area is approximately 15,000 sq. ft. the trading occurance of daily bases on Punjpai market. The average weight per kg as were recorded 23.18, 24.8 and 22.10 in Quetta, Kuchlak and Panjpai tehsils respectively. However, annual mutton productions per kg were observed 25034.4, 24700.8 and 16972.8 in Quetta, Kuchlak and Panjpai tehsils respectively. The findings reveal that livestock sector at province was not up to date and did not arrange on the scientific lining. In this regard, therefore it was recommended that government should take effort

48 to impose the effective animal marketing system at province level. Government should be established the well checks and balance system form the borders of the country so as to stop the smuggling of animals from across the border.

Keywords: livestock, Quetta, Balochistan, empowerment

1.1 Introduction Livestock sector was contained around 30 percent occupation at worldwide. Livestock sector was also contained the well organized and prolong market chains around 1.3 billion people worldwide and improving the livelihood options of the people around 600 million marginal size of farmers in developing countries (Thornton, 2010). However, in this connection, the livestock sector is therefore a prime feature of global agriculture sector. By and large the human populations density mostly depend on domestic animals, especially the fat, fibers, milk, eggs, leather garments, meat production, wool, and other dairy products in developing countries. Furthermore, an individual's wealth and status were recognized and symbolic by the farm animals and livestock rearing in the West Africa (Ulvevadet and Hausner, 2011). Hence, the livestock sector was the major source of income generation process in entire world, for example in the Pacific Islanders and South America the Llama were used for transport purposes, milk production, and meat production (Markemann and Valle, 2010). In Australia the merino sheep wool production and enhamnent of wool industries was very advanced. Similar, in Brazil, Canada, Argentina and USA the cattle ranching, dairy production industry and meat industry were very advanced. Pakistan's economy and livelihood options based on rural livestock sector that has the potential to expand the efficiency of domesticated animals (livestock) through arrangement of sufficient nutritious feed, enhanced the reproductive management so as to adopt the sophisticated animal husbandry practices. However, in this regard, the livestock segment is one of the quickest developing segments and gives employment more than 35 million individuals. As a result the ranchers and their family unit’s

49 livelihood options infer around 30 to 40 percent pay from livestock sector (GoP, 2018-19).

Milk sector as the major component of the livestock sector is the main contributors and significant benefactor for the country. This land is honored with the best types of cows and buffalos with a sizeable number as well as a sufficient number of the cross-reared bovines or cows. However, the local breeds (cows and buffalos) are all around adjusted to the environment and superb converter of roughages as well as defiant to all diseases, converter of roughages and are impervious to ailments. Similar the dairy sector of the livestock has a huge potential in the rural areas of the country. Greater part of the country domesticated animals owners is a poor economic conditions and also faced the inadequate and limited economic constraints due to the poor management of livestock sector (GoP, 2018-19).

Notwithstanding, in our environment conditions faced the major regenerative issues in livestock sector and did not fulfil the dare requirements in this sector. One of the serious issues in cows is that the greater part of the calving happens during July to September. Not many calving happens from February to June that brings about little quantity and accessibility of milk production. Subsequently, the cost of milk ups to high but farmers of the livestock sector did not obtained the desiable income. Productive contraceptive (reproducative) system can upgrade the benefit of dairy farming sectors but the resources or capacity in livestock sector remained low and limited due to the poor management. Though in this connection, the awareness campaign and capacity building program was the key success elements in this sector as well as reproductive management practices ought to be the top need of the administration (GoP, 2018-19).

Synchronization of estrus controlled rearing is a compelling apparatus of improved regenerative administration or management and practices. It could be utilized to defeat the issues like regularity, anestrus and long bury calving interim. Occurrence of conceptive issue particularly in cross-reared dairy animals is high in our field conditions. The most elevated frequencies are uterine contaminations, anoestrus, sores,

50 obstetrical issues and continue reproducing. Thoroughbred dairy cows have been imported since long from the western nations to tropical or subtropical for improved milk production. They have been either kept up as a thoroughbred or crossbred. Their production is high however versatility, especially during hot and humid months is undermined. They are progressively inclined to parasitic invasion and their insusceptible framework turns out to be increasingly vulnerable.

Also, unadulterated or crossbreds kept up in subtropical condition are known to have increasingly conceptive issue. Among these issues continue reproducing is a wellspring of disappointment and monetary misfortune to the rancher. Usage of a conceptive program must be acclimated to explicit ranch conditions and the board objectives. Distinguishing animals, precise and complete record keeping is an essential.

1.2 Objectives 1. To study the livestock productivity enhancement in Balochistan. 2. To design the recommendations regarding livestock productivity enhancement in Balochistan for future directions. 1.3 Methodology

The research methodology was contained the following research dynamics from questionnaire development to data analyzing process. In this regard, a descriptive survey research design was used by using the convenience sampling process in 3 tehsils of Quetta district namely Quetta, Kuchlak and Punjpai tehsils purposively. The information was contained the primary data was obtained from field level so that to measure the opinions of the respondents based on five point scaling (Likert). The sample size or target population was comprised of one hundred eighty respondents from three tehsil of Quetta district. In this regard, the questionnaire was constructed keeping in view the importance of the research at district level. Sixty respondents were selected from each tehsils through the questionnaire for the primary data collection at field level. Thus the raw information were installed into the SPSS for further analyses and drawn a conclusion based on achieved findings.

1.4 Results Table:1, Flock size of animals raised Quetta district.

Areas N. of farmers N. of animals Ave: flock size Quetta 20 1500 75 Kuchlak 20 1440 72 Panjpai 20 1480 74 Total 60 4420 221 Mean -- 1473.33 73.33 (74)

1.5 Flock size

The information about flock size raised in Quetta district was shown in table-1. In this regard, the data reveals that average flock sizes were 75, 72 and 74 animals respectively in Quetta, Kuchlak and Panjpai tehsils respectively.

Table:2, Infrastructure of livestock market in Quetta district.

Areas Total area Boundary types Mode of Occur: Business Hou: Quetta 20,000 sq. ft. Paved Daily 8:00 AM. To 1:00 PM. Kuchlak 17,000 sq. ft. Open ground Daily 7:00 AM. To 1:00 PM Panjpai 15,000 sq. ft. Open ground Daily 8:00 AM. To 1:00 PM

1.6 Market infrastructure

An infrastructure of market and marketing system are important to establish an effective marketing system. The infrastructure of market and marketing system was studies in Quetta district during the study year are described as under:

1.7 Quetta market

This market is located in Western by-pass of Quetta city. This market is the main market because of Quetta was the capital city of Balochistan. The total area of this market is approximately 20,000 sq. ft. the trading

52 occurance of daily bases. Approximately, more than 500 people were engaged in the field of marketing. The work hours were 8:00 AM. To 1:00 PM. The market is under of the city district government. Approximately, more than 700 to 800 animals were offered for sale purposes. This is the permanent market and animals from other districts of the province are also brought here for sale to the local other market of the country.

1.8 Kuchlak market

This market is situated in Loralai and Zhob road, near Kuchlak Bazar, 20 Km. away from Quetta. It is the secondary market. Where the animal from the Pishin, Khanozai, Muslim Bagh districts brought and sale, in this regard, the adjacent aresas of Kuchlak tehsil and near villages the ainalms were also brought and sale. The total area of the Kuchlak market was 17. 000 ft. the trading was occurs on a daily basis from morning to noon such as 7:00 AM. To 1:00 PM. The method of sale was direct negotiation. The boundary wall did not cover the market. The market is controlled by the contractors. This is auctioned by the city district government Quetta on the yearly basis. Trading was done while on a daily basis from morning to noon (8:00 AM. To 1:00 PM). Still the boundary wall did not paved and the method of sale was direct negotiation between and among sellers and producers.

1.9 Punjpai market

This market is located at 75 kilometers away from Quetta. It is also secondary market. Whereas the animals from the Mastung, Kardigap, Kanak tehsils and other adjacent areas were brought for the sale. The total area is approximately 15,000 sq. ft. the trading occurance of daily bases. Table:3, Average mutton production in Quetta district.

Tehsils N. of Butcher Ani: slaughter Av: wei: per Kg Mut: produ: Ave: kg Quetta 20 1080 23.18 25034.4 Kuchlak 20 996 24.8 24700.8 Panjpai 20 768 22.10 16972.8 Total 60 2844 70.08 66708 Average 20 948 23.36 22236

The information about average mutton production in Quetta district was shown in Table-3. The finding showed that average slaughtered animals were 1080, 996 and 768 in Quetta, Kuchlak and Panjpai tehsils respectively. The average weight per kg as were recorded 23.18, 24.8 and 22.10 in Quetta, Kuchlak and Panjpai tehsils respectively. However, annual mutton productions per kg were observed 25034.4, 24700.8 and 16972.8 in Quetta, Kuchlak and Panjpai tehsils respectively.

1.10 Summary and suggestions

The findings reveal that livestock sector at province was not up to date and did not arrange on the scientific lining. In this regard, it was also worthwhile mention that government should take effort to impose the effective animal marketing system at province level and should be established the well checks and balance system form the borders of the country so as to stop the smuggling of animals from across the border and improve the socio-economic condition of the rural people.

References

GoP, (2018-19). Pakistan Economy survey (2018-19). Finance Division Government of Pakistan. Economic Advisor's Wing, Government of Pakistan, Islamabad.

Markemann, A. and Valle, Z., A. (2010). Traditional llama husbandry and breeding management in the Ayopaya region. Bolivia Trop Anim Health Prod 42(1):79–87.

Thornton, P., K. (2010). Livestock production: recent trends, future prospects. Philos Trans R Soc BBiol Sci 365:2853–2867.

Ulvevadet, B. and Hausner, V., H. (2011). Incentives and regulations to reconcile conservation and development: thirty years of governance of the Sami pastoral ecosystem in Finnmark Norway. J Environ Manage 92(10):2794–2802.

Bi-Annual Research Journal “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. 45 NO. 1, 2020

Revisiting Dicken’s Great Expectations through Psychoanalytic Approach: A Freudian Analysis

Mobina Jahan Research scholar Sardar Bahadur Khan Women’s University, Quetta. [email protected] Dr. Saman Salah Assistant Professor Department of English Sardar Bahadur Khan Women University, Quetta. [email protected]

Abstract In English literature a number of critical theories are applied to interpret a literary text, psychoanalytical criticism is one of the important approaches to understand the literary piece of writings. Psychoanalysis is a theory of personality development this approach is strongly connected with literature. This theory has become one of the ways to find out the hidden meaning of a literary text. It explores the factors which motivate the writer of any literary work to create his creation in a literary context. The goal of this theory is to show the behavior of the characters of any literary piece of writing. The present study is a descriptive analysis of Psychoanalysis with a connection to the novel “Great Expectations’” by “Charles Dickens''. This research paper also discusses some of the Psychoanalytical concepts based on Sigmund Freud theory of Psychoanalysis which includes id, ego, superego, unconscious, repression and Oedipus complex.

Keywords: Great Expectations, Psychoanalysis, id, superego, unconscious. Introduction Since classical times, literary Theories were introduced to understand literary texts and their meaning. It is tough to comprehend any particular

56 meaning of the text. That was why criticism kept on enhancing itself with new ideas from different rules so as to deal with literary production and find a method by which a text can be analyzed comprehensively. Text like “Great Expectations” cannot be analyzed informally because it deals with the fluctuating human nature and therefore it continues on proposing new meanings at any time it is read. By the inauguration of literary theories, each text can be interpreted through a certain critical theory.The theory of Psychoanalysis can be applied to the text of “Great Expectations”. Such a study can be manifested by instituting some of the main ideas of “Psychoanalysis’’. Psycho-Analytic Criticism In order to understand Psychoanalytic Criticism, the initial step to follow is to understand Psychoanalysis. “The definition of psychoanalysis is a systematic structure of theories concerning the relation of conscious and unconscious psychological processes”(dictionary.com). Sigmund Freud is considered as the father of psychoanalysis theory, he was neurologist belonged to Australia. Freud is one of the most prominent Psychologists ever. His theories entirely changed the way that people interpret the mind and behavior, and he developed the therapy for psychological problems based on the idea that you could help people just by conversation. His contribution to psychology and psychiatry cannot be ignored. Freud began his Psychoanalytic work in the 1880s while attempting to treat behavioral disorders in his Viennese patients. He dubbed the disorders ‘hysteria’ and began treating them by listening to his patients talk through their problems. Based on this work, Freud asserted that people’s behavior is affected by their unconscious”…the notion that human beings are motivated, even driven, by desires, fears, needs, and conflicts of which they are unaware…”(Tyson14). Freud’s Main Concepts The Unintended Mind According to Freud, that most of the times we know what is going in our mind but our sentiments, emotions, and thought are kept in our unconscious but we are unaware of them but they have great influential power on our personality.

The Psyche Freud believed that human Psyche consists of several parts and they are continuously fighting with each other, The conflict that takes place between Id, ego, and superego is what propels our behavior. Childhood Influences Freud thought that the initial stage of our life is too crucial that plays important role in the development of our personality and it is influenced by the relationship between us and our parents and the experiences which we experience from our surroundings, these experiences affect the constitution of our subconscious and the personality, and behavior we expose as adults. Stages of development Freud believed that there are different phases of development in our childhood. At each stage, different parts of the psyche are flourished and different influences become essential. These phases are sequenced.The problems what we come across in our adulthood can usually be turned up to issues that first arose during a particular phase of development. Instincts and drives According to Freud human beings still react in a way as animal react to satisfy their needs or drives like hunger, thirst, aggression, and sex. Unconscious ‘’The unconscious is the storehouse of painful experiences and emotions that we do not want to know about because we feel we will be overwhelmed by them(Tyson.12) According to Freud in our mind there is a storage area and it stores our wishes and repressed feelings, we are not familiar with them but it determines our behavior and this storage area is known as unconscious and as we grow from our infancy to childhood and then we enter the period of our adulthood and with the different phases of life our desire and our unconscious conflicts promote three different parts of the mind that fight for the dominance, such as Id, ego, superego. ID It is known as a vicious part of our psyche or we can say animal part of the psyche because it is governed drives like food, drink, and sex. The goal of this part is to satisfy these desires.

Ego This part of the mind is related to reality, the focus of this area is to balance out the needs and demands of the id. Superego When our defenses break down, we experience anxiety, anxiety is important because it can reveal our core issues. Some common issues are; Fear of attachment Keep one's own self at distance in order to be avoided or getting emotionally hurt. Fear of desertion Fear of being neglected or ignored by friends and beloveds. Lacking self-confidence The lack of confidences on one’s own self, people easily influence us. Core issues define our being in fundamental ways. Core issues are not occasional problems, but rather stay with us throughout life and unless addressed, they determine our behavior in destructive ways of we are unusually unaware. (Tyson7). Oedipus complex Freud also presented the concept of Oedipus Complex based on the story of Sophocles Oedipus which refers to the idea that boy tries to compete with his father to seek attention of his mother whom he thinks, she is one and only center of attraction for him, and his father is not allowing him to get her love and care. Freud introduced this term in his interpretation of Dreams in 1899. According to him, the concept is a desire for sexual involvement with the parent of the opposite sex, which produces a sense of competition with the parent of opposite sex, which produces a sense of competition with the parent of the same sex and a crucial stage in the normal development process Freud,( 1913). Repression Those unfulfilled desires, feelings, and dreams that are pushed into the unconscious mind which give rise to depression. Psychoanalysis reveals these contents of repressed memories to help patients get rid of anxiety and depression.

‘'Repression is a rejection of a memory from your consciousness by repressing it, we give them force'' (Tyson 13) Psychoanalytic criticism and literature The psychoanalytic interpretation of the text is basically begun with analyzing the relationship between writer and text. In psychoanalytic criticism, critics focus on how characters behave, how the events are narrated, how images are shown, it also includes romance, rage, enmity, envy, and sexual behavior. Psychoanalytic approaches The Author The Author In order to interpret the text the author’s life is analyzed. The characters The theory is used to analyze some of the dominant characters, psychoanalysis is used as a tool to describe characters and the ways how they behave and the factors that motivate them. The audience The theory is used to analyze whether the text attracts the readers or not. Text in this theory, the role of language and symbols are analyzed to interpret the text. Method The present study will explore some of the concepts of the psychoanalytical theory that can be applied to the author, and characters of the novel "Great Expectations". By applying psychoanalytic theory it can be understood the reasoning behind why certain characters act and behave how they go through the fear, motivation, and past experience. The connection between writer and text Charles Dickens the author of a novel belonged to Victorian Era, He was born in England. Since his birth, the family faced hardships and poverty. At the age of twelve, he used to work with working-class boys in a factory where he used to polish shoes. At the age of fifteen, he was forced to leave the school and he started work as an office boy. His father had to pay some of his debts and family suffered for financial issues. Dickens' own childhood, the ups, and downs of his life and his experience of working in the blacking factory and accomplishment of his greater expectation might

60 have influenced him, therefore his novels depict his repressed feelings and unconscious mind. The characters analysis with the connection of Psychoanalytic criticism Pip: Pip plays a double character in a novel, the protagonist and narrator of the novel. The entire story revolves around his dreams, his passion to be a gentleman and his unfulfilled love for Estella. At the beginning of the novel pip tries to construct his own identity, he lost his parents and brothers. He and his sister Mrs. Joe are the only survivors. She treats him harshly which psychologically affects Pip's unconscious mind. Although his repressed feelings lead him to maturity, which is later found in a novel. Pip has a deep desire to improve his living style whether educational, moral, or social. He wanted to marry Estella not only because he loves her but he also wants to join the upper class because he doesn't want to be poor, ignorant, or immoral. When he becomes a gentleman he tries to act as he thinks a gentleman acts, that is why he treats Joe and Biddy coldly even then he loves both of them but unconsciously he keeps at a distance with them. On the other hand, he is very generous, which can be witnessed when he helps Magwitch. He possesses a good conscience. For the time being his goodness is overshadowed by his desires when he joins Sattis house and meets Miss. Havisham and Estella but when he learns his benefactor is Magwitch not miss Havisham he realizes that one's social position is not an only quality one possesses and his behavior being a gentleman hurt people who care about him most. Once Pip has learned the lesson he matures into a man. Estella; She was very young when Miss. Havisham adopted her in order to take revenge from men. She is the daughter of Magwitch, rather than being raised by her father who is enriched with inner nobility she was raised by Miss Havisham who destroys her ability to live normal lives. She asks Estella to break men's hearts which leads her to take the worst decision of her life. She ignores Pips love and marries Drummel. Miss Havisham; She is a most strange character in a novel found in her old wedding dress which she has been wearing since the day of her fixed marriage but unfortunately the man who is going to marry her leaves her. Since then she becomes annoyed and decides to take revenge from all men.

People around her suffer because of her behavior but she doesn’t realize she uses Estella as a weapon to fight her war of revenge and the pain which she repressed for a long time. Able Magwitch; a kind-hearted character of a novel Pip's kindness impressed him a lot and he decides to change his life. He is the secret benefactor of Pip's changed fortune. In the beginning of the novel Pip helps him because he threatens him to eat his heart and liver if he doesn't bring wittles and a file basically he is not mean by nature he has been victimized in his youth when he used to steal things at the street of London in to live and eat, then he meets Compeyson the second convict who exploited him Compton was the same person who betrayed Miss Havisham. Orlick: he is day laborer at Joe’s forge according to Pip he is bad character he used to travel and never stays at one place he doesn’t have home he threatens pip and attacks Mrs. Joe which causes her death he confesses and tells Pip that Joe always preferred Pip over him and he made his life so pathetic . Great Expectation is an exciting story which is actually moral education of Pip who goes through different phases of life, in very early stage of life he lost parental love which he tries to get from his sister Mrs. Joe but unfortunately she herself was deprived of parental love though she never expressed in a novel but in a way she treats Pip it seems she is psychologically disturbed and psychological notion of taking out anger on someone who is innocent and does not deserve ones anger forced her to treat people harshly living around her reader can observe she is not too good to Mr. Joe as well she miss treats Orlick and he becomes cause of her death. Pip takes his repressed feelings in his unconscious mind and moves to change his life from a common blacksmith to become a gentleman and to fulfill his expectations, during his journey toward becoming a gentleman Pip experiences lots of situations, being avoided by Estella but he does not leave his dream to marry her. His fear of intimacy forced him to avoid Joe and Biddy who are sincere towards him but he unconsciously avoids them because he feels that if he meets his old friends it will low his status in a society. He continues to love Estella and still thinks Miss. Havisham is his secret benefactor, but as he finds the real benefactor he realizes that only

62 the satisfaction of one id is not enough for the inner satisfaction he realizes that for becoming gentleman one should think high but live simple. His superego helps him to collect himself and realize the worth of a people who really love and care about him. Estella is an excellent example of repression who most of her life spent in unconscious state of mind who even do not know the purpose of her life whether she is common human being who has id, ego and super ego….or she is just a weapon of Miss Havisham war which she took under her own ship since Estella’s childhood. When a child needs parental love but at this stage of life Miss. Havisham instilled in her a negative aspect of personality that is displacement which means taking your anger out on a person who is not responsible or a cause of your anger Miss Havisham teaches Estella to play with men’s heart and break them. These negative thoughts become part of her unconscious mind since her childhood which later destroys her life and by the end of the novel she says to Pip "Suffering has been stronger than all another teaching. . . . I have been bent and broken, but—I hope— into a better shape." Miss Havisham’s behavior is also the result of repressed feelings which she repressed in her mind at the time of her marriage when comparison deceived her, getting hurt by man she becomes so annoyed that she wants to take revenge from all men and she does not realize that she is doing wrong with Estella and repeating to cause the same pain to Pip which she herself felt. Though in the end, she asks Pip for forgiveness which reinforces the idea that bad behavior can be changed by having continuous good behavior with someone. Magwitch is basically shown as a convict but most kind heart character of a novel. He threatens Pip and asks help, being helped by Pip he decides to change his fortune. His early life which has spent to get basic needs of life and in access to these basic needs he becomes criminal and motivated by Compeyson who betrayed him later in a novel. But he is enriched with best human qualities who remembers his little helper and becomes the benefactor of little helper to achieve his great expectations. Orlick's bad attitude is somehow resulting of his repressed feeling having no home, no parental love and harshly treated by Mrs. Joe made him too

63 hard-hearted that he becomes so vicious that he attacks Mrs. Joe and tries to kill Pip as well. Literature Review Throughout the novel reader is able to understand characters are found fighting with their conscious, unconscious and repressed feelings their id, ego, and superego uncover why certain characters behave in a certain way. The goal of psychoanalysis is to help resolve our psychological problems, often called disorders (Tyson. 12 ). The purpose of psychoanalytic criticism is to show how our views of human behavior are relevant to our experience of literature (Tyson 12) Freud believed that our unconscious was influenced by childhood events. Freud organized these events into a developmental stage involving relationships with parents and drives of desire and pleasure. These stages reflect base levels of desire, but they also involve fear of loss and repression: "...the expunging from the consciousness of these unhappy psychological events" (Tyson 15). One interesting fact of this approach is that it validates the importance of literature, as it is built on a literary key for the decoding. Freud himself wrote, "The dream-thoughts which we first come across as we proceed with our analysis often strike us by the unusual form in which they are expressed; they are not clothed in the prosaic language usually employed by our thoughts, but are on the contrary represented symbolically by means of similes and metaphors, in images resembling those of poetic speech" (26). The characters of a novel are in the conflicts of their conscious and unconscious, the repressed sentiments which had been part of their personality since their childhood is uncovered in the lateral phase of their lives. In a way Dickens represented his characters reveals his repression which he repressed in his early phase of life. Conclusion Psychoanalytical theory utilizes several techniques to interpret a literary piece of writings Freud's theories and concepts can be adapted to analyze literary texts in the light of Psychoanalysis. The principles of Psychoanalysis can be applied to translate hidden meaning that lies within literary work, specifically the Psycho analytical concept of repression can

64 be found as a major theme of any literary work. Text like “Great Expectations’’ reflects repressed themes that can be seen broadly among some of the dominant characters of a novel. Before analyzing characters the role of writer can’t be ignored. Dickens himself suffered through repression in early of his life when he was forced to leave his education and earn money. His repression is clearly depicted in his fictional characters specifically ‘’Great Expectations’’ protagonist Pip the novel is a thrilling story of a boy whose inner purity of heart rescued him from delusion. Other characters of the novel are found having conflicts of id, ego, and superego which sometimes consciously and most of the times unconsciously lead them towards anxiety and depression. A reader can analyze these characters from a psychoanalytical perspective with a connection to the ideas of Sigmund Freud who is known as the founder of this theory. A reader who understands the terms of psychoanalysis can better enjoy a novel with its real meanings.

References Freud, S.(1894).The neuro-psychoses of defence.SE,3:41-61. Bargh, J. A., & Chartrand, T. L. (1999). The unbearable automaticity of being. American Psychologist, 54(7), 462. Breuer, J., & Freud, S. (1895). Studies on hysteria. Standard Edition 2: London. Fisher, S., & Greenberg, R. P. (1996). Freud scientifically reappraised: Testing the theories and therapy. John Wiley & Sons. Freud, S. (1894). The neuro-psychoses of defense. SE, 3: 41-61. Freud, S. (1896). Further remarks on the neuro-psychoses of defense. SE, 3: 157-185. Freud, S. (1900). The interpretation of dreams. S.E., 4-5. Freud, S. (1915). The unconscious. SE, 14: 159-204. Freud, S. (1920). Beyond the pleasure principle. SE, 18: 1-64. Freud, S. (1923). The ego and the id. SE, 19: 1-66. Freud, S. (1925). Negation. Standard edition, 19, 235-239. Freud S (1917), Mourning and Melancholia, XVII (2nd ed.), Hogarth Press, 1955

Freud S (1919), A Child is Being Beaten, XVII (2nd ed.), Hogarth Press, 1955 Freud S (1920), "Group Psychology and Analysis of the Ego", Nature (2nd ed.), Hogarth Press, 1955, XVII (2784): 321, Bibcode:1923Nature.111T.321., doi:10.1038/111321d Breuer, J., & Freud, S. (1895). Studies on hysteria. Standard Edition 2: London. Fisher, S., & Greenberg, R. P. (1996). Freud scientifically reappraised: Testing the theories and 1therapy. John Wiley & Sons. Freud, S. (1961). The resistances to psycho-analysis. In The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume XIX (1923-1925): The Ego and the Id and other works (pp. 211-224). Tyson, L.(1999)-Chapter 2: Psychoanalytic Criticism. In Critical Theory Today: A User- Friendly Guide. New York and London: Garland Publishing, Inc. Forster, John (2006) [1872–1874]. Life of Charles Dickens. London: Diderot Publishing. ISBN 978-90-77932-03-2. Pickerel, Paul. (1967), Martin, ed. Great Expectations. Dickens: A Collection of Critical Essays. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. p. 158. Freud, S. (1925), "An Autobiographical Study", Standard Edition, vol. 20, Hogarth Press, 1959. Freud S (1899), The Interpretation of Dreams, McMillan, 1913. Arlow, Brenner (1964), Psychoanalytic Concepts and the Structural Theory, NY: International Universities Press. Freud S (1905), Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality, VII (2nd ed.), Hogarth Press, 1955 Freud S (1915), On Narcissism, XIV (2nd ed.), Hogarth Press, 1955.

Bi-Annual Research Journal “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. 45 NO. 1, 2020

DEPICTING MAGICAL REALISM IN MORRISON’S THE BLUEST EYE AND BELOVED THROUGH THE LENS OF POSTMODERNISM

Nagina Tanveer1 Saima Manzoor2 Dr Liaquat Sani3 Zainab Akram4

ABSTRACT

This study’s aim is to elaborate Magical Realism in Morrison’s opted novels The Bluest Eye and Beloved. These novels categorically elaborate postmodern culture by visualizing the experience and the condition of masses. In this regard the fusion of magic and reality occurs as a new medium of presenting false cultural beliefs and their outcomes upon society. The mixture of magic and reality is a new pattern of spotting those factors which have severe effects on the personality as well as psychology of individuals. The involvement of theme in this research, is the best source of describing content and analyzing cultural practices through Postmodern vision. Therefore, Morrison, the creative genius of Postmodern era, exposes, such an environment where magic with reality best describes hidden truths of society. Morrison’s mentioned novels provide the readers with the fine fusion of fantastic elements and real events which do not only deepen the emotions and sentiments of people rather give diversity in the explanation of cultural dogmas. ______1M.Phil Scholar, Department of English Literature, University of Balochistan 2 M.Phil Scholar, Department of English Literature, University of Balochistan 3Associate Professor, Department of Brahui, University of Balochistan. 4Assistant Professor, Department of English SBKWU, Quetta

Key words: Magical Realism, Toni Morrison, Postmodernism, Culture, Society INTRODUCTION Postmodernism has been discussed particularly in 1980s to 1990s, due to variations in literary fields. This era is known for its diversities and newness. Thus, different writers have seen Postmodernism as the celebration of new ideas, identification of new positions, and diversification of cultural ideologies. Every Postmodernist explains the perspective according to his/her interest in certain fields of literature. “For Some, Postmodernism signals a deplorable Commodification of all cultures, and the loss of tradition and value crucially embodied in the twentieth century in modernist works; for others, it has brought a release from a hidebound orthodoxy of high culture and welcome dispersal of creativity across the arts and new media, open now to new social groups” (Selden, Widdowson, & Brooker, 2005, p. 198). Toni Morrison is one of those renowned authors who has special place in the establishment of English literature. She has produced such commendable work which is admired world widely. Her work is unique in a sense that it does not only introduce new themes but by means of such themes certain problems of culture are elaborated. Such as, the themes of slavery, molestation, subjugation, motherhood, discrimination, class distinction, etc, have been discussed in her several novels of 20th century. As postmodern era is known for its diversity and multiplicity, therefore, it has multiple perspectives too. In this regard, John Sears (1993) in “Gothic Times: Feminism and Postmodernism in the novels of Angela Carter” explains about Postmodernism that it is: “A broad diversity of approaches, methods, objects and attitudes” (Sears, p.3). Finally, the present research highlights ‘Magical Realism’ through Postmodern lens in her work. Even her literary direction promotes and opens new accesses or ideas to offer new stuffs to uncover various cultural dogmas and how they affect human-beings. As per Ammar Rezaei (2010) defines Postmodernism cultural angle in the following words:

“Postmodernism can be described as a particular style of thought. It is a concept that correlates the emergence of new features and types of social life and economic order in a culture” (Rezaei, 2010). Accordingly, Morrison’s unique marvel is her picturization of cultural perspective with the help of ‘Magical Realism’. Even analysis of each work has been done cautiously, in order to explain her vision on cultural ideology. She diversifies her fictions otherwise so that people would be alert against false cultural beliefs. To clarify Morrison’s view points as postmodernist, it is important to explain Postmodern perspective as highlighted by Abdulazim Ali N. Elaati: “It’s liberation movement aimed at freeing man from the world of illusion and myths, and freeing it from the domination of mythology” (Elaati, 2016). Hence, this investigation is devised to scrutinize Postmodern cultural perspective by applying ‘Magical Realism’ on both selected novels. This research is valuable addition to the 20th century literature because it deals with fantastic elements along with ordinary events. The blend of magic and reality will further give diversity to its readers by exploring hidden realities of traditional happenings. The purpose of this research is to provide new theme to discover cultural opinions and their implication upon those people or classes who do not know the true meaning and importance of their own being. This research is simultaneously an important contribution for upcoming scholars not only to know about postmodern vision but also worthwhile in terms of Morrison’s thematic approach. In the selected novels she raises the curtain from cultural dogmas created by the influential social class for targeting credulity of lower class. The scope of this research is immense due to the organization of theme along with its application in different situations for depicting Postmodern cultural perspective. This perspective does not only broaden further concepts regarding social issues rather enriches fantastic elements with realistic setting as a new phenomenon of 20th century. The way Morrison’s work relates ‘Magical Realism’ to represent false cultural views, it will also capture the attention of forthcoming scholars to understand the function of magical realism.

This research is qualitative in nature and descriptive in approach. The examination of Morrison’s selected novels is done with the help of content analysis even thematic analysis is also applied to meet with the standards of qualitative research. As Catherine Dawson (2002) gives statement with examples of qualitative data analysis in which thematic and content analysis are also included: “There are many different types of qualitative data analysis. The method you use will depend on your research topic, your personal preference and the time, equipment……. Examples of qualitative data analysis include thematic analysis, comparative analysis, discourse analysis and content analysis” (Dawson, p. 112-128). ARGUMENT Morrison has received much appreciation, generating inspirational literary texts for many years. She is the one who has given her readers work like, The Bluest Eye, as an earliest finding, illustrates real story of a girl desiring blues eyes. “Here Morrison is not giving remedies to complex social issues, she is just opening the horizons for the readers to think and meditate” (Al Radaydeh & El Miniawi, 2014). Pecola Breedlove, the main character of the novel confronts harsh facts of life. She is the prey of such cultural ideologies where everything is possible by hook and crook. Morrison through the character of Pecola Breedlove presents such cultural realities which ruin the innocence of a child. She not only exposes false beliefs but also reveals the impact of such beliefs on the personality of child. The given concept of beauty is penetrated in Pecola’s mind by cultural practices. She has herself no idea that why she asks for blue eyes and how she can achieve the desired blue eyes. This notion of blue eyes has been instilled in children’s mind through the practices or traditional norms prevailing among the members of society and this is what Morrison (2016) in The Bluest Eye explains: “There is really nothing more to say- except why. But since why is difficult to handle, one must take refuge in how” (Morrison, 2016, p. 4). To describe ‘How’, she introduces readers to ‘Magical Realism’ which is an advance and transformative theme or aspect of Postmodernity.

Through ‘Magical Realism’ one can easily comprehend the cultural philosophy of hypocritical society. Even one can say that magical realism is the best source of revealing harsh factors of social class. Mariboho (2016) in his dissertation labels magical realism as: such stories where elements of fabulism, mythology and fairytales are involved best explain the hidden realities. Even they open the new doors of depicting reality of social, cultural, political activities. (Mariboho, 2016) Another character, in the mentioned novel, namely, Soaphead Church; whose name is mentioned on the kitchen’s window and the business cards which he has distributed among the people. For that reason, he is named by the people of town as Soaphead Church. (Morrison, p.165) One of the figures of cultural practices who introduces himself as a spiritualist. His first meeting with Pecola Breedlove exposes his hideous ambition to ruin gullible people by involving them in baseless cultural activities. “If you are overcome with trouble and conditions that are not natural, I can remove them; overcome spells, bad luck, and evil influence. Remember I am a true Spiritualist and Psychic Reader, born with power” (Morrison, p. 171). Morrison’s innovation is distinctive due to her idea of unmasking the cultural certainties with presentation of sensational theme like ‘Magical Realism’. She presents Soaphead Church as a realist and his fake designation (spiritualist) as magic. Because the qualities he claims, he possessed have magical elements. As Ignacio Lopez –calvo in his book Critical Insights; Magical Realism elucidates the same: “The task of the artist is not to create the marvelous through any technical means, but rather to perceive and bring forth the hidden cultural and historical marvels that have long been waiting to be discovered” (Calvo, 2014, p.7). In Pecola’s case, mentioned statements suits the best, when she asks for blue eyes from a common person. Her innocence or ignorance from cultural realities, is the evidence that she accidentally becomes the reason

71 to unmasking them. Her desire of getting blues eyes from Soaphead Church uncovers the conventional cultural beliefs that people have been adopting or practicing for years. She meets Soaphead Church and he invites her in. He courteously, provides his services to Pecola Breedlove and ask her how he can help her? Pecola’s folded hands show her confusion and frightening gesture, to get help from Soaphead Church concerning her desire. She says that she needs his help because she cannot go to school any more. after mustering up courage, she wishes for the blue eyes from Soaphead Church. (Morrison, p.171-172) After this conversation one sensible person can easily perceive that Soaphead Church and his practices are false. He himself does not know the meaning of Spirituality but through false practicing tries to fool other.

Morrison’s portrayal of magical characters in realistic settings intensify not only reader’s curiosity level to know the cultural sensation but also how people get credulous by these traditions which have no truth except to misleading them. The very next event in The Bluest Eye reveals the typical cultural exercise which Morrison portrays via magical realism: “Pecola turned to find the front door and saw Jesus looking down at her with sad and unsurprised eyes, his long brown hair parted in the middle, the gay paper flowers twisted around his neck” (Morrison, p.91). The concept of Jesus in the mind of Pecola may come from the daily rituals of church while and her innocent mind captures the image of Jesus through Jesus’ statue displayed in church. Here Morrison through imagination of Pecola describes well the false cultural beliefs inculcated in innocent minds. Because no one has ever seen Jesus and the image Pecola has capture is the result of those beliefs which have been circulating for centuries. J.K Rowling’s Fiction Harry potter and the Philosopher’s Stone deals with Magical Realism. And similar situation happens with Harry Potter when he first time confronts the keeper of the keys and grounds at Hogwarts. Again the concept of giant is given by the conventional ideologies of forefathers.

“A giant of man was standing in the doorway. His face was almost completely hidden by a long, shaggy mane of hair and a wild tangled beard” (Rowling, 2014, p.50). Similar situation can be seen in both novels where the concept of Jesus and as well as Giant is given by society and its cultural beliefs. Because neither giant nor Jesus have real images in this modern era, everything is created by mythologies or the western history of storytelling. The character of Pecola Breedlove and Harry Potter both present the real image of human beings but the scenario in which they have gone through possesses magical qualities. Morrison’s another novel Beloved (1989) has magical realism in it. This novel is not written in sequential manners rather night mares, memories and flash backs make the story interesting. The story revolves around 18 years old Sethe who lives in Kentucky with her family as slave. With the passage of time story takes a horrible turn and Sethe tries to kill her children in order to save them from the cruelty of tyrant people and slavery. Her worse experience of slavery compels her to cut her elder daughters’ throat. Years later the ghost of elder daughter (Beloved) becomes the reason of presenting ‘Magical Realism’. Here Morrison’s intention is to disclose the cultural truths of people believing, in the existence of ghost as realistic figure. “We have a ghost in here,” she said, and it worked. They were not a twosome anymore…. “So I hear,” he said. “But sad, your mama said. Not evil.” “No sir,” said Denver, “not evil. But not sad either.” “what then?” “Rebuked. Lonely and rebuked.” (Morrison, 2007, p.15-16). Exchange of ideas between characters reminds those who trust something which does not exist in reality but their traditional norms unconsciously have influenced their minds. Here Subhas Yadav (2016) comments with reference to magic and reality that people’s perception is unlike from the reality due to their involvement in the world of superstition: “If there is a ghost in a story of magical realism, the ghost is not a fantasy element but the manifestation of the reality of people who believe in and have ‘real’ experience of ghosts. Magical realist fiction depicts the real world of the

people whose reality is different from ours” (Yadav, p. 931). The way Morrison displays magical qualities in Beloved it shows that she tries to uncover those cultural realities where people believe strongly in the existence of supernatural whether they have experienced the existence of ghost or not. Every single textual line of Beloved best describes cultural influence over the personalities and minds of superstitious people. “Beloved came through the door, and they ought to have heard her tread, but they didn’t” (Morrison, p. 118). This is the quality of magical realist who knows how to represent magic without creating the hype of extraordinary and make it an ordinary act by depicting equitably. Ricci-Jane Evangeline Adams (2008) also says the same: “Magical realists are those who ‘….. attempt to capture what is strange and marvelous about ordinary life. She further elaborated; “Magical realism is a paradoxical form accommodating both the mundane and the extraordinary as equally valid” (Adams, 2008). Sethe and her daughter Denver experience the existence of ghost but Sethe’s response as compared to Denever is normal, whereas, Denver’s investigating tone gives alarming signal to readers. Denver notices something around her mother’s waist while praying. “I saw a white dress holding on to you,” Denver said. “White? Maybe it was my bedding dress. Describe it to me.” “Had a high neck. Whole mess of buttons coming down the back.” ….. You say it was holding on to me. How?” “Like you. It looked just like you. Kneeling next to you while you were praying” (Morrison, p. 42-43). Hence, it is appropriate to say that Morrison is magical realist who knows how to balance ordinary with extra ordinary by describing strange and marvelous within ordinary and day to day life routine. The way she shows magical realism as a part of conventional life as a valid element, it is the evidence that she is a magical realist establishing a unique pattern of analyzing texts. Even characters’ expressions and gestures reveal not only

74 cultural philosophy but also Morrison’s presentation of Magic with reality as magical realist. Sarah Anderson (2016) in her Article shares a new definition of Magical Realism that is fit to discuss in the revelation of truth which is another element of magical realism: “There is no ‘magic’ in the fantasy sense nor there is any ‘true’ realism. Instead there is only the fantastic substituting for the real in a search for the truth” (Anderson, 2016). Similarly, in Beloved, Sethe’s realization of ghost as her own daughter is the evidence of Sarah Anderson’s statement. Because ghost (Beloved) appearance as a member of family is the substitution of actuality which is wandering in search of truth. Sethe recognizes that the ghost is none other than her daughter beloved who came here to know the truth of her death. Thus, this is an additional superstition which is revealing by Postmodernist. “I’ll explain to her, even though I don’t have to. Why I did it. How if I hadn’t killed her she would have died and that is something I could not bear to happen to her” (Morrison, p.236). On one hand where Sethe is curious to tell her dead child the reality of her death, on the other, Beloved also wants to tell her mother that she is her dead daughter. In both the situations truth is revealed by magic and reality. Because Beloved as ghost possesses magical qualities, whereas, Sethe presents reality. “I AM BELOVED and she is mine. I see her take flowers away from leaves she puts them in a round basket the leaves are not for her.…. I am not separate from her there is no place where I stop her face is my own and I want to be there in the place where her face is and to be looking at it too a hot thing” (Morrison, p. 248). Thus, Magical Realism is not only a progressive theme of Postmodern era but also an important factor of highlighting culture and its superstitious elements covering every aspect of society containing conventional systems to target lower class.

CONCLUSION

This current research’s main objective is to inspect preferred Postmodern fiction. Morrison’s work expresses through Magical Realism the postmodern cultural vision. Pecola, Soaphead Church, Sethe, Denver and Beloved present those people who practice or get inclined by false cultural beliefs. They become the source of revealing these conventional ideas. This investigation allows its readers to discover human sufferings and their confrontation with various cultural ideologies. This research is advantageous for new researchers to know about postmodern attitude. Whereas, research findings will uncover the contribution of magic and reality as an exceptional phenomenon to unmasking the cultural realities of society too. Therefore, thematic and content analysis is planned to explain Morrison’s involvement in selected texts and meanwhile, how she identifies conservative practices and their influence on masses.

References

Adams, R. J. (2008). Seeing in Unordinary Ways: Magical Realism in Australian Theatre (Phd Thesis). A Gateway to Melbourn's Research.

Al-Radaydeh, L. A., & EL Miniawi, D. (2014). Toni Morrison Tar Baby Compared to Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe. American International Journal of Contemporary Research, Vol- 4, p. 94-98.

Anderson, S. (2016). A new Definition of Magical Realism: An Analysis of Three Novels as examples of Magical Realism in a Postcolonial Diaspora. Olivet Nazarene University Digital Commons @ Olivet, p.1-73.

Calvo, I. L. (2014). Critical Insights: Magical Realism. California: Grey House.

Dawson, C. (2002). Practical Research Methods: a user- friendly guide to mastering research techniques and projects. Uk: How To Books.

Elaati, A. A. (2016). Postmodernism Theory. Research Gate, p.1-6.

Mariboho, R. (2016). Practical- Magic: Magical Realism and the Possibality of Representation in Twenty First century Fiction and Film (Phd Dissertation). Arlington Texas: University of Texas at Arlington.

Morrison, T. (2007). Beloved. London: Vintage.

Morrison, T. (2016). The Bluest Eye. London: Vintage.

Rezaei, A. (2010). Post-Modernism Features in English Literature. International Journal on English Language and Literature, Vol- 2(1), p.16-20.

Rowling, J. K. (2014). Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone. London: Bloomsbury.

Sears, J. (1993). Gothic Times: Feminisim and Postmodernism in the novels of Angela Carter (Phd Thesis). University of Sheffied.

Selden, R., Widdowson, P., & Brooker, P. (2005). A Reader's Guide to Contemporary Literary Theory. Great Britain: Pearson Education.

Yadav, S. (2016). Magical Realism and Indian Aesthetics: An Attempt to Analse 'A Very Old Man with Enormous Wings'. Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research, Vol-2(5), p.929-936.

Bi-Annual Research Journal “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. 45 NO. 1, 2020

EFFECT OF ADVERTSING APPEAL ON CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR

Imran Khan Lecturer. Department of Media Studies, University of Balochistan, Quetta Muhammad Fahim Baloch Assistant professor, Department of Media Studies, University of Balochistan, Quetta. Abstract

This paper attempts to gauge the impact of advertising appeal on consumer behavior. The study explores that how emotional and rational advertising appeals effect the consumer behavior. To know the effects of advertising appeals two different samples were selected from Quetta city, first sample was shopkeepers who sales products and other sample were those who use those products. The response rate was 100% and results were analyzed statistically. It is revealed that advertising appeals has significant impact on consumer purchasing habits. The study finds out that adverting appeal has greater impact on female consumers than male. Both Rational and Emotional appeals play its role during purchase of products. During advertisement campaign social media and outdoor media plays important role for marketing. On the basis of data collected suitable recommendations are proposed. Introduction :

Advertising is a communication process of marketing which is paid, non-personal to promote certain idea, service or product. It is an audio, video and print form of communication which differs from Public Relations as in advertising is a paid service and message is controlled. It is communicated in traditional and non-traditional medium i.e. Print, Electronic and social Media. The real presentation of a specific informative message in a specific medium is known as advertising or Ad’s. Different

78 societies uses various types of symbols for promoting various ideas ,services and goods to divert mind of consumer toward certain product or brand. Whereas in modern age Ad’s became important way to promote service, idea or goods and uses communication strategies on buying demanding purchasing of consumer and users behavior (Arshad et al., 2014).

Advertising inform about the product to the consumer in such a way that users and customers are diverted toward product psychologically and emotionally. The information about idea attract toward rational appeal whereas the shape, structure and design of product packaging create awareness about brand on emotional behavior on the other side. Various promotion strategies are used to make one’s mind focused towards anything in such a way that if they don’t purchase the goods so their life will be considered incomplete without it and put customer in inferior complexion, sometimes consumers trapped into product marketing in such a way that even they don’t need it for using it in daily life still they purchase the product due to emotional appeal and rational used in different ways during advertising campaign by advertiser.

The main aim of advertising is to facilitate consumer choice and enables consumer and users to purchase good as per their wish, demand and budget. And by doing this customer are emotionally influenced by branding strategies in such a way that one cannot come out of such dilemma until they purchase the goods. However (Adelaar et al., 2003) explained that due to emotional responses behaviors are produced by three main factors such as Arousal & Pleasure, Excitement and Dominance.

Another component of influenceable Ad’s is that it creates emotional responses by psychological means to remind about brand consciousness, It encourages the competition and increase sales the most effective theory in advertising and marketing strategies is “Attitude Toward the Ad’s. When user watch or observe any product marketing campaign by any means i.e. electronic, print or social media so it developed idea and liking about brand and then comes the purchasing. (Goldsmith & Lafferty, 2002).

This research aims to see that advertising appeals used in various advertisement could emotionally or rationally divert the consumer to buy the product or brand. The hypothesis set in beginning of research was examined by the quantitative method of questioner asked from consumers and shopkeepers. This method will help out by analyzing that how consumers attracted toward certain brand by knowing their attitude and behavior while purchasing the product.

Background

The historic background of Ad’s can be traced down by ancient civilizations, the early Greeks and Egyptians civilizations used different tactics to increase sales value of the product. Even in slavery age, slaves were represented with beautiful tributes to highlight their demands in market and increase sales value by using both rational and emotional appeal to divert one’s mind toward specific idea or goods. According to (Behal & Sania, 2014) Egyptians used papyrus to make sales message and wall posters. Indian rock painting date back to 4000 BC. Copper printing plates is date back to Song Dynasty who make square sheets of it with rabbits logo,” Jinan Lau’s Fine needles shop, he made high quality needles by using high quality steel rods” such appeals are used even in ancient China advertising was oral, classical poetry in 7th to 11th century BC) In which a bamboo stick flute was used to sell sweets. (commercial advertising in China).

The major step was taken in industrializations times when world changed its mode of economy in 19th century. In Mid-19th century most of world renowned newspapers and magazine were full of Advertising, Ad’s even in 20th century adventures increased by using different tools shifting from traditional means of media to nontraditional means i.e. from newspapers and magazines to social media and electronic media.

Advertising appeal

By acquiring references from (Belch & Belch, 1998) defines advertising appeal as the extent of gaining users interest and boosting their

80 wish to expand their manufactured goods consumption and purchase intent. Advertising appeal is classified into emotional appeal and rational appeal.

In this paper, rational appeal is characterized as the level of rational appeal concentrating on logical purchase. The appeal gives consumers’ pursuits by giving reasons. It highlights that a manufactured goods or service is able to attain a function or concern which a buyer wants. In this article, emotional appeal is identified as the level of accelerating buyers’ buying intent by provoking their optimistic or pessimistic emotions. This study describes to (Lee, 1996), (Liu CP,1998), (Liu RL, 2001) and (Lin & Tu, 2006) in gauging advertising appeal. Four queries are used to assess if the objects are clearly conscious of the rational and emotional appeals being influenced in realistic advertisements. A seven point Likert scales is adapted to measure advertising appeal.

Appeals used in Advertising: In advertising campaign two main basic appeals are used named as emotional and rational appeal, both of which attract the mind of consumer towards product on different situations when it attracts on basis of usage ,so it rational appeal and when it attract on psychological means so its emotional appeal. Both appeal creates a positive image of product or brand on consumer mind (Dheeraj, 2014a). However according to (Adelaar et al, 2003) justified behavior of consumer generated by emotional reaction which are categorized by three main independent reasons . a) Pleasure: The circumstances in which individual feels good, joyful and glad in a certain condition.

b) Arousal: The degree of feeling sleepy, active, bored, active or excitement varies in various situations for different people.

c) Dominance: Its defined as, in a particular situation individual feelings , which are in free to act or controlled..

Long lasting effect of Advertising Appeals:

Advertising is such a campaign in which the after effects remains for long period of time on mind and attitude of consumers. Their appeal varies

81 from person to person and situation to situation, but the most common are emotional and rational appeal, both work differently in different situations on different individual, however the emotional appeal remain dominant most of time as it increase wishes and desires of some and arousal of desires which ends only when achieved by buying that concern product.

Effect of Advertising Appeal on Advertising Attitude:

Advertising is effective on every consumer, to what extent it effect the consumer behavior and attitude it will be decided by demand and buying behavior of consumer towards particular product or idea, due to which increase in production level of manufacturer about specific brand or product. If consumer is emotionally attached to product so their preference will also be based on their wish list other than other aspect of preference of product, based on usage of product in daily life (Dheeraj, 2014b).

A research conducted by Abideen-Ul-Zain & Saleem in 2011 investigated the relationship between variables i.e. emotional response & environmental reaction with purchasing actions of buyer. This research findings show normal linkage between the variables but when analysis was done in detail it showed the buying behavior of consumers are influenced directly by emotional behavior.

Another study was carried out by Mohsen Sadeghi, Meysam and others in 2015 aims to investigate effect of emotional and rational TV Ad’s on attitude of brands on customer. The result shows that there is direct, positive and significant relation between Rational appeal & attitude toward Ad’s and brand, however the effect of emotional appeal on attitude towards Ad’s was not supported.

A study by Khan & Shilpa in 2015 was conducted a study on consumer response in service Advertising. The results represent that advertising appeal have impact on type of service and advertising service. Experts used print media for this study. This study was done by qualitative, quantitative study and content analysis.

On the above review of literature, the hypothesis developed is Advertising appeal put impact on buying behavior of consumers.

Research Methodology

The data was divided into two halves the first were the consumers and the second half were the shopkeepers of various national brands. The consumer who uses the product based on advertising appeal in different students of departments of University of Balochistan in the Departments of Media Studies, Commerce, MBA and Psychology as media studies department deals with advertising, commerce and MBA department deals with marketing strategy and Psychology department relates to emotional and rational appeal due to which they were selected and the shopkeepers which include famous brands of Pakistan of food items, dresses and electronics along with services as the population of this study. And then data was analyzed through statistical method of SPSS.

Instrument and Data Collection Technique.

The data gained was all based on structured questions with nominal and ordinal scale. Distribution of all the questionnaires among students (consumer) by researcher personally In a defined areas.

Data Presentation.

1. Your Brand represent which gender product

Valid Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Female 3 12 12 12

Male 1 4 4 16

Both A & B 21 84 84 100

Total 25 100. 100

The above table shows the ratio brand gender i.e. that which brand is used by which gender. 12% product were of female, 04% products were of male and 84% product was used by both males and females

2. Does your brand advertised in any medium?

Valid Frequency Percentage Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Radio 1 4 4 4

Social Media 11 44 44 48

Print Media 1 4 4 52 Newspapers & Magazines

Outdoor Media 1 4 4 56 Billboards & Digital Boards

All of the above 10 40 40 96

Tv 1 4 4 100

Total 25 100 100

The above tables shows that 44% of ads are advertised on social media where as 4&% on print media, 4% on outdoor media and 40% percent brands uses all mediums to advertised its product. 3. Do your brand use rational or emotional appeal to make your brand more attractive toward the consumer?

Valid Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Yes 25 100 100 100

The above table shows that does various brands used emotional or rational appeal while marketing their product in advertisement. The result was 100% yes as all shopkeepers agreed that they do use such appeal.

4. Which appeal is more useful to attract the consumer toward the product?

Valid

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Rational Appeal 10 40 40 40

Emotional Appeal 15 60 60 100

Total 25 100 100

This graph shows that out of Advertising appeals which appeal attract more towards product purchase. 40% product purchase was due to rational appeal, 60% product purchase was due to emotional appeal.

5. What is the feedback from your customer after purchasing the [product, are they satisfied with the advertising appeal used for the product?

Valid Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Yes 25 100 100 100

This graph show the feedback of customers after purchasing behavior. That are they satisfied with the product what they have observed in advertisement. The result showed 100%,which means that advertising appeal used have positive impact.

Tabulation and graph shows the data from consumers.

1.Please Specify your gender

Valid Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Female 120 60 60 60

Male 80 40 40 100

Total 200 100 100

The above table shows that which gender consumer are more attracted by advertising appeal used in advertisement. The graph shows that 60 % females and 40% males are attracted.

2. Do you focus on Advertising campaign during your favorite program?

Valid Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Yes 200 100 100 100

The above table shows that 100% consumers focuses on advertisement while using any medium

3. Which Medium Advertisement attract you more toward buying behavior of special product / Brand

Valid Frequenc Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent y

Electronic 50 25 25 25

Print Media 20 10 10 35 Social Media 130 65 65 100

Total 200 100 100

The above table represents the buying behavior of consumers after watching advertisement marketing on any of the mediums. About 25% consumers are diverted due to electronic media, 10% due to print media and 65% due to social media.

4. Do you know what is advertising appeal?

Valid Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Yes 180 90 90 90

No 20 10 10 100

Total 200 100 100

The above table shows that how many consumers do know about advertising appeal used in advertising marketing campaign .90% said yes they know it and 10% shows they don’t know it

5. Within advertising which attracts you more

Valid Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Brand Name 20 10 10 10

Music 10 5 5 15

Information about 70 35 35 50 product

Advertising Appeal 100 50 50 100

Total 200 100 100

The above tables shows that ,within advertising which thing attract the consumer more towards the brand. Out of 4 categories 10% attraction was due to brand name, 5% percent due to music added in advertising, 35% due to product whole information and 50% percentage due to appeals used in advertising campaign. 6. When any advertisement comes in any medium does it motivate you to buy the product?

Valid Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Yes 200 100 100 100

This graph shows that does advertisement campaign motivate you (user) to buy the certain product, the result in yes was 100%.

This tables graph shows that while advertising marketing campaign in any medium which thing attracted them more while purchasing the product. 10% goes for brand name. 5% consumer go on music played in advertisement, 35% people observe the product information and 50% focuses on advertising appeals used in it.

. 2. What sort of advertising appeal you more toward specific brand

Valid Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Rational Appeal 50 25 25 25

Emotional Appeal 50 25 25 50

Both A & B 100 50 50 100

Total 200 100 100

This graph shoes that which advertising appeal attracted you more toward product out of three categories. 25% consumers attracted by rational appeal, 25% by emotional appeal and 50% by both appeals.

Result and Discussions

Advertising campaign helps out consumers to divert to concern brand and pursue them to purchase certain products. Result gathered from both consumer and shopkeepers shows that emotional and rational appeals both put positive impact on mind of consumer to purchase certain brand or product. Majority females were more focused towards the brands. There was consensus between consumers and shopkeepers on the view that most of shopkeepers think that they there? consumer come to buy product due to quality which they show in rational appeal during advertising campaigns, whereas the consumers argued that most of the time they are attracted toward the advertisement due to emotional appeal and are influenced by the ads only then they buy product. During advertising campaign the consumers are mostly influenced either by social media or

90 outdoor media, as it is an easy way to convey message to the target audience.

Findings

1. Among both genders, females are more influenced by advertising appeal, however to make high earnings various brands have made such products which could be used by both genders 1. The data revealed that social media plays an important role in marketing and due to social media more people are attracted towards product. 2. The most appealing tool identified is billboard and which takes consumer to the shops. 3. The study also dugout that rational appeals are more ethical then emotional appeals. 4. Emotional appeal is more applicable to meet the needs of consumers of middle and lower middle class. 5. The study also finds out that advertising appeal makes consumers brand conscious. Suggestions

1. As per findings social media play an important role in advertising campaign, but what about those consumers who live in urban areas. How they are informed and influenced by advertising campaigns.

2. Out of city area where there are no outdoor media how they get attracted towards the certain brand and how can they be aware of certain products.

3. With reference to advertising ethics most of the advertisements on social and electronic media do not focus on ethical standard while advertising.

4. How economy put impacts on purchasing behavior specially of the middle class.

REFRENCES :

1) Abideen, Zain-Ul., & Saleem, Salman. (2011). Effective advertising and its influence on consumer buying behavior

2) Belch, GE., & Belch, MA. (1998). Advertising and Promotion. New York: McGraw-Hill.

3) Behal, Vikas., & Sareen, Sania. (2014). "Guerilla Marketing: A Low Cost Marketing Strategy". International Journal of Management Research and Business Strategy. 3

4) Chu, FG. (1996). Strategy Analysis of Advertising Rational Appeals Strategy. J. Adv. Public Relate., 8: 1-2

5) Commercial Advertising in China".(2019) Retrieved on 21st December 2019, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertising.

6) Dheeraj, Ram.(2014). Impact of advertising on customer purchase behavior in pharmaceuticals (PhD thesis). Department of Business Administration University of Lucknow.

7) Goldsmith, R,. & Lafferty, B. (2002), "Consumer response to Web sites and their influence on advertising effectiveness", Internet Research, Vol. 12 No. 4, pp. 318- 328. https://doi.org/10.1108/10662240210438407.

8) Arshad, Muhammad Hafiz, Noor, Mudasar,. Noor, Nabila., Ahmad, Wasim., Javed, Sara., (2014). Impact of Effective Advertising on Consumer Buying Behavior: A Study of Mobile Phone Purchasers in Pakistan.

9) In Service Advertising ITM University, Gurgaon, India.Retrived from (www.msaes.org/article_10102_4ec58f8885eff1b6667935ae040b e078.pdf) viewed on 19th November 2017 on 11:16PM

10) Khan, Rubi., Shilpa, Sindhu., (2015) Consumer response in service Advertising.

11) Lee, KY., (1996). The Effects of Message Involvement, Advertiser Credibility and Advertising Appeals on Advertising Communication Effectiveness. Master Degree Thesis of Institute of Management Science, National Chiao Tung University

12) Liu, C,P., (1998). The Influence of Different Product Advertising Appeals, Involvement and High vs. Low Self-Monitor on Advertising Effectiveness, Master Degree Thesis of Institute of Management Science, National Chiao Tung University

13) Liu, R,L., (2001) The Impact of Message Appeals, Positive and Negative Message, Source of Message Credibility. Need for Cognition of Consumers on Advertising Effect. Master Degree Thesis of Institute of Business Administration, National Cheng Kung University.

14) Lin, L,Y., Tu, K,M., (2006). The Influence of Brand Concept Image and Advertising Appeal on Advertising Effects: The Moderate Effect of Involvement Level. Tamsui Oxf. J. Econ. Bus., 15: 77-108

15) Nigeria, Adelaar., T, Charig., S, Lanchnolorfer., K,M., Lee, B., & Morimoto, M., (2003). Effect of Media formats on emotion and impulse buying behavior. Journal of information Technology. Marketing insight lecture note post graduate school university of Calabar,

16) Sadeghi, M, Fakharyan., M, Dadkhah, R., khodadadian, R, M., Vosta, Nasrolhi., Jafari Mahdi. (2015). (Investigating the Effect of Rational and Emotional Advertising Appeals of hamrahe aval mobile operator on attitude towards advertising and brand attitude (case study: student users of mobile in the area of Tehran).Iran & Azerbyijan International Journal of Asian Social Science Vol 5 April 2015. AESS Publications Retrieved from https://ideas.repec.org/a/asi/ijoass/2015p233.

Bi-Annual Research Journal “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. 45 NO. 1, 2020

ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF RED MEAT CONSUMPTION PATTERN IN QUETTA, BALOCHISTAN GENDER BASED STUDY

Dr. Shahida Habib Alizai Assistant Professor, Gender Development study, University of Balochistan, Quetta

Dr Ghazala Umer Bagahl Lecture Sindh Development Studies Centre, University of Sindh, Jamshoro,

Dr. Shahab -UD- Din Assistant Professor, Department of Zoology, University of Balochistan, Quetta

Abstract

The research was conducted in Balochistan to analyze the economic point of view of red meat consumption pattern in Quetta, Balochistan, Pakistan. Cross-sectional research design was used in present investigation and focused the mutton production. Face-to-face communication was used form 180 respondents in three tehsils. The data contained quantitative and qualitative information. The data thus collected on the various variables were analyzed as per Shepherd (1962), Qureshi (1974), Acharya and Agarwal (1970) and Siddiqui et al., (1983). Descriptive statistics technique was carried out so as to observe the frequencies and mean scores of diverse parameters. The findings revealed that total expenditure was denoted as 279035, 181413 and 226960 in Quetta, Kuchlak and Panjpai tehsils respectively. The total input: output ratio were 1 : 1.25, 1 : 1.53 and 1 : 1.18 in Quetta, Kuchlak and Panjpai tehsils respectively. However, in this

94 regard, the overall average and ration was observed 1: 1.32 in Quetta district. The finding further shows that on investigation that cost benefit ratio was 1: 0.96 in the three tehsils of Quetta district. The data was revealed that the mutto farming animal retailers got maximum benefits 1: 0.90. Therefore it was recommended that the marketing of the livestock based on proper and well scientific lines about suitable occupation of red mutton. Mutton producers should be trained by the government or livestock personnels so as to earn their income in an effective manner. Mutton marketplace and working group should be planned intended for worth and value about price fascination. The distance between dairy farm, sheep farm and cattle farm should be minimized and market roads from dairy farm should build or paved so that make the easy access towards the marketplace to farm animals respondents.

Keywords: Quetta, Balochistan, economic analysis red meat, consumption pattern

1.1 Introduction Domestic animals rearing and livestock sector has a significant job in advancing financial improvement of rural masses in the rustic regions of the country. About 8 million families are engaged with animals rearing or activities and earning income more than 35% from domestic animals rearing as a livestock profession. Livestock was the cause of revenue of mainstream people, in this regard; the livestock sector played an imperative role to reduce the extreme poverty in the country and major source of foreign exchange earnings (GoP, 2018-19). During 2017-18, animals rearing as livestock sector have contributed 58.9% to the horticulture sector with in term of value added and 11.1% to the GDP contrasted with 58.9% and 11.3% during the relating time frame a year ago, individually. Net worth expansion of domesticated animals at consistent cost factor of 2005-06 has expanded from Rs. Rs. 1,377 billion (2017-18), that indicating an expansion of 3.8 percent over a similar period a year ago. The population development, rapid urbanization that increments the per capita income and also demand of livestock sector in the country (GoP, 2018-19).

The general livestock improvement policy rotates around nurturing "private segment driven advancement with public sector aiming at empowering the livestock sector through the effective strategy intercessions". The administrative measures are planned for improving per unit profitability by improving the livestock sector, best rearing practices, utilization of balanced diet and controlling animals diseases so that promoted the food security and improve the livelihood option of the rural masses as well as rustic financial elevate with an effective mode (GoP, 2018-19). Throughout the years, the domesticated animals subsector has outperformed the harvest sub sector as the greatest supporter of significant worth including farming. By and by it contributes 60.5 percent to the general rural. The significance of domesticated animals part can be acknowledged from the way that it isn't just a wellspring of outside trade profit by contributing around 3.1% to the absolute fares, yet in addition a wellspring of 35-40% of pay for more than 8 million provincial families and giving them nourishment security by enhancing high value protein of creature starting point (GoP, 2018-19).

1.2 Objectives 1. To determine the cost, returns and profitability of mutton production. 2. To develop the recommendations about mutton fabrication in the study area.

1.3 Methods This research is conducted so that measure to investigate the mutton production of in Quetta, Balochistan. Present research pinpoints and concentrated on focusing the mutton production in Quetta, Balochistan.

1.3.1 Research design: Keeping in the view of objective of the study the cross-sectional design was applied in present investigation.

1.3.2 Study area: This research was ultimately based on the primary information. In this regard, the information was gathered by using face-to-

96 face communication was used form the 180 respondents of Quetta three tehsils (Battesse, 1992; and Binuomote et al., 2008).

1.3.3 Sample size: The sample size comprised the mutton producers. A total sample was 180 respondents among them 60 respondents were selected from the Quetta tehsil, 60 respondents were selected from the Panjpai tehsil and 60 respondents were selected from the Kuchlak tehsil by using the multi-stage sampling.

1.3.4 Data collection: However, the primary information was gathered by the detailed questionnaire so as to get the perceived perception of the mutton respondents in the Quetta district.

1.3.5 Questionnaire development: Keeping in the view objectives of the study the survey questionnaire was developed so as to capture the insight of the mutton respondents from the tree tehsils of the Quetta district (Memon, et al., 2015). However, in this regard, the questionnaire included the imperative series of questions pertaining to the red mutton production.

1.3.6 Data analysis: The information as a data was contained the quantitative and qualitative information.

1.3.7 Method of analysis of data: The data thus collected on the various variables were analyzed as per following formula:

1. Price spread: were computed according to the method outlined by the “Acharya and Agarwal (1970)”. Ps = Pr – Pp Ps = indicates value extend Ps = Standard for value expected Pp = Exemplified the value compensated

1. “Estimation of marketing margins was tabulated after Shepherd (1962)”.

Mm = (Am x 10) + SP

Mm = Denotes the marketing margin Sp = Represent setting margin Lw = Displayed %

1. “Net margins were calculated as suggested by Qureshi (1974)”.

Nm = Am - Mc Nm = Signified the net margins Am = Demonstrated the complete margins Mc = Set to developed the promotion and marketing

1. Markup was tabulated according to the method draw round through “Qureshi (1974)”.

Mp = (Am x 100) + Pp Mp = Indicates markup Am = Stands designed for complete margins Pp = Symbolized value compensated 100 = Symbolized %

1. “Breakdown of consumer’s rupee was calculated after Qureshi (1974)”.

Bder = Nm + Pp Bder = Symbolized breakdown consumers rupees Nm = Stands in favor of net margins Rp = Demonstrates put up for sale value

1. “Cost-benefit ratio (*BCR) was tabulated according to the method as described by Siddiqui et al., (1983)”.

Cbr = Nr + Tc Cbr = Represent cost benefit ratio Nr = Stands for net returns Tc = Denotes the cost *BCR= Cost-benefit ratio

The information was analyzed based on the aforementioned formula.

1.4 Descriptive statistics Descriptive statistics technique was carried out so as to observe the frequencies and mean scores of diverse parameters as well as price of input and outputs dynamics. 1.5 Results Table:1, Net returns obtained by mutton farmers in Quetta district.

Areas Average Cross rev: Tot: Net retu: / flock size (Rs.) A expen: B flock (Rs.) A- B=C Qta 75 349840.36 279035 70805.36 Kuchlak 72 278316 181413 96903 Panjpai 74 269161 226960 42201 Total 221 897317.36 687404 209909 Per 1 3110.44 949.25 animals 1.6 Net return The data about the net return bot by the mutton producer is presented in table-1. It was observed that the total net returns obtained by the mutton farmers in Quetta district. The total expenditure was denoted as 279035, 181413 and 226960 in Quetta, Kuchlak and Panjpai tehsils respectively. While the Net return/ flock (Rs.) found out 70805.36, 96903 and 42201 in Quetta, Kuchlak and Panjpai tehsils respectively.

Table:2, Input, output ratio observed form mutton farmers in Quetta district.

Areas Average Total increase Tot: exp: Tot: inp: flock size (Rs.) A (Rs.) B outp: ra: A+B Quetta 75 349840.38 279035 1 : 1.25 Kuchlak 72 278316 181413 1 : 1.53 Panjpai 74 269161 226960 1 : 1.18

Total 221 897317.36 687404 1 : 1.96 Mean ------Per 1 4060.00 3110.44 1 : 1.32 animals 1.7 Input output ratio

The data was tabulated so as to observe the input output ratio of mutton farmers in Quetta district as shown in table-2. The total input: output ratio were 1 : 1.25, 1 : 1.53 and 1 : 1.18 in Quetta, Kuchlak and Panjpai tehsils respectively. However, in this regard, the overall average and ration was observed 1: 1.32 in Quetta district. Table:3, Producer perception about *BCR in Quetta. Areas Ave: Net ret: / flo: Tot: expen: / *BCR, flo: si: (Rs.) A flo: (Rs.) B A+B = C Quetta 75 70805.36 279035 1 : 0.25 Kuchlak 72 96903 181413 1 : 0.53 Panjpai 74 42201 226960 1 : 0.18 Total 221 209909 687404 1 : 0.96 Mean ------Per 1 949.81 3110.44 1 : 0.32 animals Note= *BCR= Cost-benefit ratio 1.8 Producer/ farmer BCR or the “cost benefit ratio” *BCR was applied in order to observe farm effectiveness. It was calculated by the method as used by the Siddiqui (1983) as shown in table-3. It knows how to plan through isolating net margin as per flock. The finding reveals that on investigation that *BCR 1: 0.96 in three tehsils of Quetta district. Table:4, Cost benefit ratio on mutton in Quetta district. Areas Ne: retu: Expenditure *BCR (X) (Y) (X/Y=Z) Mutton farmers 949.81 3110.44 1 : 0.30 Wholesaler 27.62 80.38 1 : 0.34 Middlemen 61.15 86.85 1 : 0.70 Retailer/ final 81.64 90.36 1 : 0.90 seller

100

Note= *BCR= Cost-benefit ratio The cost benefit ratio was calculated in table-4. The data revealed that the mutto farming animal retailers got maximum benefits 1: 0.90 .

1.9 Conclusion and recommendations

On the basis of present investigation it was concluded that all respondents got better returns for the business of mutton in three tehsils of Quetta district. However, due to the advantages situation the Quetta market got the higher consumption potential and reduced the transportation charges. Therefore it was recommended that the marketing of the livestock would be urbanized or developed based on scientific lining for better mutton marketing. Mutton producers should be trained by the government or livestock personnels so as to earn their income in an effective manner. Mutton marketplace and working group should be planned about price fascination. The dairy farm to marketplace infrastructure should be built or paved in an attempt to make the unproblematic access towards the marketplace to farm animal’s farmers.

101

References Achaya, S., S and Agarwal, N., L. (1987). Importance of marketing study, Agriculture Marketing in India. Oxford and IBH publishing Co, 66 Janpath. New Delhi 110001:317.

Battesse, G., E. (1992). Frontier Production Functions and Technical Efficiency: A Survey of Empirical Applications in Agricultural Economics. Agricultural Economics 7: 185-208.

Binuomote, S., O, Ajetomobi, J., O, Ajao, A., O. (2008). Technical efficiency of poultry egg producers in Oyo State of Nigeria. International journal of poultry science 7:1227-1231.

GoP, (2018-19). Pakistan Economy survey (2018-19). Finance Division Government of Pakistan. Economic Advisor's Wing, Government of Pakistan, Islamabad.

Memon, I., N, Noonari, S, Asif, M, Shah, S., T, Peerzado, M., B. (2015). Economic Analysis of Poultry Egg Production in Quetta District Balochistan. J Fisheries Livest Prod 3: 137. doi:10.4172/2332- 2608.1000137.

Qureshi, M., T. (1974). Estimation of marketing margins and measurements of seasonal price variation of selected agricultural commodities in Sindh province Pakistan. Final report 11=16 Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology, Sindh Agriculture College, Tando Jam Pakistan.

Shepherd, W. A. (1996). A Guide to Marketing Costs and How to Calculate Them. Marketing and Rural Finance Service, Agricultural Services Division. FAO. Rome.

Siddiqui, S., A. Ansari, N., A. Ansari, A., Q. (1983). Economic analysis of small animals farming in Sindh province of Pakistan Goat Farming: 89.

102

Bi-Annual Research Journal “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. 45 NO. 1, 2020

Evolution of strategic leadership practices and its impact on organizational performance in Pakistan’s SMEs

Dr. Saud Taj, Pro Vice Chanellor, University of Balochistan, Quetta. Bilal Zulfiqar, Glascow Caledonian University London Ashraf Nasir Lecturer Institute of Education and Research, University of Balochistan, Quetta. Abstract The business environment has changed dramatically as it modernizes in the recent years especially in developing countries small businesses are increasingly threatened. Most of the newly introduced factors such as technology, trade policies, competitiveness and so on, are not supportive to the SMEs. The capacity to enhance performance is a learnable organizational competence. In order to achieve a high level of organizational performance the role of effective strategic leadership is very important. The best way to survive and thrive in the pharmaceutical industry is to develop strategic leadership skills to achieve better organizational performance to exist successfully the growing challenges of the 21st century. Therefore, keeping in view the lack of research on the topic of strategic leadership in Pakistan's SMEs, contradictory evidence about the role of leadership in organizational performance requires further need to explore the strategic leadership role in pharmaceutical industry in the context of enhancing organizational performance. The main purpose of the study is to evaluate contemporary strategic leadership practices in SMEs within the Pakistan pharmaceutical industry and its impact on organizational performance. Qualitative data collection methods were applied to collect information. Semi-structured interviews were conducted using fifteen broader themes. A sample of twelve mid to senior level management staff were interviewed

103 over a period of three weeks. Interviews were tape recorded and transcribed verbatim in word document before data was thematically analysed. Effective leadership is necessary for a good organizational performance in the pharmaceutical SMEs of Pakistan. It was extrapolated that effective leadership lacks in long-term vision, inappropriate human resource management, inappropriate policies, standards and procedures, ineffective system of monitoring and evaluation coupled with technological issues. This might have resulted in low performance of the firms. However, there is a growth opportunity due to increase in the demand in Pakistan. Strategic leadership needs to develop and use assessment tools, criteria, standards and policies to assess threats and opportunities. Emphasize should be put on to develop standards for measuring and controlling organizational outcomes along with developing policy and plans to combat and adjust in changing external environment. Ethical performance should be recognized and appreciated. Introduction and Background In existing highly complex and competitive business environment, effective utilization of resources is fundamentally important for success that creates multiplier effects (Doherty & Terry, 2013). In furtherance of achieving and maintaining competitive advantage, human resources are crucial for organization (Dobre, 2012). Strategic leaders are the building blocks of human resource (Suresh, 2012). Bacon and Hoque (2005) argue Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) holds the most crucial positions in the economic growth of any country, through income generation and employment creation (Lange et al., 2000). According to Raziq (2014), regardless of their economic importance SMEs in Pakistan are suffering from various shortcomings, which include inadequate guidance on their future actions, whereas government’s ever-changing standards and policies to support the sector also proved to be ineffective to bring any long-term positive impact. Pharmaceutical SMEs face complex issues like rapid modernisation in technology, government policies, lack of resources, globalization, and consumer expectations that grow more challenging day by day (Zhang & Zhang, 2010) coupled with a range of leadership challenges (Leslie & Palmisano, 2010).

104

Majority of the experts believe that effective strategic leadership practices are one of the major contributors to cope such challenges in the companies' performance (Krupp & Howland, 2013), therefore keeping in view the 21st century growing challenges it is necessary to explore the effective strategic leadership role in organizational performance (Hitt et al. 2010). At one side, this would make pharmaceutical industry more competitive in the international markets on the other side this will further enhance its contribution in the economic development of Pakistan. Therefore, based on an analytical review of current strategic leadership research and practice in SMEs this study contributes to the current strategic leadership research in view to enhance organizational performance. The business environment has changed dramatically as it modernizes in the recent years mainly in developing countries small businesses are increasingly threatened due to merger and acquisition of large business (Gosenpud & Vanevenhoven, 2011). Most of the newly introduced factors are not support the SMEs (Bashar, 2012). Increasing globalization trend and rapid advancement in the field of technology further increased the uncertainty, turbulence, and competitive environment in which organizations are operating. The capacity to improve performance is a learnable organizational competence (Owen et al. 2001). According to Arslan and Staub (2013), organizations must consistently enhance performance to meet the growing challenges of the highly competitive markets. Most of the preceding literature emphasise the importance of leadership role for enhancing organizational performance (e.g. Peterson et al. 2003; Boal & Hooijberg 2000). However, some erstwhile studies hold contradictory views about the role of leadership for achieving organizational performance. According to Meindl et al. (1985), leadership role holds limited importance for achieving the performance of organizations. Whereas, contrary to the above study Peterson et al. (2003) and Finkelstein & Hambrick (1996), suggest that in order to achieve a high level of organizational performance the role of leadership is critical. According to Ireland and Hitt (2005), effective strategic leadership practices can play a pivotal role in increasing performance while operating in unpredictable, volatile and turbulent environment. Hagen et al. (1998)

105 investigate the six practices determining strategic direction, exploiting and maintaining core competences, developing human capital, sustaining effective corporate culture, emphasising ethical practices and establishing strategic control for effective strategic leadership evolved by Hitt, et al. (1995). Ireland et al. (2012) reviewed and represented five actions which are, namely: determining strategic directions, establishing balanced organizational controls, effectively managing the firm’s resources portfolios, sustaining an effective organizational culture and emphasizing ethical practices; of effective strategic leadership by merging two actions exploiting and maintaining core competencies and developing human capital into effectively managing the firm's resource portfolio. These five components are critically examined in chapter 2. The Islamic Republic of Pakistan with an estimated 183 million population is world's sixth most populous country (World Population Review, 2014). According to Radam and Abdullah (2008), SMEs referred to as the backbone of the economy and holds a significant role for the development of any country' economy. It is extremely important to ensure development and growth of SMEs in order to achieve employment generation and economic activity in a country, as has been witnessed during the course of economic development in many Newly Industrialized Countries (NICs) in Asia, SMEs have a pivotal role to play in alleviating poverty and social integration (Naveed, 2012). This stands stronger in case of Pakistan where SMEs constitute almost 90% of all the enterprises and occupy a substantial role in the economy of Pakistan (SMEDA 2013). Challenges related to development of efficient and viable SMEs are numerous (Muhammad et al., 2010); varying between urban and rural areas, sectors, regions, and even between individual enterprises within a sector. Nevertheless, a range of constraints such as lack of capital, technology, human resources and so on, are common to all SMEs. Pharmaceutical Industry is one of the leading industries in Pakistan, which consist of approximately four hundred registered companies (Pakmission-UK 2014). The pharmaceutical industry of Pakistan is divided between small and medium enterprises and large size multinational and local companies, which together fulfil almost seventy percent of the Pakistani pharmaceutical demand. There are thirty multinational

106 companies operational in the country, which hold 53% market share while the remaining 47% held by national pharmaceutical companies (Jamshed et al. 2009). According to Hunger and Wheelen (2003), the organizations that are practicing strategic management mostly outperform those that do not. The absence of long-term planning and strategic thinking usually leads towards the business failure of SMEs (Analoui & Karami, 2003). According to Dess et al. (2010), small organizations can compete and grow with a fast pace by adopting strategic management practices compare to large organizations with no strategic leadership opportunities. Furthermore, Leslie and Palmisano (2010) presented the state of pharmaceutical sector which, suggest that there are significant gaps in many key leadership capabilities that are critical to the success in an organization. Hence, effective and qualified strategic leadership is required to tackle the issues related to strategic thinking and planning, which also helps to align strategic direction of the company. McGrath and Macmillan (2000) emphasised the role of effective strategic leaders that have to perform during uncertain conditions and suggest that they must seek opportunities in a volatile environment and apply strategic thinking skills that help them to utilize those opportunities. Strategic leaders that operates in old- fashioned ways will produce failure compare to effective strategic leadership who are more innovative will take the best human resource, markets, and even the assets of the organization with ineffective strategic leaders (Hamel, 2007). Therefore, the only way to survive and thrive for pharma organizations is to develop such critical strategic leadership skills to achieve above average organizational performance and face the growing challenges of 21st century like global competition and struggling economy. Therefore, keeping in view lack of research on the topic of strategic leadership in Pakistan's SMEs, contradictory findings about the role of leadership in organizational performance and developing countries' pharmaceutical SMEs aforementioned issues indicate the further need to explore the strategic leadership role in pharmaceutical industry in view to enhance organizational performance. Suzanne and Charles (2013) suggest

107 the further need of study to explore the relationship between organizational performance and strategic leadership. Furthermore, majority of the erstwhile research have focused on the role of effective strategic leadership within the church context (e.g. Pearse, Noel J 2011), Public service (Schutte & Barkhuizen 2014), and in Telecommunication sector of Pakistan (Sajjad & Sameera 2011). That is why very limited research available about the relationship between strategic leadership and organization performance in the context of pharmaceutical industry. The main aim of current study is to evaluate contemporary strategic leadership practices in SMEs within the Pakistan pharmaceutical industry and its impact on organizational performance. The focus of this research is to explore the contemporary strategic leadership practices in pharmaceutical SMEs in Pakistan and its impact on organizational performance. Therefore, the research aims at understanding the specific role that these strategic leaders practice and their effect on the performance. Furthermore, this research while evaluating current strategic leadership practices will compare it with effective strategic leadership actions as describe by Ireland et al. (2012). This is discussed in detail from theoretical point of view in second chapter. Literature Review The term leadership has been described in numerous contexts from corporate point of view (e.g. Dillon, Back & Manz, 2014) to political point of view (Hartley & Benington 2011). Regardless of many theoretical formulations and theories of the leadership concept, still there is a disaccord on one comprehensive definition (Aydogdu & Asikgil 2011). However, Summerfield (2014) presented a simple definition of leadership as "make things better" for better understanding and further development. The meaning of leader is defined in different literatures; however, the collective meaning of a leader by Naoum (2001) is well established which is as following; “A leader is the person who possesses certain abilities and traits to distinguish from other people based on its qualities”. According to Nahavandi (2006), the core purpose of leadership is to influence groups and individuals within an organization, whereas effective

108 leadership practices increase group and individual performance (Hui et al, 2007). However, for a leader, it is essential to posses certain abilities to perform effective leadership practices, which helps them to be more goal driven, performance and task oriented. Strategic Leadership In the last few years, business environment especially for SMEs has changed dramatically because of majority of the innovations (Radas & Bozic, 2009), fluctuating economic situation, and growing complex business environment (Taipale-Eravala et al.2014). Furthermore, increasing globalization trend and rapid advancement in the field of technology enhanced uncertainty, turbulence, and competitive environment in which organizations are operating (Awuah & Amal, 2011). In the past due to numerous errors strategic leadership has been unsuccessful to tackle such issues in many organizations (Hitt et al. 2010). However, if we manage to identify, understand that what exactly effective strategic leadership is and how it could help there will be great opportunities in the future. The word "strategy" (Italian strategia; French strategie) is derived from the Greek word strategos, which means "general" (Luttwak, 1987). The definition had evolved with the passage of time, according to Rowe (2001), strategic leadership is a process which effect others to deliberately make routine decisions that maintain short-term financial stability of the organization, while increasing the long-term viability. Hitt et al (2005) emphasize that strategic leadership core propensity is to operate organization's operations effectively with the potential to attain this through pragmatic decision-making and candid attitude. One of the prime responsibilities of strategic leadership is to initiate change for the sake of viable future of the organization (Thomas et al., 2004). Strategic change can be implemented by the essence of leadership ability to maintain flexibility, envision, anticipation, and empowering others (Hitt et al., 2005). Excellent communication skills is one of the most critical task for an effective strategic leader, instead of controlling information, it requires sharing information at the strategic level for effective communication (Flowers, 2004). Shrivastava and Nachman (1989), suggest that for

109 effective decision making strategic leaders may require distinct quantities and quality of information on company structure, history, technology, past strategies, current problems, capabilities and environment. According to Phipps (2011) strategic leader's spiritual beliefs work such as schemes to filter or refine the information the leader considers. Effective Strategic Leadership Actions The study of effective leadership is still intangible regardless it is the starting point of recognizing the dissimilar aspects of contemporary global economy, particularly business environment along with people. According to Ireland and Hitt (1999), strategic leadership possibly demonstrate to be prominent issue confronting organizations. In the absence of strategic leadership, it is difficult to attain desired performance while facing the challenges of the global economy. Effective strategic leadership actions model present a theoretical base for implementing practical plan of action, which can be used to enhance organizational performance. Strategic leadership is an ability to maintain flexibility, envision, think strategically, anticipate, and coordinate others to commence changes for the sake of prosperous future of the organizations (Ireland & Hitt, 1999). Keeping in focus unpredictable and turbulent global environment, Ireland et al. (2012) have indicated five practices of effective strategic leadership (figure 2.1) that could help to enhance organizational performance.

Figure 0.1: Effective strategic leadership practices (source: Ireland et al. 2012, p.333)

110

Developing a long-term vision and defining the strategy is fundamentally important part of determining strategic direction (Ireland et al. 2012). An organization's long-term vision may consist of five to ten years (Hagen et al. 1998). In order to achieve successfully this long-term vision an organization must have strong leader. Hammonds (2001) find a positive relationship between strong leaders and effective strategies consequently better success in achieving organisational goals. An organization's resources are categorized as human capital, financial capital, organizational and social capital (Ireland et al. 2012). Most importantly, effective strategic leaders manage the firm's resource portfolio by organizing the resources into capabilities, shaping the firm to enable using those capabilities, and selecting strategies through which the capabilities are fully utilized to add value for customers (Ireland et al. 2012). Value creation starts when organization produce greater utility compare to its competitors (Sirmon et al. 2007). Organizational controls are essential to ensure desired outcomes for an organization, which helps to achieve and sustain high returns and strategic competitiveness (Hitt et al. 2001). Also balanced organizational controls have prolonged been considered as basic element of strategy implementation process (Ireland et al. 2012). An effective organizational culture consists of core values, symbols, and composite set of ideologies that are shared within an organization and effect the way business is managed (Ireland et al. 2012). In order to take competitive edge managers must be adaptive, innovative, and keep a powerful sustainable leadership culture (Eromafuru, 2013). An organization's effectiveness of processes increased while implementing its strategies when they are based on ethical practise compare to unethical practices (Ireland et al. 2012). In order to enhance organizational performance unethical behaviour should be met with sanctions, whereas ethical performance should be recognized and rewarded visibly and regularly (Thomas et al. 2004). This could lead to positive attitude among staff which could embark on the ladder of success and long-term sustainability of the business. Effective strategic leadership practices first evolved by Hitt et al. (1995) recently reviewed by Ireland et al. (2012) and empirically tested by

111

Jooste & Fourie (2009), Hagen et al. (1998), Bipath (2007), and Serfontein (2009). An empirical study conducted by Hagen et al. (1998) to investigate the effective strategic leadership practices evolved by Hitt et al. (1995) in which they examined most crucial strategic leadership practices and American Chief Executive Officer's (CEO) perceptions of the ranking of these practices. The results indicated that all five practices are essential for effective strategic leadership. The study ranked effective strategic leadership practices as noteworthy but, did not explore the impact of these practices on organizational performance. In a similar effort focused on providing a framework for relationship between organizational outcome and top-level leader, Boal and Hooijberg (2000) suggested to researchers to consider beyond demographic variables. It could rather combine research from other areas to explain what kind of strategic leaders influence better organizational outcomes and how. They suggested basic strategic leadership is about a leader's potential to generate and sustain three competitive advantages within the organization; these include the ability to change, the ability for managerial wisdom, and the absorptive capacity. Strategic Leadership Styles and Organisational Performance A plethora of individual studies have been conducted to evaluate the impact of leadership style and practices on organizational practices such as culture, performance, job satisfaction and citizenship behavior (Gardner et al., 2010). Few scholars and researchers have also started to examine the impact of leadership styles on organizational outcomes in the context of strategic leadership. In the last decade, several studies were conducted to demonstrate the association between styles and values of strategic leaders and organizational performance (de Luque et al., 2008), charismatic leadership styles (Waldman et al., 2006) and transformational leadership style (Ng & Sears, 2012; Waldman et al, 2006). In transformational leadership, Sashkin and Sashkin (2003) described the follower and leader relationship as a "bonding process". Goldman and Casey (2010) explained the most important elements in transformational leadership as developing a vision, inspiring and communicating others to follow the vision. Tucker and Russell (2004)

112 suggested that by infusing energy into followers transformational leadership can promote organizational change. According to Bass et al. (2003), supremacy of the transformational style lies in the fact that it encourages followers to identify organizational mission, vision and values. Such identification is essential for strategic leadership success. This has been further explored in more detail in the section 2.7. The literature on strategic leadership has emphasized on evaluating organization’s financial outcomes in relation to leadership styles. The indicators of organizational performance as identified by Hambrick and Mason (1984) included survival, growth and profitability. These performance outcomes mainly relate to the organizational strategy. There is opposing and contentious argument about how the organisations should be run. According to stakeholder theory organizations and leaders are responsible to a large number of stakeholders (Maak, 2007). Contrary to this, there is evidence that strategic leaders emphasize heavily on economic outcomes rather than noneconomic outcomes (Jawar & McLaughlin, 2001; Agle et al., 1999). This imply that several organizations are assessed on the basis of their ability of value creation, specifically for shareholders. Maak (2007) has also revealed that the leaders and organizations are increasingly accountable for their tasks and fail to focus on interests of large number of stakeholders and society at large. This also strengthens the idea that leaders need to get a broader view of organizational performance rather than only focusing on financial outcomes. Ethics and social loyalty is also important asset for organisations for long-term sustainability and business growth. Elkington (1994) revealed that triple bottom line (TBL) an accounting framework that incorporates three dimensions of performance is important for assessing the performance effectiveness. These aspects include financial, environmental and social performance indicators. Contrary to this, another literature stream suggests that organizational performance is related with planet, people, and profit (Slaper & Hall, 2011; Fry & Slocum, 2008). In this respect, McWilliams and Siegel (2011) argued that these performance measures are viewed differently by different stakeholder groups. The financial performance measures may include return on investment, profits, revenues, and return on assets. Schwartz and

113

Saiia (2012) suggested that most of performance measures of organizations are financial that further focus on maximization of profits. Contrary to this, another literature stream has emphasized that organizational performance is also related with social measures such as charitable contributions, community support, wellbeing of employees and organizational commitment (Slaper & Hall, 2011; Fry & Slocum, 2008). This would clearly win hearts and minds of communities and loyalty of many populations. For example most retail superstores in the UK, like TESCO, ASDA, Sainsbury, and so on, have community based social and community development programmes and wellbeing schemes for their employees. Effective Leadership and Organizational Performance Curiosity in strategic leadership has been dramatically increasing in recent years (Hitt & Ireland, 2002; Finkelstein & Hambrick, 1996; Boal & Hooijberg, 2000). The most dominant research question is to explore how leaders affect organizational performance and its survival (Yukl, 2008). Researchers in various distinct subfields comprising human resource management, strategic management, organizational change, and leadership have conducted germane research. Alvesson and Sveningsson (2003) argue that 'leadership produce outcomes', to improve organizational performance which could have positively influenced by effective strategic leadership (Charlton, 2000; Maritz, 1995; Bass, 1997). Furthermore, Berson et al. (2006) and Taylor (1995) argue that while attaining a rapid advancement in the organizational performance strategic leadership facilitate organizational learning and handling radical change. Strategic leaders do influence organizational performance through their ability to build-required confidence amongst employees (DurBin, 2001) because; organizational performance is the culmination of the performances of numerous employees (Hellreigel et al. 2001; DurBin, 2001; Cummings & Schwab, 1973). A substantial literature stream has elaborated relationship between leadership styles and organizational performance. For instance, Bass (1985) suggested that there is positive relationship between transactional leadership and performance of employees. However, Bass (1985) further elaborates that the effectiveness of leadership style reduces when

114 contingencies are involved. This evidence is consistent with Ng and Sears (2012) who have also proposed positive association between diverse practices of leaders, social values and outcomes of transactional leadership. Some authors revealed that the transactional leadership is often limited to show their results. Therefore, it is less likely to produce better organizational outcomes (Vera & Crossan, 2004; Tucker & Russell, 2004). Bass et al (2003) and Geyer & Steyrer (1998) suggested that the performance outcomes of transformational outcomes are more visible and sustainable as compared to those of transactional leadership. They also emphasized that transformational leadership influences mind set and perception of employees and the organizational culture positively. A large literature stream revealed that transformational leadership is positively associated with the performance of employees (Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006; Nemanich & Keller, 2007), job satisfaction (Walumbwa et al., 2004), identification with organization (Epitropaki & Martin, 2005), and organizational commitment (Walumbwa et al., 2004). Contrary to this, Waldman and Yammarino (1999) suggested that charismatic leadership influence organizational culture to bring desired results. Rowold and Heinitz (2007) pointed out that the charismatic leadership style enhances operational performance and motivation level of employees which, in turn improves outcome. Waldman et al (2001) have also identified positive relationship between charismatic leadership and net profit margins. Strategic Leadership and Pharmaceutical SMEs Pharmaceutical companies in Pakistan are facing a range issues such as poor productivity, decreased job satisfaction, and low performance (Bilal et al. 2011). Especially, the growth of pharmaceutical SMEs is more vulnerable to such challenges compare to multinational organization because of scarce resources (OECD, 2009). The significance of SMEs contribution for the economy cannot be ignored such as the employment opportunities it could provide (Sebone & Barry, 2009). In contemporary strategic management and leadership practices the companies are utilizing succession planning and providing employee autonomy so that they can work in the absence of managers. In pharmaceutical companies, strategic leadership plays a vital role because it helps management in envisioning and making long term planning. Dess

115 et al (2010) argue that in contemporary management, the strategic leadership helps small and medium enterprises to grow further to expand business. Ansoff (1984) explained that in managing any organization and providing future direction the strategic management plays a significant role because it helps in defining mission, vision goals and strategies to achieve those goals. Leslie and Palmisano (2010) presented the study based on the challenges faced by leaders in pharmaceutical companies. Pharmaceutical companies could have growing future prospects but, this requires huge investment in adopting modern tools, research and employee development. When pharmaceutical companies are adopting strategic leadership practices it could help in empowering employees and making them proactive towards work. Methodology Research philosophy refers to the overall framework, perception and assumptions undertaken by researcher for conducting a particular study (Cohen et al., 2007). This also outlines the overall methodology by which data is collected and analyzed to reach at the conclusion of the study. Moreover, it also elaborates belief of the researcher regarding the study (Bryman & Bell, 2011). This particular study has been conducted by adopting interpretive epistemology which is specifically related with determination of knowledge in particular area. Interpretivism is based on the interpretation of facts based on researcher’s analytical vision about the topic under study. There are several sociological and philosophical perspectives such as positivism, interpretivism, pragmatism, constructivism, pluralism and so on. Positivism philosophy is based on the evaluation of facts and figures in a scientific manner (Bryman, 2008). The positivism philosophy can be a mix of qualitative and quantitative methods for getting in depth logical results. The constructivism is based on stakeholder views and thoughts about the topic where as pluralism is a mixture of all these philosophical perspectives. Positivist has applied this particular philosophy to get detailed and explanatory view of research problem. This study has been conducted using interpretivism philosophical assumptions. Cohen et al (2007) noted that interpretivism philosophy is

116 based on interpreting facts and problems from researchers’ point of view. This philosophy is appropriate for getting detailed explanation of the research questions about strategic leadership and its influence on performance of pharmaceutical SMEs in Pakistan. By adopting interpretive epistemology we have interpreted results independently while taking an in depth view of impact of strategic leadership on performance of pharmaceutical SMEs in Pakistan in the context of local socio-cultural environment. The research methods and data collection tools are also selected by keeping in mind the interpretive research philosophy. In an alignment with the interpretive philosophy, we have chosen inductive research approach for evaluating the impact of strategic leadership on performance of pharmaceutical SMEs in Pakistan. According to Babbie et al. (2006), during the analysis of qualitative data prominence was placed on inductive approaches. Geoffrey (2008) suggested that inductive approach is the one in which existing theories are analyzed and research questions are tested or verified. In the same way, the theoretical basis of strategic leadership and organizational performance has been analyzed and research questions are developed for this particular study. The theoretical framework of this study has been tested through explanatory methods of data analysis. In this manner, this study has adopted “bottom up” approach i.e. inductive approach for analyzing the research aims and objectives. By studying the theories of strategic leadership, the topic has been narrowed down in perspective of pharmaceutical SMEs of Pakistan. This particular approach is suitable and appropriate with the research philosophy. The research can be conducted by two methods. These include qualitative and quantitative research methods (Richards, 2005). The quantitative research methods are specifically based on numerical and statistical analysis (Bryman, 2008). These methods are appropriate for collecting quantitative data and concluding results in numerical figures while establishing or discarding relationship between variables. On the other hand, the qualitative research is the one which is based on textual explanation of variables (Richards, 2005). The qualitative research methods conduct non-numerical explanation of variables of study.

117

In order to evaluate the impact of strategic leadership about the performance of pharmaceutical SMEs in Pakistan qualitative methods are used. By using this applied research method we have relied on the views and opinions of research participants for assessing the relationship between strategic leadership and performance of pharmaceutical SMEs of Pakistan. This research method has provided in depth analysis of research problem for this study. The use of qualitative method is also appropriate to the interpretive philosophy of social sciences (Richards, 2005). The qualitative data is usually in the form of texts, observations or photographs and could interpret the sense of text to reach conclusions of the collected information. Data Collection and Analysis Yin (1994) described six sources of information including archival records, documentation, physical artefacts, participant observation, direct observations and interviews. Any kind of data can be categorized into two types; primary and secondary data. The primary data is the first hand information that is collected by researchers for the first time. This data does not exist in any prior source (Bryman, 2008). The collection process of primary data is usually lengthy and difficult because researchers have to approach participants for getting desirable information. However, this data has high originality because it is in the raw form and unprocessed. On the other hand, the other form of data is the secondary data that exists in earlier sources in the form of theories and models (Bryman, 2008). This form of data is the prior evaluation of variables by researchers and scholars. The collection of this form of data is not a difficult process because it is readily available in books, research papers, data bases and journals (Dallas & Grimmer, 2007). The originality of this form of data is low because it is already interpreted and assessed by previous researchers and scholars. In this particular study a mix of primary and secondary data has been used to find relationship between strategic leadership and performance of pharmaceutical SMEs in Pakistan. The primary data has been collected through in-depth interview. The in-depth interview is appropriate for getting in depth analysis of research problem about strategic leadership and performance of pharmaceutical SMEs in Pakistan. The semi-structured face-to-face interviews are appropriate for getting detailed data in short time duration. For collecting primary data, an

118 open-ended questionnaire was used. This questionnaire included questions about strategic leadership and performance of pharmaceutical SMEs in Pakistan. This questionnaire provided in depth, qualitative and textual information about research problem. There are several pharmaceutical SMEs in Pakistan. The large population of SMEs makes it difficult to get data from all of them. To get data for this study selected SMEs in the major city of Pakistan were short listed. In this respect, Lahore has been chosen where several pharmaceutical SMEs operate. According to Guest et al. (2006) saturation be a criterion by which to justify adequate sample sizes in qualitative inquiry and further suggest saturation could be achieved by doing twelve interviews. However, it depends on the type of information shared by different stakeholders. However, a sample of twelve pharmaceutical companies from the Lahore which is a major city of Pakistan was a rational choice. This sample size has been chosen randomly to collect data. Convenience sampling approach was used. Only those companies are chosen which are easily accessible for data collection purpose. This sampling approach was appropriate to get desired data in short available time for this thesis. This sampling technique has been preferred over other techniques because it is not complex to understand and easy to access according to the availability of respondents. For collecting primary data senior management was targeted from the chosen pharmaceutical SMEs in Pakistan. The reason of choosing senior management is because they can provide reliable and accurate information regarding leadership practices and styles prevailing in the organization. In addition, the senior management is also an appropriate choice to get information about performance aspects of the pharmaceutical SMEs. Data analysis consists of categorizing and examining the evidence to tackle the early proposition of the research. For analyzing results of interviews, the explanatory methods were used for data analysis. Through this data analysis approach we were able to get in depth and logical interpretation of strategic leadership and performance of pharmaceutical SMEs of Pakistan. Besides this the results were interpreted in a descriptive way and explanations were made wherever required to clear make ideas

119 and concepts more explicit. By organizing interviews the data was cross compared the ideas and also explored specific themes within data. This analysis approach is also aligned with the interpretive research philosophy and the research methods used in this study. Theoretical Framework This study has been based on the evaluation of impact of strategic leadership on performance of pharmaceutical organizations in Pakistan. Specifically, the SMEs in the pharmaceutical industry of Pakistan are targeted in this study. Figure 2 is presented to show the relationship between effective strategic leadership practices and organisational performance. In theory more effective and influential strategic leadership of an organisation could yield better performance for the organisation. However, there are tens of contextual factor which could be fundamentally important. So, to prove or reject this theory the whole research process would look into this hypothesis.

Figure 2: Effective strategic leadership - researcher's compilation

EFFECTIVE STRATEGIC ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP PRACTICES PERFORMANCE (Five practices) (Growth Perceptive)

Pharmaceutical SMEs in Pakistan

Findings and DiscussionFINDINGS AND DISCUSSION There is lack of research on the topic of strategic leadership, its role and impact on leadership performance in SMEs in developing countries (Suzanne and Charles, 2013). To fill this research gap twelve major pharmaceutical companies operating in Lahore, one of the major cities in Pakistan, were included in the study to investigate the role and impact of strategic leadership on enhancing organizational performance in developing countries' pharmaceutical SMEs. Research has indicated that the organizations which are practising strategic management tend to

120 outperform those that do not. Hence, the lack or absence of long-term strategic leadership planning leads to business failure of SMEs. The investigation of the strategic planning adopted by Pakistani pharmaceutical companies may have implications for the existing and future companies in the industry which can benefit from the results of the study and give strategic planning due to priority in their companies’ business planning which would ultimately lead to achieving the companies’ goals and eradicate or diminish business failures. This study explored the impact of leadership on performance of SMEs through qualitative study findings. Interviews were digitally recorded with the participant's consent and fully transcribed. Twelve participants were interviewed. All the interviews were conducted individually face-to-face in Lahore Pakistan. The aim of conducting face-to-face semi-structured interviews was to get insights into participants’ views to get maximum information to address the research questions. In the first stage, each company strategic head was sent a formal letter (appendix 5) three weeks in advance of the interview date to request an interview on the appointed date, at a specific time of the day. In the second stage, the interview venue and dates were confirmed one week prior to interview date via a telephone call with each prospective interviewee participant. In the last stage, considering the convenience of the interviewees, the interviews were done at their offices. The interview first started in a very formal tone and as the conversation progressed a rapport was built which helped in getting more personal opinion along with the professional opinion. All the interviewees were asked similar questions following the semi-structured interview protocol and the responses were audio recorded. It was tried to make the conversation as informal as possible to make the interviewees comfortable to share the information. Interviews were conducted with the company leaders, one each from the twelve chosen pharmaceutical companies. Table 1 presents the interviewees’ profile based on the answers to interview questions regarding the interviewees’ position and role and experience in the leadership role in the company. The interviewees comprised: • One Regional Manager

121

• Six Managing Directors • Five CEOs.

Interviewees’ Service Interviewee Interviewees’ Role & Responsibilities in the Company (Experience) in Company ID No. (in years)

1 Regional Manager (managing business & policy) 18 years

2 Managing Director (overall business affairs) 5 years

CEO (policy making, implementation & overall business 3 10 years directions)

4 Managing Director (overall business affairs) 6 years

5 Managing Director (policy making & supervision) 13 years

6 CEO (overall business policy making & directions) 8 years

7 CEO (business control) 4 years

8 Managing Director (policy & decision making) 5 years

9 Managing Director (overall business affairs) 8 years

10 CEO (overall business affairs and decision making) 7 years

11 CEO (policy making & business control) 10 years

12 Managing Director (overall business affairs) 12 years

The experience of the interview participants ranged from a minimum of four to a maximum of eighteen years, with one company head each with

122 experience of four, six, seven, twelve, thirteen and eighteen years and two each with experience of five, eight and ten years respectively.

Table 1: Portfolio of the interview participants Effective Strategic Leadership Practices This sub-section comprised three questions which focused on determining of strategic directions in the companies. The findings show that the top leadership in all the companies’ boards of directors keep the decision making solely in their own hands and do not involve company employees in decision making (figure 3). Some companies even have single company heads making the decisions alone. Figure 3: Long term plans Who is responsible in the organization for developing long term plans?

The findings show that most of the organizations have a set criteria and tools for making the assessment of threats and opportunities faced by the respective organization, such as: • Detailed competitor analysis or threat analysis • Matching current performance with already developed standards • Assessment of potential threats or opportunities • Seeking opportunity through business environmental scanning by projecting causes and effects of different actions e.g. related to competitors moves and others

123

• Feedback e.g. from employees.

"Well we analyse which new competing companies are emerging and what level of competition these companies have with us through detailed competitor analysis" . . . (Interviewee ID 12)

"It's very difficult for us but we try to make assessment through cause and effects of different actions and situations which arise time to time along with employee feedback who have direct exposure with customers and markets" . . . (Interviewee ID 05)

As to the communication of the organizational vision across the organization, the findings suggest that there is no single channel followed by all the companies. Rather the companies follow various ways of doing this through a way that suits them, such as: it is done from top to bottom level through formal letters or notifications, through monthly or quarterly meetings, and verbally through presentations. For example see this comment:

. . . "it again depends on what we do verbally, we send them in writing especially we convey them through presentations time to time" . . . (Interviewee ID 03) Establishing balanced organizational controls In response to the question, regarding the strategies adopted by the company heads for establishing balanced organizational controls. As to the control measures taken by the organizational leadership for checking organizational performance, most of the companies do it by matching the current performance standards with developed standards or targets on monthly, quarterly or weekly basis. One of the participants reflected this in this quote: "In outcomes we check through targets, how we are performing compare to our targets on monthly basis, weekly basis or yearly basis and half yearly basis. If we are going right on it we provide maximum incentives on it and if we are week

124

on any level then we try to develop any training for them" . . . (Interviewee ID 11)

The responsibility for assessing and monitoring organizational outcomes is taken up by the top leadership in some organizations (figure 4). However, in some organizations it is carried out from bottom to top.

Figure 0: Assessing and monitoring organization outcomes Who is responsible for assessing and monitoring organization outcomes?

Effectively managing the firm's resource portfolio The findings in response to question which focused on the core competencies suggest a number of core competencies of the companies, including: strong IT system; continuous employee training and development programs in both formal and informal ways, market research, hiring qualified and experienced employees; clearly defined company vision, effective communication system, and friendly working atmosphere. Following quote shows some examples:

"Our major strengths are strong IT system, friendly working atmosphere and effective formal and informal training process" (Interviewee ID 01)

125

The respondents revealed that human capital management is sometimes neglected in some organizations. A company head said: "My organization does not have any clear strategy for managing human capital" (Interviewee ID 07). However, some company heads reported that they manage human capital by holding regular training and development programs for their employees and through reward systems by providing full guidelines and clear information to the employees. This can be observed in this quote:

"Human capital is very important asset for any organization . . . our main focus is on training and development and after that we develop their incentive plans . . . We also conduct the co-curricular activities and also try to solve collectively if any of our employee facing any kind of difficulty" (Interviewee ID 03)

Sustaining an effective organizational culture In response to the communication strategy question, it was found that some companies follow open communication strategy, and some follow close strategy (figure 5). However, majority of the participant companies followed a mixed communication strategy. The picture can also be observed in the following figure. Figure 5: Communication strategy

Which communication strategy is followed within the organization? open or close?

126

Some companies reported that they do not either have a clear policy or criteria for sustaining organizational culture in changing external environment as it was a neglected area in their company and they were not prepared to face challenges posed by the market (figure 4.4). One company head said:

"We minimize negative environment effects by adjusting according to the external environment" (Interviewee ID 10)

Figure 6: Organizational culture How is organizational culture sustained even in changing external enviroment?

Emphasizing ethical practices

This sub-section comprised two questions which focused on critical ethical standards and the steps taken by the leadership for influencing the employees to follow the ethical standards. One organizational head stressed: “We believe in the production of quality products for human life safety instead of focusing on high profits through unethical practice” (Interviewee ID 06). It was noticed that majority of the companies have well-developed and strict ethical standards and they strictly follow government and environmental laws.

127

However, one company head reported: “my company does not perceive ethical standards critical to organizational policy” (Interviewee ID 04)

This shows that there are only a few companies that do not consider ethical standards critical to their organizational policy. In response to the question about strategy adopted by the companies to make their employees follow organizational ethical standards, it was found that most of the companies have written guidelines and standards to be followed by the employees by making them essential part of the job role and making them clear at the time of hiring and appointing the employees in the organization and through cross checking the employees’ performance through various means, e.g., moral grooming and motivation time and again during meetings. See this quote

. . . "we develop certain standards which we have to follow in every condition even when we hire new employees ethical standards are mentioned in their job contract" . . . (Interviewee ID 03)

Organizational performance The findings of question related to organizational performance suggest that most of the companies had an average performance in terms of revenue growth (figure 7). Only a few companies had good or above average performance and some even had below average performance. Following figure has been sketched based on the interview discussion and respondents’ views.

128

Figure 7: Organizational performance How has organization performed over the years in terms of revenue growth?

All the company heads stressed the role of good and effective leadership and its importance in implementing and monitoring organizational policy and for the achievement of high performance. One company’s CEO said:

"Good and effective strategic leadership is very important to achieve and sustain high organizational performance especially in the current rapidly changing business environment in Pakistan" (Interviewee ID 08) Discussion From interview results, it was found that most of the respondents have been serving on senior management positions in the respective pharmaceutical SMEs. Moreover, their experience in the organizations is also of appropriate duration. Hence, their responses are worthwhile for discussing impact of leadership on performance of SMEs. The results of the data collected through semi-structured face-to-face interviews showed that strategic leadership has a significantly positive effect on organizational performance. This section argues the extent to which the findings have contributed to inform the research questions and to meet the research objectives to address the research problem. The results of the interview have revealed that strategic directions in pharmaceutical SMEs of Pakistan are mainly taken by senior management. This is one of the critical areas of organizations that directs organizations what to attain in future. Interviewees indicated that their companies adopt and follow various strategies to make assessment of

129 threats and opportunities faced by the organizations, namely competitor and threat analysis, environmental scanning, and through feedback from employees and matching current performance with set performance criteria and standards. The organizational vision was communicated on regular basis through top to down manner in some companies and bottom to top in others through letters and notifications, meetings and presentations. Ireland et al (2012) indicated that developing long-term vision and strategy to achieve this vision over time are pivotal part of determining strategic direction. Hagen et al (1998) stressed that an organization's long-term vision mostly consists of five to ten years. In order to achieve long-term vision, an organization must have a strong leader. In this regards Hammonds (2001) found a positive relationship between strong leaders and effective strategies. From perspective of this study, it was found that most of pharmaceutical SMEs have adopted ordinary control measures such as matching with current standards monthly, comparing financial productivity with the standards and reactive control measures. These ordinary control measures cannot be effective to deal with the emerging threats and challenges in the competitive environment. Contrary to this, if pharmaceutical SMEs adopt proactive control measures, it will be more effective to cope with the challenges of competitive environment. The assessment and monitoring organizational outcomes is mainly done by top management, middle management and specific committees in the pharmaceutical SMEs in Pakistan. In this respect, it can be suggested that engagement of senior management in assessment activities may divert attention of leadership from core activities. Previous studies have also suggested that leadership with proactive strategy can be effective to deal with the challenging competitive environment (Nemanich & Keller, 2007). Effective leadership manages resources of organization in a reasonable and effective manner. In the current study it was found that pharmaceutical SMEs in Pakistan have different competencies for attaining organizational goals and objectives. Having trained and talented employees is more likely to be a sustainable competency for pharmaceutical SMEs. This is because skilled employees have more potential to adapt to changing environment and competition. On the other

130 hand, pharmaceutical SMEs that have IT and research and development are more likely to excel competitors because they have resources for innovation in the industry. Waldman et al (2006) also denoted that research and development is critical for pharmaceutical firms to promote innovation and creativity. Regarding human capital management, it was found that 25% firms of sample do not focus on this area. These firms can have low performance because their employees do not have updated skills and knowledge. Through training and development of employees firms can have good performance. On the other hand, managing human capital through reward system is more likely to motivate employees of pharmaceutical SMEs. Nemanich & Keller (2007) noted that motivating employees is an important character of effective leadership. Organizational culture is an important pillar behind organizational success. The external environment of organizations changes abruptly which pose threats for managing organizational culture. In this respect, the results have revealed that most of pharmaceutical SMEs in Pakistan adapt to changing environment continuously. This strategy can be effective to make relevant adjustments in the culture for attaining organizational outcomes. However, some firms have not taken any measure for sustaining culture. These organizations may not respond to the environmental challenges in an effective manner as their cultural values are fixed and do not involve adaptive measures. Besides this, the results have also noted that 3 pharmaceutical SMEs have open communication strategy whereas same numbers of companies have mixed strategy i.e. open and hidden. Having open communication strategy is more likely to engage senior management with the lower end employees. Consequently, organizational vision is shared effectively across the firms and employees will have more clear view of organizational targets. Open communication strategy is one of the characters of transformational and charismatic leadership that positively influences organizational performance (Rowold & Heinitz, 2007). Previous studies have also noted that effective leadership is the one in which leaders openly communicate with employees and continuously motivate them to attain organizational tasks (Bilal et al., 2011). It was found that most of pharmaceutical SMEs have adopted effective ethical standards such as quality standards and wellbeing of

131 customers. These ethical standards are important to develop an effective workplace environment and also to deliver quality products to customers. It is important to note that effective leadership develops and communicates ethical values across the workforce and motives them to follow such standards (Irelandet al., 2012). In perspective of this case, it has been deduced that pharmaceutical SMEs which have open and mixed communication strategy are more likely to practice ethical values in an effective manner. Regarding performance of pharmaceutical SMEs, it was found that most of firms have performed on average basis. The firms where human capital is managed effectively, open communication strategy is followed and effective control measures are taken have performed above industry average. On the other hand, organizations where transformational leadership traits are followed have performed better than the others. The respondents have also suggested that leadership influences organizational outcomes to a considerable extent. Previous theoretical findings have also supported this evidence that effective leadership enhances organizational performance (Nemanich & Keller, 2007). Conclusion and Future Research The ability of an organization to achieving and maintain high organizational performance is dependent on choices which the organisations’ leaders make during decision-making. Strategic leadership facilitates through increasing organizational learning and handling radical change. Moreover, strategic leaders influence organizational performance through their ability to build required confidence amongst employees because organizational performance is the combination of the performances of numerous employees. Pharmaceutical companies in Pakistan are facing growing issues such as poor productivity, decreased job satisfaction, and low performance which has become a big concern for the organisations’ leadership. In particular, the growth of pharmaceutical SMEs in Pakistan has become more vulnerable to such challenges compared to multinational organizations because of scarce resources. The significance of SMEs contributions for the economy cannot be ignored such as employment opportunities it provides. Research on contemporary management indicates that strategic leadership helps small and medium

132 enterprises to grow further and expand business. Hence, strategic management plays a significant role in managing an organization and in providing future directions because it helps in defining mission, vision goals and strategies to achieve those goals. Research indicates that pharmaceutical companies can face trouble in growing future because in order to transform the leadership strategies the firms would need huge investment in adopting modern tools, research and employee training and development. While the pharmaceutical companies are adopting strategic leadership practices and transforming their leadership styles, this transformation also helps in empowering employees and making them proactive towards work. It is high time for Pakistani pharmaceutical SMESs leadership to transform their leadership strategies and management style in order to survive in the competitive market through improving their performance which is only possible through the implementation of effective leadership strategies. Considering the five effective strategic leadership practices presented by Ireland (2012) which are; determining strategic directions, establishing balanced organizational controls, effectively managing the firm’s resources portfolios, sustaining an effective organizational culture and emphasizing ethical practices. It can be concluded that the Pakistani pharmaceutical SMEs which employed and followed these strategies performed well and were successful in achieving organizational goals. To sum up, the major finding of the current study is that strategic leadership positively affects the performance of pharmaceutical SMEs’ in Pakistan. This research opened new avenues for further research into the role of and the effects of strategic leadership practices in pharmaceutical SMEs in Pakistan. Also research into the companies that adopt strategic leadership practices compared to those who don’t have a clear vision regarding strategic leadership and its importance for an organization’s success.

133

REFERENCES Agle, B. R., Mitchell, R. K., & Sonnenfeld, J. A. (1999). Who matters to CEOs? An investigation of stakeholder attributes and salience, corporate performance, and CEO values. Academy of Management Journal, 42, 507-525. Alvesson, M. & Sveningsson, S. (2003). “Managers doing leadership: The extra-ordinarization of the mundane”, Human Relations, 56(12):1435:1459. Amal, M., & Awuah, G.B., (2009). Impact of globalization. European Business Review, ISSN 0955-534X, 2011, Volume 23, Issue 1, pp. 120 – 132 Analoui, F. & Karami, A. (2003). Strategic management in small and medium enterprises. London: Thomson Learning. Ansoff, H. Igor (1984). Implanting Strategic Management. Prentice Hall. Arslan, A & Staub, S (2013), "Theory X and Theory Y Type Leadership Behavior and its impact on Organizational Performance: Small Business Owners in the Sishane Lighting and Chandelier District." Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 75, 102-111. Online publication date:1-Apr-2013. Aydogdu, S., & Asikgil, B., (2011), The Effect of Transformational Leadership Behavior on Organizational Culture: An Application in Pharmaceutical Industry. International Review of Management and Marketing Vol.1, No.4, pp.65-73 Babbie, E. & Mouton, J. (2006). The practice of social research. South African edition. Cape Town: Oxford University Press Southern Africa. Bacon, N., & Hoque (2005). HRM in the SME sector: valuable employees and coercive networks. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 16(11). Bashar Sami El-Khasawneh, (2012) "Challenges and remedies of manufacturing enterprises in developing countries: Jordan as a case study", Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management, Vol. 23 Iss: 3, pp.328 – 350 Bass, B. (1997). “Concepts of leadership”. In Vecchio, R.P. (ed). Leadership: Understanding the dynamics of power and influence in organizations. Notre Damne: University of Notre Damne Press. Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership: Good, better, best. Organizational Dynamics, 13(3), 26-40.

134

Bass, B. M., Avolio, B. J., Jung, D. I., & Berson, Y. (2003). Predicting unit performance by assessing transformational and transactional leadership. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 207-218. Berson, Y., Louise, A.N., David, A.W., Benjamin M.G., & Robert, T.K., (2006). Leadership and organizational learning: A multiple levels perspective. The leadership quarterly 17, 577-594. Bilal, D., Obaid Ullah & Sabeeh Ullah (2011). Effect of Leadership on Employees Performance in Multinational Pharmaceutical Companies in Pakistan. Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business, vol2, No.9 (286-299), 2044-4621;2073-7122 Bipath, M. (2007). The dynamic effects of leader emotional intelligence and organizational culture on organizational performance. DBL thesis, University of South Africa, Pretoria. Boal, K. B., & Hooijberg, R. (2000). Strategic leadership research: Moving on. Leadership Quarterly, 11, 515-549. Bryman A., (2008), Of methods and methodology, Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management: An International Journal, Vol. 3 Issue: 2, pp.159 – 168 Bryman, A. And Bell, E. (2011). Business Research Methods, 3rd Ed., Oxford University Press. Bryman, A. And Bell, E., (2003). Business Research Methods, Oxford: Oxford University Press Charlton, G. (2000). Human habits of highly effective organizations. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers. Cohen L., Manion L. And Morrison K. (2007). Research methods in education. 6th Ed. Routledge Cummings, L.L. & Schwab, D.P. (1973). Performance in organizations: Determinants and appraisal. Illinois: Scott, Foresman and Company. Daft, R. (2014) The Leadership Experience. 6th ed. Cengage Learning. Daft. R.L. (2011). The leadership experience. Fifth edition. Cincinnati, Ohio: Cengage learning South-West. Dallas, H. And Grimmer, M. (2007). The mix of qualitative and quantitative research in major marketing journals, 1993-2002, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 41 Issue: 1/2, pp.58 – 70 de Luque, M. S., Washburn, N. T., Waldman, D. A., & House, R. J. (2008). Unrequited profit: How stakeholder and economic values relate to subordinates’ perceptions of leadership and firm performance. Administrative Science Quarterly, 53, 626-654.

135

Denzin, N.K., & Lincoln, Y.S. (2000). Handbook of qualitative research. California: Sage Publications Inc. Dess, G.G., Lumpkin G.T. & Eisner, A.B. (2010). Strategic management: Creating competitive advantages. 5th ed. New York: McGraw- Hill Irwin. Dillon, Pamala J.; Back, Robin M.; & Manz, Charles C. (2014) "Authentic Corporate Social Responsibility Based on Authentic Empowerment: An Exemplary Business Leadership Case," The Journal of Values- Based Leadership: Vol. 7: Iss. 1, Article 7. Dobre, O.I., (2012). The impact of human resource management on organizational performance. Management Research and Practice, ISSN 2067-2462, 12/2012, Volume 4, Issue 4, p. 37 Doherty, N.F., & Terry, M., (2013). Improving competitive positioning through complementary organisational resources. Industrial Management & Data Systems, ISSN 0263-5577, 2013, Volume 113, Issue 5, pp. 697 - 711 DuBrin, A.J., (2001). Leadership: research findings, practice and skills. 03rd edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Elkington, J. (1994). Towards the sustainable corporation: Winwin-win business strategies for sustainable development. California Management Review, 36(2), 90-100. Epitropaki, L., & Martin, R. (2005). The moderating role of individual differences in the relation between transformational/ transactional leadership perceptions and organizational identification. Leadership Quarterly, 16, 569-589. Eromafuru, E.G., (2013). Building and sustaining supportive organizational culture through innovative and strategic leadership. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Vol.3 No.11 Finkelstein, S. & D.C. Hambrick, (1996) Strategic Leadership: Top Executives and Their Effects on Organizations, West, Publishing Company Flowers, M. (2004). Improving strategic leadership, Military Review, 40- 46 Fry, L. W., & Slocum, J. W., Jr. (2008). Maximizing the triple bottom line through spiritual leadership. Organizational Dynamics, 37, 86-96. Gardner, W. L., Lowe, K. B., Moss, T. B., Mahoney, K. T., & Cogliser, C. C. (2010). Scholarly leadership of the study of leadership: A review of The Leadership Quarterly’s second decade, 2000-2009. Leadership Quarterly, 21, 922-958.

136

Geoffrey L. (2008), Research methods : a concise introduction to research in management and business consultancy, Oxford : Butterworth-Heinemann Geyer, A. L. J., & Steyrer, J. M. (1998). Transformational leadership and objective performance in banks. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 47, 397-420. Goldman, E. F., & Casey, A. (2010). Building a culture that encourages strategic thinking. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 17, 119-128 Gosenpud, J., & Vanevenhoven, J., (2011). Using tools from strategic management to help micro-entrepreneurs in developing countires adapt to a dynamic and changing business environment. The journal of applied business research, ISSN 0892-7626, Volume 27, Issue 5, pp. 1 – 13 Guest, G., Bunce, A. & Johnson, L. (2006) How Many Interviews are Enough? An experiment with data saturation and variability. Field Methods, 18, 59-82. Hagen, A.F., Hassan, M.T. & Amin, S.G. (1998). Critical strategic leadership components: an empirical investigation. SAM Advanced Management Journal, 63(3): 39–44. Hambrick, D. C., & Mason, P. A. (1984). Upper echelons: The organization as a reflection of its top managers. Academy of Management Review, 9, 193-206. Hamel, G. (2007). The future of management. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Hammonds, K.H. 2001. Michael Porter's big ideas. Fast Company, 44, 150–156. Hartley J, & Benington J (2011). ‘Political leadership’ in Bryman A, Jackson B, Grint K, Uhl-Bien M (eds), Sage Handbook of Leadership. London: Sage. Hellriegel, D., Jackson, S.E., Slocum, J.W., Staude, G. & Associates. (2001). Management: South African edition. Cape Town: Oxford University Press. Hitt, M. A. (1998). Twenty-first century organizations: Business firms, business schools, and the Academy, Academy of Management Review, 23(2), 218-224. Hitt, M.A., & Ireland, R.D. (2002). The essence of strategic leadership: managing human and social capital, Journal of leadership and organizational studies, 9(1), 3-14.

137

Hitt, M.A., Haynes, K.T., & Serpa, R., (2010). Strategic Leadership for the 21st century. Business Horizons 53, 437-444 Hitt, M.A., Ireland, R.D. & Hoskisson, R.E. (1995). Strategic management: competitiveness and globalization concepts. St. Paul, Minn.: West. Hitt, M.A., Ireland, R.D. & Hoskisson, R.E. (2001). Strategic management: competitiveness and globalization. 4th edition. Cincinnati, Ohio: Thomson/South Western. Hitt, M.A., Ireland, R.D. & Hoskisson, R.E., (2005). Strategic Management: Competitiveness and globalization, Ohio: Thomson South Western. Hui, C. H., Chiu, W.C.K., Yu, P.L.H., Cheng, K., & Tse, H.H.M (2007). The effects of service climate and the effective leadership behavior of supervisors on frontline employee service quality. A multi-level analysis. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 80(1), 151-172. Hunger, J.D. & Wheelen, T.L. (2003). Essential of strategic management. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Ireland, Hoskisson & Hitt (2012). The Management of Strategy: Concepts and Cases, International Edition. South-West College Publisher M.U.A pp.323-339 Ireland, R. & Hitt, M. (1999). Achieving and maintaining strategic competitiveness in the 21st century: The role of strategic leadership. The Academy of Management Executive 13(1): 43-57. Ireland, R.D., & Hitt, M.A., (2005) ‘Achieving and maintaining strategic competitiveness in the 21st century: The role of strategic leadership’, Academy of Management Executive, 19,4, 65-77 (Reprinted from AME 1999, 13,1) Jamshed, S, Baber, Z.U.D, Ibrahim M. I.M, & Hassali (2009), Generic medicines as a way to improve access and affordability: A proposed framework for Pakistan. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research, 3, 1596-1600 Jawar, I. M., & McLaughlin, G. L. (2001). Toward a descriptive stakeholder theory: An organizational life-cycle approach. Academy of Management Review, 26, 397-414 Jing, F.F., & Avery, G.C (2008). Missing Links In Understanding The Relationship Between Leadership and Organizational Performance. International Business & Economics Research Journal 7(5), 12

138

Jooste, C. & Fourie, B. (2009). The role of strategic leadership in effective strategy implementation: perceptions of South African strategic leaders. South African Business Review, 13(3): 51–68. Krupp, S., & Howland, S., (2013). Strategic Leadership. Leadership Excellence, 05/2013, Volume 30, Issue 5, p. 17 Lange, Ottens, M.I., & Taylor, A., (2000). SMEs and barriers to skills development: A Scottish perspective. Journal of European Industrial Training 24(1),5. Leslie, J.B. & Palmisano, K., (2010) "The Leadership Challenge in the Pharmaceutical Sector; What Critical Capabilities are Missing When it Comes to Leadership Talent and How Can They be Developed? Center of Creative Leadership, Issued September 2010 Luttwak, E. (1987), Strategy the Logic of War and Peace (Belknap: USA Harvard). Maak, T. (2007). Responsible leadership, stakeholder engagement, and the emergence of social capital. Journal of Business Ethics, 74, 329- 343. Maritz, D. (1995). “Leadership and mobilizing potential”, Human Resource Management, October: 08-12. McGrath, R., & Macmillan, I. (2000). The entrepreneurial mindset: Strategies for continuously creating opportunity in the age of uncertainty. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. McWilliams, A., & Siegel, D. (2011). Creating and capturing value: Strategic corporate social responsibility, resource based theory, and sustainable competitive advantage. Journal of Management, 37, 1480-1495. Meindl, J. R., Ehrlich, S. B., & Dukerich, J. M. (1985). The romance of leadership. Administrative Science Quarterly, 30, 78–102. Mele, D & Guillen M. (2006), The intellectual evolution of strategic management and its relationship with ethics and social responsibility. WP no 658 Muhammad, Mohd Zulkifli, Char, Kamal A,, Yasoa, Mohd Rushdan bin & Hassan Zakiah, (2010). Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) Competing in the Global Business Environment: A Case of Malaysia. International Business Research, Vol.3, No1. Nahavandi, A. (2006). The art and science of leadership (4th ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. Naoum, S. (2001), People & Organizational Management in Construction, Great Britain: Thomas Telford.

139

Naveed, A. (2012). "Approaches to SME Development: Lessons for Pakistan" SMEDA Research Report, 2012: 02, 13-19 Nemanich, L. A., & Keller, R. T. (2007). Transformational leadership in an acquisition: A field study of employees. Leadership Quarterly, 18, 49-68. Ng, E. S., & Sears, G. J. (2012). CEO leadership styles and the implementation of organizational practices: Moderating effects of social values. Journal of Business Ethics, 104, 41-52. OECD (2009), “Top Barriers and Drivers to SME Internationalization”, Report by the OECD Working Party on SMEs and Entrepreneurship, OECD. Owen, K., Ron Mundy, Will Guild, Robert Guild, (2001) "Creating and sustaining the high performance organization", Managing Service Quality, Vol. 11 Iss: 1, pp.10 – 21 PakMission-UK (2014), Investing in Pharmaceutical Manufacture in Pakistan http://www.pakmission- uk.gov.pk/commsection/london/invest_opportunities/Investing_in_P harmaceutical_Manufacture_in_Pakistan[1].pdf [Accessed: 2nd May 2014] Pearse, N. J. (2011). Effective Strategic leadership: Balancing Roles During church Transitions Hervormde Teologiese Studies, ISSN 0259-9422, Volume 67, Issue 2, pp.1-7 Peterson, R.S., Smith, D.B., Martorana, P.V., & Owens, P.D (2003). The Impact of chief executive officer personality on top management team dynamics: One mechanism by which leadership affects organizational performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 795-808. Phipps, K.A., (2011). Spirituality and Strategic Leadership: The Influence of Spiritual Beliefs on Strategic Decision Making. Springer Science+Business Media 106: 177-189 Radam, Aalias, Abu, Bmimi Liana & Abdullah, Camin Mahir, 2008. Technical Efficiency of Small and Medium Enterprise in Malaysia: A Stochastic Frontier Production Model. Int. Journal of Economics and Management 2(2). Radas, S., & Bozic, I., (2009). The antecedents of SME innovativeness in an emerging transition economy. Technovation 29 (6–7): 438–450. Raziq A. (2014). The relationship between firm size and High performance managements practices in Pakistani SMEs. Indian Journal of Commerce and Management studies. Vol. V., Issue 2, PP. 27-34

140

Richards, Lyn. (2005). Handling qualitative data: A practical guide. London, UK: Sage Publications. 207p. Rowe, W.G., (2001). Creating wealth in organizations: The role of strategic leadership. Academy of Management Executive Vol.15 No.1 Rowold, J., & Heinitz, K. (2007). Transformational and charismatic leadership: Assessing the convergent, divergent and criterion validity of the MLQ and the CKS. Leadership Quarterly, 18, 121-133. Sajjad Akbar & Sameera Zaman, (2001) Impact of Strategic Leadership on organizational Commitment in Telecommunication Sector of Pakistan. Journal of Business Strategies 5.1, 1-10. Sashkin, M., & Sashkin, M. G. (2003). Leadership that matters. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler. Schutte, N. & Barkhuizen, N., (2014). Creating Public Service Excellence Applying Learning Organization Methods: The Role of Strategic Leadership, Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, ISSN 2039- 9340, Volume 5, Issue 4, p. 159 Schwartz, M., & Saiia, D. (2012). Should firms go “beyond profits”? Milton Friedman versus broad CSR. Business and Society Review, 117, 1-31. Seale, C. (1999). The Quality of Qualitative Research (London, Sage). Sebone M.F., & Barry, M.L., (2009). Toward determining critical success factors for SME electrical contractors in the construction industry in South Africa. 20 (1) / May, pp 185-195, Serfontein, J.J. (2009). The impact of strategic leadership on the operational strategy and performance of business organizations in South Africa. DBM thesis, University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch. Shrivastava, P., & Nachman, S.A., (1989). Strategic Leadership Patterns. Strategic Management Journal, Vol.10, pp.51-66 Sirmon, D.G., Hitt M.A. & Ireland, R.D. (2007). Managing firm resources in dynamic environments to create value: looking inside the black box. Academy of Management Review Vol.32, No.1, 273-292 Slaper, T., & Hall, T. (2011). The triple bottom line: What is it and how does it work? Indiana Business Review, Spring, 4-8. SMEDA. (2013). State of SMEs in Pakistan. Available at http://www.smeda.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=articl e&id=7:state-of-smes-in-pakistan&catid=15

141

Summerfield, M.R., (2014). Leadership: A simple definition. American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy, ISSN 1079-2082, 02/2014, Volume 71, Issue 3, pp. 251 - 253 Suresh B.K., (2012). Strategic Leadership Practices and Organizational Effectiveness-A Conceptual Framework. International Conference on Applied Management Sciences (IAMS'2012) Bangkok. Suzanne, M.C, & Charles, R. G., (2013) Strategic Leadership: Values, Styles, and Organizational Performance. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies 20: 375 Taipale-Eravala, K., Heilmann, P., & Lampela. H., (2014). Survival competence in Russian SMEs in a changing business environment. Journal of East-West Business, 20:25-43, ISSN: 1066-9868 print/1528-6959 online Taylor, B. (1995). “The new strategic leadership - Driving change, getting results”, Long Range Planning, 28(5):71-81. Thomas, T., Schermerhorn, J.R., Dienhart, J.W., & Bartles D.L., (2004). Strategic Leadership of Ethical Behavior in Business. The Academy of Management Executive, Vol.18 pp.56-58 Tucker, B. A., & Russell, R. F. (2004). The influence of the transformational leader. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 10(4), 103-111. Vera, D., & Crossan, M. (2004). Strategic leadership and organizational learning. Academy of Management Review, 29, 222-240. Waldman, D. A., Ramírez, G. G., House, R. J., & Puranam, P. (2001). Does leadership matter? CEO leadership attributes and profitability under conditions of perceived environmental uncertainty. Academy of Management Journal, 44, 134-143. Waldman, D. A., Siegel, D. S., & Javidan, M. (2006). Components of CEO transformational leadership and corporate social responsibility. Journal of Management Studies, 43, 1703-1725. Walter, M. (2006). Social Science methods: an Australian perspective. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. Walumbwa, F. O., Wang, P., Lawler, J. J., & Shi, K. (2004). The role of collective efficacy in the relations between transformational leadership and work outcomes. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 77, 515-530. World Population Review (2014), [Accessed: 2nd May 2014] http://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/pakistan-population/ Yin, R.K. (1994). Case study research: Design and methods. Second edition. London: Sage Publications Inc.

142

Yukl, G., (2008). How leaders influence organizational effectiveness. The leadership quarterly, ISSN 1048-9843, Volume 19, Issue 6, pp. 708 – 722 Zhang. Q., & Zhang, Q.W., (2010). The risk comparison between large enterprises and SMEs on Chinese Pharmaceutical Industry: Based on the Solvency Indicators. Canadian Social Science, ISSN 1712-8056, 10/2010, Volume 6, Issue 5, pp. 151 - 156

143

APPENDIX 1: Interview Questionnaire

Saulnier. R. 2019. Advantages and Disadvantages of Internet Marketing.[Online].Available through:.

144

Bi-Annual Research Journal “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. 45 NO. 1, 2020

Impact Analysis Of Organizational Stress On The Job Performance Of Women Faculty Members Among Public Sector Universities In Quetta

Neha Maryam MPhil scholar Department of Commerce, University of Balochistan. Dr. Uzma Mukhtar Associate Professor Department of Commerce, University of Balochistan. Dr Saud Taj Pro.Vice Chancellor, Institute of Management Sciences, University of Balochistan. Abstract The purpose of this study is to analyze the impact of organizational stress on job performance of women faculty member among public sector universities in Quetta. The participants of this study are the female faculty member of public sector universities of Quetta. Questionnaire was developed using Likert scale. The data is collected from 183 female faculty of public universities in Quetta city. There are four independent stressors include working hours, harassment, workload, working condition and dependent variable is job performance. The research design of study was quantitative in nature and data was analyzed through regression and correlation analysis. Findings of the study depict that the stress have a significant negative impact on the job performance of female teachers of university. Other variables i.e. workload, working hour and female harassment and working condition also have significant negative impacts on female teacher’s performance too.

KEYWORDS: Organizational Stress, Job Perfromance, Workload, Working Hours, Working Condition, Harrassment.

145

1. Introduction The status of women of Pakistan is different from all over the world. There is gender differences, inequalities and several other factors that impact the women (Chaudhry & Rahman,.2009).Now in Pakistan more and more women are taking part in all fields both for the productivity and personal earnings. The Finding of Sadaquat.M et al., (2011) has shown that during 1990 women encountered various situations, they were facing discriminations, and for instant they were paid lesser wages for the same work as compared to men. They were facing harassment of various levels and nature. Another study revealed that in Pakistan, employment of women was very limited on the highly paid skilled jobs in 1980s (Subramanian, 1977 & Banerjee, 1985). Similarly, ratio of employment of women was very low on such jobs. (Mahpara .B.2011). Economic Survey of Pakistan ranks Balochistan as the less developed of the four provinces due to cultural barriers; women are not encouraged to get education, due to which the literacy rate of women of Balochistan is 27 percent and Balochistan stand badly. As a result women in workplace were rare or even in 60s or 70s they had no contribution in workforce except at lower level or work from home such as in small industries. Globalization provided opportunities and awareness among women and after many movements and law enforcement in 70s, now they are participating in all professions.in balochistan most of female’s population are engaged in teaching. This study focus on female faculty member. Faculty member around the world are experiencing high level of stress (Gmelch, W. H.1993).As the employment of females increased in education system they start facing stress. Teaching profession is becoming a stressful profession that effect the person personal life and his job (Alan and others, 2010). As the responsibilities of a teacher is increased the teaching is become more stressful day by day( Kaur, 2011). Stress occurs due to different reasons like poor working environment, delay in salaries, long working hours, workload, lack of working resources, no supervision ( Burke,2011)(Rani and Singh, 2012). These stress factors affect the teacher’s performance. Rizwan Raheem Ahmed et.,all(2016) also highlighted issues of working women of universities that are harassment, working life balance, working

146 hours, work environment, workload. Smith and Glenn, (1994) states that there are diverse internal and external factors that affect the performance of a teacher like low wages, lack of support, time etc. The main objective of the study is to analyze the effect of job stress on the job performance of women. This study include the are four independent stressors include working hours, harassment, workload, working condition and dependent variable is job performance 2. Theoretical framework and literature review 2.1 job stress Naomi Soto et al., (2010) define stress as the physical response to the body. In stress, the body gives a reaction which is called stress response. The stress factor are different between men and women .most of the men experience stress due to the job performance evaluation and female report stress due to unreasonable expectations and strict treatment (Lambert et al., 2010). The work and performance of universities teachers has largely changed from last recent year. Thorsen EJ (1996) was the first who observe the academics and says that academics have lost the characteristics which traditionally consider as stress-free. The Sabherwal et al (2015) finds the stress among the teachers. The factors of stress are no break, poor pay, long working hours, change in timetable, and lack of career development. According to Martin &Schormerhorn(1983) stress is different from the stressors because stressors are the cause of stress of an individual. The effect of stress on job performance of employees is getting more interest from several years. Khan and others (2014) found the job stress among lecturer in Faisalabad collage and negative relationship of job stress with job performance, job satisfaction. The finding shows level of stress among the unmarried is high. Due to job stress the job performance and job satisfaction decreased and turnover intension increase. 2.1.1Workload

According to Shukri (1998), workload is the responsibility given to the teacher either in classroom or administrative. Tight, (2010) state that faculty workload is receiving an attention and a serious concern for the higher education institution around the world. Easthope and Easthope (2000) state that teachers are burden with new task and this lead to the

147 effect on their organizational commitment and affect their job performance. G. Robert J. Hockey (1997) analye the effect of stress and workload on human performance his paper presents a cognitive-energetical framework for the analysis of effects of stress and high workload on human performance. Performance can be better under stress if efforts are apply. Tiphaine huyghebaert et al, (2018) analysis the effect of workload on teachers. The result reveal that there is positive indirect effect of workload on emotions exhaustion and presenters and negative and indirect effect of workload on job satisfaction and performance. 2.1.2 Harassment Harassment is most important element at work place and female face this problem on daily basis. Sometime women step forward and take action against this act and organization also support them. But it is not always possible that organization take action or coworker help them. Robinson v. Jacksonville Shipyards, (1991) state that Harassment produce work performance stress. And harassment have an effect on job performance Gruber & Bjorn, (1982). Melanie Shepard and Ellen Pence (1998) stated that majority of the women are working and face battering and harassment on work place. He further says that women performance is affected by physical abuse, harassment and this lead to the absentees of female worker. Gelfand, M. J.et al (1995) study show that 70% of women harassed on job. Spratlen (1995) investigates workplace harassment among faculty of higher education institutions. He investigated faculty and staff perception bout nature and mistreatment that they experienced at work .The harassment adversely affected the work performance of employee’s faculty member and resulted in job dissatisfaction and lower self-confidence. Katharine (2002) observed that harassment in the workplace is a harm of the women rights. It have a physiological effect on women and lower their performance. Gabriel A (2016) state that Harassment is perceived as an offensive act of violating the women. Harassment have an adverse effect on working women in organization. 2.1.3 working condition Karasek, R. A & Theorell, T. (1990) state that women prefer to work in organization where they find a good working environment.

148

Brenner (2004) state that an employee share his knowledge in an organization depend upon the work environment design for an organization. He also argued that working environment must be like that suit to an employee and he can freely exchange the ideas towards productivity (McCormick & Barnett, 2011). In past working conditions are stress free but now teachers and employees face more difficulties and face more stress. Hasun & Makhbul, (2005) state that in recent years working environment is changing due to the change in technology, social environment and the different ways of working process. Barnett, R. C., Baruch, G. K. (1985) a survey in 2000 is conducted which shows that better the working condition better the women perform. Kohun (1992), says that working environment is combination of different forces, actions and influence factors that are connected with employee performance and activities. Chandrasekar (2001) Working environment plays an important role in term of performance. Working environment impact the employee performance negatively. Peters & O'Connor (1980) defines working condition as an environment that effect the job performance. Working condition create stress and also effect the job performance. 2.1.4 working hours If we talk about 50years ago the demand of work is changed it is usually factory based. As the demand increased the business start extent and the demand of work is also increased. The E-commerce lead to the need of 24hours working. There are large population of world who are shift workers and they are doing this because for year are survivor population. Perlow (1997) conclude that the competition is increased the work demand from employee and that’s why employee have to work longer to meet the demand. Due to different factors the actual working hours of employees are longer than legal guidelines Lee et al., 2007. Nawaz, M. et al (2013) state that if the working hours are flexible it increase the efficiency of an employee to perform well because when an employee longer than the working hours it create stress and different physical problems, this will affect the working capability which in result decrease the performance. So government should take a step for managing flexible working hours

149 especially for women. Schor (1993)state that Working longer have an effect on the productivity of organization but on other hand it is also difficult for the employee to ignore the working hours because the working hours an employee spend in organization is the efficiency and productivity of employee to achieve the goal. And for better productivity the work and to save cost employer gave extra work to employees instead of hiring new employee and to save the cost of production. According to Hegewisch, A. (2009) 10% of women start doing part time job instead of full time job because they cannot manage family and work together. 2.2 Job Performance According to Gibson, (1979) the behavior of an employee or group is affected in different ways by the job an employee perform. The demand and work expectation from an employee cause stress and anxiety. A good job performance is important for organization success. Without a good job performance it is difficult to attain the organization goal. Nadeem.M (2011) says that Job performance is important for all type of organizations. Similarly job performance of teachers is also playing an important role, the performance of teachers is important factor for determining the learning outcome and effectiveness. The effect of stress on teacher’s job performance is recognized in all over the world. Amjad.A (2010) states that stress is negatively effecting the job performance of teachers in shape of absentees, low morale, teaching quality, and turn over etc. Lupines & Jackson,( 2004) says that different stressors like workload, time shortage, job insecurity, resource constraints, working condition effect the job performance of teachers within internal environment According to Jabeen(2001) a teacher is always worried about heavy workload and non-teaching task given to him due to which she has insufficient time to prepare his lectures. Lack of motivation convert into dissatisfaction, absentees, little opportunity for career development, ineffective management, overcrowded classes, insufficient material for lectures, poor incentives, low morale, are some factor create stress and affecting the performance of female teachers. 2.3 Conceptual framework Based on the research studied stress occurs due to different reasons like poor working environment, delay in salaries, long working hours,

150 workload, lack of working resources, no supervision(Burke,2011).Rani and Singh (2012) states that these stress factors affect the teacher’s performance. Rizwan Raheem Ahmed et al (2016) also highlighted issues of working women of universities that are harassment, work life balance, working hours, working environment, workload. The Sabherwal et al (2015) finds the stress among the teachers and says that the factors of stress are no break, poor pay, long working hours, change in timetable, and lack of career development. Independent variable Dependent variable

Organizational Stress ✓ Harassment Job performance ✓ Workload ✓ Working hours ✓ Working environment

H1: There is negative relationship between job Harassment and job performance H2: There is negative and significant relationship between work load as stressor and job performance. H3: Working hours as stressor have negative relation with job performance H4: work environment has significant relationship with organizational performance.

3. Research methodology This research is based on the analysis of the impact of stress on women faculty member of public universities. The data for the analysis is collected throw questionnaire from 183 female faculty from Balochistan University of Information Technology, Engineering and Management Sciences (BUITMS), university of balochistan (UOB),Sardar Bahadur Khan Women’s University (SBK WU) and is analyzed through spss version 23.

151

Table 3.1 Correlation and descriptive analysis

variables mean S.D 1 2 3 4 5 6 beta

1 Job performance 3.514 .8390 1 .794 2 Organizational 3.1225 .77566 -.424** 1 .794 stress 3 Working hours 3.085 .7584 -.508** .582** 1 .845 4 Working 2.928 .8265 -.611** .647** .626** 1 .832 condition 5 Work load 3.3515 .82909 -.307** .580** .644** .598** 1 .865 6 Harassment 2.348 .9148 -.631** .538** .381** .545** .294** 1 .797 *p < .05, **p<.01. The job performance stand for (JP), organizational stress (OS), working hours (WH), workload (WL), harassment (HARR) The results of the correlation analysis in Table 3.1 shows significant negative correlation between job performance and organizational stress evaluation at r = -.424**, p < .01.Similarly job performance was also negatively affect working condition with r =-.611** , p < .01, workload r = -.307**, p < .01 and harassment r =-.631**, p < .01 and working hours r = -.508**, p < .01 respectively. The relation of stressors among is positive related and with job performance they are negatively related.

Table 3.2 Model Summary Adjusted R Std. Error of Model R R Square Square the Estimate 1 .737a .543 .530 .5749 a. Predictors: (Constant), AHAR, AWL, AWH, AOS, AWC

Above model summary Table 3.2 of Regression analysis shows that there is overall 73.7% Correlation amongst independent and dependent variables and value of adjusted R square is 0.543 and after adjustment the value of R square is .530. The independent variable are moderately reacted to the independent variable.

152

Table 3.3 Anova ANOVAa Sum of Mean Model Squares df Square F Sig. Regression 69.616 5 13.923 42.127 .000b a. Dependent Variable: AJP b. Predictors: (Constant), AHAR, AWL, AWH, AOS, AWC

The ANOVA table 3.3 shows that there is significant impact of independent variables on dependent variable because F=42.127 & P<0.05.the degree of freedom is 5. The overall impact of taken predictors is very significant over dependent variable. It is also concluded that the overall model fit is very good for dependent variable, and this is also known as a test for goodness of fit. Table 3.4 Coefficients Analysis Coefficients

Unstandardized Standardized Coefficients Coefficients Model B Std. Error Beta T Sig. 1 (Constant) 5.574 .206 27.023 .000 AWH -.562 .071 -.508 7.932 .000 AOS -.459 .073 -.424 -6.303 .000 AWC -.620 .060 -.611 -10.390 .000 AWL -.311 .072 -.307 -4.337 .000 AHAR -.579 .053 -.631 -10.953 .000 a. Dependent Variable: AJP

The table 3.4 of coefficient analysis shows that overall relationship is significant because the value is less than 0.5.the standard coefficient of organizational stress is (-.424), working hours (-.508), workload (-.307), harassment (-.631) and working condition (-.611).

153

4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The women employees working in public sector universities of Quetta are facing problem due to the different stress element like working condition, workload, harassment, and working hours. The independent variables have a significant negative impact on the dependent variable. As the stress in organization increases the job performance of teachers is decreased. The result of my study showed significant negative correlation between job performance and organizational stress evaluation at ( r = -.424**, p < .01). Similarly there is significant negative correlation between harassment and job performance evaluation at harassment (r =-.631**, p < .01), workload and job performance(r = -.307**, p < .01). Between job performance and working hours was also found to be significantly negative (r = -.508**, p < .01).. Work environment is negatively affect the job performance (r =-.611**, p < .01). So it was finally concluded that if there is poor working environment, non- availability of resources, the teacher feel difficulty in delivering the lecture and are stressed. Similarly harassment in organization also leads to the organization stress in result of this the performance of a teacher is decreased. Long working hours, increase of workload creates a negative impact on women employee performance in public sector universities. It can also create hurdles on their career development and also impact the women teachers’ performance and eventually organization will also be suffered.

References Alan, Chan, K. C., & Chong, E. Y. L. (2010). “Work Stress of Teachers from Primary and Secondary Schools in Hong Kong”. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the International Multi conference of Engineers and Computer Scientists, Hong Kong. Akhlaq, M., Amjad, M., Mehmood, K., Seed-ul-Hassan, & Malik, “An evaluation of the effects of stress on the job Performance of secondary school teachers”, Journal of Law and Psychology, 1(1)(2010), 43-54.

154

Beverly Messick Huey and Christopher D. Wickens, “Implications for Individual and Team Performance” national academy press vms Washington. DC 1993 Burke, S. (2011). “Stress and Coping Behaviors among Primary School Teachers East Carolina University, Carolina”. Brenner, P. (2004). Workers physical surrounding. Impact bottom line accounting: Smarts Pros.com. Barnett, R. C., Baruch, G. K. (1985). “Women's involvement in multiple roles and psychological distress”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, pp. 135-145. Chandrasekar K (2011). “Workplace Environment and its Impact on Organizational Performance in Public Sector Organizations”. International Journal of Enterprise Computing and Business Systems, Vol: 1, Issue: 1 Chaudhry, I. S., & Rahman, S. (2009). “The impact of gender inequality in education on rural poverty in Pakistan: an empirical analysis”. European Journal of Economics, Finance and Administrative Sciences, 15(1), 174188. Easthope,C.andEasthope,G(2000),“Intensification,extensionandcomplexit yofteachers’workload”. British Journal of Sociology of Education, Vol. 21 No. 1, pp. 43-58. Gibson, James J., Ivancevich, John and Donnelly, James H. Organizations, Behavior, Structure, Processes. Dallas, Texas: Business Publications, Inc., 1979. Gmelch, W. H. (1993). Coping with faculty stress. New York: Sage Publications. G. Robert J. Hockey. “Compensatory control in the regulation of human performance under stress and high workload: A cognitive-energetical framework “Department of Psychology, University of Hull. Gelfand, M. J., Fitzgerald, L. F., Drasgow, F. (1995). “The structure of sexual harassment: A confirmatory analysis across cultures and settings”. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 47, pp. 164– 177. Hasun, F. M.&Makhbul Z.M. (2005). “An overview of workplace environment and selected demographic factors towards individual’s health and performance enhancement”. Synergizing OSH for Business Competitive, 45-53.

155

Idris Haruna(2016), “analysis of the causes and effects of sexual harassment on the performance of female employees in some selected organizations in kogi state, nigeria” International Journal of Democratic and Development Studies (IJDDS)”, Vol. 2, No 2, March, 2016. Katharine, T. B. (2002): Gender and Law, Theory, Doctrine, Commentary, Aspen Publishers, Inc. 3rd. Kaur, S. (2011). “Comparative Study of Occupational Stress among Teachers of Private and Govt. Schools in Relation to their Age, Gender and Teaching Experience”. International Journal of Educational. Khan, E. A., Aqeel, M., & Riaz, M. A. (2014). “Impact of Job Stress on Job Attitudes and Life Satisfaction in College Lecturers”. International Journal of Information and Education. Karasek, R. A., Theorell, T. (1990). Healthy work: stress, productivity and the reconstruction of working life. New York: Basic Books. Kohun, S. (1992).Business environment. Ibadan: University Press. Lambert, E. G., Hogan, N. L., Altheimer, I., & Wareham, J. (2010). “The effects of different aspects of supervision among female and male correctional staff: A primary study Criminal Justic Review”, 35, 82-120. LePine, J. A., LePine, & Jackson, Challenge and Hindrance Stress: “Relationships With Exhaustion, Motivation to Learn, and Learning Performance”. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(5) (2004), 883-891. Mohammad Nadeem (2011). “Teacher’s Competencies and Factors Affecting the Performance of Female Teachers in Bahawalpur (Southern Punjab) Pakistan”. International Journal of Business and Social Science Vol. 2 No. 19. McCormick, J., & Barnett, K. (2011). “Teachers' attributions for stress and their relationships with burnout”. International Journal of Educational Management, 25, 278−293. doi: 10.1108/09513541111120114. Melanie Shepard and Ellen Pence (2015), “The Effect of Battering on the Employment Status of Women” affilia vol 5 no.2 summer 1988 55-61 women and social work inc. Mahpara Begum Sadaquat Qurra-tul-ain Ali Sheikh, (2011),"Employment situation of women in Pakistan", International Journal of Social Economics, Vol. 38 (2) pp. 98 – 113.

156

Naomi Soto, Rhonda Atkinson, Gregory Smith book coping with Stress 2010. Price Spratlen, L. (1994). Perceived workplace mistreatment in higher education: Characteristics and consequences. American Association of Occupational Health Nurses Journal, 42, 548-554. Peters, L. H., & O‟Connor, E. J. (1980). Situational constraints and work outcomes: The Influences of a frequently overlooked construct. Academy of Management Review, 5(3), 391-397. Rani, R., & Singh, A. (2012). “A Study of Occupational Stress In Relation To Demographic Variables”. International Journal of Innovative Research & Development, 1(9), 253- 270. Subramanian, K.N. (1977), Wages in India, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, p. 194. Sabherwal, N., Ahuja, D., George, M., & Handa, A. (2015). “A study on occupational stress among faculty members in Higher Education Institutions in Pune SIMS”. Journal of Management Research 1, 18-23. Shukri, M.S. (1998), “Beban tugas di kalangan guru sekolah rendah”, unpublished master dissertation, University Utara Malaysia, available. Thorsen EJ. Stress in academe: What bothers professors? High Education 1996; 31:471-89. Tiphaine huyghebaert et.,al, (2018). “The effect of workload on teacher functioning” Received: 25 September 2017 Revised: 10 April 2018 Accepted: 30 April 2018. DOI: 10.1002/smi.2820. T. Martin and T. Schormerhorn, "Work and Non-Work Influences on Health: A Research Agenda Using Inability to Leave as a Critical Variable," Academy of Management Review (1983), pp. 650-659. Tight, M. (2010). Are Academic Workloads Increasing? The Post-War Survey Evidence in the UK. Higher Education Quarterly, 64(2), 200-215. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2273.2009.00433.x Jabeen, N. (2001). “Facilitators and Barriers to Career Advancement of Women Civil Servants”. Social Sciences and Humanities Journal, 8: No, 1, spring, 2001.

157

Bi-Annual Research Journal “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. 45 NO. 1, 2020

Impact of Corporate Social Responsibility on Consumers’ Loyalty & Organizational Financial Performance with Special Reference to Telecommunication Sector

Abdul Qadeer Institute of Management Sciences (IMS), University of Balochistan, Quetta, Pakistan. Sana-ur-Rehman NFC-Institute of Engineering and technology, Multan, Pakistan Abstract This research aims to identify the relationship of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) with consumer’s loyalty and organizational financial performance in the context of telecom sector. For this purpose, data was collected through quota based random sampling technique from 378 telecom consumers of selected areas of Quetta city analyzing the impacts of consumer’s CSR perception on loyalty using regression analysis; Whereas, to analyze the relationship of CSR & financial performance, secondary data was obtained and analyzed from the annual reports of seven years (i.e. from 2010 to 2016) of the parent organizations of the existing four telecom operators in Pakistan. The results revealed a positive relationship between organizations’ perceived CSR activities and consumer’s loyalty. Moreover, the research also revealed a positive link between CSR and financial performance.

Keywords: CSR, Corporate, Social Responsibility, Financial performance, attitudes, perception, loyalty

1 Introduction Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) has gained much attention worldwide as it is used by the firms for retaining and attracting employees (Kim and Park, 2011).Consumers while taking purchase decisions, expect companies to be engaged in CSR activities (Becker et al, 2006). Through CSR activities organizations gain customers and recognition. The idea of working only for profitability is no more recognized; however, the concept

158 of CSR is being adopted in which the organization strives for economic, environmental and social aspects. The society expects the organization to have their responsibilities and obligations towards the society, employees, people and the customers (Carol, 1979). Brammer and Pavelin (2004) have identified several discussions and studies over social responsibility of businesses. CSR from the last decade has got much importance and therefore several researchers are investigating its different aspects. Pakistan being a developing country is facing several social issues including poor infrastructure, unemployment, illiteracy, terrorism, corruption, lacks of women empowerment, child labor, poor policies and other major issues. To redress such issues not only the government but also the business sector organizations may play a pivotal and positive role. One of the sources by the business sector for elimination of all such social problems is the practice of CSR. In this regard, the perception / opinion of consumers towards purchase intention / loyalty is of great importance for encouragement of the business sectors. Similarly, the positive effect of CSR activities on organizational financial performance is an encouraging point for the different firms. The knowledge obtained from this study is not only to find the relationship of the different variables but also to provide a guideline and encouragement to the organizations for further engagement in such activities which will play its role in development of the country and eradication of the social evils from the country. This research is therefore aimed to answer the questions as whether consumers’ perceptions of CSR affect consumers’ loyalty and whether CSR has positive relationship with financial performance. 2. Literature Review and Hypotheses: Corporate Social Responsibility: In 1920 the concept of CSR was proposed and since then no any integrated and agreed definition has been formed (Scherer & Palazzo, 2007).Carol (1998) found 25 different types of CSR definitions. Several researchers and scholars have defined CSR in different ways as shown in Table1. Wood (1991) clarifies that the idea of CSR was coined for the purpose of linking business with society. CSR thus makes the firm responsible to the society and people other than profitability. Throughout the world CSR activities are performed for number of purposes and depend on the demands and expectations of

159 societies that include the elimination of poverty, hunger, diseases and provision of health, education and equal opportunities to women (Schmidheiny, 2006).

Table1. Definitions of CSR Authors Definitions

Chandler (2001) CSR are the activities performed by an organization other than their business activities.

Danko et al. (2008) CSR are the economic, legal, moral and charitable services which are for all the stakeholders. Carroll (1979) CSR is the social responsibility of organizations that encompass economic, legal, ethical responsibilities and discretionary expectations.

Mc Williams & CSR is a situation in which firms carry out tasks that are beyond the tasks the Siegel (2001) firms are operating and similarly the activities other than the main operations are expected. Dahlsrud (2006) CSR are the Obligations of organizations that is more than its stakeholders.

Swaen & CSR are the obligations in which firms have to put together the environment Chumpitaz, (2008) and social parameter for long term development planning.

According to Carroll (1979) CSR domain entails mainly four types of obligations. Economic is the first CSR responsibility of any firm, in which the owners and stakeholders of the firm are given the fair returns, profits and their due share. Appropriate pay for workers, development in technology, creating new jobs, innovation in products and services are considered to be the economic responsibility of organizations. The second type of CSR responsibility is the legal responsibility in which the society as a whole anticipates the organizations to carry out the business activities in a legal manner fulfilling all the rules and regulations. Carroll described it that the organizations shall play by the “rules of the game.” The third responsibility of organizations is the ethical responsibility in which the society expects organizations to carry out such business that are ethically

160 acceptable and not providing any damage to society. Finally, the fourth and last responsibility as per Carroll (1979) is the discretionary responsibly in which the organization pays back to the society. Organizations upon their choice in providing charitable activities back to the society. The activities may include reducing illiteracy rate, providing good health facilities, trainings, foods, shelter, rehabilitation etc. Thus CSR is the combination of the four responsibilities that include economic, legal, ethical and discretionary responsibilities (Carroll, 1979).

Corporate Social Responsibility and Consumer Loyalty Kordnaeij et al., (2013) considers that people make beliefs based on attitudes. Attitudes are simply feelings of people towards any happening and can be both positive and negative. Therefore, purchase intention is linked with attitudes and on this basis people form their beliefs of hate or love towards products or people. Thus loyalty is based on the peoples’ attitude that develop concept towards any item or product (Monirul and Hui Han, 2012).Studies have proved that CSR has a positive impact on the retention and loyalty of consumers (Gigauri, 2012). It has been proven through different research and market surveys that there is a positive relationship between the CSR and consumer behaviors towards loyalty (Davids, 1990). Sen et al. (2006) has identified through different studies that companies are active in providing the CSR activities including philanthropy, educational, employment and other social activities to consumers. Brown Tom and Peter, (1997) observes a positive relationship between CSR activities and consumer attitudes towards loyalty. Wong Szeki (2012) reports that consumers show negative attitudes towards the companies / organizations employing child labor, while consumers show a positive attitude towards organizations employing people who survived from natural disasters. Mohr et al. (2001) conducted a survey wherein the relationship of CSR and its effects on consumer attitudes towards retention was analyzed. The survey results showed a positive relationship between the CSR and consumers’ loyalty.

The consumer loyalty entails the emotional, physical and mental activities while purchasing, using or throwing away any product (Jeddi et al. 2013).

161

Based on the consumer purchase behavior marketers therefore, plan products to make customer loyal. Marketers’ good knowledge of the consumer purchase behavior help to generate and formulate good marketing strategies (Bakhsi, 2012). Bakhsi (2012) has identified the five step model for consumer decision making that includes; a) problem identification, b) retrieval of information, c) evaluation of the alternatives, d) selection of the product and e) after purchase evaluation. From the available psychological theories it has been proven that attitudes formulate behavior (Reily et al., 1999). The loyalty of a consumer is thus based on the attitudes before, during and after purchase of any product or device and if there is positive attitudes towards the product or service, the loyalty towards purchasing the product will be observed and vice versa (Montazzeri et al. 2013). And thus the consumer purchase intentions or loyalty are based on attitude factors towards products (Jaafar et al., 2012).Companies through CSR influence the consumers’ attitude resulting in loyalty for the consumers companies(Trudel and Cotte, 2011). Through empirical research it has been proved that customers are more loyal towards the products of organization that carry out CSR activities. According to Yoon et al. (2006) consumers are loyal to products of the organizations on the bases of CSR activities that’s why sometimes the purchasing behavior of products based on CSR activities has more influence than the prices of the products. In this regard Sen et al. (2006) indicates a positive relationship between the CSR activities and loyalty to firms. Lin et al. (2011) has also supported the positive relationship between the CSR activities and consumers retention. Based on literature and above discussion it is proposed that consumers will be loyal towards the organizations that practice CSR activities hence leading towards the following hypothesis

H1: CSR activities have positive impact on consumer’s loyalty.

CSR and Firm’s Financial Performance A research conducted by Brown and Dacin (1997) & Maignan and Ferrell, (2004) has proved that the business organizations performing in socially responsible way will get reputation and will expand brand image. Garriga

162 and Mele (2004) while exploring the relationship of CSR with profit generation, concludes that the CSR could be one of reasons for generating more organizational profit. Several researchers made contributions to this by showing positive relationship of CSR activities with organizational financial performance. The scholars who contributed and identified the positive relationship of organizational performance and CSR activities include Alafi & Hasoneh (2002), Luo & Bhattacharya (2006), and Shen & Chang (2008). Orlitzky et al (2003) studied a total of 52 surveys and concluded that organizations performing CSR activities perform financially better than those not performing CSR. Another scholar Rettab et al. (2009) to check the profitability with firm’s CSR activities conducted a survey in which they studied 280 organizations located in UAE and found positive relationship between organizational CSR activities and firm performance. Therefore, based on the literature it is proposed that H2: CSR activities have positive effect on organizational financial performance.

After formulating the hypotheses from the available literature and theories, the following conceptual model is drawn:

163

Figure1 - Conceptual Model - CSR with consumer loyalty and firm’s financial Performance

3. Research Methodology: This quantitative research consists of two components. The goal of the first component is to conduct a survey and investigate the impacts of consumer’s CSR related perception on consumer’s loyalty to organizations; whereas, the goal for the second component of the study is to determine the relationship of CSR with organizational financial performance. To measure consumer perception towards CSR and firm’s performance, telecom sector of Pakistan has been selected as an industry due to consumers’ high usage rate of telecom services and awareness about the operators, quality of service, packages and also due to involvement of cellular operators in different national programs, such as, educational initiatives, public awareness, and rehabilitations. IT & Telecom sector of Pakistan is also important as it contributes 3% to GDP and has received approximately $ 5.7 billion as FDI (BOI, 2017). Moreover, there are 121.3 million cell phone, 2.2 million broadband and 30 million internet subscribers in Pakistan (BOI, 2017).Currently, there are total four cellular operators providing services in Pakistan. For the sake of anonymity the operators are coded as Operator A, Operator B, Operator C and Operator D. As per PTA annual report 2017 the operator regarded as Operator A had the most market share of 38% Whereas Operator B 29%, Operator C 20% and Operator D 13%. 3.1 Sample Design and Data Collection Data regarding the first component of the survey was based on the defined questionnaire. Questions were asked regarding several CSR activities performed by telecom service operators and consumers’ loyalty from users to telecom services. In this regard total twenty questions were asked to measure CSR perception and loyalty of the consumers adopted from different researchers (as shown in appendix-A) covering the four CSR aspects i.e. Legal, Ethical, Discretionary responsibility and consumer’s loyalty. As the first hypothesis relates to consumers’ perception while economic responsibility relates towards the employees remuneration and other benefits therefore the economic responsibility was not taken into

164 consideration for the first hypothesis. The questionnaire was based on five points Likertscale ranging from strongly agrees to strongly disagree (i.e. 1 to 5). For achievement of the goals of the first aspect of the study, primary data was collected through cluster and quota sampling method from 378 mobile users. Since all the residents using mobile phones of Quetta city were the population of the survey therefore the city was divided into 25 areas (i.e. clusters) based on the popularity of areas and diverse inhabitants in the areas. Using random sampling method five areas were randomly selected among the 25 clusters selecting each fifth area. Each selected area (cluster) contained several roads, streets, colonies etc. making a total of 30 different locations and using random sampling method selecting every fifth location, a total of six locations were accordingly selected from each area. Thus five clusters were selected and six locations from each cluster made a total of 30 locations. To achieve the desired level of sample size (i.e. 378) nearly 13 respondents were randomly approached from each of the 30 location based on the specific number of subscribers of each operator. The respondents were asked to tick mark a specific telecom operator of which they were users and evaluate its’ CSR performance and their attitudes towards the same operator. After analysis, total370 usable questionnaires were finalized for further analysis. Out of370 respondents 106 were users of Operator-A, 58 of Operator-B, 102 of Operator-C and 104 of Operator- D. The sample consisted of 287 males and 83 females. The results of the obtained data were accordingly compared with the benchmarks of the CSR activities obtained through Content analysis for testing the hypothesis. Whereas to test the second hypotheses, secondary data was obtained from the annual reports of the parent organizations of the cellular operators in Pakistan from the last seven years financial reports (2010 – 2016) and the obtained data was accordingly analyzed through correlation and regression analysis. Content Analysis The CSR activities of the organizations were measured through content analysis of respective annual reports and websites as CSR benchmark tool. The annual reports for the last seven years (2010 to 2016) of the parent organizations of the existing four Pakistani operators were obtained and

165 analyzed. As every operator has described their performed CSR activities in annual reports therefore the available record regarding CSR expenditure was accordingly obtained. The frequency of performing CSR activities by each operator was noted. The data in Table2 shows the summary of frequency of the CSR activities performed by cellular operators regarding different social development aspects such as health, environmental protection, disaster relief, education, social welfare, rehabilitation, emergency response etc. It was evident that Operator-A being the most socially responsive to the society stood at the first place followed by Operator-D, Operator-C and Operator-B respectively.

Table2.CSR Performance of different Telecom Organizations Operators Frequency of CSR Activities Ranking Operator-A 67 1st nd Operator-D 36 2 Operator-C 25 3rd th Operator-B 24 4

Measuring CSR Expenditure and Organizational financial performance The financial performance of the four mobile operators was measured and analyzed on the basis of Net profit of the organizations after tax deduction. CSR expenditure is measured on the basis of expenditures for the welfare of the society including donations to welfare organizations and employees’ remuneration & other benefits. The two variables used in the analysis are CSR expenditure and Net Profit. The data for analyzing the impact of CSR expenditure with the financial performance was taken from the financial reports of the parent organizations of the four mobile operators from the year 2010 to 2016, which was accordingly analyzed through correlation and regression analysis. 4. Analysis and Results 4.1 CSR activities impact on consumer’s loyalty

166

For the first aspect of the research, the variables were comparatively analyzed. The use of content analysis shows that mobile operators in Pakistan are relatively socially responsive. Results from the questionnaire suggest that the operators that were perceived more socially responsible to the society had higher customer retention mean score as shown in Table3. The results were in line with bench mark scores obtained by content analysis.

Table3 - Consumers’ Perception towards CSR of the existing four Telecom competitors of Pakistan

Operator Operator Operator Operator Description A B C D 2.5 2.3 Perceived CSR mean score 2.47 2.51 5 1 Consumer loyalty mean 2.5 2.2 2.35 2.50 score 5 0

Furthermore, the proposed model was analyzed through regression analysis in which the consumer loyalty is dependent variable whereas CSR variables i.e. legal, ethical and discretionary are independent variables. The results as given in Table4 suggested that the coefficient of determination has shown significant level of variance (i.e. R2 = 0.515) in the dependent variable (i.e. loyalty to organization) by the explanatory variables (i.e. legal, ethical & discretionary). Thus it can be stated that 51.50%variationinconsumer attitudes towards retention is explained by the CSR variables.

Table4 Linear Regression Customer loyalty is dependent variable

Standardized Coefficients Beta T Sig. CSR Activities 0.717 19.757 .000 R2 0.515

167

4.2 CSR Activities and Organizational Financial Performance.

Whereas for the second aspect of the study the data of CSR expenditure (including donation to society, employees remuneration, pensions/ retirement costs) and Net Profit for the seven years of the parent organizations of the four operators was analyzed through correlation and regression analysis using SPSS software. And the data for the correlation of CSR expenditure and Net profit for the last seven years are described inTable5 whereas the correlation is described in Table6. The data along with the correlation is also shown in graphical representation as Figure 2 & 3. For the understanding purpose the currencies are converted into dollars as per average rates in the respective years.

Table5 Data for CSR & Net Profit for the seven years of the four operators Net Profit Ratio of CSR CSR Expenditure Parent Organization Exp and Net Year of in Million Profit in Million Dollars Dollars Operator-A 272 781 272 : 781 Operator-D 127 109 127 : 109 2010 Operator-B 1864 2544 233 : 318 Operator-C 3730 18152 1865 : 9076 Operator-A 244 661 244 : 661 Operator-D 152 83 152 : 83 2011 Operator-B 1809 1207 1809 : 1207 Operator-C 4563 19997 4563 : 19997 Operator-A 239 -205 Operator-D 78 74 39 : 37 2012 Operator-B 1938 1850 969 : 925 Operator-C 5027 20759 5027 : 20759 Operator-A 240 -2914 Operator-D 139 188 139 : 188 2013 Operator-B 1771 1997 1771 : 1997 Operator-C 5685 19962 1895 : 6654 Operator-A 227 -444 2014 Operator-D 70 52 35 : 26

168

Operator-B 1524 1710 254 : 285 Operator-C 11351 17600 11351 : 17600 Operator-A 184 8 23 : 1 Operator-D 135 84 45 : 28 2015 Operator-B 1403 758 1403 : 758 Operator-C 11529 16716 549 : 796 Operator-A 184 194 82 : 97 Operator-D 115 66 115 : 66 2016 Operator-B 1521 671 1521 : 671 Operator-C 11452 15658 5726 : 7829

Figure– 2Graphical representation of data of CSR Exp with Net Profit

The Operator A for the three years (i.e. 2012-2014) showed negative net profit. However, the operator had generated positive gross income but due to some none operative costs, the organization had obtained negative net income. The factors include the financial costs, Impairment of financial assets, foreign exchange costs, interest on shareholder loan etc.

The graph in Figure 2 shows the results for the correlation of CSR expenditure and Net income of the parents/holding companies of the four

169 operators for the last seven years. The results display linear positive correlation between the two variables i.e. the increase in CSR expenditure has resulted increase in the net profit of the industry.

Table 6- Correlation of CSR & Net Profit of the industry for the seven years Year Co-relation Between CSR expenditure& Net Profit

2010 0.933 2011 0.944 2012 0.959 2013 0.981 2014 0.999 2015 0.998 2016 0.996

Figure – 3 Graphical representation of Correlation of CSR Exp with Net Profit

The correlation between CSR expenditure and the Net profit for the whole period i.e. from the year 2010 upto the year 2016 (7 years) is significant. Due to the calculated p-value (i.e. 0.000) or the significance level which is less than the 0.05 with coefficient of correlation of 0.820. Regression analysis of CSR expenditure and Net Profit has predicted 67.20% variation in Net Profit due to CSR expenditure (the R square=0.672 explains how much variance from the total is in dependent variable is explained by the

170 independent variable) and has predicted beta coefficient of 0.820 . The results explain that net profit is influenced by the CSR expenditure.

5. Discussion:

The regression and correlation analysis show a positive relationship of the CSR Activities with profitability performance of the organizations. The findings are in line with the results of Vintila (2013) who had also showed a positive relationship of the CSR with organizational performance. The regression results suggest a significant impact of CSR activities on the net profit of the organizations. Variables such as CSR expenditure and net profit results conclude that as the organizations have increased their level of CSR practices their net profit margin has increased in each additional year and thus indicated a positive relationship with firm’s performance. As a result, the firm’s profitability increased due to its role in CSR practices. The CSR practices practiced by the aforementioned organizations were one kind of media campaign which resultantly increased their size of sale for each additional year.

6. Conclusion

From the literature review and review of the CSR practices of the above mentioned sectors of Pakistan, it can be inferred that by practicing CSR, the organization performance and profitability increases. As each organization increases their level of CSR practices and raises funds for CSR activities; that result in more profitability and higher performance. Moreover, more focused on CSR adds further to their profitability. On analyzing the CSR of above firms and comparing with their involvement and performance in previous years, a positive change was observed.

7. Limitation of the Study:

The first part of the study was based on primary data that was carefully obtained through a set questionnaire. Even though responses of the consumers might have contained some biasness. The objective the study was to analyze the perception of the consumer towards CSR practices and

171 their loyalty towards the firms in the context of Quetta city however the sample size was limited to 378 consumers of different telecom operators. The survey was conducted in urban area only.

8. Suggestions

The organizations while performing CSR activities shall focus on the major environmental issues, the issues that need to be focused on priority. Each organization shall recognize their role and importance while performing the CSR activities. While performing the CSR activities the organizations shall take stake holders into considerations so as to maintain their business relationship. In order to increase more sale and profitability, the organizations shall better practice strategic type of CSR activities, which are basically the investment of the organization for the future and prospects consumers and buyers. Therefore a research may be conducted in the analysis of strategic and altruistic type of CSR activities and their impact on the organizational performance.

172

References

Alafi, K., &Hasoneh, A. B. (2012). Corporate social responsibility associated with customer satisfaction and financial performance a case study with Housing Banks in Jordan. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 2(15), 102–115.

Becker-Olsen, K.L., Cudmore, B. A., & Hill, R. P. (2006).The impact of perceived corporate social responsibility on consumer behavior. Journal of Business Research, 59(1), 46-53.

Bakhshi, S., 2012.Impact of gender on consumer purchase behavior. National Monthly Refereed Journal of Research in Commerce & Management, 9(1): 1-8.

Brown Tom, J. and A.D. Peter, 1997. The company and the product: Corporate associations and consumer product response. Journal of Marketing, 61(January): 68-84.

Brammer, S. and S. Pavelin, 2004.Building good reputation. European Management Journal, December, 22(6): 704-713. Board of Investment site: http://boi.gov.pk/Sector/SectorDetail.aspx?sid=5

Carroll, A. B. (1979). A three-dimensional conceptual model of corporate performance.The Academy of Management Review, 4(4497–530).

Carroll, A.B. (1998) The Four Faces of Corporate Citizenship. Business and Society Review, 101, 1-7.

Donna J. Wood, “Corporate Social Performance Revisited,” The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 16, No. 4 (1991): 695)

Dahlsrud, A., 2006. How corporate social responsibility is defined: An analysis of 37 definitions. Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, 15(1): 1-13.

173

Danko, D., S. Goldberg Jennifer, R. Goldberg Stephen and R.A. Grant, 2008. Corporate social responsibility: The United States vs. Europe. The Journal of Corporate Accounting and Finance, 16(61): 41-47.

Davids, M., 1990.The champion of corporate social responsibility. Business and Society Review, 74(13): 40-43.

Geoffrey Chandler, “Defining Corporate Social Responsibility,” Ethical Performance Best Practice, Fall 2001.)

Garriga, E., &Mele, D. (2004). Corporate social responsibility theories: Mapping the territory. Journal of Business Ethics, 53, 51–71

Gigauri, I., 2012b. Attitudes of georgian consumers towards corporate social responsibility. European Scientific Journal, 9(8): 184-189.

Jeddi, S., Z. Atefi, M. Jalali, A. Poureisa and H. Haghi, 2013.Consumer behavior and consumer buying decision process. International Journal of Business and Behavioral Sciences, 5(3): 20-23.

Jaafar, S., P. Lalp and M. Naba, 2012. Consumers’ perceptions, attitudes and purchase Intention towards private label food products in Malaysia. Asian Journal of Business and Management Sciences, 7(2): 73-90.

Kim, S. Y., & Park, H. (2011).Corporate social responsibility as an organizational attractiveness for prospective public relations practitioners. Journal of Business Ethics, 103(4), 639-653.

Kim MK, Park M, Jeong D (2004). The effects of customer satisfaction and switching barriers on customer loyalty on Korean mobile telecommunication services.Telecommunication Policy. 28: 145- 159.

174

Kordnaeij, A., H. Askaripoor and A. Bakhshizadeh, 2013. Studying affecting factors on customers’ attitude toward products with halal brand (Case Study: Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia). International Research Journal of Applied and Basic Sciences, 4(10): 3138- 3145.

Lin, C., S. Chen, C.C. Chin and W. Lee, 2011. Understanding purchase intention during product- harm crises: Moderating effects of perceived corporate ability and corporate. Journal of Business Ethics, 102(3): 455-471.

Martínez, P., & Del Bosque, R. I. (2013). CSR and customer loyalty: The roles of trust, customer identification with the company and satisfaction. International Journal of HospitalityManagement, 35, 89-99.

Mc Williams, A. and D. Siegel, 2001. Corporate social responsibility: Atheory of firm perspective. Academy of Management Review, 26(1): 117-127.

Monirul, I. and J. Hui Han, 2012.Perceived quality and attitude toward tea & coffee by consumers. International Journal of Business Research and Management (IJBRM), 3(3): 100-112.

Montazeri, B., K. Sharifinia, H. Hadian, M. SeddighArabani and S. Bazarkhak, 2013.The impact of attitude on consumer behavior. Universal Journal of Management and Social Sciences, 3(3): 72- 77.

Maignan, I. (2001). Consumers’ perceptions of corporate social responsibilities: a cross-cultural comparison. Journal of Business Ethics, 30(1), 57-72.

Oberseder, M., Schlegelmilch, B. B., Murphy, P. E., & Gruber, V. (2014). Consumers’ Perceptions of Corporate Social Responsibility: Scale

175

Development and Validation. Journal of Business Ethics, 124(1), 101-115.

Orlitzky, M., Schmidt, F. L., &Rynes, S. L. (2003). Corporate social and financial performance: A meta-analysis. Organization Studies, 24(3), 403–441.

Reily, F., L. Rink and P. Harris, 1999.Patterns of attitudes and behavior in fragmented markets. Journal of Empirical Generalizations in Marketing Science, 4(3): 62-91.

Rettab, B., Brik, A., &Mellahi, K. (2009). A study of management perceptions of the impact of corporate social responsibility on organisational performance in emerging economies: The case of Dubai. Journal of Business Ethics, 89(3), 371–390.

Rosenbaum, M. S. (2006). Exploring the social supportive role of third places in consumers’ lives.Journal of Service Research, 9(1), 59- 72.

Scherer, A. G., & Palazzo, G. (2007). Toward a political conception of corporate responsibility: Business and society seen from a Habermasian perspective. Academy of Management Review, 32(4), 1096–1120.

Schmidheiny, S. 2006. ‘A View of Corporate Citizenship in Latin America’. Journal of Corporate Citizenship, 21, spring: 21–4.

Sen, B.S., C.B. Bhattacharya and D. Korscchun, 2006. The role of corporate social responsibility in strengthening multiple stakeholder relationships: A field experiment. Academy of Marketing Science, 34(2): 158-166.

Trudel, R. and J. Cotte, 2011. Does it pay to be good? Sloan Management Review, 50(2): 61-68.

176

Turker, D. (2009).Measuring corporate social responsibility: A scale development study. Journal of Business Ethics, 85(4), 411-427.

Wong Szeki, J., 2012. The study of consumer perception on corporate social responsibility (CSR) towards consumer attitude and purchase behavior. China: The Hong Kong Polytechnic University.

Wagner, T., Bicen, P., & Hall, Z. R. (2008). The dark side of retailing: towards a scale of corporate social irresponsibility. International Journal of Retail and Distribution Management, 36(2),124-142.

Yoon, Y., G.C. Zeynep and N. Schwarz., 2006.The effect of corporate social responsibility (CSR) activities on companies with bad reputations. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 16(4): 377-377.

Zeithaml, V. A., Berry, L. L., &Parasuraman, A. (1996).The behavioral consequences of servicequality. The Journal of Marketing, 60(1), 31-46.

177

Appendix – A (Questions of Questionnaire)

Codes Questions related to Covering Sources CSR1 The organization obeys and carry out all Maignan, 2001; Wagner et activities within the legislation. al., 2008 Legal CSR2 The organization always pays taxes honestly Responsi Wagner et al., 2008; and fairly. bility CSR3 Avoids and discourages corruption by doing Wagner et al., 2008 all possible means. CSR4 Provides services / goods of good and Oberseder et al., 2014; reasonable quality. CSR5 The organization aim is the satisfaction of Turker, 2009 consumers. CSR6 The organization provides complete and Turker, 2009; Oberseder et honest information about its products/services al., 2014 Ethical to the consumers. Responsi CSR7 The organization charges the services or Oberseder et al., 2014 bility products at reasonable prices. CSR8 The organization provides products/services Oberseder et al., 2014 that are safe and not harmful to physical/ mental health of consumers. CSR9 The organization works diligently for handling Oberseder et al., 2014 and resolving of the consumer complaints. CSR10 The organization plays its part by contributing Oberseder et al., 2014 to the economic growth & development of the state. CSR11 The organization contributes for the welfare of Maignan, 2001 the people in the region assuring their quality Discretio life. nary CSR12 The organization offers jobs to general public Oberseder et al., 2014 Responsi in the region. bility CSR13 The organization also plays role in Oberseder et al., 2014 development of the other companies in the state. CSR14 The organization respects values, culture and Oberseder et al., 2014 customs of people of the state. CA1 I am a loyal customer of this organization. Rosenbaum, 2006;

CA2 This organization is my only choice as Martinez and Bosque, compared to other organizations. 2013; Zeithaml et al., 1996 CA3 I will be remaining and continuing to be Martinez and Bosque, customer of the same organization in future. Consume 2013; CA4 I plan to avail and buy more services of this r Zeithaml et al., 1996 organization in future. retention / loyalty CA5 I would suggest and recommend the same Martinez and Bosque, organization to my other freids. 2013; Zeithaml et al., 1996 CA6 I will be the customer of the organization and Zeithaml et al., 1996 won’t leave it even if other organizations come up better and good offers.

178

Bi-Annual Research Journal “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. 45 NO. 1, 2020

Globalisation and Inflation: Evidence from Disaggregated Inflation Data

Kaneez Fatima, Assistant professor, IMS, university of Balochistan Quetta, [email protected] Jameel Ahmed Assistant professor, IMS, university of Balochistan Quetta,

Abstract The purpose of this paper is to examine whether the phenomenon of global inflation is observable at disaggregated level by measuring the co- movements in disaggregated sectoral inflation. The co-movements in disaggregate sectoral inflation are modelled as being associated with a global factor, a sector specific factor and an idiosyncratic error term. A dynamic factor model is estimated using the sectoral inflation of fifteen sectors in 15 OECD countries. The sector specific sectors are important and phenomenon of global inflation is more evident at disaggregate level. The co- movements of inflation of tradable sectors are found to be substantially greater than the co-movements in non-tradable sector which implies that the greater co-movements of inflation can be attributed to increased trade and global integration of product markets. The main contribution of the study is that it provides empirical evidence for the argument built in paper that global shocks affect the prices in different sectors with different intensity. Tradable sectors are more open to international trade, hence the variance of sectoral inflation explained by sector specific factor is observed higher in these sectors than non-tradable sectors.

Key words: Disaggregated Inflation, Globalisation and Dynamic Factor Model. Paper type – Research Paper

179

Introduction It is widely believed that globalization has been increasing since the early 1990s. World markets are much more integrated now than ever due to information technology revolution and deregulation of financial markets. The volume of international trade has been doubled in 2007 since it was in 1961. Integration of goods market has led to low cost imports from emerging economies to developed countries, increased labour supply, increased productivity and increased competitive pressures on domestic firms. Central banks are increasingly interested in the implications of increased global integration of markets for the conduct and effectiveness of monetary policy. The operations of monetary policy might have been mainly affected by globalisation through its influence on financial, labour and goods markets and inflation process. Integration of financial, commodity and labour markets might have affected the relative importance of the channels through which monetary policy transmits by making some channels more important than the others as opposed to the case with less integrated markets. For instance, as Gali (2008) shows that though the effectiveness of transmission of monetary policy is not undermined by globalisation, it affects the relative importance of monetary policy transmission channels (exchange rate and wealth channels are strengthened and interest rate channel is weakened). However, Woodford (2010) shows that financial globalisation (even of the higher degree than has been observed) can not impair the control of central bank on monetary policy. Nevertheless, Bernanke (2007) emphasizes, “The integration of rapidly industrial economies into the global trading system clearly has had important effects on the prices of both manufacturers and commodities, reinforcing the need to monitor international influences on the inflation process.” The operation of monetary policy is mainly affected by globalization through its influence on inflation process. Inflation process in turn is affected by globalization through trade openness, lower import prices and increased competitive pressures (by increased productivity growth, reduced costs and reduced mark ups). Moreover, Impact of globalization on domestic inflation is widely examined by measuring the

180 sensitivity of domestic inflation to foreign output gap with the argument that inflation dynamics and its formation mechanism is changed with increased integration. A vast literature on globalization and inflation has explored several channels to investigate the effect of globalisation on inflation though it remains inconclusive. Mixed empirical evidence on the effect of globalization on inflation suggests exploring another strand of literature i.e. measuring co- movements of inflation across countries as inflation rates are observed to be moving together. Ciccarelli and Mojon (2010) highlighted that inflation has become a global phenomenon and almost 70% of the variance of national inflation of OECD countries during 1961-2007 is explained by a single common factor. Mumtaz and Surico (2006), Neely and Rapach (2009), Monacelli and Sala (2009) and Byrne et al. (2010) estimate the global common factor in inflation across different set of countries and find that a significant amount of variation in inflation across countries is explained by a common factor. Mumtaz and Surico (2006) and Byrne et al. (2010) find that a global common factor becomes more important in explaining the movements of inflation after the mid-1980s. Monacelli and Sala (2009) report a positive and significant relationship between the estimated common factor and trade intensity. The potential candidates for explaining the phenomenon of high co- movements of inflation across countries are co-movements in real activities (such as output gap, investment and consumption), common shocks to demand and supply forces, similarities in conduct of monetary policy across countries and increased globalization. It is shown by Henriksen et al. (2011), Bagliano and Morana (2009), Eickmmeier and Moll (2009) and Wang and Wen (2007) that the co-movements in inflation are substantially higher than the co-movements in real output. Moreover, it is documented by Wang and Wen (2007) that common monetary policy responses do not fully explain the synchronization of inflation. Therefore, phenomenon of global inflation may be attributed to increased globalization. A number of studies which address the theme of inflation and globalisation (as mentioned above) by estimating the co-movements of inflation across countries examine aggregate inflation. Monacelli and Sala

181

(2009) is an exception who investigates disaggregated inflation of four countries (i-e United States, United Kingdom, France and Germany) over a period 1991-2004. They estimate a single common factor and relate the estimated commonality ratio to trade intensity. Altansukh et al. (2017) estimate synchronization of aggregate inflation by analysing the core, food and energy components of inflation. They report higher synchronisation of aggregate inflation than core inflation and foreign energy inflation significantly contributes to globalization of inflation. On the other hand, similar study by Forster and Tillmann (2014) report less globalization of inflation and conclude that inflation process in mainly driven by local factors. We argue that globalization being a potential candidate in explaining the co-movements of inflation, inflation in sectors that are more open to international trade should observe higher co-movements than inflation in sectors which are less open to international trade. Hence, estimating a single global common factor from aggregate or disaggregated inflation data may not capture true nature and size of global factor because a global shock may not affect all sectors of an economy with same intensity. For example a global shock affecting the prices in agriculture sector may not affect the prices in health and social work sector in a similar fashion. The sectors which are more globalized should observe more convergence (and less variability) than less globalized sectors of an economy. This paper provides analysis of international co-movements of inflation at disaggregate level. We contribute to the literature, first, by analysing sectoral inflation and consider a larger sample of countries over an extended period of 1971-2007. Secondly, we decompose the sectoral inflation into a common factor (henceforth the global factor), sector specific factors and idiosyncratic component using a dynamic factor model. The global factor captures the effect of a global shock on all sectors of all countries and the sector specific factors capture the effects of shocks that affect particular sectors in all countries. This allows us to examine the co-movements in tradable and non-tradable sectors across countries (We follow the classification of tradable and non–tradable sectors suggested by Gregorio et al. (1994) because their classification is based on sectoral

182 inflation data of 14 OECD countries which is similar to sample of countries in this study). We expect that the inflation in tradable sectors across countries should display higher co-movements than non-tradable sectors if increased integration of world factor and product markets is one of the responsible factors in globalisation of inflation. Once we find that sector specific factors are important, we estimate a single dynamic factor model for individual panel of sectors across all countries (separately) for robustness check and expect that the common factor in tradable sectors should be higher than the common factor in non-tradable sectors. This study has important policy implication because understanding the source and nature of international fluctuations in inflation leads to effective domestic policy making and reducing the risk of over reacting to domestic factors and ignoring the global ones or over reacting to global factors when they are not important. Moreover, examination of sectoral inflation data may also help us understand the effect of trade integration on co-movements of inflation by estimating the sector specific factor. The rest of the paper is set out as follows. Section 2 reviews the related literature. Section 3 explains our data set and preliminary analysis. Section 4 outlines the econometric methodology, while the empirical results are presented and discussed in section 5. Section 6 concludes and summarises our findings.

2. A Brief Review of Literature There is a strong nexus between inflation across countries and global integration. The link of globalisation to inflation works through the channel of low import prices and increased competitive pressures. The impact of increased global integration on inflation is mainly investigated by using two different approaches. First, a Philips curve framework with different specifications of the process driving inflation is used. However, this does not provide conclusive evidence on the effect of globalisation on inflation dynamics (the pronounced evidence favouring the positive impact of globalisation on inflation is provided by Borio and Filardo (2007) among others which is however challenged by Ihrig et al. (2010) who show that Borio and Filardo’s results are not robust to alternate measures of foreign output gap. Coibion and Gorodnichenko (2015) provide evidence of

183 globalized inflation by estimating global Philips curve). A recent study by Zhang and Zhou (2016) provides evidence in favour of importance of global slack for inflation in china. The empirical evidence on the effect of globalization on inflation is relatively more convincing at sectoral level. For instance, see Gamber and Hung (2001), IMF (2006), Chen et al. (2004), Koske et al. (2010) and Binici et al. (2012). They argue that the sectors that are more exposed to foreign trade face more competitive pressures. Increased competition increases the price elasticity of demand which in turn leads to increased productivity, lower prices and lower mark ups. Second, relatively recently developed alternative approach focuses on the international dimensions of inflation by using factor modelling. The Factor models are used to study the synchronization of macroeconomic variables by decomposing them into common and idiosyncratic components (for instance, this approach is applied to estimate the synchronization of business cycles by Kose at al. (2003), IMF (2006) and Aiolfi et al. (2010) among many others). A static factor model is used by Ciccarelli and Mojon (2007). They point out that aggregate inflation in 22 OECD countries is a global phenomenon as 70% of the inflation variability in these countries can be explained by a single common factor. This interesting finding is followed by the research of Mumtaz and Surico (2008) who examine the role of common and idiosyncratic factors in the evolution of aggregate inflation dynamics in 11 OECD countries. They apply a dynamic factor model with stochastic volatility and conclude that international factor has been important in reducing the persistence and volatility of inflation, however, the high volatility of inflation in the seventies was due to country specific factors. Neely and Rapach (2009) decompose the aggregate inflation rates of 65 countries into an international, regional and idiosyncratic components. They find that on average 34% of the inflation variability is explained by the international factor while the regional and idiosyncratic factors account for 16% and 50% of inflation variability respectively. Byrne et al. (2010) also apply a dynamic factor model with stochastic volatility to decompose the inflation of 22 OECD countries into a global, regional and an idiosyncratic component. They find that though the country

184 specific factors are important drivers of inflation dynamics, the importance of the global factor is increasing over time at the expense of idiosyncratic component. All the above cited studies look at aggregate inflation data to investigate the role of international factor in inflation dynamics. Monacelli and Sala (2009) contribute to the literature by looking at highly disaggregated monthly product-category (Product category means that the data is less aggregated than individual scanner data and higher than sector price data) inflation data of four industrialized countries to address the issue. They apply a factor model to a cross section of 948 consumer prices and conclude that one international common factor explains, on average, 15% to 30 % of variance of consumer product inflation rates. The increased importance of global common factor in explaining the variations of inflation across countries may be attributed to increased integration of factor and product markets. Monacelli and Sala (2009) test this hypothesis by examining relationship between sectoral trade intensity and sectoral commonality ratio. They find a positive and significant relationship between trade intensity and commonality ratio. Altansukh et al. (2017) estimate synchronization of aggregate inflation by analysing the core, food and energy components of inflation. They report that foreign energy inflation significantly contributes to globalization of inflation. To summarise, the empirical literature, addressing the general theme of globalisation and inflation by identifying the co-movements in international inflation is at embryonic stage and is still limited.

3. Data and Preliminary Analysis We computed inflation rate from the annual data on the Gross Value Added price index from the EUKLEMS database for 15 sectors of 15 OECD countries: Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Korea, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom and the United States. The EUKLEMS is a database which is built with the objective of developing a system of analysis at industry level. It provides internationally harmonized and national accounts based high quality data on prices, output and labour compensations. The sample period

185 under investigation is 1971-2007. Thus in total, we have 225 annual series of sectoral inflation. [Figure 1 here] The plots of sectoral inflation in figure 1 depict that the sectoral inflation across countries is highly volatile and less persistent. These are the features especially associated with disaggregated data. The noteworthy point in the plots is that the sectoral inflation across countries appears to co-move throughout the sample period. These co-movements are strikingly high in some sectors (For example Agriculture, Hunting, Forestry and Fishing, Mining and Quarrying, Education, and Total Manufacturing sectors) whilst less apparent in others (For example Financial Intermediation, Other Community, Personal and Social Services and Private Households with Employed Persons sectors). Table 1: Summary Statistics

Sector Avera Stand Averag ge ard e Agriculture, hunting, inflati3.70 Deviat8.73 correlat forestry and fishing on ion 0.35ion Mining and Quarrying 5.89 13.3 0.34 Trada Total Manufacturing 4.60 5.04 0..55 ble Sectors Transport, Storage and 4.50 5.47 0.54 Communication Average 4.67 8.13 0.45

Construction 6.97 5.53 0.38

Non- Education 7.28 5.28 0.38 Trada Electricity, Gas and Water 5.11 9.12 0.36 ble supply Sectors Financial intermediation 5.63 9.11 0.20

Hotels and Restaurants 7.65 5.2 0.40

186

Health and Social work 7.17 5.02 0.48

Other community, 7.23 4.9 Personal and social 0.49 Publicservices Admin and Defence 7.00 5.13 0.49

Private households with 7.28 5.31 employed persons 0.42 Real Estate, Renting and 6.68 4.6 0.42 Business Activities Whole Sale and Retail 5.61 5.22 0.53

Average 6.69 5.86 0.41

Total Average 5.85 2.62 0.67 Indust ry We present summary statistics in Table 1. First and second columns of the Table 1 present mean and standard deviation of disaggregated and total industry inflation. In third column, average correlation is reported. Table 1 suggests a number of observations. First, sectoral inflation is substantially heterogeneous and more volatile than aggregate inflation (It is also shown in Clark (2003) and Altissimo et al. (2007) and Monacelli and Sala (2009). Second, the average inflation of tradable sectors (4.67) is lower than the inflation of non-tradable sector (6.69). The phenomenon of higher inflation in non- tradable sectors than tradable sectors may be explained by Balassa-Samuelson effect. The Balassa- Samuelson effect explains that prices in tradable goods converge internationally while this convergence does not take place in non-tradable sectors (Balassa (1964) and Samuelson (1964). The mean standard deviation of tradable sectors is higher than the mean standard deviation of non-tradable sectors as the tradable sectors are more exposed to global shocks. Third, for sectoral inflation the average cross- country correlation in tradable sectors across countries is higher than non-tradable sectors. The highest cross country average correlation is reported for Total Manufacturing sector (i.e. 55%) while lowest is for Financial Intermediation (i.e. 20%). To have an insight on the time series properties

187 of aggregate and disaggregate inflation rates we test for the presence of unit root by DF-GLS unit root test statistics proposed by Elliot, Rothenberg and Stock (1996). DF-GLS test statistics indicate that null hypothesis of a unit root is rejected in all cases except for few. Therefore, we model the disaggregate inflation as a stationary process (the evidence for less persistence disaggregated inflation is provided in literature by Altissimo et al. (2009), Monacelli and Sala (2009) and Byrne et al. (2010) for UK among others).

4. Econometric Methodology In this section we present the dynamic factor model of Stock and Watson (2008). The aim of model is to capture a global component, a sector specific component, and an idiosyncratic component from the inflation rate series of 15 sectors of 15 OECD countries. The global component captures the common component in all sectors across all countries and the sector specific components capture the common component in a particular sector across all countries while idiosyncratic component is unique for each sectoral inflation series. Specifically inflation is modelled as the following dynamic factor model.

NS  it = i Ft +  ijS jt + eit j=1 (1)

Where,  it is demeaned inflation rates and the global factor Ft , the sector specific factors Sjt and the idiosyncratic disturbance eit follows AR(1) process.

Ft = i Ft−1 +t (2)

S jt =  j S jt −1 + jt (3)

eit = i eit −1 + it (4)

The disturbancest ,  jt and  it are independently distributed, where 2 is i.i.d, N(0,σ ε).

188

The factors are identified by restrictions on the factor loadings. The global factor enters all equations so λi is unrestricted. The sector specific factors are restricted to load on only those variables in a specific sector, so γij is nonzero if an inflation series i of a country is in sector j and is zero otherwise. The scale of the factors is normalized setting λ’λ/N =1 and γjγj/NSj =1 where λ = (λ1 …… λN)’ and γj = (γ1j……… γNj )’, and NS is the number of countries in sector j. The parameters (αi, λi, γij, ρi), i =1, ….., 225 are estimated by Gaussian Maximum Likelihood. The likelihood is maximized using the EM (Expectation-Maximization) algorithm (see Dempster, Laird and Rubin, 1977). Furthermore, we estimate a single factor model for each sector separately.

 it = i Ft + uit (5)

Ft = i Ft−1 +t (6)

uit = iuit −1 +  it , (7)

Where (t and it ) are independently distributed normal variables with zero mean and constant variances. To account for sectoral and national heterogeneity, we take average of the individual time-series coefficients’ estimates to obtain the MG  (Mean Group) panel estimator (Pesaran and Smith, 1995), MG :  1 N  MG = i N i=1 (8)  Where, i denotes the individual estimates. The standard error of the MG estimator is computed as:

N  1   2 se(MG ) = (i − MG ) N(N −1) i=1 (9)

189

MG estimates are computed for sectors across countries (average of estimates for a sector in each country, e.g. Austrian construction, Belgium construction….).

5. Empirical Results This section aims to present and discuss the results of our empirical analysis of disaggregate and aggregate inflation. We present the results obtained by estimation of the Dynamic Factor Model (Equations 1- 4) and the variance decomposition of disaggregated inflation into a global, sector specific and idiosyncratic component and the variance decomposition of inflation of each sector into a common factor and idiosyncratic component (obtained from separate estimations of Eqs 5-7 for each sector) is reported. The Mean Group Maximum Likelihood estimates of the model (1) - (4) for disaggregate data are presented in Table 2. The first and second column show the mean group factor loadings on global and sector specific factors and the last two columns present average autoregressive coefficient and idiosyncratic standard deviation respectively. The factor loadings are normalized so that λ’λ / N =1 and γj’γj / Nsj=1. The loadings on the global and sector specific factors show the correlation of inflation process to the global and sector specific factors. Table 2: Sectoral Disaggregate MG-Maximum Likelihood Estimates

Sector λ γ ρ σε

Agriculture, hunting, 0.74* 3.40* 0.01 6.23 forestry and fishing 1.29* 3.13* 0.02 9.24 Mining and Quarrying

0.84* 2.58* 0.22* 2.59 Tradable Total Manufacturing Sectors Transport, Storage and 0.95* 1.84* 0.28* 2.89 Communication Average 0.96 2.73 0.13 5.23

190

0.80* -0.98 0.25* 3.43 Construction

0.71* 0.2 0.18* 3.01 Education

Electricity, Gas and Water 1.09* 3.46* 0.01 6.93 supply 0.93* 0.99 0.00 6.54 Financial intermediation

0.80* 1.08 0.21* 3.03 Hotels and Restaurants

0.82* 0.87 0.40* 2.78 Health and Social work Non- Other community, Tradable 0.83* 0.28 0.34* 2.56 Personal and Social Sectors services Public Admin and 0.87* 0.44 0.19* 2.49 Defence Private households with 0.84* 1.10 0.23* 2.89 employed persons Real Estate, Renting and 0.67* 0.36 0.28* 2.68 Business Activities 0.94* 1.73 0.23* 2.65 Whole Sale and Retail

Average 0.85 0.86 0.21 3.54 Notes: This table shows Mean Group (MG)-Maximum Likelihood Estimates of the dynamic factor model (1) – (4) using disaggregated inflation. The Mean Group is computed by taking the average of Maximum Likelihood estimates for each sector across 15 sample countries. λ, γ are factor loading on global factor and sector specific factors respectively, ρ is autoregressive coefficient of the disturbance term and σε denotes disturbance variance. * indicate statistical significance at 5% level.

A number of observations in Table 2 are important. First, the loadings on the global factor (λ) are all positive and significant ranging

191 from 0.67 for Real Estate renting and Business activities sector to 1.29 for Mining and Quarrying. This implies that inflation process in all sectors is positively correlated with global factor. Second, on average mean group factor loadings on the global factor of tradable sectors is not substantially greater than the non-tradable sector which is not surprising as we argue that estimating a global factor from disaggregated data underestimates the co- movements because global factor estimation from disaggregated sectoral inflation captures the common factor across all sectors and all countries but not the ones that are specific to particular sectors. The factors that are specific to particular sectors should display high co-movements. Third, the sector specific factor loadings (γ) are also positive for all sectors except for Construction sector indicating that inflation process in all sectors (except Construction) have a positive correlation with sector specific factors. Fourth, the sector specific factor loadings for tradable sectors are significant and substantially higher than the sectors that are non-tradable while they are all insignificant for non-tradable sectors apart from Electricity, Gas and water supply. Insignificant mean group estimates of sector specific loading on non-tradable sectors are due to heterogeneity of inflation rates in non- tradable sectors which may be explained by Balassa- Samuelson effect. However, the significant sector specific factor loading on Electricity, Gas and water supply which is a non-tradable sector (less traded directly) may be justified as this sector is closest to energy sector and shocks to energy prices spill over across countries relatively easily because the inputs to this sector are highly traded commodities (oil for example). Altansukh et al. (2017) provide evidence that foreign energy inflation plays an important role in the globalization effect. This is consistent with our argument and expectation that estimation of a single common factor from disaggregated data may not capture the effects of the international factors that are sector specific. Hence, the loadings on global factor for tradable and non tradable sector are not significantly different because they capture the pattern that is common across all sectors across countries. The higher loadings on sector specific factors for tradable sectors clearly indicate that prices of the goods that are actively traded across countries observe higher co-movements than those that are less traded. The low persistence of idiosyncratic disturbance is shown by the

192 autoregressive coefficient (ρ) in third column. Fourth column reports the standard deviations which indicate that inflation in tradable sectors is highly volatile as they are more exposed to international shocks than the non tradable sectors. Table 3 reports the average proportion of variance of sectoral inflation that is explained by a global factor, sector specific factor and the idiosyncratic term. We find that on average 9% of variance in disaggregated inflation is explained by the global factor and 15% of it is attributed to the sector specific factors. It is interesting to note that the average share of the global sector in explaining the variance of inflation for tradable sectors is not considerably different from non-tradable sectors. This is consistent with the fact that international factors do not affect all the sectors similarly and justifies our approach of estimating the Dynamic factor model with a global factor and sector specific factors. Table 3: Variance Decomposition of Sectoral Disaggregated Inflation into Global, Sector -Specific and Idiosyncratic Component Sector R2-F R2-S R2-e Agriculture, Hunting, Forestry 0.03 0.28 0.69 and Fishing Mining and Quarrying 0.02 0.23 0.75

Tradable Total Manufacturing 0.12 0.23 0.65 Sectors Transport, storage and 0.11 0.21 0.68 communication Average 0.07 0.24 0.69

Construction 0.07 0.02 0.91 0.09 0.06 0.85 Education Non- Electricity, water supply and Gas 0.03 0.14 0.83 Tradable Sectors Financial intermediation 0.04 0.15 0.81

Hotels and Restaurants 0.08 0.18 0.73

193

Health and social work 0.13 0.13 0.74 Other Community Personal and 0.14 0.13 0.73 social services Public Admin and Defence 0.17 0.05 0.78 Private households with employed 0.10 0.11 0.79 persons Real Estate renting and business 0.12 0.10 0.77 Activities Whole sale and retail trade 0.13 0.17 0.70

Average 0.10 0.11 0.78 Total 0.09 0.15 0.76 Average Notes: This table shows the average variance decomposition of sectoral disaggregated inflation rate. First, second and third columns show the fraction of variance attributed to global factor F, sector specific factor S and the idiosyncratic disturbance term e respectively. Another important feature to note in Table 3 is that the variance of disaggregated inflation that is explained by the sector specific factors is higher for tradable sectors than the non-tradable sectors. For instance, for tradable sectors, on average 24% of the variance of inflation is attributed to sector specific factors while for non-tradable sectors it is 11%. Hence, estimating the sector specific factor helps identify the effect of real integration on co-movements of inflation. Similarly, the average variance of inflation attributed to idiosyncratic component for tradable sectors is lower (69%) than non-tradable sectors (76%). Thus, it provides evidence that inflation in tradable sectors that are more integrated globally observe higher co-movements across countries. The estimation of the dynamic factor model with sector specific factors (Equations 1 - 4) provides evidence that the international component of inflation is global as well as sector specific and sector specific factors are important. Therefore, we estimate the single factor model for each sector across countries separately. Table 4 presents the variance decomposition of sectoral inflation rates into a global factor and an idiosyncratic component. It is exhibited in the table that a significant

194 amount of variance of sectoral inflation is explained by a common factor for most of the sectors. It is interesting to note that the sectors which are intensively involved in international trade have significantly high global R2 (the average global R2 for tradable sectors is 74% whereas for non- tradable sectors it is 44%). The 89% of the variance of inflation of Agriculture, Hunting, Forestry and Fishing sector is explained by a global factor. Similar is the case for Mining and Quarrying sector. Table 4: Variance Decomposition of Disaggregated Inflation Estimated for Each Sector across Countries (estimated individually) into Global and idiosyncratic Component:

Sectors R2-F R2-e Agriculture, Hunting, Forestry and 0.89 0.11 Fishing Mining and Quarrying 0.88 0.12

Tradable Total Manufacturing 0.63 0.37 Sectors Transport Storage and 0.58 0.42 Communication Average 0.74 0.26

Construction 0.40 0.60

Education 0.42 0.58

Electricity, Gas and Water supply 0.84 0.15

Non- Financial Intermediation 0.28 0.72 Tradable Sectors Hotels and Restaurants 0.44 0.56

Health and Social Work 0.46 0.54 Other Community Personal and 0.42 0.58 social services

195

Public Admin and Defence 0.43 0.57 Private households with employed 0.31 0.69 persons Real Estate Renting and Business 0.27 0.73 Activities Whole sale and retail trade 0.55 0.45

Average 0.44 0.56 Notes: This table shows average variance decomposition of sectoral disaggregated inflation rate estimated for each sectors across countries separately. First and second columns show the fraction of variance attributed to global factor F and the idiosyncratic disturbance e respectively. We show that the phenomenon of global inflation is more evident at disaggregate level and provide support to the argument that increased trade integration and globalisation has contributed to higher co-movements of sectoral inflation across countries. The decomposition of sectoral inflation into global factor, sector specific factor and idiosyncratic component discern the effect of trade integration from other forms of integrations such as common responses of monetary policy to shocks. The sector specific factor estimates the co-movements of inflation due to trade integration which is found to be important in explaining the variance of sectoral inflation.

6. Conclusion Aggregate inflation rates are observed to be highly synchronized across countries since last two decades. The common macroeconomic shocks and similar responses to these shocks by central banks are often attributed to produce the co-movements in inflation rates. However, Wang and Wen (2007) show that common monetary policy and common oil price shock may not be the whole story behind international synchronization on inflation rates. Several studies such as Ciccarelli and Mojon (2010), Mumtaz and Surico (2012), Neely and Rapach (2011) estimate the co- movements of aggregate inflation and document mixed results. Ciccarelli

196 and Mojon (2010) report a highly dominant global factor (70%) whereas, others find though important global factor in explaining the variance of inflation yet dominant country specific factor. In this paper, we estimated the contribution of the international factors that drive the co-movements in sectoral inflation rates across 15 OECD countries. To investigate the globalization of inflation from sectoral perspective is important as it can deepen our understanding about the nature and source of co-movements of inflation rates. We take into account the fact that exposure to global shocks varies across sectors. Hence, international factors do not affect all the sectors with similar intensity and there may be a component of international shocks that are specific to some sectoral inflation rates which may not be captured by a single global factor. We use dynamic factor modelling to decompose the disaggregated inflation rates into a common global factor, sector specific factors and the idiosyncratic disturbances. Once we find that the sector specific factors are important, we estimate a single dynamic factor model for each sector separately and decompose the sectoral inflation into a global and idiosyncratic component. Main contribution of the paper is that we examined the disaggregated sectoral inflation data and document the importance of sector specific factors in explaining the volatility of disaggregate inflation. We provide the empirical evidence for the argument that international shocks affect prices in different sectors with different intensity. Therefore, a global factor estimation from disaggregate sectoral inflation captures the common patterns across all sectors but not the ones that are specific to particular sectors. The sectors where products are actively traded should display higher co-movements. We show that on average the loadings on the global factor and variance of disaggregate inflation explained by the global factor is not different for tradable and non tradable sectors. However, the importance of sector specific factors in explaining the volatility of disaggregate inflation is substantially greater for tradable sectors than non tradable sectors. This implies that strikingly high co- movements of sectoral inflation rates are function of globalisation and increased integration of world factor and product markets.

197

However, the degree of co-movements of inflation might have been changed during the sample period under investigation. An analysis by splitting the sample period may help better understand the phenomenon of globalization of inflation over time. For instance, introduction of Euro might have caused further synchronization of sectoral inflation due to increased regional integration. The limitation of the study is that sample period under investigation is from 1971-2007 and Euro was introduced in 1999 so splitting the sample at 1999 leaves us with annual data of 8 years only after introduction of Euro. This research may be updated with extended sample period and with time varying volatility in future. The findings of paper have important policy implications. It is very important for policy makers to understand how international shocks spill over different sectors depending on the exposure of sectors to global shocks. It is found that trade integration has an important role in globalization of inflation. For an effective monetary policy central banks should consider developments in foreign sectoral inflation rates and how relative price shocks translate into aggregate inflation. The task of central banks has become challenging as they need to maintain a good balance in responding to international and domestic shocks. Overreacting to one and ignoring the other may lead to less effective or poor monetary control. Future research may be extended to investigate that to what extent international shocks which affect sectoral inflation with different intensity may translate into aggregate inflation.

198

References Aiolfi, M., L.A.V Catao, and A. Timmermann (2010), “Common factors in Latin American business cycles,” Journal of Development Economics, Vol.95 No.2, 212-228. Altansukh, G., R. Becker, G. Bratsiotis, and D.R. Osborn (2017), “What is globalization of Inflation”, Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, 74, 1-27. Altissimo, F., B. Mojon, and P. Zaffaroni (2007), “Fast micro und slow macro: can aggregation explain the persistence of inflation?” Working Paper Series. 729, European Central Bank. Bagliano, F. and Morana, C. (2009), “International Macroecomomic Dynamics: A factor vector autoregressive approach”, Economic Modelling 26, 432–444. Balassa, B. (1964), “The Purchasing Power Parity Doctrine: A Reappraisal”, Journal of Political Economy, 72, 584–596. Bernanke, B. (2007), “Globalization and Monetary Policy”. At the Fourth Economic Summit, Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research, Stanford, California. Binici, M., Cheung, Y. and Lai, K. (2012), “Trade Openness, Market Competition, and Inﬂation: Some Sectoral Evidence from OECD Countries”, International Journal of Finance and Economics 17, 321–336. Borio, C., A. Filardo (2007), “Globalisation and Inflation: New Cross- Country Evidence on the Global Determinants of Domestic Inflation,” unpublished draft, Bank for International Settlements, Basel, Switzerland, March. Byrne, J.P., A. Kontonikas, A. Montagnoli (2010), “The Time Series Properties of UK Inflation: Evidence from Aggregate and Disaggregate Data,” Scottish Journal of PoliticalEconomy, Vol. 57, pp. 33-47. Byrne, J.P., K. Fatima, A. Kontonikas (2010), “Inflation and Globalisation: A Dynamic Factor Model with Stochastic Volatility” University of Glasgow, Department of Economics, Discussion Paper.

199

Chen, N., Imbs, J. M. and Scott, A. (2004), “Competition, Globalization and the Decline of Inflation”, CEPR Discussion Paper No. 4695. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=639188. Ciccarelli, M., B. Mojon (2010), “Global Inflation”, Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 92 No. 3, pp 524-535. Clark, T. (2003), “Disaggregate evidence on the persistence of U.S. consumer price inflation”, Journal of Applied Econometrics 21(5), 563–587. Coibion, O., Y. Gorodnichenko (2015), “Is the Philips curve alive and well after all? Inflation expectation and missing disinflation”, Macroecon , 7 (1), 197-232. Dempster, A.P., N.M. Laird, D.B. Rubin (1977), “Maximum Likelihood from Incomplete Data via the EM Algorithm,” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society B, Vol. 39, pp. 1–38. Eickmeier, S., and Moll, K. (2009), “The Global Dimensions of Inflation- Evidence from Factor-Augmented Phillips Curves”, Working paper 1011, European Central Bank. Elliott, G., Rothenberg, T. J. and Stock, J. H. (1996), “Efficient Tests for an Autoregressive Unit Root”, Econometrica 64(4), 813–836. Forster, M., P.Tillmann (2014), “Reconsidering the international co- movements of inflation”, Open Econ Rev. 25 (5), 841-863. International Monetary Fund (2006), “How Has Globalization Changed Inflation?” World Economic Outlook, Washington, D.C. Gali, J. (2008), Monetary Policy, Inflation and the Business Cycle, Princeton University Press. Gamber, E. N. and Hung, J. (2001), “Has the Rise in Globalization Reduced U.S. Inflation in the 1990s?”, Economic Inquiry 39(1). Gregorio, J. D., A.Giovannini and Wolf, H. (1994), “International evidence on tradables and nontradables inflation”, European Economic Review 38, 1225– 1244. Henriksen, E., Kydland, F. and Sustek, R. (2011), “The high cross-country correlations of prices and interest rates”, Discussion Paper 11/01,

200

University of Nottingham, Centre for Finance, Credit and Macroeconomics. Ihrig, J., S.B. Kamin, D. Lindner, J. Marquez (2007), “Some Simple Tests of the Globalisation and Inflation Hypothesis,” Board of Governors of the FederalReserve System, International Discussion Papers No. 891. IMF (2006), World Economic Outlook, Washington,D.C., publisher, chapter, “How Has Globalization Changed Inﬂation”. Kose, M., C. Otrok, C. Whiteman, (2003), “International Business Cycles: World, Region, and Country-Speci.c Factors”, American Economic Review, Vol. 93 No.4, pp. 1216-1239 Koske, I., Pain, N. and Sollie, M. (2010), Globalisation and inﬂation in the OECD economies, in G. K. Anderton, R., ed., “Macroeconomic Performance in a Globalising Economy”, Cambridge University Press, pp. 155–197. Mumtaz, H., P. Surico (2008), “Evolving International Inflation Dynamics: Evidence from a Time-Varying Dynamic Factor Model,” Bank of England Working Paper No. 341. Monacelli, T., L. Sala (2009), “The International Dimension of Inflation: Evidence from Disaggregated Consumer Price Data,” Journal of Money, Credit, and Banking, Vol. 41, pp.101–20. Neely, C.J., D.E. Rapach (2009), “International Comovements in Inflation Rates and Country Charaterstics,” Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Working Paper 2008-025C. Pesaran, M.H. and R.Smith (1995), “Estimating long-run relationships from dynamic heterogeneous panels,” Journal of Econometrics, 68 (1), 79-113. Samuelson, P. (1964), “Theoretical Notes on Trade Problems”, Review of Economics and Statistics 23, 1–60.

201

Stock, James H and Watson, Mark W (2008),“The Evolution of National and Regional Factors in U.S. Housing Construction,” http://www.princeton.edu/~mwatson. Wang, P. and Wen, Y. (2007), “Inﬂation Dynamics: A Cross-Country Investigation”, Journal of Monetary Economics 54, 2004–2031. Woodford, M. (2010), “Globalisation and Monetary Control”, in M. J. G. Gali, J., ed., ‘International Dimensions of Monetary Policy’, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 13–77. Zhang, C., Y. Zhou (2016), “The Global Slack Hypothesis: New Evidence from China”, International Review of Economics and Finance 42, 339-348.

202

Bi-Annual Research Journal “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. 45 NO. 1, 2020

An Assessment of Organizational Preparedness for Natural Disasters in Balochistan

Maqbool Ahmed Butt 1 Syed Ainuddin2 Jamal-ud-din3

Abstract

Natural disasters have a tendency to disturb the livelihood of individuals and groups significantly. If not managed properly, they even possess a serious threat to the lives of the people. In the ongoing decade from 2010 until now, more than 50,000 people in the world have died due to natural disasters. The main purpose of this paper is to focus on the assessment of institutional preparedness for natural disasters in Balochistan particular and Pakistan in journal. Results of the paper were made on the basis of key informant’s interviews. Results revealed that, the risk management and contingency planning of PDMA and NDMA are not satisfactory if they are compared with other country's’ disaster management authorities. Lack of proper implementation of strategies and Lack of coordination among institutions attracts the overall province towards vulnerability in the context of disaster. Strong coordination among academia and other stockholders can minimize the overall risk. The study also recommends PDMA to implement DM authorities at the district and local community levels.

ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ 1 MPhil Scholar Department of Disaster Management and Development Studies, University of Balochistan Quetta. (Corresponding author) 2Associate Professors Chairperson, Department of Disaster Management and Development Studies, University of Balochistan, Quetta 3 PhD Scholar Department of Disaster Management and Development Studies, University of Balochistan Quetta.

203

Keywords: Institutional, Preparedness, Balochistan, Disasteers

1. Introduction Natural disasters have a tendency to disturb the livelihood of individuals and groups significantly (Petrucci, 2012). If not managed properly, they even possess a serious threat to the lives of the people. In the ongoing decade from 2010 until now, more than 50,000 people in the world have died due to natural disasters (Ritchie and Roser, 2019). Although the number has reduced as compared to the past decades, however, still the figure is way too high. Human life is worth more than anything. Not just lives, natural disasters disrupt the livelihood of individuals. They destroy the sources on which people are dependent for their food and other basic necessities such as shelter. Pakistan has been among one of those countries that has been facing various issues and concerns with regards to its economic, social and political conditions. Problems in such areas have led the country towards high instability, making it difficult for the government to run adequately and efficiently. In this regard, natural disasters could be considered as events which could lead to disturb the country on various grounds (Ahmed, 2013).

Natural disaster has always been the major threat for the country of Pakistan, and recognized as the most affected region by different natural disastrous events (Ainuddin, and Routray, 2012). As per the report of Maqbool, and Hussain (2014), since Pakistan came into existence to 2014 the country has experienced 172 natural disaster events in different parts of the regions, which resulted in deaths of around 1100,000 humans, caused economic of around $2.6 billion, and around 9.5 million people were left homeless.

While it is true that natural disasters cannot be completely prevented, it is imperative to make sure that adequate measures and techniques are adopted to be prepared for such events and to be able to manage them effectively. If such disasters are not managed in the right manner, they may lead to adversely impact the country along with possessing serious threats to the life of individuals. A huge number of people in the recent past have lost their lives due to natural disasters and so it is extremely important to

204 make sure that the government and other related institutes are fully prepared for such events (Pelling, 2012).

Pakistan has faced several deadly disasters since its inception and still, there seems to be no formal readiness system within the society to mitigate the impact of natural disasters. No serious measures are taken by the relevant authorities to ensure that the affected regions are informed so that actions can be taken accordingly in case they face a disaster.

NDMA serves as an executive body of the National Disaster Management Commission (NDMC) and has been formed under the National Disaster Act of 2010. In case of a disaster, the different stakeholders like the government, armed forces and NGOs become a part of NDMA to carry out operations uniformly (NDMA, 2019). The authority has not been fully active in developing a formal and successful disaster management plan which is indicated by the number of deaths and displacements that have occurred in the country due to natural disasters in the past decade. More than 82,000 people have lost their lives from 2006 to 2016 due to earthquakes, floods and droughts in the country (NDMA, 2019). Balochistan is one of the most deprived provinces of the country in terms of facilities provided (Ahmed and Baloch, 2015). Therefore, there is a need to assess the present disaster risk management plan to suggest recommendations for an improved preparedness for natural disasters in the province. The importance of this study is also associated with how it provides the sound recommendations, which can help the government of Pakistan, institutions, and other concerned authorities to carry out the right practices in order to mitigate the negative affect of natural disasters in the context of Baluchistan. Lastly, this study is also carries out huge significance for the future researcher as it can be useful prospect to carry out the similar study to come up with more findings.

2. Review of Literature Economy wise, Pakistan is going through a transformational yet a delicate phase. The country’s external debts are increasing along with the prices of commodities, there is a political instability within the country and the country is at the peak of economic instability. The new government is

205 making valiant efforts to stabilize the country’s economy, and, in such situation, it cannot afford a natural disaster to strike any part of the country particularly Balochistan which is a major part of the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC). CPEC is considered to be very important for Pakistan’s stability within the region (Mustafa and Zafar, 2017). The impact of a natural disaster can be massive as it influences the social, environmental as well as economic systems of a country (Mata-Lima et al., 2013). All provinces of Pakistan have suffered several major natural disasters in the past. The deadliest was the 2005 earthquake which took lives of more than 70,000 people and millions were affected as a result and the 2007 Cyclone Yemyin that also killed hundreds of people in Sindh and Balochistan (Dawn, 2011). The 2013 earthquake in Balochistan that led to the deaths of more than 500 people and destroyed hundreds of villages and thousands of homes (Fazl-e-Haider, 2013).

Table 1.1 Major Natural Disasters in Pakistan (Loss in terms of human lives)

(Source; Khan and Khan, 2008).

206

As per the above-given table, the natural disaster in the nation can be categorized as flood, earthquake, windstorm, Tsunami, and Drought. These natural disasters can cause significant damages. Statistically, 133,728 people have lost their lives in these natural disasters (Khan and Khan, 2008). The literature presented by Wex et al, (2014) argued that in the case of Pakistan, the conditions of natural disasters are no different as the country has faced several deadly disasters since its inception. It can be presumed that still there seems to be no formal readiness system within the society to mitigate the impact of natural disasters on human beings and businesses. The arguments of Cozzolino (2012) noted that with regards to the case of Pakistan, it has been observed that no adequate measures have been taken by the authorities as well as the institutes so as to make sure that the poor effects could be lowered. To be specific, the authorities lack concerns and do not take suitable measures to minimize its effects. On the contrary, Haworth and Bruce (2015) suggested that it is evidently important and essential for countries, specifically the government to ensure and maintain a keen check and observation regarding these disasters taking place. In this manner, the company can guarantee that the citizens could be informed and intimated about it on time. The on-time awareness can facilitate people in managing uncertain conditions within a particular time. The work completed by Cozzolino (2012) reported that with proper and effective communication taking place, the individuals, as well as the concerned authority figures, can acquire the opportunity to take preventive measures and save themselves to the maximum extent.

The central authority which is not present for incorporated disaster management, as well as inadequate coordination between and within disaster associated authorities, is responsible for the effective disaster management program in the region. Mitigation measures and disaster preparedness at the provincial level are highly inclined to the structural features and challenge the non-structural elements like the information, capacities, and knowledge of people, as well as the protection issues of associated livelihood. Every sectorial line department and agencies should take their duty of establishing recovery plans and contingency programs

207 based on the areas of mandate and competence in association with the stakeholders.

3. Proposed Methodology Research design is an important part of research as the entire approach from data collection to analysis is dependent on the type of research design adopted. There are two types of research designs; qualitative and quantitative research designs. Quantitative research design is associated with numeric and objective data whereas the qualitative research design is the opposite as it is based on non-numeric, subjective and opinion-based data. The following research is intended to adopt a qualitative research design. Key informants related to disaster management institutions were interviewed. In this particular study, the sample size chosen is 20 in which twenty respondents including the managers from various organizations dealing with the natural disasters at various national and provincial levels in Baluchistan and the authorities working in the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) have been interviewed.

208

4. Results and discussion 4.1 Institutional preparedness

One major difference between the disaster management and planning of the developed and the developing regions is that in developing regions, the authorities react once the disaster has actually occurred whereas the developed regions forecast a disaster and act in a proactive manner. They are prepared formally for disasters and which happens to be a key to effective and successful disaster response as agreed by disaster experts but unfortunately, many of the organizations plan little to deal with disasters (Ulmer, 2012). This is because effective and formal preparation is very challenges and severe problems of preparation persist. Seeger (2006) state that preparedness for disasters is problematic to justify and accomplish because of the fact that disasters are difficult to predict and control. Jongejan et al. (2011) arguing against the point state that despite the unpredictability of the disasters, it is important that the organisations, public and the policymakers must make sufficient preparations. However, some extent of uncertainty and limitations are also to be faced during the preparation phase due to the nature of the risk that they are dealing with.

Barbour and Manly (2016) in their study state that disaster preparedness is a very important part of disaster management and can be a useful way to mitigate and reduce the negative consequences of natural disasters. It allows the related authorities to take timely actions to reduce the harms caused by disasters. Cannon (2006) have also emphasized the importance of disaster preparedness to increase people's capacity to reduce the impacts of disasters and reduce their vulnerability to losses. Government plays the most important role in creating this preparedness within the community. It can develop strategies and policies that rely on creating timely awareness and also making sure that immediate response. Unfortunately, the government, after every disaster transfers the blame to God by saying that it was the will of God (Fisher, 2012).

The 2nd major difference between the developed and the developing regions is that in developing regions, the system is still centralized. The institutions are not working properly at grass root level.

209

Figure 4.1 Evaluation of Institutional Preparedness

Results

Institutions have a vital role to manage disaster management activities from national level to local level. Developed countries like Japan, USA, and China have strong institutions to manage disaster management activities before, during and after a disaster. Japan particularly investing more Budget in Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) phase with proactive approach. If we invest 1$ in pre disaster phase, we can save 100 $ in the posterior phase of a disaster (Tobin, 199). Developing countries like Pakistan always investing their development budgets in emergency and response phase due to lack of policy implications, disaster management with centralized role, lack of coordination among institutions, and low level of awareness and preparedness at institutional as well as at community level. The current study mainly evaluated the role of institutions at provincial level. The first component in figure 4.1 is about the hazard preparation. The result shows that, in few areas of the province hazard map is prepared. Meanwhile there is no mechanism for disaster data base, updating of data, and evacuation plan for emergency response in the province. The 2nd component of the figure 4.1 based on fact based, that almost dealing the vulnerable situation

210 of the province. Again the result shows serious significant impacts in all sub-components. The third component of the figure deals the mitigation strategies for different kind of disasters in the province. Results show that the capacity building and policy implications are not properly implemented in the province. Last three components of the figure 4.1 identify the evaluation, coordination and participation of the institutions. The result shows that, there is no proper coordination, and participation among the institutions for managing disaster in the province. The result also shows that, those institutions that work for disaster management like PDMA DDMA’s, there is no proper monitoring and check and balance on these institutions.

Conclusion

The study was executed with the specific aim that was to shed light on the assessment of the institutional preparedness for natural disasters in Pakistan. The study has specifically investigated the case of Baluchistan where the focus of the research was towards exploring the performance of the provincial and as well federal institutions in order to investigate the preparedness for the natural disasters within the province of Baluchistan. On the basis of the qualitative findings of this study, it can be concluded that Baluchistan is certainly is one of the most effected provinces of Pakistan. It has also been found in the secondary findings that the province because of its numerous geographical and infrastructure challenges has been effected most from natural disasters and calamities. Based on the qualitative findings, it has also been revealed that the natural disasters, especially in the form of earth quake, floods, storms, have been continuously threatening the province. In addition, the devastation from these disasters are high because due to the negligence, improper infrastructure, ineffective disaster management mechanism and polices regulated for the province.

The study concludes that there are mainly three different disaster management agencies that are in function in the province. The findings based on secondary and primary evidence suggest that NDMA, PDMA and DDMA are the concerned authorities that are responsible to devise the

211 disaster management strategies for the province and to manage the resources require in disaster management. The study suggests that the main role of these agencies is to devise appropriate and effective disaster management strategies so that the capability of the province while managing different disastrous situations can be improved. It has been discussed in the study that the principal responsibility of these agencies is to minimize the losses especially in the form of peoples’ lives and their property. Though the purpose behind strengthening and empowering these institutes was also to closely monitor the vulnerabilities and the risks that the province is exposed with nonetheless, the findings of this study reveals that the progress of these institutes and agencies has not been as satisfactory if the progress of these institutes are compared with other provinces.

On the basis of the findings, it can be stated that federal institute in light of NDMA is the one major stakeholder responsible to devise effective strategies and facilitate PDMA from all necessary information and guidelines to empower the provincial institutes. The findings of the study reveal that even though NDMA is committed to devise appropriate strategies however, there are considerable weaknesses in its strategies especially in the methods of its implementation. In this perspective, it is recommended to NDMA to strengthen its control and monitoring practices in order to assess whether the devised strategies are properly implemented. Disaster management experts need to be hired at key positions to design and implements policies from provisional level to local level. Strong institutions can enhance the capacities at institutions as well as at community level respond to a particular hazard. Strong coordination among institutions is suggested for the resilience of institutional setup.

212

References

Ahmed, M. and Baloch, A., 2015. Political Economy of Balochistan, Pakistan: A Critical Review. European Scientific Journal, ESJ, 11(14).

Almalki, S., 2016. Integrating Quantitative and Qualitative Data in Mixed Methods Research--Challenges and Benefits. Journal of Education and Learning, 5(3), pp.288-296.

Barbour, J.B. and Manly, J.N., 2016. Redefining disaster preparedness: Institutional contradictions and praxis in volunteer responder organizing. Management Communication Quarterly, 30(3), pp.333-361.

Cannon, T., 2006. Vulnerability analysis, livelihoods and disasters. In RISK21-Coping with Risks due to Natural Hazards in the 21st Century (pp. 51-60). CRC Press.

Cozzolino, A., 2012. Humanitarian logistics: cross-sector cooperation in disaster relief management. Springer Science & Business Media.

Dawn., 2011. Ten worst disasters in Pakistan. [online] Available at https://www.dawn.com/news/661518 [Accessed on 12 Jun. 19]

Dawn., 2018. Over 500 children died in drought-hit Thar this year, Murad told. [online] Available at https://www.dawn.com/news/1440059 [Accessed on 12 Jun. 19]

Fazl-e-Haider, S., 2013. Calamity-hit Balochistan. [online] Available at https://www.dawn.com/news/1047021 [Accessed on 12 Jun. 19]

Fisher, D., 2010. Legal implementation of human rights obligations to prevent displacement due to natural disasters. Stud. Transnat'l Legal Pol'y, 41, p.551.

213

Harmeling, S., 2012. Global Climate Risk Index 2012. [online] Available at https://germanwatch.org/sites/germanwatch.org/files/publication/7 175.pdf [Accessed on 12 Jun. 19]

Haworth, B. and Bruce, E., 2015. A review of volunteered geographic information for disaster management. Geography Compass, 9(5), pp.237-250.

Jongejan, R.B., Helsloot, I., Beerens, R.J. and Vrijling, J.K., 2011. How prepared is prepared enough? Disasters, 35(1), pp.130-142.

Khan, H. and Khan, A. (2008). Natural hazards and disaster management in Pakistan

Mengal, M.U.R. and Mahar, W.A., 2018, April. Disaster mitigation strategies for adobe houses: A case study of District Awaran, Baluchistan, Pakistan. In 1st International Conference on Advances in Engineering & Technology (ICAET 2018) (p. 129). BUITEMS.

Maguire, M. and Delahunt, B., 2017. Doing a thematic analysis: A practical, step-by-step guide for learning and teaching scholars. AISHE-J: The All Ireland Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 9(3).

Maqbool, M., Y., and Hussain, S., 2014. Institutionalization of Disaster Risk Management in Pakistan. ISSRA Papers.

Mata-Lima, H., Alvino-Borba, A., Pinheiro, A., Mata-Lima, A. and Almeida, JA, 2013. Impacts of natural disasters on environmental and socio-economic systems: what makes the difference? Environment & Society, 16 (3), pp.45-64.

Mustafa, S. and Zafar, A., 2017. China Pakistan economic corridor: importance and challenges for Pakistan and China. International Journal of Social Science and Economic Research, 2(11).

214

NDMA., 2010. About Us. [online] Available at http://www.ndma.gov.pk/aboutUs.php [Accessed on 12 Jun. 19]

Pelling, M., 2012. The vulnerability of cities: natural disasters and social resilience. Routledge.

Petrucci, O., 2012. The impact of natural disasters: simplified procedures and open problems. In Approaches to Managing Disaster- Assessing Hazards, Emergencies and Disaster Impacts. Intech Open.

Rahman, M.S., 2017. The Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches and Methods in Language" Testing and Assessment" Research: A Literature Review. Journal of Education and Learning, 6(1), pp.102-112.

Ritchie, H. and Roser, M., 2019. Natural Disasters. [online] Available at https://ourworldindata.org/natural-disasters [Accessed on 12 Jun. 19]

Seeger, M.W., 2006. Best practices in crisis communication: An expert panel process. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 34(3), pp.232-244.

Ulmer, R.R., 2012. Increasing the impact of thought leadership in crisis communication. Management Communication Quarterly, 26(4), pp.523-542.

Wex, F., Schryen, G., Feuerriegel, S. and Neumann, D., (2014). Emergency response in natural disaster management: Allocation and scheduling of rescue units. European Journal of Operational Research, 235(3), pp.697-708

215

Bi-Annual Research Journal “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. 45 NO. 1, 2020

CPEC AND TOURISM IN BALOCHISTAN

Dr. Hussan Ara Magsi,1 Dr. Adil Zaman Kasi2 Dr Zainab Bibi3 Dr. Mumtaz Baloch,4

ABSTRACT: CPEC is a lucrative project for progress of country ,and tourism is the key component of it . Tourism in Balochistan is a developing industry, the port of city of Gawadar is a quickly transforming city that serve as a centre of industrial activities and commercial whalings . The objectives of the research paper is to attract the national and foreigner tourists towards the worthseeing places of Gawadar ,and also to generate the revenue and to boost up the economy .The tourists places will also reflect the culture of Balochistan and the traditional values of these native people .The qualitative method will be applied upon this research paper .The data collection will takes place through primary and secondary sources of interview ,books , internet websites ,journals ,magazines and newspapers etc .The theory of tourism will be applied on this research work to gauge the advantages of tourism and its impacts on the economy of the country .The geographic and socio- economic approach will be applied in order to assess the geostrategic position of this area and how this place of attraction for the tourists .Although ,there are bottlenecks exists in the way of the implementation of CPEC projects ,because there are gaps between theory and practice .The visible sights and tourists places are not yet to be developed . ______1 Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science, University of Balochistan, Quetta 2 Associate Professor, Department of Political Science, University of Balochsitan, Quetta. 3 Institute of Management Sciences, University of Balochistan, Quetta 4 Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science, University of Balochsitan, Quetta.

216

KEY WORDS: CPEC , Tourism , culture , revenue .

1-INTRODUCTION:

CPEC contribute a lot towards strengthening industry of tourism .CPEC is a mega project which attracts trade ,investment and other commercial whaling’s ,and it will also boost up tourism sector .Due to CPEC project ,the Chinese people are attracted to visit different scenic places of Pakistan .It will contribute to enhance the revenue of country . Pakistan have lot of potential to attract foreign tourists especially Chinese tourists.”According to tourism academy of China and Ministry of culture and Tourism , ”According to the China Tourism Academy, a think tank under the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, “the number of trips made by Chinese people to other countries or regions reached 135 million in 2016, compared to 5 million in 1995. This represents an annual increase of 17.6 percent on average over 21 years.”(1) This amount for tourism is highly attractive for Pakistan, and it contribute towards enhancing revenue and overcoming economic problems. . “According to the China Tourism Academy, a think tank under the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, “the number of trips made by Chinese people to other countries or regions reached 135 million in 2016, compared to 5 million in 1995. This represents an annual increase of 17.6 percent on average over 21 years.”(2) 2- OBJECTIVES: 1- To prove that CPEC is a very lucrative project and the promotion of tourism is an essential part of it . 2- To prove that tourism will further augment the sino-Pak relations by attracting the foreign tourists in Balochistan . 3- To prove that industry of tourism will boost up Pakistan economy by enhancing revenue of Pakistan . DATA COLLECTION: The data collection will take place through secondary sources i.e. newspapers, journals, internet websites ,books and magazines etc .

217

DATA PREPARATION : The data was prepared by thoroughly studying all the available material in form of books ,reports ,newspaper and internet websites . The web sketch was draft by giving proper shape to the research paper . The paper was divided in different segments or part. It includes introduction , objectives , literature review ,significance of study ,data analysis and conclusion . The data was arranged to fill these segments of research work . DATA EXPLORATION : The whole accumulated notes were studied and they were sorted out according to the requirement of research paper .The important themes and references were sorted out . DATA REDUCTION: The data reduction stage plays a significant role in coding of the data . In this study , the Neuman,s model for data coding : Sorting and classifying . Open coding . Axial Coding . Selection Coding . Interpreting and Elaborating . DATA INTERPRETATION: In this stage the data were interpreted under themes . The different themes were elaborated according to the research requirement. APPLICATION OF MODEL OF THEORY ON THIS RESEARCH WORK : The model of tourism planning will be applied on this research work .The theory of tourism will be applied to assess the benefits of tourism. The model of tourism planning Can suggest a best strategy for developing new tourists sites. The tourism is considered as a luxury item. There is a shift of paradigm in the concept of tourism in the 20th century. The tourism is not only an exercise in leisure and pleasure ,but it is also as an exercise of business and economics . It is taken as consumer product ,and tourism is sold in a vibrant market . 4- RESEARCH QUESTIONS . 1-What steps will be taken to promote infrastructure and beautiful picnic resorts to attract the tourists?

218

2-How much cost it will take to promote tourism in Balochistan ? 3-What will be impacts of CPEC on the tourists industry of Pakistan ?

5- LIETRATURE REVIEW : How is tourism in Baluchistan? “Baluchistan is the least developed province of country. This area is neglected for so many years in terms of its development .The poor infrastructure ,road connectivity problems hindered the development of tourism sector .The CPEC will surely augment the ways for tourism in Balochistan by opening the new avenues in tourism sector .The province is abounding with ample recreational spots that can easily attract the native and foreigners .The tourists and visitors should be provided facilities in order to promote tourism .The tourism can be promoted in these areas ; Hanna Lake,Gadani Beach, Churna island , Hinglaj Mata, Bolan Pass ,Pir Ghaib ,Quaid-e-Azam residency , Princess of Hope and khojak Pass .”(3)

CPEC needs to invest for high-end maritime tourism: “Baluchistan province has immense potential to develop tourism at coastal line .It is the right time for Pakistan to initiative to develop tourism by developing coastal areas of Balochistan under CPEC project .The tourism can be developed by providing the presence of superior services to the tourists. There should be adoption of such type of arrangements that can attract foreign tourists .It includes ;cuisines, relaxing environment ,a reliable transport and professional staff etc .”(4) 6- SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH WORK : This research carries the pivotal importance because industry of tourism is key ministry in world . The Gawadar is a virgin soil ,and it has the capacity to prove an ideal place due to sea .The tourism is the mainstay of the economy .The existing natural beauty will be augmented by developing attractive infrastructure in order to attract the tourists. Travel and tourism is an extremely lucrative industry. It has the potential to contribute immensely to the economic and social growth of the country as well as improve the state of its security. Recent media attention as well as rapid development of infrastructure present us with an opportunity to promote tourism in Balochistan which would increase employment

219 opportunities for the local population, help alleviate poverty, and, encourage economic growth. It would also stimulate social growth through interaction and mobilization, which at present, is a significant need of the region. MAIN BODY : DEVELOPMENT OF TOURISTS SIGHTS: The infrastructure development is the major part of tourism of CPEC .It includes safari , aquarium and beautiful park .Gawadar port is a virgin deep sea port ,where there is a lot of potential to construct huts for the tourists . Tourism Industry of Pakistan will also open avenues of collaboration for Chinese and local entrepreneurs. The entrepreneur will get benefit mutually get benefit from this joint venture in tourism sector .With the advancement of China in each and every sector including tourism sector,the people are travelling and spending their holidays abroad especially in winter season . “According to the UN World Tourism Organization is playing a key role in promoting tourism contributes to sustainable development and alleviate poverty and proliferate employment opportunities .The tourism council creates almost 10% employment opportunities .”(5)The developing tourism will improve the overall state of the province and lot of the population .The various cultural shows , festivals and other events can also attracts the tourists .It will promote the economic growth and the local population . CPEC AND TOURISM IN BALOCHISTAN: The trend of tourism in Balochistan is getting popularity due to national and International tourists .The province of Balochistan is splendid with various tourists spots where the tourists from all over the world come to spend their vacations .This province is endowed with four seasons, landscape,rivers ,beaches ,minerals ,water resources ,natural resources , beautiful languages and unique culture . etc . The Gawadar is a gateway to CPEC &OBOR ,and which are based on coastal highway by connecting this province with other provinces etc.This M8 connected to Karachi Sindh via Pasni , Ormara ,Hingol and Hub .The Gawadar is worthy place to be developed for tourist purpose . Therefore ,the tourism in Gawadar really going to be promoted due to existence of worthseeing beaches ,unique sunrise and sunset points ,interconnecting Islands ,shining

220 deserts Hingol park and a virgin soil of this area .Gunz is a very .The beautiful place due to its particular location including sunsets points , golden desert and greenish water.Balochistan is full of scenic and historical places that can attract tourists .There is a dire need that the government should pay attention to these tourists .The jiwani is a very beautiful coastal area ,and it can be developed for tourist attraction ,which is on the top in CPEC project.It is clear that the region will extract the economic benefit from tourism by its exotic beauty and awe inspiring environment . The influx of tourists will eventually help in poverty alleviation. The Balochistan Tourism Development Corporation now working upon to construct the large numbers of motels and restaurants at each picnic spot by developing infrastructure in this area. The government should enhance security measures to improve the tourism by improving the transport facility. The number of tourists will proliferate when they will be provided with facilities of motels and safety and other luxuries etc .

THE BALOCHISTAN HAS A POTENTAIL TO BECOME A WORLD TOURIST SITE: Balochistan has an unexplored sea and virgin soil embodies a lot of potential of emerging as a global tourists attractions ,which contributes towards direct foreign investment .This province is full of mineral resources which are lying untapped for want of capital .”According to geological survey of Pakistan ,the region is full of deposits of rare earth ,precious and semi- precious metals, minerals and variety of stones for example Onyx ,copper which are used in industries etc .The construction of Gawadar port and other infrastructural facilities such as road connectivity will contribute towards boosting up the local economy and also will improve the standard of living of people .All the stakeholders have a unanimous consensus that the CPEC mainly focuses on the construction of Gawadar port .

TOURISM AND GENERATION OF REVENUE: The Gwadar master plan identifies four potential sources of revenue: the port, industries, energy, and tourism.The CPEC project provides ample opportunities of investment in tourism sector from

221

Khanjrab to Gawadar .The local and foreign community should be provided with high quality facilities in order to promote tourism .There is a need to improve the law and order situation to promote tourism in Balochistan .According to analysis the tourism have been promoted and it has contributed towards enhancing the revenue .The element of tourism can also improve the diplomatic ties with various countries of the world .Pakistan can earn millions of rupees in terms of foreign exchange by developing tourism industry in Balochistan .The policy of tourism is mainly focusing upon to catch the attention of foreign tourists for its colossal potential in tourism sector .Balochistan province is endowed with extreme ravishing beauty ,and diversity of climate and there is a potential to promote the tourism . Unfortunately ,no fruitful effort have been made to develop tourism industry in Balochistan .This province remained neglected and unattractive for foreign tourists and investors . CULTURAL TOURISM: It will not only reflects and preserves the cultural tourism .It will projects the baloch culture to the outside world .It will provides a broader narratives for the city of Gawadar .The various types of cultural festivals will takes place by exhibiting embroided colourful dresses , souvenirs ,crafts and other cultural items . The foreigners will be highly attractive towards the folk dance .The cultural tourism contributes towards the sustainable flow of the visitors of city and will also proliferate the explorers and leisure tourists .The city became the hub of cultural activities .8-CONCLUSION: The tourism is one of the major component of CPEC .The government is embarked upon the policy to develop the sector of tourism in Gawadar by building attractive places ,motels and hotels for tourists .The tourism is affiliated with liberal culture policy .The tourism is the major component of culture of Balochistan province . The tourism will also reflect the balochi culture by reflecting the various aspects in motels , hotels and tourists sites etc .The tourism is an important sector to generate revenue and boost up the economy of Balochistan and Pakistan .

222

References S. D. Ali, Impact of CPEC on Regional International Relations, Internet: http:www.ia-forum.org/ Content/ ViewInternal Document.cfm?ContentID=8596, Oct. 2016 [Nov. 21, 2016]. M. Aqeel, Impact of China Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), BBA, Dept. Bus. Manage. Analytics., Arcada Univ. Appl. Sci. Univ. Helsinki, Finland, 2016. W. Ali, L. Gang, and M. Raza, China-Pakistan Economic Corridor: Current Developments And Future Prospect for Regional Integration, International Journal of Research (IJR), vol. 3, pp. 210-222, 2016. G. Ali, China and Pakistan prepare to establish economic corridor, in Central Asia-Caucasus Analyst vol. 17, pp. 03-05. 2015. A. R. Malik, A Corridor of success " Internet: http://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2015/06/05/comment/a-corridor-of- success/, June. 2015 [Nov. 21, 2016].

223

Bi-Annual Research Journal “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. 45 NO. 1, 2020

Party Democracy in the Light of Party Statutes: A Case Study of Two Parties in Pakistan

Fazli Subhan Political Science scholar, Department of Political Science, University of Baluchistan, Quetta.

Abstract This study is an analysis of the concept of intra-party democracy of two leading political parties of Pakistan namely, Pakistan People’s Party (PPP) and Pakistan Muslim League Nawaz (PMLN) and is based on the minimalist approach of Schumpeterian conception of democracy. Qualitative data technique with party-oriented approach was adopted for this study. Representative democracies involve the public in selecting their leadership and candidates to public offices through open primaries. The current study is an analysis to see the extent of participation of rank and file members in the selection of leadership and candidates to public offices provided by the Political Parties Order 2002 (PPO2002) and party bylaws (party constitutions). The study covers a 28 years period from 1988 to 2016, which is divided into two sub-periods i.e. 1988 to 2005 (18 years) and 2006 to 2016 (10 years). The study period is further divided into three categories with ‘full’, ‘partial’, and ‘no’ categories, to know that which party falls in which category. The study found that in the first sub-period both the parties totally bypassed the provisions brought forth by the PPO 2002 and party bylaws by not conducting intraparty elections. In the second sub-period though, intraparty polls were conducted but were found to be severely flawed and against the democratic principles.

Key Words: Intra party democracy, leadership selection, candidate selection, internal party organization, Political Parties Order 2002

224

Introduction The leading political parties in Pakistan lack democracy within (Bora, 2010). Scholars are of the view that democracy is in need of strong and stable political parties which is possible only if these parties are itself democratic (Teorell, 1999). Political parties, through elections, create a connection between the government and the governed (Sartori, 2005). These are the building blocks of any political system. If the institution of political parties is found to be feeble, masses will suffer. Unfortunately, the worldwide party system is in decline (LaPalombra & Weiner, 1966). Katz is optimistic about its revival and opines that intraparty democracy may reverse the process of party system decline (Katz, 2013). This will happen only if member’s participation is made an incumbent part of that process because in that case party leadership and members would come closer and a link would be established. Intra Party democracy in possible terms is a process which refers to the participation of members as well as of the different classes and groups of the party organization in the deliberative and decision making processes. Croissant and Chambers also emphasized over the deliberative and decision-making powers between members and the leadership, and the organizational structures of parties. They said it is indispensable for transparency and inclusiveness in these parties (Croissant & Chambers, 2010). Saeed says periodic, transparent intraparty elections could not be established in Pakistan as yet. This not only spoils the image of the party leadership but also keeps democracy at arm’s length (Saeed S. , 1997). The democratization of party system is on the rise in the established democracies (Wintour, 2011). In parliamentary systems, one of which is under study, both leadership and candidate selection are two different institutions as against the presidential systems where the difference is unclear (Rahat, 2013, p. 2) so the focus is on the former. Earlier, leadership selection was treated as an offshoot of candidate selection but in the current literature, both the two are treated differently (Rahat, 2013, p. 3). In the current paper, two of the most acknowledged aspects of intra-party democracy, like, leadership selection and candidate selection in the two major political parties in Pakistan are considered.

225

Pakistan came into being as a result of the struggle by the All India Muslim League. Later it was named Pakistan Muslim League which was a single strongest party in the state. Internal feuds and its weak structural organization led to weak and unstable political institutions as a result democracy could not flourish in Pakistan in a real sense (Saeed K. b., 1967; Fatima, 2013). The current study is a case study of two parties (PPP & PMLN) (study both PPP & PPPP as PPP) and is an endeavor to know that how intraparty democracy in Pakistan is influenced by the processes of representative democracy. The later is a process that involves the citizenry in selecting their leaders during elections who in turn represent them in the parliament. In democracies membership participation occurs through the processes of leadership selection, candidate selection, and policy formulation, which political parties in Pakistan lack. That is why Pakistan is going through the drought of strong and stable political parties. It, ultimately, results in taking collective decisions by a single individual and factionalism, but also to the low level of internal conflict management systems and use of discretionary powers and authority. The research is intended to provide some empirical evidence to support the hypothesis that ‘Political parties in Pakistan do not follow an inclusive and decentralized way provided by the Political Parties Order 2002 & party bylaws to elect their leadership and candidates for public offices’. Abraham Lincoln’s definition of democracy has been widely cited and understood where he stated it as, “government of the people, by the people and for the people”. We see he accentuates on the participation of masses in the candidate selection process. Robert Dahl deemed it “the rule by demos, a citizens’ body, consisting of members who are considered equal for the purposes of arriving at governmental decisions” (Dahl, 1989). All we can say is that membership participation is a must in the deliberative and decision making process of the party without which we cannot think of democracy (Croissant & Chambers, 2010). The idea of intraparty democracy can be found in the writings of Moisey Ostrogorski (1902) and Robert Michels (1911) when the mass parties emerged on the political horizon. They set out means for the members to take part in the internal decision making. What they want was that parties must be based on inclusive participation; otherwise, it will be counter-

226 productive for the democracy in the respective country. Efficacious intraparty democracy will enhance the party image which will ultimately have an appealing electoral impact over voters (Mair, 1995). Intraparty democracy provides for an open and deliberative platform whereby a man in the street will be able to take part in elections openly. Leadership selection is to be democratized if leaders in Pakistan have to maximize their electoral acceptance in masses. It will not only improve their image in the eyes of the public but also will keep down the internal conflicts in the party. Furthermore, it will play a role in the legitimization of the distribution of power and will boost up the responsiveness of the party leadership through the party membership.

Theoretical Background Sartori defines a political party as “any political group identified by an official label that presents at elections, and is capable of placing through elections, candidates for public office”. To Sartori competition for political parties in the system have a high ground to survive but it is considered an old-fashioned definition of political parties because he did not utter a word regarding its organization. Definition by Maliyamkono and Kanyongolo will hold ground here for its wide inclusion of aggregation of interests and its articulation (Maliyamkono & Kanyongolo, 2003). It says “a political party is an organized association of people working together to compete for political office and to promote agreed upon policies”. Political competition and participation are the two dimensions Robert Dahl thinks political parties should categorize the political processes on them (Dahl, 1971). Forst believes that representative institutions should provide for “a fair and effective participation and argumentation” (Forst, 2012). Lapalombara and Weiner give much importance to political parties and wrote that a political party can be found even in authoritarian regimes (LaPalombra & Weiner, 1966) Samuel P. Huntington is of the view that political parties are the sine qua non of the state without which political system would not function. He considers the former a key to political stabilization (Huntington S. P., 1993). He says institutional decay in the developing nations lead to a vacuum of leadership which further led to military intervention (Huntington S. P., 1968). Diamond (1997) attaches

227 high importance to their functions they perform in democracies of linking the public to their government. Almond and Powel (1966) wrote ‘the Comparative Politics: A Developmental Approach’ wherein they write the functions of political parties in length. They pursued the extent of political parties to a conclusion and declared it incumbent for the political socialization, recruitment, nominating members to governmental offices (Almond & Powel, 1996). Pakistan Institute for Legislative Development and Transparency (PILDAT) is an independent, non-governmental research and training institution brought about to strengthen democracy in Pakistan. Its reports are of prime significance for the scholars working on intraparty democracy in Pakistan. In its reports of 2014, 2015 & 2016, on ‘assessing internal democracy of major political parties of Pakistan’, it studied eight political parties and was concluded that the two parties which are under consideration here, were the least democratic. Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (IDEA) through its publication of 2005 acknowledged that quality of democracy and participation is a prerequisite for each other and democracy does not mean the mere rule of law and safeguard of human rights. People must be given their due role to play (IDEA, 2005). Shaista & Zia consider that political parties in Pakistan are playing a role which is more a factor of division than unity due to family-oriented parties. According to them, that is one of the reasons that masses in Pakistan are wary of the political system (Taj & Rehman, 2015). Syed Ali Shah in one of his papers wherein he studied three parties PPP, PMLN & ANP, concluded that these parties are highly centralized. In this survey, 90% of the people declared these parties very centralized when it comes to decision making and candidate selection (Shah, 2015).

Methods of Analysis A party-oriented approach was employed to see mass participation in the political process. This is 28 years study i. e. from 1988 to 2016, which is based on empirical research into the two political parties of Pakistan (PPP & PMLN), and is further divided into two sub-periods; 1) that is from 1988 to 2005, and 2) is from 2006 to 2016. The paper is divided into further three categories with the names ‘full’, ‘partial’ and ‘no’ categories, to see that

228 the respective parties either fully adhere to the rules and regulations under the PPO 2002 and party bylaws, or give a lip service to them, or ignore them altogether. The party that provided ample opportunities to their members to participate in intraparty elections while selecting leadership and candidates to public offices are included in the ‘full’ category. In the ‘partial’ category though party elections took place but were against the rules under consideration, and so kept their members totally aloof of the party affairs and decisions were taken by the kitchen cabinet alone. ‘No’ category will indicate that party members were deprived of their right to select their party leadership as well as their representatives to the legislature by not conducting the intraparty polls. Qualitative data collection technique was employed to collect data for this purpose. Most of the data were collected from the primary sources. However, the study is also based on secondary sources. Constitution of Pakistan, constitutions of the respective parties (party bylaws), party manifestoes, and Political Parties’ Order 2002 will be given precedence. We will also go through the standards and norms followed by the previous parties. Moreover, among the secondary sources leading journal articles, newspapers and reports of the PILDAT will be considered for this purpose. Evolution of Political parties in Pakistan Pakistan came into being due to the struggle of All India Muslim League. After independence, it was transformed into Pakistan Muslim League and formed government in Pakistan (Aziz, 1970). However, due to intrigues and leg pulling by the politicians after the demise of Jinnah, the party lost its direction. The party split into many factions and sub-factions. Islamic parties like Jama’at Islami and Jamiat I Ulama I Islam adopted a little different path but they served the Muslims of India in one way or another. Later, they played an active role in the politics of Pakistan. Secular parties have been an incumbent part of the political process. They included the Communist Party of Pakistan, Awami League, United Front, the Republican Party, Pakistan Socialist party, Pakistan Congress Party, and some other small parties. Ayub Khan promulgated Electives Body Disqualification Order (EBDO) and Public Offices Disqualification Order (PODO) through that he debarred politicians and their parties from participating in politics. Suharwardi and Qayum Khan were among the

229 victims (Rizvi, 2000). Parties in Eastern and Western wings had severe differences with each other along with some other prominent factors led to disintegrations (Khan, 2005). Pakistan People’s Party was formed by Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto which later played a prominent role in the political development of Pakistan. Due to his efforts, the constitution of 1973 was passed with consensus. Pakistan Muslim League Nawaz was formed by Muhammad Nawaz Sharif in 1988 and today it plays an important role in Pakistani politics. Pakistan Tehrik I Insaf, a newly emerged party though it was formed in 1996 by the cricket turned politician, today the party enjoys the support of youth & educated class in Pakistan. Leadership Selection Process In the established democracies leadership is selected either through an Electoral College, parliamentary caucus, or then through open primaries. The last one is the most accepted mechanism of party leadership selection which encourages participation. Here, usually, the most popular leader is selected who sometimes may lack the requisite experience. It is practiced in the USA. In the first sub-period, no intraparty election took place in both parties. Though intraparty elections were conducted in 2006 by both these parties the process was neither according to the Political Parties Order 2002 nor was it in consonance to their own constitutions. PMLN should conduct intraparty polls after every three years (PMLN Constitution). Crisis Group in its 2005 Asia report writes that “PPP & PMLN refused the Political Parties Order 2002 which calls for all political parties to hold elections for all party offices including party leader” (Group, 2005, p. 19). Even party members in both these parties criticized their leadership and felt dissatisfaction with unelected leadership (Group, 2005, p. 20). Intraparty elections were conducted on 2 July 2011 in the PMLN General Council at the Islamabad Convention Centre. Nawaz Sharif was elected the president of PMLN unopposed. He replaced his brother, Shahbaz Sharif who became the party head when the former was in exile (Zia, 2016). The PPP intraparty elections for the top leadership held in 2013 were being challenged by Senator Safdar Abbasi and Nasir Ali Shah for its lack of authenticity. They hold the view that elections were conducted to fulfill the formality only and that elections were totally undemocratic as no one was

230 informed about the election schedule and voter lists (Today P. , 2013). They declared these elections against the Political Parties Order 2002. They called it a farce because no one filed nomination papers against the incumbent leaders and were elected unopposed (News t. , 2013). Party leaders in both PPP and PMLN are selected in an extreme exclusive way with high centralization and low level of members’ participation (Taj & Rehman, 2015, p. 362). Around 2000 members of the PMLN National Council gathered together on 18 Oct 2016 and elected the office bearers including Nawaz Sharif, who was elected the president unopposed. The leader of the Senate Zafar ul Haq was elected unopposed as the chairman of the party. Nawaz Sharif nominated PMLN provincial chiefs in stark contrast to the party constitution which provides that they should be elected through a secret vote (PILDAT, 2014). Intraparty elections conducted by the PPP for leading party posts in 2016 were conducted secretly in Bilawal House in Karachi. Most of the leaders were absent from them including Bilawal Bhutto, who was elected the Chairman of the party (DUNYA NEWS, 2017, SUCH TV, 2017). Fewer electors were given the opportunity to participate (Today E. o., 2017). Obaid ur Rehman writes that decision making power and party matters are in strict control of family members of their leaders are some of the reasons that parties are undemocratic in Pakistan (Rehman, 2016).

Candidate Selection Across the world candidates are selected either through party members, by the delegates who themselves are selected by the rank and file membership; party elites who are non-selected, or by the single individual (Rahat, 2013). Political parties have democratized their selection process of candidature to public offices in the last five decades by giving their rank and file members a prominent role (Scarrow & Kittilson, 2006). Political parties have to connect the masses with the government which is considered one of their primary functions. That is why such parties are obliged to provide opportunities for the masses to participate in decision making processes. Candidate Selection process usually employs two patent devices, i.e. primary elections, and party caucuses. So, the process of candidate selection in the established democracies is based on competition for elected

231 positions and members or their representatives are included in the deliberation process. Under favorable conditions, a boost has been observed in the loyalty of members and supporters towards the party. The most acceptable and open selection of candidates in those societies is through open ballot or primaries. In this way party members select candidates for the general election after a pre-selection procedure which determines their eligibility. In candidate selection, if a candidate is appointed by the party leader or a small number of influential, often called ‘caucus’, as is referred to earlier, high cohesion is noted. Conversely, if the selection of candidates is carried out through a process where members or followers participate the legislators are found to be more responsive and less cohesion in the party is seen (Rahat, 2007). In Pakistan political parties have to follow their own constitutions, Political Parties’ Order 2002, and the constitution of 1973 while managing their party affairs. But to my surprise when I came across the procedure the two parties practiced was quite naïve. Political Parties Order 2002 says the selection of candidates for both, National Parliament and provincial assemblies should be through a transparent and democratic process (PPO 2002, Article 8). Political Parties Order 2002 requires from the parties to have an elected General Council at all the three levels e.g. federal, provincial and local. According to the said Order, the party shall provide an equal opportunity for members to contest election even for topmost slots (PPO 2002, article 11). For this purpose, all members will constitute an electoral college for the party’s General Council. Likewise, the PMLN constitution gives special prominence to democracy ideals; like tolerance, freedom, equality, and social justice (PMLN Constitution) but they never brought such ideals in practice. A Central Parliamentary Board having 20 members which are itself constituted by the Central Working Committee with the president of PMLN the ex-officio chairman of the Board picks candidates for the national parliament and provincial assemblies. The board is acting just like a kitchen cabinet who selects candidates without caring for the views of the locals. This is even against the very constitution of PMLN. Furthermore, the PMLN constitution says that party candidates for the provincial assemblies will be selected by the Provincial Board. However, central apparatus plays a

232 dominant part in determining and nominating candidates for party positions and public offices at a lower level (Jabbar, 2003). Institute for Democracy & Electoral Assistance conducted a survey in 2004 to retrieve membership data of the political parties but the latter did not have even exclusive membership lists (IDEA, 2004). All powers in PMLN are concentrated in the president. He can nominate anybody for any office anytime he wishes so (Constitution of PMLN, article 13). In the reports of PILDAT for 2014, 2015, and 2016 PMLN stood last in engaging local party organizers in the nomination of candidates. Even party parliamentary meetings could not take place regularly which are usually expected before parliamentary sessions. The National Council of the party is to meet once a year but it met after almost five years on 18 October 2016 (PILDAT, 2016). The Central Working Committee of PMLN which is to meet every three months could not meet since July 2015. The same CWC allots tickets to the candidates. Similarly, most of the major decisions were usually taken without institutional consultation (PILDAT, 2015). In the case of PPP, party co-chairman nominated provincial party heads arbitrarily (PILDAT, 2014, 2016). In one of the PILDAT reports, PPP got 25% score in respect of involving the local party organization in deciding candidates for the national and provincial assemblies (PILDAT, 2014). In the same report, the score to discourage the tradition of dynastic politics was only 14%. People’s Party local workers felt discontent over candidates selected for PS-106 and PS-117 and said that they were not taken into confidence by the central leadership (Baloch, 2016). Roger et al. write that the process of candidate selection in both, PPP and PMLN is highly centralized and exclusive (Long, Samad, Singh, & Talbat, 2016). Party tickets are usually allotted to candidates who are faithful to the central leader and can finance their electoral expenses. Discussion & Recommendations In the first sub-period (1988-2005) both the parties kept their members aloof from party affairs including decision making, candidate selection, and leadership selection. No intraparty elections took place in both these parties which put them in the ‘No’ category. Party leadership was nominated through arbitrary decisions by the respective party president.

233

Owing to that people got tired of these parties which resulted in low turnouts in the four elections took place in that period (Shahid, 2013). Different surveys indicated that political institutions lost their prestige and people started looking towards the military. Both the parties did not follow PPO 2002 and their own party constitutions by not holding intraparty elections. In the second sub-period, although, intraparty elections were conducted by the respective parties but they not only violated their own constitutions but also Political Parties Order 2002, and the Constitution of Pakistan by not conducting it in the given time frame. That is why these parties were kept in the ‘Partial’ category. According to Political Parties Order 2002, every party should hold an election after every four years. PMLN and PPP constitution provides to hold intra-party elections after every three and two years respectively. Constitution of Pakistan emphasizes over the participation of the public in political affairs which is one of their fundamental rights. The respective parties did not follow the considered rules. Party Chairman in case of PMLN has no powers although in the hierarchy it comes first. All the provincial presidents were elected unopposed which give evidence of lack of competition in the party. Husnain views lack of intraparty election in PPP in the 1980s as the principal reason that later gave rise to dynastic politics and politics of personalities which ultimately weakened the party’s roots (Husnain, 2008). If we look at the PILDAT’s report on intraparty democracy in 2014 and 2015, PMLN in both these reports stood last. This indicates how far the PMLN is from democratic values. After the demise of Makhdoom Amin Faheem, the party decided in a meeting of the Central Executive Committee to install Asif Ali Zardari as the president of PPP without any election. Even before that when Benazir Bhutto was assassinated back in December 2007, the former produced a will which according to him was left by Benazir Bhutto wherein she advised him to look the party affairs himself till Bilawal Bhutto come of age. He is now the co-chairman but ultimate powers are with him. The constitution of PPP is found to be incomplete because it does not have the requisite detail. Powers and functions of the Chairman, president, and secretary general are not elaborately stated (PPP Constitution). The

234

Constitution is silent about any amendment if the need arises. In books, the chairman is a nominating authority but is widely used by Asif Ali Zardari. The unconsummated constitution creates problems for party operation. That is why Asif Zardari is using it arbitrarily. Party constitution stresses that party election to be held after every two years but we have seen intraparty elections in the PPP held first in 2006 and then 2013 (PILDAT, 2015). Similarly, there is no provision in the party constitution for the party convention. Article 4 of the PPO 2002 provides that every political party shall formulate its constitution with clear aims and objectives and complete organizational structure at all levels. The same article emphasizes the parties to come with a procedure for the election of party leader and other office bearers. The organizational structure is present just in name in the case of PMLN because they hardly meet. The Central Executive Committee of PMLN is supposed to meet after every three months but they did not meet that criterion. Similarly, the National Council which is an electoral body of the party is to meet at the end of every year but it did not meet for almost five years (PILDAT, 2014). The PPP manifesto of 2002 pledged to restore the free will of the people including the right to vote. They also pledged to address the issues of holding of transparent elections. In the manifesto of 2008, they again promised with the masses of Pakistan to give them the freedom to vote and to accentuate on other fundamental rights. It was written that all power belongs to the people and only people have the right to determine their destiny. It is a dilemma that they could not fulfill their promises. The problems remain the same even today. Pakistan People’s Party was found in 1967 by Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto and he remained its head until his death in 1977. Later his widow, Nusrat Bhutto, took control of it in 1977 and remained its chairperson till 1984. She was followed by her daughter Benazir Bhutto. The latter enjoyed the highest slot until her assassination in 2007. The party is now in the hands of her husband and son from December 2007 onward. We can see the dynastic and family politics in PPP (Taj & Rehman, 2015). According to PILDAT report in 2014, the party was ranked 7th only above the PMLN, which stood 8th in respect of change in topmost leadership (PILDAT, 2014, p. 12).

235

Leadership remained (in the same family) the same in later years and will remain the same as no change is expected. The party leadership due to such strong centralization in these parties never let themselves face accountability. Members were never consulted, decisions were made arbitrarily and almost no presence of local or regional leadership was found, and candidates were selected in nontransparent and fraudulent way (Salih, 2006). In established democracies, these are considered the prime responsibilities and the building blocks for internal democracies in political parties. Furthermore, well-established party structure is indispensable for the internal functioning of political parties in a smooth and stable way. But the constitution of PPP is not a complete document that is why problems arose in its functioning. Mair (1995) says intraparty democracy has an appeal for the electorate. In this way, the institution of political parties in Pakistan, which is in decline, will get an impetus and will ultimately be on the way to stability. This will cause to raise party acceptance in the masses which will ultimately result in high turnouts during elections. Leadership will also get acceptance and masses will be more confident of the electoral process. Scarrow (2000) conceived a sharp increase of members in the candidate selection process between the 1960s and 1990s. Similarly, Kittilson along with Scarrow in a comparative study in 2003 affirmed that a mild trend can be seen in this way (Kittilson, 2003). It is safe to say that Pakistan is going through the same phase and a gradual glimpse could be seen as the three largest parties (PMLN, PPP & PTI) in Pakistan have conducted their intraparty elections after the lapse of four years against the culture prevalent in the 1990s, though, the process was quite exclusive. Conclusion From the discourse, it is evident that political parties in Pakistan are at the crossroads. Both parties violated Political Parties Order 2002, party constitutions, and the Constitution of Pakistan, by either not conducting intraparty elections as is testified in the first sub-period, or not holding it according to its provisions (second sub-period). Lack of intraparty democracy strengthened dynastic politics and fortified the role of personalities further. PPO 2002 obliges a party to formulate its constitution with clear aims and objectives and complete organizational structure at all

236 levels. The two political parties studied above were found to have weak organizational structure. Pakistan People’s Party has a weak constitution having only nine articles which lack the basic details regarding its structure. Its constitution mentions the name ‘Council’ only and lacks membership structure and procedure. Role, powers, and functions of the General Secretary are not specified in the constitution. The party constitution does not divulge the procedure of leadership and candidate selection which is a provision of the PPO 2002 and the Constitution of Pakistan, by not engaging local party members and supporters while nominating candidates for the legislature. Elections to party positions were just in name. There were no voter lists, no schedule, and were conducted in total secrecy where leadership was elected unopposed. PPO 2002 provides that parties should come with an elected General Council at central, provincial, and local levels but leaders of both parties appointed its members to the General Council in an autocratic way. It shows high centralization and authoritarianism in these parties. Pakistan Muslim League Nawaz constitution was found to be complete and concise but it had bypassed the PPO 2002 and its own constitution by not convening party conventions regularly. In the PMLN constitution, it is written to provide an equal opportunity for their members to participate in elections as voters or contest election for party positions but the constitution is violated every time. Party bylaws bind party leaders to provide a mechanism to elect provincial party heads through a secret ballot but we found that leaders of both parties appointed them in a whimsical manner. Top to bottom approach in decision making process and noncompetitive leadership selection are some of the problems that eroded the value of the basic institution of political parties in Pakistan. This approach has to be reversed to fortify the institution of political parties and to strengthen democracy in Pakistan. On the institutional and organizational front, the capacity of both parties is very weak. Legal regulations and its implementations are the need of the day to ensure accountability, transparency, competitiveness and inclusiveness in these parties.

237

Works Cited Almond, G. A., & Powel, G. B. (1996). Comparative politics: a developmental approach. (6, Ed.) Little Brown. Aziz, K. K. (1970). Party politics in pakistan 1947-1958. Islamabad: National Commission on Historiical and Cultural Research. Baloch, S. (2016, May 18). PPP workers unhappy over candidate's selection for azizabad & PIB by polls. Karachi: DAWN epaper. Beyme, V. K. (1995). Party systems in the 1990s: a decade of transformation. Government & Opposition, 3, 313. Bille, L. (2001). Democratizing a democratic procedure: Myth or reality? Candidate selection in Western Europian parties 1960-1990. Party Politics, 7(3), 363-380. Bora, N. (2010). Pakistan a strugling democracy. The Indian Journal of Political Science, LXXI(2), 677-682. Chambers, C. &. (2010). Unraveling intraparty democracy in thailand. Asian Journal of Political Science, 18(2), 195-223. doi:10.1080/02185377.2010.492990 Constitution, P. (n.d.). The Central Organization. Pakistan Muslim League Nawaz Official. Croissant, A., & Chambers, P. (2010). Unraveling intra-party democracy in Thailand. Asian Journal of Science, 18(2), 195-223. doi:10.1080/02185377.2010.492990 Dahl, R. (1971). Polyarchy: participation & opposition. New Haven: Yale University Press. Dahl, R. (1989). Democracies & it's critics. New Heaven: Yale University Press. Fatima, N. (2013). Impediments to democracy in pakistan. xxxxiv(1), 116. Forst, R. (2012). Das racht auf Rechtfertigung: elemente einer konstruktiistichenTheorie der gerechtigkeit (the right to Justification: Elements of a Constructivist Theory of Justice). (J. Flynn, Trans.) New York: Columbia University Press. Group, C. (2005). Authoritarianism & political party reform in pakistan. Crisis Group. Hassan, M. (2017, January 10). Who would ensure transparency in intra party polls. 2. the Nation.

238

Huntington, S. P. (1968). Political order in changing societies. New Haven: Yale University Press. Huntington, S. P. (1993). The third wave: democratization in the late twentieth century. Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. Husnain, Z. (2008). The politics of service delivery in pakistan: political parties & the incentives for patronage, 1988-1999. The Pakistan Development Review, 47(2), 129-151. doi:10.2307/41260826 IDEA. (2005). Ten years of supporting democracy worldwide. Stockholm. Islamabad, T. o. (2016, October 18). PMLN intra party elections: names of newly elected office holder. Islamabad. Jabbar, Q. (2003, April 16). Shahbaz asks hashmi to reorganise PMLN. Daily Times. Katz, R. S. (2013). Should we believe that intra party democracy would arrest party decline? In W. P. Katz, The Challenges of Intra Party Democracy (1 ed., pp. 49-664). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kavanagh. (2003). Party democracy & political marketing: no place for amateur. Mainz: Global World. Khan, H. (2005). Constitutional & political history of pakistan. Islamabad: Oxford University Press. Kittilson, M. C. (2003). Democracy transformed? Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/0199264996.003.0004 LaPalombra, J., & Weiner, M. (1966, June 1). Political Parties & political development (2 ed., Vol. 6). Princeton: Princeton University Press. Long, R. D., Samad, Y., Singh, G., & Talbat, I. (2016). State & nation building in pakistan beyond islam & security. New York: ROUTLEDGE. M, J. L. (1966). Political Party & Political Development. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Mair, R. K. (1995). Changing models of party organization and party democracy: the emergence of the cartel party. Party Politics, 1(1), 5-28. Maliyamkono, T. L., & Kanyongolo, F. E. (2003). When political parties clash. Dar es Salam: Michigan State Universty Press. Mugheri, I. (2017, January 8). PPP factions hold intra party polls to award top slots to zardari, bilawal. Islamabad: Dawn. News, D. (2017, Jan 8). Zardari elected PPP president, Bilawal elected PPP chairman.

239

News, t. (2013, march 3). PPP stalwarts move petition against intra party elections. PILDAT. (2014). Assessing internal democracy of major political parties of pakistan. Islamabad: PILDAT. PILDAT. (2015, February). Internal democracy of major political parties in pakistan 2015. Islamabad. PILDAT. (2016). Internal democracy in major political parties of pakistan. Islamabad. PPP Constitution. (n.d.). Rahat, G. (2007). Cadidate selection: the choice before the choice. Journal of Dmecracy, 18(1), 159. Rahat, G. (2007). Cadidate Selection: The Choice before the Choice. Journal of Dmecracy, 18(1), 159. Rahat, G. (2013). Leadership selection versus candidate selection in parliamentary democracies: similarities & differences. Democratizing Party Leadership Selection Primaries: Challenges & Opportunities Beyong Intra Party Democracy (p. 2). Jerusalem: Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Rahat, G. (2013). What is democratic candidate selection? In W. P. Katz, The challenges of intra-party democracy (p. 138). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Rehman, O. u. (2016, March 25). Intra party elections & democracy in political parties of pakistan. the Pakistan Weekly. Rizvi, H. A. (2000). The military and politics in pakistan 1947-1999. Lahore: Sang-E-Meel Publication. Saeed, K. b. (1967). Political system of pakistan. Peace Publication. Saeed, S. (1997). Civil-military relations in pakista: from zulfiqar to binazir bhutto. Colorado: West View Press. Salih, M. (2006). The challenges of internal party democracy in Africa. New York: UNDP. Sartori, G. (2005). Parties and party systems: a framework for analysis. Colchester: ECPR. Scarrow, S. (2000). Parties without members? Party organization in a changing electoral environment. In R. D. Wattenberg, Parties without

240 partisans: Political change in advanced industrial democracies. Oxford: Oxord University Press. Scarrow, S. E., & Kittilson, M. C. (2006). Political parties & the rhetoric and realities of democratization. In B. E. Cain, R. J. Dalton, & S. Scarrow, Democracy transformed? Expanding political opportunities in advanced industrial democracies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/0199264996.003.0004 Shah, S. A. (2015). Public perceptions about democratic culture in the political parties of pakistan: a case study of anp, pmln & ppp. Global Journal on Humanities & Social Sciences(2), 164. Shahid, J. (2013, April 14). Pakistan among countries with lowest voter turn out. DAWN. Taj, S., & Rehman, Z. u. (2015). Role of political parties in pakistan & the perverted form of democracy. The Dialogue, 10(4), 357. Teorell, J. (1999). A deliberative defense of intra-party democracy (Vol. 5). New Delhi: Thousand Oaks New Delhi. Today, E. o. (2017, June 11). PTI's intra party elections. Islamabad. Today, P. (2013, March 2). PPP's intra party polls challenged in ECP. TV, S. (2017, Jan 8). Bilawal elected chairman PPP, Zardari as president PPP-P. Wintour, P. (2011, February 3). Labour considers plan to widen vote on party leadership. the Guardian. Zia, S. (2016, February 2). PMLN intra-party polls in october. 14. Lahore: the Nation.

241

Bi-Annual Research Journal “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. 45 NO. 1, 2020

Persistent drought spells since 1997 and its socio-economic impacts on small holder farmers in lower highlands of Balochistan, Pakistan

Mohammad Yousuf Lecturer Department of SocialWork University of Balochistan, Quetta.

Abstracts The Balochistan province of Pakistan has been drought prone for more than two decades. A series of mild to severe drought spells since 1997 have impacted the livelihood of farming families in lower highland regions in the north-west of the province. This study aimed to assess the overall situation of drought in the lower highlands of Balochistan and its socio- economic impacts on the livelihood of small holder farmers. The study is descriptive in nature. A total of 332 small scale farmers were interviewed in Nushki and Pishin districts of the province through structured questionnaire. The results reveal that a high proportion of small holder farming families in the selected districts is highly vulnerable to drought spells due to increased dependency on water related economic activities such as agriculture and livestock. The adaptive capacity of farming families is poor thus increasing the severity of risk factors. Consecutive spells of drought highly affected the employment rate, income patterns, savings, food, education and housing resulting in high dependency on loans to meet basic needs of life. The study comes up with policy and practice oriented suggestions for potential stakeholders.

Key words: Drought; socio-economic; impacts; small holder farmers; Balochistan

1. Introduction

Drought is usual in many parts of the globe and the predictions of climate change forecast that it will increase in recurrence and severity to a substantial degree throughout this century (Dai, 2010; Hennessy et al.,

242

2008). Drought situation has attained adequate consideration globally because of rapid climate change and the need for water (Mishra and Singh, 2010). The recurrence of drought events and their intensity vary both spatially and fleetingly. Drought has been characterized as high scarcity of water for a particular and long time period in a particular area. It has social, economic and environmental effects (Pérez et al., 2009). The events of drought vary from each other taking into account their severity, length and the region affected (Wilhite et al., 2014). Because, the beginning and end of a drought period is difficult to be determined, therefore, it is difficult to determine the beginning and the end of drought’s impacts as a whole. Its impacts grow gradually, and last for longer period of time even after it has finished (Shaw and Nguyen. 2011).

In last couple of decades, the world has observed more extreme and intensive natural disasters such as droughts and floods (Mishra and Singh. 2010). All continents have encountered serious dry spells, influencing larger parts in Australia, Asia, North and South America, Africa, and Europe (Le Comte, 1995; Le Comte, 1994). Around 60 million human souls in Southwest and Central Asia were affected by durable drought season during 1999-2000. It was among the biggest dry seasons of the globe (IRI, 2001). The dry spell's extreme effects immersed Iran, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, and Western Pakistan (Mishra and Singh, 2010).

As in other regions of southwest Asian, the phenomenon of drought is very much common in the Balochistan and Sindh provinces of Pakistan (Ahmed et al., 2016). Recurrence of this inching disaster in Pakistan is 2- 3 years in every decade (Mazhar et al., 2015). All areas of Pakistan have encountered a number of drought seasons in the history. Among all, the last episode of dry season 1998-2006 was the most extreme one at national level that severely influenced the socio-economic and environmental conditions.

Balochistan remained severely inclined to severe spells of drought since 1998 (Ahmed, 2007). PDMA (2013) states that after the overwhelming period of dry spell of 1998-2006, the region is still

243 experiencing another on-going spell of drought which is influencing agriculture, livestock, and in general the socio-economic status of the area. At least twenty three districts of Balochistan experienced mild to moderate socio economic impacts of drought (Shafiq et al., 2007, PDMA, 2012. UNDP, 2015. Ashraf & Routray, 2013). The social and economic sectors of these districts are still suffering from drought impacts. (UNDP, 2015)

2. Review of Literature: 2.1 Understanding Drought as Disaster Drought is a complex natural disaster which is broadly spread event and can be observed in low precipitation as well as high precipitation regions and in fields as well as in mountainous locales. Drought is a complex term that has different definitions, subject to individual point of view for instance in the language of farmers drought is defined as “a shortage of rainfall or a long period of time without any rainfall” It is evident from studies that there are more than one hundred and fifty (150) definitions of drought in different literature (Boken et al., 2004). For example, a drought can be characterized as climatological, meteorological, water management, socio-economic, absolute, partial, dry spell, serious, severe, multiyear, design, critical or regional. The glossary of Meteorology defines drought as a “period of abnormally dry weather sufficiently prolonged for the lack of water to cause serious hydrological imbalance in the affected area, on the degree of dryness and the duration of dry spell” (Huschke, 1959). Yevjevich (1967) states that because of the different perspectives upon the meanings of drought the study of drought has been a noteworthy hindrance. Wilhite and Glantz, (1987) recognizes the theoretical and operational meanings of drought. Theoretical means long and dry period is called drought, on other hand, operational means the beginning, harshness and end of drought time spell. Drought in climatic language implies when the real moisture supply is always not as much as would be expected at a specific area/region for a long time period (Qureshi et al., 2004).

244

2.1.1 Types of Drought

Due to huge variety and lack of universal definition of drought, it may be categorized into different types. The National Drought Mitigation Centre (NDMC) USA, classified drought in three types, namely meteorological, agricultural and hydrological (Miyan. 2015), while others (American Meteorological Society. 2004; Wilhite and Glantz. 1985) add with it the socio-economic category which, in fact, is a consequence of weather-related shortfall of water. 2.2 Major Droughts of Pakistan Studies reveal that Pakistan has regularly been in the grasp of serious drought spells. Punjab encountered the most exceedingly terrible droughts in 1899, 1920 and 1935. Sindh province experienced most awful droughts in 1871, 1881, 1899, 1931, 1947 and 1999 while the Khyber Pashtoonkhwa province faced worst droughts in 1902 and 1951. The most serious droughts at the national scale were perhaps the latest, which happened in 1999-2000 delaying up to 2002. The precipitation was inconsistent and the flow of water in rivers dropped. (Ahmed et al. 2004). As per the discouraging findings of World Disasters Report in 2003, 6,037 individuals lost their lives and 8,989,631 were directly or indirectly affected by the drought spell that kept going on from 1998-2002 (Mazhar et al 2015). The drought spell of 1999-2000 was one of the most devastating drought spell in South-west and Central Asia that terribly affected Pakistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan and Iran (Mishra and Singh, 2010). According to Anjum et al. (2010), the 2000-02 drought spell was perhaps the most intensive drought in Pakistan affecting more than 2.2 billion human souls in the country. This drought resulted in large number of deaths, loss of crop and migration. Lower parts of the country were affected by drought during 2004-05. There was moderate variation in the overall rainfall and snowfall in country accounting 40 percent decrease in rainfall and 25 percent decrease in snowfall as compared to the figures of normal years, while Mazhar, et al (2015) reports that northern parts of Pakistan and northern region of Balochistan experienced mild drought spell during 2009-10. It has been reported that there is a crucial growth in

245 the recurrence of heat waves that indicates the forth-coming intensification and expanding severity of drought (Zahid and Rasul, 2012).The impacts of drought in Pakistan are more severe due to high dependency of her economy on agriculture and those regions of the country are mostly damaged by drought where rain-fed agriculture is more common. In Pakistan, drought events occur two to three years in every decade. There is developing attention about the expanding recurrence and intensity of drought in Pakistan (Ahmed et al., 2016). Most of Pakistan land consists of arid and semi-arid land that is 88 percent out of 79.6 million hectares. According to Anjum et al. (2010) “only 9% of Pakistan’s land receive more than 508mm of rain, 22% receive between 254-508mm of rain, and 69% less than 254mm”. Agriculture, livestock, fisheries, inflation rate, transportation, unemployment, forestry, energy, and banking are sectors of Pakistan’s economy that have faced significant impacts of drought. 2.3 Drought assessment in Balochistan The climate of Balochistan is diversified which contains characteristics of both semi and hyper aridity. The temperature of the province also varies depending upon the specific region. It consists of cool temperature and tropical weather, ranging from mild summers to cold winters. The province is classified into four zones on the basis of agro- climatic characteristics, the plains, coastal, desert and uplands (PARC, 1980). Due to agro-climatic division of the province, there are sufficient opportunities for cultivation of variety of crops and vegetables. The province is highly dependent on two main sectors for its economy i.e. agriculture and livestock. These sectors have engaged almost 67% of the workforce of the province and more 50% of the provincial GDP is dependent on these two sectors (GOP 2003). Some of the rest of fields that add into the GDP of the province are minerals, transport and construction and industry (GOB, 2015). Compared with other provinces of Pakistan, the social and economic sectors of Balochistan are facing overwhelming issues and challenges. Pertaining to social sector achievement, such as education, economic development, health, physical infrastructure and gender related issues, the state of province is relatively lower. Naveed and Ali (2012)

246 discuss that Pakistan’s poorest districts belong to Balochistan and inside the province the regional differences are very high. The score of MPI (Multidimensional Poverty Index) of the province is highest in Pakistan. The major contributor to MPI has been the lack of assets in the province. (Naveed and Ali. 2012) The irrigated agriculture in the province depends upon underground and surface water resources. Khirther, Pat Feeder and Lasbela canals are the major sources of surface water irrigation in the province. Flood water that streams in various small and large watercourses is also a significant source of surface water. In Balochistan almost 30 percent of flood water is utilized for farm purposes via small storage dams, small irrigation systems, and “sailaba” diversions (UNDP. 2015). While tube-wells, springs and “karez”1 schemes are the main systems through which underground water is used for irrigated agriculture. (MDTF-WB, 2012); (UNDP, 2015)(GOB, 2011) Balochistan is among the most drought-inclined provinces of the country where serious drought spells have been recorded in 1967-1969, 1971, 1973-1975, 1994, 1998-2002, and 2009-2015 (Ahmed et al., 2016). Among the different spells of drought, the most serious one was drought of 1998-06. The main reason behind long spell of drought was a continuous shortage of rainfall in the province. In most extremely influenced regions, even not a single drop of water was received in 1998-2002 season. In some areas the rainfall in winters decreased by 60-70% for several years. The condition of those regions was more alarming where underground water was either very deep or salty and surface water resources were not accessible. Ahmed et al. (2004) states that there are obvious reasons of the adverse impacts of drought which includes violation of underground water sucking rules, poor management of water, deforestation, lack of management in grazing of animals and lack of systematic cropping systems.

1 Karez is a method of underground tunnels that are constructed to gather subsoil water, through gravitational pull, at the foot of hills. This water is then either taken to the field through vertical shafts which are sunk underground, or it is drawn out at the foot of hill where it has been gathered.

247

Upland Balochistan is the most vigorously influenced territory of the province. The abrupt reduction in rainfall in most of the northwest areas of the province has resulted in a gloomy situation. This situation has resulted in paucity of the surface water assets for human use, diminished water resources from springs, karezes and tube-wells. Additionally, the underground water table has been declining in majority of the areas and low-laying zones. 2.3.1 Impacts of Drought on livelihood of small holder farmers in Balochistan The severe spell of 1998-2006 drought affected people of Balochistan both directly and indirectly. The impact categories include social, economic and environmental. Since all categories of drought impacts are interrelated and interdependent, therefore, understanding the impacts of drought is complex in nature. Indeed, there is a close cause and effect relationship among all short-term and long term impacts of drought in Balochistan. Because the scope of this research focuses the socio- economic impacts of drought; therefore, the following discussion is an effort to discuss the same; Balochistan drought from 1998 to 2006 affected people in terms of loss of livelihood sources, that is, agriculture, livestock and related enterprises. Several studies indicate that the rate of poverty is higher in dry areas of the province. Drought affected areas are less diversified and are dominated by agriculture, farm and other rural labor (Roy and Hirway, 2007). Poverty rate is normally higher in those areas where people are mostly dependent on agriculture. Drought affected many parts of Balochistan and caused a rise in food prices, resulting in widespread unavailability and unaffordability of food. Consequently, food consumption reduced, causing malnutrition and different diseases to the affected populations (PDMA, 2013). The agriculture and livestock sectors were also affected. Apple and other fruit orchards were devastated by almost 80%. According to FAO/WFP (2000), the drought spell of 1997- 2005 decreased farm products of rain-fed areas by 60 to 80 percent, while 15 to 20 percent decrease in the irrigated farm products and the situation resulted into mortality of almost 2.0 million livestock in the province. Similarly, Asian Development Bank reported that approximately 43

248 percent of livestock animals died in that drought spell (ADB, 2005) and not more than one-third land of the province is considered to be productive for grazing (GOB. 2003). The losses to agriculture and livestock made thousands of people jobless, who were then compelled to migrate to urban areas of the province/country. Although, people of urban areas are not directly under the risk of drought due to the facts that most of the people’s source of income is not related to agriculture and livestock. However, the rapid migration of people from drought affected areas indirectly effects urban population. The urban population is mostly dependent on rural regions in terms of agricultural and livestock products. For example in case of district Quetta does not have any particular area which is under the risk of drought situation. But in one or two union councils in rural areas drought situation may be considered as hazard. On the whole being capital city which depends lot on other districts for its food supply (like meat, wheat, vegetables) the drought had bad impact on it in 1997-2002 (DDMA Balochistan, 2008). Internal conflicts among people on water resources have been observed in drought hit areas of the province. Drought caused food insecurity, malnutrition, increased mortality rates among children and impacts on education in the province. The government invested substantial amount on providing relief supplies to the drought affected districts in Balochistan. According to figures, twenty districts were in urgent need of water and food assistance. United Nations Development Program (2015) categorized intensity of drought impacts in the province as mild and moderate. Mild impacts included reduced incomes from agriculture and livestock, malnutrition and decrease in health conditions, unemployment, forced sale of land and household assets, and increase in crime while moderate impacts engulfed loss of sources of livelihood, forced migration, seeing labor and other jobs in other sectors and areas. According to Ahmed (2007), the obvious reason was scarcity of rainfall. However, there were other contributing factors including deforestation, depletion of grazing pastures and rangelands, environmental degradation and global warming. Recurring drought is one of the major challenges faced by Balochistan. Drought conditions and untimely rains are still prevailing in several regions of the province. Many

249 areas of the province are experiencing drought as rainfall since 2013 has hardly been a quarter of the usual amount. 3. Methodology On the basis of data sources, this very study is quantitative in nature while on the basis of the purpose of the study the study is descriptive. The study was carried out in two selected districts located in the north-west of Balochistan province of Pakistan. A total of 332 small holder farmers (having up to 5 acre cultivated land) were interviewed by implying multiple techniques of sampling including Random, Quota and Purposive sampling to select Union Councils/Villages, Households and Farmers respectively. Structure questionnaire was used to muster data from the HHs. Primary data was analyzed with the help of latest version of SPSS to draw findings and conclusion.

4. Results and discussion 4.1 Socio economic profile of small holder famers (N=332) The minimum number of family members is 5 while maximum is 28 persons per family with an average of 12.7 persons per family. There is variation in family size of both districts where average family size of Pishin district is higher than that of Nushki. The minimum number of family members per family in Pishin is 8 and maximum is 28 with an average of 13.3 persons per family. On other hand in Nushki district, the situation is different as indicated in the table that minimum number of family members is 5, maximum is 19 with an average of 9.6 persons per family. This confirms that a higher majority of respondents live in joint family system in both selected districts. Data in the serial 1.2 of table 1 further shows that there was huge difference of number of family numbers attachment with agriculture during normal years and drought years. During normal on average 3.9 persons per family were attached to agriculture while in during drought years the number decreased to only 1.8 persons per family. The attachment of number of family members to agriculture is higher in Pishin district (4.5 during normal years and 2.1 during drought season on average) as compared to Nushki (3.2 during normal years and 1.4 during drought season on average) both during drought years and normal years. This

250 indicates that drought spell forced a notable number of people in both districts to quit agriculture and search for other sources of income. The average landholding of respondents of the field survey was 4.5 acres per family with minimum 1 acres and maximum 5 acres. The average landholdings in Pishin district (4.5 per household) is higher compared to average in Nushki. Table 1 Socio-economic profile of respondents’ families

District Pishin District Nushki Total

S# HH Characteristic Year Min Max Ave Min Max Ave Min Max Ave

1.1 Average family size 8 28 13.3 5 19 9.6 5 28 12.7

1.2 Average number of family members NY* 1 8 4.5 1 6 3.2 1 8 3.9 attached to agriculture/livestoc DY* 0 5 2.1 0 4 1.4 0 4 1.8 k * 1.3 Average household 1 5 4.5 1 5 4 0 5 4.5 landholdings*** 1.4 Average number of NY 1 80 12.8 1 120 18.6 1 120 15.5 livestock animals DY 0 5 2.2 0 12 3.1 0 12 2.6 * NY= Normal Year ** DY= Drought Year *** Landholdings are in Acres It was found that on average each family possessed 15.5 livestock large and small animals during normal years with minimum one and maximum 120 animals. However, the number reduced to 2.6 animals on average per family during drought years in both districts with minimum 0 and maximum 12 livestock animals. Data also indicates that livestock rearing is higher in Nushki district (18.6 during normal years and 3.1 in drought season on average) as compared to Pishin (12.8 during normal years and 2.2 during drought years on average). Thus, it can be sought out that drought conditions severely affected livestock sector in both selected districts. 4.2 Type of agriculture as source of living The data in table 2 illustrates that 45 percent respondents had irrigated annual crops and vegetables and almost similar figures that is 42 percent had irrigated orchards as type of agriculture. A minimum percent

251 of respondents only 11 percent cultivated dry land crops as rain-fed, Khushkaba or sailaba agriculture. The findings indicate that there are variations at district level in both selected districts. Irrigated annual crops and vegetable were more common in Nushki (59 percent) as compared to Pishin (38 percent), while dependency of farming families is higher on irrigated orchards in Pishin (54 percent) contrary to Nushki (20 percent). Another important point to be noticed is higher ratio of dry-land/khushkaba/sailaba in district Nushki (20 percent) as compared to Pishin district (06 percent).

Table 2 Type of agriculture (N=227) Total District District Cumulative Type of agriculture Pishin Nushki Frequency* Percent Valid Irrigated annual crops, 58 (38) 45 (59) 103 (45) 45 vegetables, etc. Irrigated orchards 81 (54) 15 (20) 96 (42) 87 Dry-land crops (rain- 9 (6) 15 (20) 24 (11) 98 fed/khuskaba/sailaba) Total 148 75 () 223(98) Missing System 3 1 4 (2) 100 Total 151 76 227 *Values in parentheses show percentage

The data in this table confirms the figures of secondary sources that imply that irrigated orchards of various fruits are more common in District Pishin while irrigated annual crops and vegetables are more common in district Nushki (GoB, 2011. UNDP, 2015). A notable thing observed during field data collection was that a gradual shift has been observed in Pishin district from orchards to annual crops such as wheat, barley, vegetables and tobacco etc. due to lack of water resources both surface and underground during drought season. 4.3 Drought Assessment in North-west Balochistan Main source of water (for human use, agriculture and livestock) Findings of field data in table 3 show that main sources of water during normal years were evenly distributed in various type of water sources such as tube-wells 39 percent, karezes 24 percent, springs 20 percent and 11 percent other sources. On other hand, the situation is quite

252 different during drought seasons in which 64 percent received water from tube-wells, 24 percent had no such sources in their particular villages, instead, they brought water from other nearby areas or people were forced to migrate, and the rest of 11 percent respondents managed to get water from other sources but with minimum quantity. It was found that none of the respondents received water from karezes and springs during severe spell of drought in both selected districts. Thus almost all karezes and springs got dried during drought years.

Table 3 Main source of water District Pishin District Nushki Total *** Source of water NY* DY** NY DY NY DY Tube-wells 87 (43) 147 (72) 43 (34) 64 (50) 130 (39) 211 (64)

Karezes 49 (24) 0 (0) 30 (23) 0 (0) 79 (24) 0 (0)

Springs 41 (20) 0 (0) 25 (20) 0 (0) 66 (20) 0 (0)

None 0 (0) 35 (17) 14 (11) 45 (35) 14 (4) 80 (24)

Any other 23 (11) 17 (9) 12 (9) 15 (12) 35 (11) 32 (10)

Total 200 (98) 199 (98) 124 (97) 124 (97) 324 (98) 323 (97)

Missing 4 (2) 5 (2) 4 (3) 4 (3) 8 (2) 9 (3)

Total 204 204 128 128 332 332

* NY= Normal Year ** DY= Drought Year ***Values in parentheses show percentage

The finding reveals that tube-well installation rapidly increased in both selected districts during drought years particularly in Pishin district where an increase of 29 percent was observed in selected villages as field data shows. Due to increased load-shedding of electricity, more farmers have started to use solar energy to suck water from ground through tube- wells.

253

4.4 Comparison of livestock loss / forced sale in drought year and normal year According to data in table 4, the average number of livestock animal loss / forced sale per year during normal years was 10.5 with minimum 01 and maximum 25 animals, while during drought years the figures are very different. A minimum of 5 and maximum 140 livestock animals were lost or forcefully sold according to respondents. The average number accounted is 44.4 per year. Livestock loss was higher in district Nushki as compared to Pishin both in normal as well as drought season. It reveals that livestock is more common is Nushki district. The average annual livestock losses and forced sale in Nushki district during normal years was 13.7 while during drought season the average number reaches a drastic change of 57.7 with a difference of 44.5. On other hand, the situation in Pishin was also very alarming. The average number of livestock loss and force sale during drought years was 34.5 while in normal years it was 5.5 with the difference of almost 29. The figures indicate that drought conditions severely affected livestock sector in both districts. The same is discussed in various other secondary sources related to drought. Table 4 Comparison of livestock loss / forced sale in drought year and normal year on average District Pishin District Nushki Total Year type Min Max Ave Min Max Ave Min Max Mean SDev. Median During Drought 5 80 34.5 5 140 52.7 5 140 44.4 47.01 14.5 Year During Normal 1 15 5.5 1 25 13.3 1 25 10.5 7.15 9.5 Year

4.5 Comparison of drought and normal year quality of harvest/products each year on average There is huge difference between quality of harvest in normal and drought years. The data reveals that 38 percent respondents were of opinion that the quality of harvest and products from agriculture during normal years on average was satisfactory and 30 percent said that it was very satisfactory which accounts for a cumulative total of 68 percent of respondents. On other hand, 46 percent respondents were very unsatisfied and 37 percent unsatisfied with the quality of agriculture harvest and

254 products during drought years which accounts for a cumulative total of 83 percent. Drought spell severely impacted the quality of yields that people got from agriculture which consequently decreased income sources, low market rate for yields, quitting of agriculture, search for alternate and additional sources of income etc. Figure 1. Comparison of drought and normal year quality of harvest/products each year on average (%)

4.6 Occupational change Data in table 4 presents that 46 percent of respondents started daily wage labor as a result of failure in agriculture crops during drought season. 25 percent respondents stated that some family members started other small commercial activities / small business of various types such selling items at road sides, in carts, opening shops of small investments, and other small trades in the urban areas. 15 percent respondents said that people of families were compelled to strive for employment of private and government sectors in different areas of the province and in some cases outside the province. Table 5. The type of occupational change (N=289) Total District District Cumulative Type of occupational change Pishin* Nushki* Frequency* Percent Valid Home based self- 11 (6) 10 (9) 21 (7) 7 employment activities Daily wage labor 82 (47) 51 (44) 133 (46) 53 Other commercial 45 (26) 26 (23) 71 (25) 78 activities

255

Govt. / pvt. 25 (14) 19 (17) 44 (15) 93 Employment Any other 8 (5) 8 (7) 16 (6) 99 Total 171 114 285 (99) Missing System 4 0 4 (1) 100 Total 175 114 289 *Values in parentheses show percentage The data in table 4 implies that since most of the people in agriculture sector were unskilled in other fields, therefore, most of the people who changed occupations were forced to start daily wage labor, private employment and began small commercial activities. 4.7 Drought on living standards The data in figure 2 analyzes the impacts of drought on various sectors related to living standards of people. According to field survey as shown in table, respondents expressed their point of view against each indicator of living standard and the most affected segments were 1-savings, 2-food, 3-health care, 4-housing, 5-transportation and 6-clothing ranking from 1 to 6.

Figure 2 Intensity of effects of drought on living standards (%)

4.8 Loan and amount of loan Field survey shows that 56 percent of respondents responded that they were not compelled to take loans during drought years while 42 percent respondents gave affirmative response. The data further reveals that the ratio of taking loan in drought years was higher in Pishin district (51 percent) as compared to Nushki (27 percent).

256

Table 6 The amount of loan (N=140)

District Pishin District Nushki Total M Medi Amount* Min Max Mean in Max Mean Min Max Mean S. Dev. an

Amount of Loan

70,000 1,000,000 430,000 40,000 400,000 210,000 40,000 1,000,000 320,000 299,002 150,000 * Amount is shown in PKR The minimum amount of loan taken by respondents in drought years was Rs. 40,000 while the maximum amount was Rs. 1,000,000. The average amount is 320,000 rupees. 4.10 Source and purpose of taking Loan Data from field survey implies that 51 percent of respondents took loan from informal money lenders, 17 percent took from banks, 16 percent from co-villagers and 11 percent from relatives. The informal money lender means the informal setup that lends money to people for specific time period such as the businessmen, shopkeepers or conventional money lenders etc. The data indicates the ratio of taking loan from banks is higher in Pishin (20 percent), while from relatives (14 percent) and informal money lenders (54 percent) is slightly higher in district Nushki. Table 7 The basic purpose of loan (N=140) Total District District Cumulative Purpose Pishin* Nushki* Frequency* Percent Valid Agriculture 21 (20) 8 (23) 29 (21) 21 development Establishment of 48 (46) 14 (40) 62 (44) 65 other business Livestock rearing 3 (9) 5 (14) 8 (6) 71 Family expenses 20 (19) 8 (23) 28 (20) 91 Repair and 7 (7) 0 (0) 7 (5) 96 construction of house Marriage/ other 6 (6) 0 (0) 6 (4) 100 cultural ceremonies Total 105 35 140 (100) Missing System 0 0 0 (0) Total 105 35 140 *Values in parentheses show percentage

257

According to table 7, majority of respondents (44 percent) took loan for the purpose of establishing other business. Drought first and foremost targeted the income sources of farming families due to which farmers were forced to seek for additional or other sources of income. Due to lack of personal savings, farming families either sold land and household assets or were compelled to take loans in order to invest the amount in establishment of other small businesses. Thus, a large number of respondents took loan for the purpose of starting new business. The study established that 21 percent respondents took loan for the development of agriculture. Agriculture sector was the most devastated sector by long spell of drought. Farmers in majority of the cases kept their struggle to make living from same sector even during drought, however, due to lack of amount to invest on agriculture, people tended to take loans and invest on various aspects of agriculture such as installation of tube- wells and buying seeds and fertilizers. Further, it is evident from data that 20 percent respondent took loan for the purpose of bearing family expenses. It was observed that people during long spell of drought did not have the capacity to fulfill basic needs of family such as food, health, education, shelter, clothing which compelled them to take loans of varying amounts either from relatives, co-villagers or informal money lenders. Conclusion

Balochistan has been prone to natural hazards like drought. The socio-economic impacts of drought in the province are severe due to its geophysical location and socio-economic conditions. Since Balochistan is the least developed and poorest province of the country and a high majority of populace is dependent on agriculture (irrigated and non-irrigated) and livestock sectors; therefore, the socio-economic impacts of drought have been severe. Both surface and underground water resources decreased in drought season. Karezes, springs and most of the tube-wells dried up. The rain-fed (Sailaba and Khushkaba) agriculture were highly affected. A variety of reasons increase the vulnerability of farming families to the impacts of drought. The reasons included over-exploitation of water resources; miss-management of underground water; over sucking of water through increased number of tube-wells for agriculture, domestic and

258 commercial purposes; lack of awareness among community people; poor adaptive capacity and lack of technical capacity among farmers. Drought resulted in loss of on-farm as well as off-farm income of farming families. The loss of livestock animals and poor quality of harvest added into worsening the situation. Due to failure of agricultural harvests, people were compelled to change occupations especially to daily wage labor and small commercial activities in urban areas. Involvement of children in various commercial activities and home based earning of women increased due to loss of income sources of male members of family. Farmers were forced to take loans from various sources to arrange other income sources and to fulfill basic needs of families such as food, shelter, clothing, medicine, drinking water and transportation etc. Examples of selling valuable assets were also observed in both districts. Drought impacted the living standard of farming families in terms of limiting the basic needs of family life. Loss of income, decreased sources of livelihood combined with lack of basic needs during drought forced poorest people to migrate or get displaced.

Acknowledgement: The paper is original research work derived from M.Phil dissertation of Mr. Mohammad Yousuf, (lecturer, Department of Social Work, University of Balochistan, Quetta, Pakistan). Technical guidance regarding socio- economic and geo-cultural information about the selected districts was given by Professor Dr. Abdul Haleem Sadiq.

259

References 1. ADB (2005) Balochistan Economic Report. ADB (Asian Development Bank) Islamabad. P-2

2. Ahmed, K., Shahid, S., Sobri, H., Wang, X. (2016) Characterization of Seasonal Droughts in Balochistan Province, Pakistan. Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment. 30 (2). 747-762

3. Ahmed, S. (2007) Persistent Drought of Balochistan and Impacts of Water Availability and Agriculture. Water for Balochistan Policy Briefings. Vol. (3) No.6. 1-7

4. Ahmed, S., Hussain, Z., Qureshi, A.S., Majeed, R., Saleem, M. (2004) Drought Mitigation in Pakistan: Current Status and Options for Future Strategies, Working paper No 85,. International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka.

5. American Meteorological Society (2004) Statement on meteorological drought. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 85. 771–773.

6. Anjum, S. A., Saleem, M. F., Cheema, M. A., Bilal, M. F., Khaliq, T. (2012) An Assessment to Vulnerability, Extent, Characteristics and Severity of Drought Hazard in Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Science, 64 (2). 85-91

7. Ashraf, M., Routray, J.K., (2013) Perception and understanding of drought and coping strategies of farming households in north-west Balochistan. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction. (5). 49-60

8. Boken, V. K., Cracknell, A. P., and Heathcote, R. L. (2004) Monitoring and Predicting Agricultural Drought. Cary, US: Oxford University Press (United States of America),.3-4

9. Dai, A. (2010) Drought under global warming: a review. WIREs Climate Change 2. 45-65.

10. DDMA. (2008) Disaster Risk Management Plan District Quetta, Balochistan. Provincial Disaster Management Authority. 1-4

260

11. FAO/WFP (2000) Special Report of FAO/WFP Crop and Food Supply Assessment Mission to the Balochistan Province of Pakistan. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) Islamabad, World Food Programme. 2-10

12. GOB, (2003) Balochistan Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. Government of Balochistan, Quetta. P-1

13. GOB, (2015) White Paper on Budget 2015-16. Department of Finance Quetta, Government of Balochistan, Quetta. 6-10

14. GOB, (1947-2010) Agriculture Statistics of Balochistan. Department of Agriculture Extension, Government of Balochistan. Quetta.

15. GOB, (2011) District Development Plans. Planning and Development Department, Government of Balochistan. Quetta

16. GOP, (2003) Economic survey 2000–01. Economic Advisor’s Wing, Finance Division Islamabad, Pakistan. 11-27

17. Hennessy, K., et al., (2008) An assessment of the impact of climate change on the nature and frequency of exceptional climatic events. Drought Exceptional Circumstances. Australian Government, Australia. 3-13

18. Huschke, R.E., (1959) Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society, Boston. (available online at http://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Drought, access date: 06-02-16)

19. International Research Institute (IRI) for Climate and Society. (2001) The Drought and Humanitarian Crisis in Central and Southwest Asia: A Climate Perspective, IRI Special Report. 01–11.

20. Le Comte, D., (1994) Weather highlights around the world. Weatherwise. 47. 23-26.

21. Le Comte, D., (1995) Weather highlights around the world. Weatherwise. 48. 20-22.

261

22. Mazhar, N., Nawaz. M., Mirza, A.I., Khan, K., (2015) Socio-political Impacts of Meteorological Droughts and their spatial patterns in Pakistan. Research Journal of South Asian Studies. 30 (1). 151-152

23. MDTF-WB. (2012) Balochistan Development Issues and Prospects. Multi Donor Trust Fund, World Bank, Pakistan

24. Mishra, A.K., & Singh, V.P. (2010) A review of drought concepts. Journal of Hydrology, 91(1), 202-216.

25. Miyan, M.A. (2015) Drought in Asian Least Developed Countries: Vulnerabilities and Sustainability. Weather and Climate Extremes, 7. 1-3. Retrieved from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212094714000632 (access date 16-12-2015)

26. Naveed, A., Ali. N. (2012) Cluster Deprivation: District Profile of Poverty in Pakistan. Sustainable Policy Development Institute, Pakistan. 47-49

27. PARC (1980) Agro-ecological Regions of Pakistan. PARC (Pakistan Agricultural Research Council), Islamabad, Pakistan.

28. PDMA (2012) Droughts in Balochistan. Provincial Disaster Management Authority, Balochistan. Retrieved from: http://www.pdma.gob.pk/?p=54 (access date: 8-02-2016).

29. PDMA (2013) Situation Analysis: Balochistan – Incorporating Gender in Disaster Risk Management. Provincial Disaster Management Authority, Balochistan. P-5, Retrieved from: http://www.pdma.gob.pk/wp- content/publication/Situation%20Analysis- Geneder%20and%20Child%20Protection%20Cell.pdf (access date: 16.12.2015)

30. Pérez L. Pérez, y, Hurlé J. B. (2009) Assessing the socio-economic impacts of drought in the Ebro River Basin, Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research. 7(2), 269-280

31. Qureshi, A.S., Akhtar.M. (2004) A survey of drought impacts and coping measures in Helmand and Kandahar Provinces of Afghanistan. International Water Management Institute. 5-6

262

32. Roy, A.K., Hirway, I. (2007) Multiple Impacts of Drought and Assessment of Drought Policy in Major Drought Prone States in India. Center for Development Alternatives, India. 97-98

33. Shafiq, M., Kakar, M.A. (2007). Effects of Drought on Livestock Sector in Balochistan Province of Pakistan. International Journal of Agriculture and Biology. 9(4), 657-659

34. Shaw, R., and Nguyen, H. (2011) eds. Droughts in Asian Monsoon Region. Community, Environment and Disaster Risk Management, 8. Bradford, GBR: Emerald Insight, 2-3

35. UNDP. (2015). Drought Risk Assessment in the Province of Balochistan, Pakistan. United Nations Development Program, Pakistan, 2-15

36. Wilhite, D.A., Glantz, M.H. (1985). Understanding the drought phenomenon: the role of definitions. Water International. 10 (3).111–120

37. Wilhite, D.A., Sivakumar, M.V.K., & Pulwarty, R. (2014). Managing drought risk in a changing climate: The role of national drought policy. Weather and Climate Extremes. 17-19

38. Yevjevich, V. (1967). An Objective Approach to Definitions and Investigations of Continental Hydrologic Drought. Hydrology Paper No. 23. Colorado State University. Fort Collins, Colo. 1-8

39. Zahid, M. and Rasul, G. (2012) Changing Trends of Thermal Extremes in Pakistan. Climatic Change, 113. 883-896.

263

Bi-Annual Research Journal “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. 45 NO. 1, 2020

Socio-economic Factors of delinquent behavior among juveniles in Baluchistan, Pakistan

Manzoor Ahmed1, Mohammad Yousuf Barech2, Dr. Ghulam Farooq3, Abstract: Juvenile delinquency is the most dominant social problems among all other social problems. Socio-economic conditions of family play an important role in the increasing and decreasing rate of juvenile delinquency. Juvenile delinquent is a person whose age is less than 18 years on the commission of an offence. The main aim of this article is to analyze the socio-economic conditions of juvenile offenders and to analyze the social factors contributing to delinquent behavior among juveniles. The study is quantitative in nature, while it has strictly been conducted in the 3 main prisons (Mach, Quetta and Loralai) of Balochistan. The results of the study revealed that 32.5% of respondents has committed a crime in the age of 16 years. Furthermore, the results said that 77% of respondents agreed that poor economic conditions of family is the cause of juvenile delinquency. A large number of respondents said that parental neglect is the leading cause of juvenile delinquency. The article suggest to the policy makers that the elevation of poverty and strict laws related to family planning could resolve the issue of juvenile delinquency.

Key words: Juvenile delinquency; Juvenile courts; Social factors; Economic factors: Balochistan: Introduction; In 21st century beside other social problems, juvenile delinquency is the most harmful social problem. Our youth badly affected

1 M Phil scholar (Social Work) Baluchistan Study Center, University of Baluchistan. Email: [email protected] 2 Lecturer, Department of Social Work, University of Balochistan, Quetta. Email: [email protected] 3 Assistant Professor, Balochistan Study Centre, University of Baluchistan, Quetta

264 in this issue. Youth is believed to be the future of a nation while juvenile delinquency as a social problem has already threatened it. This term is more complex and complicated to deliberate upon. According to UNCRC in 1989 in their draft for children defined Child or Juvenile as any human being under the age of 18 (Singh M., 2006). Pakistan also adopted the age of a juvenile as the age according to the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Child UNCRC, as any human being under the age of 18 is child. The word delinquency has been derived from Latin word “delinquer” which means omit. Romans used this term to refer to the failure of person to perform the assigned task or duty; it was William Cox-son in 1484 who used delinquent to describe a person found guilty of customary offence (Singh M., 2006). “Juvenile deviancy refers to a large variety of disapproved behavior of teenage and adolescents whom the society does not approved of, and for which some kind of punishment or corrective measure is justified in the public interest”. “Certain acts such as-begging, truancy, vagrancy, stealing, hijacking, kidnapping, drinking and gambling etc. are included within the meaning of the term juvenile delinquency” (Paranjape N. V., 1998). Amadioha (2010) stated that “juvenile delinquency refers to work that is mentally, physically, socially or morally dangerous and harmful to children, and interferes with their schooling, by depriving them of opportunity to attend school, obliging them to leave school permanently or requiring them to combine school attendance with excessive, long and heavy workload. United Nation has defined juvenile delinquency as any act, which is committed by any individual who is under the age of 21, which is not according to the law of society, and which violate codified law of any country. Literature Review: Concepts related to juvenile delinquency: Juvenile court: Juvenile courts are also defined in the meaning of children’s court that specially delivered the cases and issues of delinquency, negligence and maltreated children. These special courts bring about the government role as a substitute parent, in case if there is no juvenile court in the country, then other courts accomplish the need of juvenile courts (Goldson & Muncie, 2012). These special courts trial the cases of those juveniles under

265 the age of 18 or according to the law of specific country. Juvenile courts in Pakistan are established under section 4 of the constitution of the republic of Pakistan. Juvenile courts proceed two fundamental types of cases such as “civil matters, usually concerning care of an abandoned child or one whose parents can’t support him and criminal matters arising from antisocial behavior by the child or a juvenile”. Juvenile justice system: A juvenile justice system is the combination of criminal legal system, which treats with the offences committed by children, typically between the age group of 10 to 18. This limitation of age varies from country to country and set by each state of juvenile justice system. Juvenile offence is any type of crime that is taken by child/adult, which is typically a juvenile (Spannhake, 2018). Borstal house; “Borstal Institution” is an institution where a minor criminal has kept to educate and trained for their mental, moral and psychological development (JJSO, 2000). Juvenile delinquency in Western countries: Data are available for some of the countries of Western Europe, in which arrests of juvenile delinquents and under-age offenders increased by an average of around 50% between the mid1980s and the late 1990s. Report on child and juvenile delinquency stated that the rate of violent crimes committed by juveniles doubled from 7 % to 15 % in 1990 (Pfeiffer, 1997). The countries in transition have also witnessed a dramatic rise in delinquency rates; since 1995, juvenile crime levels in many countries in Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States have increased by more than 30 percent (World Youth Report, 2003). According to Bendit R. et al (2000) those children whose age is b/w 15 to 25 commit more than half of offences and crimes. Secondary data further revealed that the condition of European states are not so disturbing as same the condition of USA. According to a report conducted by Chaudhary I.A. stated as cited by “Turkish scholar Nephan Saran’s observation, that during 1956-68, in Istanbul, burglary, violence, sexual offences, smuggling and pick pocketing were the most prevalent crimes and these delinquency was

266 concentrated in the age group of 16 to18 years” (Chaudhary I. A., Aug. 2016). Bendit R. et al (2000, pp. 37) stated in his report written for Germany and the Netherland that social workers of the municipal youth office recorded the reports of juvenile involved in, were 2513 cases in 1995 and 2496 cases in 1996. He further explained in the same report that the general social services have reported the cases of 405 juvenile offenders in 1988 and 601 in 1996. The number of children in especially difficult circumstances is estimated to have increased from 80 million to 150 million between 1992 and 2000. Destitute children are certainly a problem in India, but juvenile delinquency has yet to reach the proportions it has in other countries (Dasgupta & Jayshree, 1981). The tenure of juvenile deviancy varied in India. “The states of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Bihar were largely affected by juvenile delinquency in 1996. That time theft and burglary constituted 39.6% of total IPC crimes. Juvenile murder showed significant increase in Madhya Pradesh”. In New Delhi very huge amount of crimes committed by juveniles in 1996, however, the total number of crimes has reduced in the state of Delhi. Apart from this, Tamil Nadu faced high percentage of crimes under local and special law in the tenure of two years such as 1995-96 (Paranjape, 1998). Tesfay S. Z. (May, 2016) in his thesis work for master of social work described that deviancy is not only a serious issue but it is expanding day by day as compare with the adult crimes. Tesfay written in his thesis that in the tenure of 10 months between 1993 to 1994 there were 143 and 169 recorded cases in the state of India respectively. In these recorded cases juveniles between 16 to 18 years of age group committed 11.3% as the majority of crimes (Tesfay, 2016). In recent years, the issue of mal-adjusted children became too much problematic in Bangladesh that influence our social life negatively. However, this issue is not only caused by individual factors but also our existing social system, ways of life (culture), and the unequal distribution of wealth is responsible. “Daily Naya Digonta” issued a paper on minor criminal in Bangladesh on 27 October 2004. The paper shed light on the situation of children that they participate in illegal activities. These juveniles participate in “theft, pick-pocketing, murder, arms and bomb caring, drug supply” etc. The reason behind this illegal activities are lack

267 parental supervision, poverty and the high profile criminals particularly utilize their (juvenile) weaknesses of poverty (Naya digonto, 2004).

Juvenile delinquency in Pakistan: The situation of delinquency in Pakistan commenced as a result of social discrimination, differences on the basis of class such as upper, middle and lower classes, various shapes of development in rural and urban societies, lack of employment and under-employment, illiteracy and lack of parental and school supervision to child (Talpur & Shah, 2011). The Daily Times published a report of the Society for the Protection of the Rights of Child SPARC written by Rafique A. (Sep. 2017) that overall 1500 to 2000 juveniles are imprisoned in the various prisons of Pakistan, but under-trail figures of juvenile criminals are not included. The report said that there are only two borstal houses for the imprisonment of children in Punjab, which are insufficient for juvenile deviants. According to National Human Development Program report launched by UNDP (May, 2018) that Pakistan is the world youngest country which has the 29 to 30% population of youngsters from the age group between 15 to 29 years. Gul S. stated as cited by Daily Times “as per World Justice Project Pakistan is placed 5th out of 6 countries in the region and 106th out of 113 countries and jurisdiction worldwide” (Gul S. Aug. 2017). The report said that there are only two ‘borstal’ houses for the imprisonment of children in Punjab, which are insufficient for juvenile deviants. A report further explained that till the end of 2012, there are 815 juveniles imprisoned in various prisons and borstal houses of the Punjab, in Sindh 303 juveniles and in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa 233 juveniles are imprisoned in various prisons of the provinces (Talpur et al, 2012). The situation of juvenile delinquency in Baluchistan is in its alarming state. that there is no borstal house for juveniles in the province everywhere. Shujaat Q. compiled a report and said that in various jails of Balochistan 107 juveniles, 49 juvenile offenders in Mach jail were imprisoned under harsh conditions of the violation of human rights and the violation of JJSO 2000 and JJSA 2018 (Shujaat, 2015). According to The Nation Newspaper 70, underage juveniles arrested in Quetta central Jail separate from other criminals (Ramzan J. 20 Nov. 2016).

268

Factors contributing to Juvenile delinquency: There is a stream of various researchers who explored the factors that affect juvenile delinquency in the world. Kohen (1955) said that sometimes juveniles made their own sub-culture due to which they make their-self according to their culture and commit crimes, so peer pressure is the leading factor in this culture. It is said that some children belong to lower classes in society, when they enter into this culture and they acknowledge that it is generally wrong, but they do as they valued this negative society’s trait (Miller W. B., 1958). Ren & Hangowel 2016 stated that deviant subculture has been highlighted in most of the studies in United States where the youngsters adopt a new area of attitude, values and norms. Cloward and Ohlin (1960) in his report ‘Delinquency and Opportunities’ pointed out that some children involved in criminal activities because of getting life changing opportunities through illegal way in their own environment. With the passage of time they became hooligan and street brawlers. Another study conducted by Ombato and Onyango (2013) shed light that poverty & absence of quality of education are the societal factors that affect youth deviancy. The World Youth Report of the United Nations Organization for the global situations of juveniles in his 2004 publication claimed that now a days overall young people are better off than that of previous generations. However, also in today’s generations some youth are facing because of lack of education, poverty, health vulnerability, unemployment and the greater impacts of conflict. Hawkins’s five most responsible factors that destroy the future of youth: Hawkins et al (1998) reported that there are five factors most responsible for youth unrest-ness and crime. Individual factors; Internalizing disorder, worrying and anxiety, nervousness/withdrawal. Aggressiveness, early initiation of violence and delinquency. Other antisocial behavior, attitude and belief. Family factors: Poor family management practices, parent child involvement and interaction. Parental criminality, child maltreatment, family bonding. Family attitude favorable to violence, residential mobility.

269

Stressful family event, separation from family and broken families are some of the factors. School factors; High rate of delinquency in school, truancy and dropping out of school. Academic failure, school transition, low bonding at school. Occupation aspiration/preferences and our syllabus are some of the factors related to school in the accordance to juvenile delinquency. Peer related factors; Delinquent peers, gang membership and delinquent siblings. Community and neighborhood factors; Availability of drugs, neighborhood adults involved in crimes. Community disorganization, low neighborhood attachment, exposure to violence. Exposure to racial prejudiced, community consequences for violence and poverty are some factors that strongly contribute to child delinquency. Objectives of the study; To analyze the socio-economic conditions and social factors contributing to delinquent behavior among juveniles. Methodology: This article is based on quantitative data, while conducted research on juvenile offenders of the Balochistan. The overall respondents of this study is those children (male) who are under the age of 18 years and committed acts against the constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. In the various prisons of the Balochistan, only three prisons were selected, such as Central Jail Quetta, Mach Jail Quetta and the Jail of Lorelai. The total number of respondents for this study are 40 juvenile offenders. The respondents were interviewed with structured questionnaire, which was structured based on objectives of the overall study. All the data used in this article is related to the socio-economic factors contributing towards delinquent behavior among juveniles. The data has been analyzed in SPSS.

Results and discussions: Bio-data of respondents: Balochistan is a province where the ratio of development in each sector is slow as compare to the other provinces of the state of Pakistan. Social problems are deep rooted in the entire province, which destroy all the institutions of the executive and government. Juvenile delinquency is a

270 serious issue, which is destroying the future of the nation of Balochistan. This issue became an alarming after the less implementation of the laws passed from the general assembly of the government of Balochistan. This study has been conducted in the three main prisons of Balochistan such as Mach jail, Central Jail Quetta and Loralai jail. In Mach jail and Central Jail Loralai all the juvenile offenders were kept with adult criminals and there were no separate barrack for minor criminals. Only in Central Jail Quetta, there was a separate Barrack for juvenile offenders in which they face various difficulties. They were treating like major criminals and there were no moral and psychological training for their moral development. Marital Status: In these prisons, all the juvenile offenders were male under the age of 18 years. The primary data revealed that major portion of respondents 77% are unmarried while the very small portion of respondents 23% are married. Education: The intensity of juvenile delinquency is more and more observed on the education level of respondents. As the respondent’s education from first class to fifth class considered as primary educational level, from sixth class to eighth class considered as Middle education level and from ninth to 10th class considered matriculation. According to the result, high percentage (40%) of respondent’s educational level is from sixth class to eighth class while collectively they considered as Middle level of respondents. However, the small percentage (12%) of respondents are illiterate. High rate of literacy will result in lower rate of juvenile delinquency. Ethnicity: This study has conducted in Balochistan. However, Balochistan is the homeland of Pashtoon and Baloch, which are the two major ethnic groups of the Province. Apart from this, various cultural minorities are present in the province such as Punjabi, Sindhi, Hazara, Non-Muslims, Christians, Uzbak etc. According to the statistics 25% of respondents of the study consist on Pashtoon. It was observed that the figure of this ethnic group increased due to the reason of Afghan refugees. Sindhi and Baloch were 20%, 20% respectively. While very small portion of respondents (10%)

271 consist on other ethnic groups in Balochistan and 10% respondents were Hazara, while 15% of the respondents were Punjabi. Acceptance of criminal responsibility: The psyche of criminal always differ from a normal person of society. The purpose of this question was to know about the criminal psyche of the respondents. As the statistics revealed that 65% of the respondents were not accepting their crime while 35% of the respondents consciously stated that they are accepting their crime. Table No 1: Responses related to social issues resulting delinquency:

(Field survey) The primary and secondary data proves that social factors strongly contribute to juvenile delinquency. The field survey while collecting data from respondents said that the poor quality of our education system is a contributory factor in the high rate of juvenile delinquency. The figure in this chart indicates that 60% respondents agree with the statement. On the other side of this phenomenon, 67% of the respondents agreed that dropping out from educational institutions is the cause of juvenile delinquency. In this regard dropping out from schools or other educational institution is considered an entrance to delinquency. This is the result of the failure of our educational system, which has no preventive measures related to the elevation of social problems.

272

Juvenile delinquency is not only the cause of the failure of our educational institutions. However, there are other problems like poor prevailing system of social justice. In this regard, 42% respondents agreed that lack of provision of social justice is the cause of juvenile delinquency. 45% of respondents said that the culture of drug addiction in school is another cause of juvenile delinquency.

Table No 2: Responses related to familial issues resulting delinquency:

(Field Survey) The table explore the negative role of family as a leading cause of juvenile delinquency. According to the statistics of the table poor economic conditions of family is the most relevant factor that increase the rate of juvenile offenders. 77 % respondents agreed to the statement that poor economic conditions of family leads to juvenile delinquency. Apart from this figure, 62 % of respondents said that the unemployment in family members is another causative factor of juvenile delinquency. These figures are the evidence that the rate of juvenile delinquency is higher, if the rate of poverty is high. Both are going side by side with each other. Treatment of parents to their children play an important role in the responsible citizenship of the state. However, parental neglect and bad attitude of parents towards children is the cause of juvenile delinquency. In this regard, 72% respondents agreed that parental neglect is the cause of juvenile delinquency, while 67% of respondents agreed with the statement

273 that bad attitude of parents towards children is the cause of juvenile delinquency. Separation of parents from one another and early orphanage are contributory factors of juvenile delinquency. In this respect, 45% respondents agreed to the statement that early orphanage of children causes to deviancy. The one-third (33%) respondents agreed that broken homes are causative factors in the high ratio of juvenile delinquency.

Conclusion: Juvenile delinquent is a person whose age is less than 18 years on the commission of an offence. The lowest age of criminal responsibility is 7 years in the constitution of Pakistan while the age of child is 18 years. Juvenile delinquency is a serious issue among all others social problems on this planet. Juvenile deviancy could be more and more observed in developing countries specially and generally in the whole world. This problem has caused by various social, economic, psychological and biological factors. In developing countries, this issue is caused by social factors such as school failures, dropout from schools, poor economic conditions of family, separation of couples from one another, drug users and drug abuse culture in neighborhood etc. there are some psychological explanations for the problem of juvenile delinquency. These factors include social maladjustment, mood instability, violent nature of the affected person, loneliness of children at home, parental discouragement to their children etc. generally juvenile delinquency in Pakistan is caused by poor economic conditions and specially maltreatment of authoritative people. Juvenile delinquent according to Juvenile Justice System Ordinance 2000 and Juvenile Justice System Act 2018 must be kept in Borstal Institution, but there is no proper borstal institution in each district. In overall Balochistan there is no borstal institute in the province and juvenile offenders are kept with the major criminals where there is no proper treatment of these offenders. According to the findings of the study, it is suggested that elevation of poverty and proper family planning this issue can be resolved.

274

References: Singh M. (2006) Juvenile delinquency in India, UK and USA, Paranjape N.V, (1998). Criminology and Penology. Darchanga Colony, Allahbad-2. Central Law Publications. Vol. no. 107. Amadioha, S. W., (20 I 0). Synthesis of Modern Curriculum Studies. Port Harcourt, Rokin Publishers. Rep. World youth report, (2003). Juvenile delinquency, vol. # 189. Pfeiffer C., (1997). Juvenile crime and juvenile violence in European countries, Hannover: Kriminologisches forschung institute Neidersachsan, Bendit R., Erler W., Nieborg S., Schafer H., (2000). Child and juvenile delinquency: strategies and prevention in Germany and the Netherland, Chohdary I. A., (Aug 2016) Causes and consequences of juvenile delinquency in Bangladesh, A sociological analysis, Delhosie University, Vol # 04. Dasgupta, S. and Jayshree, M., (1981). Some environmental and personal factors among delinquents. Indian Journal of Criminology and Criminalisticx, 1 (1). Tesfay S. Z., (May, 2016). Causes of juvenile delinquency. Indira Gandhi National Open University, department of social work press. The Daily News Paper Naya Diganta, (27 Oct. 2004). Report on Juvenile Delinquency in Bangla-Desh, Talpur F. P., Shah P., (2011). Examining the causes of juvenile delinquency in Pakistan. Annual Research journal Vol. 4. Rafique A. Daily Times, (Sep. 2017) SPARC, Report on juvenile delinquency in Pakistan. Rep. UNDP. National Human Development Program, (May 2018). DC. Rep. Gul S. (25 Oct. 2018). Juvenile delinquency in Pakistan (Aug. 2017), Daily times, Talpur, F., Pathan, P. A., & Shah P., (2012). Examining the causes of the juvenile delinquency in Pakistan. The Women-Annual Research Journal, 4, 33-43. Shujaat Q., (2015). The state of children in Pakistan: Juvenile Justice in Balochistan. ONCC and UNICEF publication. Rep. Ramzan J. (20 Nov. 2016) No borstal institute in Baluchistan, The Nation Daily newspaper.

275

Kohen A. K., (1955). Delinquent Boys the Culture of Gangs, The Free Press, p.3. Miller W. B., (1958). Lower Class Sub- culture as a Generating Mileu of Gang Delinquency. Journal of Social Issues, 14. Ren L. & Hangowel Z., (2016) Delinquent Subculture and Juvenile Offenders’ Attitudes Towards Police in China, Police Quarterly. Cloward R. and Ohlin L., (1960). Delinquency and Opportunity. New York: Free Press. Ombato J. & Onyango G. O., (2013). Factors Influencing Youth Crime, International Journal of Research in Social Sciences. March, 1 (2), Hawkins J.D., Herrenkhol T., Farrington D. P., Brewer D., Catalano R. F. & Harachi T. W., (1998). A review predictors of youth violence; serious and violent juvenile offenders, Thousand Oak, London, New Delhi Sage, Goldson B., Muncie J., (2012). Towards a global child friendly juvenile justice. International journal of law, crime and justice. Spannhake J. J., (Sep., 2018). Criminal law: definition of juvenile justice system. Legal Beagle online press. (approached 4 Nov. 2019).

276

Bi-Annual Research Journal “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. 45 NO. 1, 2020

Perception of youth regarding honour killing in Balochistan, a case study of Quetta city

Muhammad Din1 Allauddin2 Azeem Khalid3, Dr. Nasreen Gul 4 Abstract An honour killing in Pakistan is considered as one of the alarming social problems. Human Rights Commission of Pakistan announced that yearly more than 1,000 individuals are killed in the name of honour in Pakistan and that has positioned us among the main three nations associated with this abhorrent practice. Moreover, those associated with the practice are pardoned by relatives since they as well, most of the times, consent to the honour killings. Other people who probably won't concur will, in general, remain silent. The present study aims to study the perception of youth regarding the rising issue of honour killing in Balochistan. The universe of the study was Quetta district and the target population were 400 youth from public sector universities.

Introduction Honour is a proportion of one's social status in the public and relies on the public's collective "view" of the individual.' That is, the level of one's honour is by all accounts estimated through the eyes of the onlooker. In the antebellum South, for example, "a white man's honour was measured not by what he thought of himself, but by what others thought of him."' An

1 Research Scholar Department of Sociology International Islamic University Islamabad [email protected] 2 “PhD Candidate at School of International Relations and Public Affairs, Shanghai International Studies University. [email protected]” 3 School of International Relations, Jinan University Guanzhou. PR China. [email protected]” 4 Assistant Professor, Department of Balochi, University of Balochistan, Quetta.

277 individual of honour is adored and regarded by someone, is detained to have fantastic notoriety, and is viewed as reliable. Honouring somebody is to luxury that individual with uncommon regard, uniform admiration. To honour the dead implies that individuals will delight the cadaver with self- respect, contribute in a deferential interment ceremony, and the deceased will be applauded in a commendation. An honour understudy is one who has accomplished qualification in evaluations or other scholarly accomplishments (Cohan, 2009). Early practices in which female are killed by a relative male of the family in the name of family ‘honour is called honour killing’" (Tripathi, 2004). Those female are usually held dependable to have carried dishonour to the family. Dishonour is believed to be brought for an assortment of reasons, including: "refusing to enter into an arranged marriage, being the victim of a sexual assault, seeking a divorce even from an abusive husband or (allegedly) committing adultery" (HRW, 2014). Moreover honours killings might also be characterized as the killing of a relative by different individuals from a similar family, as an open proclamation with the goal of re-establishes the family honour. Those demonstrations are considered by the culprits as an approach to elevate disgrace to practices that are viewed as disrespectful and to forestall other's to follow similar practices moving endlessly from customary male-centric qualities. In their pith, honour killings are matters of culture and tradition that don't have a place with a specific religious set (Sadik, 2000; Sigal et al., 2016) as "honour killing goes beyond ethnicity, class, and religion" (Elakkary et al, 2014). Honour killings are ancient cultural repetition wherein relatives will assault a female relative-by pelting, wounding, beating or shooting, to execute her for carrying shame to her family or faction. This training is believed to be "rooted in patriarchal norms of male superiority and control and female inferiority and obedience, encased in familial and social and economic structures of inequality, terrorizing women and perpetuating gender conformity and oppression" (Garini, 2017). The demonstration of honour killing is done in Pakistan in various names, as expressed: 'in Panjab, it is named as kala-kali, while in Sindh people called it karo-kari, in Baluchistan, it is known as siahkari, and in Khyber Pakhtoonkhuwah and Pashton belt of Balochistan it is named taurtoora'.

278

Strategies for killings vary the nation over. As indicated: females are mercilessly sliced, poisoned, strangled, burnt, stoned, lashed or whipped'. IRIN40 Asia reports that in 'Khyber Pakhtoonkhuwah and Baluchistan, the victim of honour killing can be hacked, stabbed, consumed, shot and battered to the point of death. Occasionally the kari is taken to a peak and her neck is broken. A kari lady is most seriously tormented earlier actuality murdered' and buried in a specially-made covered up kari graveyard. In 2008. It is additionally revealed that they are thrown in the river in the wake of limiting their options and feet with overwhelming stones butchering with a hatchet, hacking off parts of the body of the victims with piercing blades and tomahawks is likewise detailed (Bhatti, 2000). Honour killings have become a significant issue in Pakistan. Human Rights Commission Pakistan announced that yearly more than 1,000 individuals are killed for the sake of respect in Pakistan and that has positioned us among the main three nations engaged with this horrifying practice. Moreover, those engaged with the practice are excused by relatives since they as well, the vast majority of the occasions, consent to the honour killings. Other people who probably won't concur will, in general, remain quiet. As of late Surat Foundation detailed that respect killings are ascending in Balochistan where 50 individuals including 30 women were killed for the sake of honour by their family members in this year. Just about 17 women committed suicide and 29 individuals were tormented. Wing to this, the proportion of honour crime is expanding in Balochistan. Since the law doesn't ensure the residents and has routes out for the guilty parties, one individual can kill another without even batting an eye. The authorities are mentioned to consider the issue and ensure the individuals who straightforwardly execute for the sake of honour so such horrifying violations must conclude. There are a few inquiries we have to pose to ourselves. Is it wrong to marry an individual of once own choice? If not wrong, then why women are being killed, at that point why women are being killed, and the law is considering those capable responsible for their violations. Are the laws that powerless that they can't give equity to the people in question? That it can't consider killers and their associates responsible? A woman in Balochistan doesn't have the option to marry with her decision. Women don't have the opportunity in Balochistan as a result

279 of the old conventional perspectives. In such conditions, women in the area request arrangement of their rights and that their lives to be defended from dangers (Nasrullah, 2009). In a decade ago, honour killing has become very common in Balochistan. The woman is being killed by their father, brother or other relative individuals with no explanation. The main instance of honour killing in Balochistan was accounted for during 2008 when three young girls were buried alive by their brother. As indicated by Aurat Foundation (AF), an NGO operational for the rights of woman, several instances of viciousness against woman are accounted for in different territories of Balochistan. The current report assesses that around 187 instances of viciousness against the woman were recorded in 2014 contrasted and 151 cases in 2013. From these entire cases, 75 instances of honour killing were educated in 2014. The low literacy rate, honour killing, acid attacks and maternal mortality have completely changed the lives of women into murkiness. Still, the condition is getting poor and most exceedingly awful step by step. The Chief Minister of Balochistan ought to accomplish critical work for the insurance of the women. The women ought to guarantee full rights and ought not to experience the ill effects of any issue. They ought to have the opportunity to live their own lives in their particular manners (Khoso et al, 2011). The killing of any guiltless person isn't admissible in Islam yet for the sake of honour, the killing of blameless women appears as though that it is currently part of our innate driven traditions in Balochistan. It came about, killing many innocent women and pulverized existences of several families. This pattern is profoundly streaming in the veins of our tribal system like the blood those on little issues they don't waver to deny the female individuals from the family from her entitlement to live. Rather than such huge numbers of penances for the family our women continually enduring in various types of issues, they are denied to choose their life partner, don't have appropriate to partake in financial exercises uninhibitedly, access to the good education seems appears as though dream for them. In some cases, guardians by power mastermind their girl's marriages without their assent and this thing again begins another period of abusive behaviour at home for the as of now endured female society.

280

Being a mother, being a little girl, being a sister or being a spouse women has an exceptionally significant role in our lives. For the sake of honour killing of women is only an egotistical and stupid practice by some tribal elder. Such unthinkable is generally influenced lives of ladies in rustic regions of Balochistan (Tripathi, 2004). Literature Review The honour killings are established in the conviction that women are substances and items that have a place with their male family members, those convictions are frequently related to male-centric conviction frameworks. Along these lines the women regard for the directions, guidelines and intensity of the man-centric stripe is of the greatest situation to reservation the honour of the family unit. Those conventional originations are regularly concurred with and considered as the single clarification likely by the partners of people in general, keeping those youths and females from seeking after the arrangement. Moreover, that general acknowledgement can prompt the possibility that it is a private issue and ought not to be rebuffed by law (Amnesty International, 2012; Sigal et al., 2016).

Despite being “archived as a type of violence against women there are comparable instances of male victims. In a recent report, inside, for the most part, the English media, from the 172 occasions with 230 victims about 7% were male (Chesler, 2010). Additionally, men are regularly executed with their female associates by the woman family and just seldom by their own family. The practices that appear to prompt these demonstrations are normally illegal connections or sexual direction” (Steinke, 2013). Honour killings are an overall marvel, moved in Middle Eastern and Asian countries, counting Pakistan. Whereas honour killings might be gathered in specific districts, the accompanying represents the overall idea of honour killings: "Honour killings have been reported in Bangladesh, Great Britain, Brazil, Ecuador, Egypt, India, Israel, Italy, Jordan, Pakistan, Turkey, [the United States,] and Uganda according to reports submitted to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights." Right now, the United Nations Population Fund gauges that there are 5,000 honour killings for each year,

281 even though the number is likely more noteworthy given the way that these violations much of the time go unreported. The precision of insights on the number of honour killings in assumed nations is additional doubtful because numerous homicides are said to be covered up as suicide or mishaps (Cohan, 2009). Though the killing of women or spurring women to execute her selves to spare the honour of the household or the clan is established in the sub- landmass, the provocative certainty is that, till the part of the bargain in India and the rise of Pakistan, it was remarkable to the degree that 'the individuals everywhere were not in any case familiar with the term. While instances of sex and aggressive behaviour at home and inappropriate behaviour were frequently revealed and talked about, as a result of the collective standard that effective around domestic misconduct was/is forbidden, exploited females were either hesitant or frightened or were disheartened by other relatives from detailing arguments in contradiction of their autocrats. In any case, abusive behaviour at home did not transport wild killings in the affection of honour wrongdoing on a huge gauge (Laghari, 2016). Such violations, incorporating honour killings happen in different countries of the world, most occur in the developing world, around 200 to 300 women each year are victims of honour killing in Pakistan, and legitimizing the extreme measure of consideration concentrated on this region. Notwithstanding, it is basic to recognize that the above number may not be true assumed the high quantity of unreported cases. Radhika Coomaraswamy, a UN Special Rapporteur on violence against women, expresses that the frequency of honour violations' has been followed to a few nations on the planet, including yet not constrained to Brazil, Egypt, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Morocco, Pakistan, India, Qatar, Syria, Turkey, and Yemen. Even though honour killings are basic in these nations, they have additionally been accounted for in foreigner host nations, for example, UK, Norway, Sweden, The Netherlands, United States, and all the more as of late in Canada (Prochazka, 2011). In Balochistan, women are gotten from fundamental rights. A few developments however between associated systematized communal and traditional components have reserved women especially powerless against

282 the violence coordinated at them. Aggressive behaviour at home is an auxiliary as opposed to the causal issue. It is the family's arrangement that prompts or legitimizes the demonstrations, feelings or wonders that are distinguished as the reasons for abusive behaviour at home. The matchless quality of the man and subjection of the woman thought to be the piece of the way of life and uniform to have the assent of the belief is in charge of the worthiness of the unavoidable highlights of aggressive behaviour at home. In Balochistan, a man-centric culture in which females are preserved as property assumed or gained over masterminded union with devoting their exists in the administration of male commanded communal framework. Exacting household, inborn and customary Islamic qualities saturate the general public which perspectives the women as close to home assets of man relatives, possessed by dad or sibling’s earlier wedding and partner later wedding (Hakim, 1998). Women as a commodity are one of the principal variables calculations to violence against women once a day where around 70% to 90% of women are exposed to aggressive behaviour at home. Rape happens in Pakistan at regular intervals with one in each 12,500 female’s actuality sufferers of rape. Five females for each day are killed and two women for every day in the area of Punjab alone are captured. The dehumanization that outcomes from a position of females as belongings receipts appalling structures, creation different steps of violence conceivable. The error of Islamic view concerning security brings about their concealment physically, rationally and inwardly. What's more the double develops of females as and women as honour makes way for violence against women (Bettencourt, 2000). Honour killing was discipline for disregarding the honour codes however the clans have undermined the tradition of killing not for honour but rather to acquire the pay that the inborn payment grants to the bothered individual", Nafisa Shah recapitulates. In honour killings if both the kari and karo are slaughtered, the issue closes; if just the kari is executed and the karo seepages as is regularly the situation he needs to repay the influenced male, for the harm to honour he incurred, for the lady's value who was murdered and to have his very his lifecycle saved. This gives simple chances to the deceitful to profit, acquire a lady in assumed pay or to hide different wrongdoings. As Nafisa Shah puts it, an entire 'honour

283 killing industry' has jumped up with a scope of partners counting clan's kin, police organization and innate middle people. "Personal stakes utilize the reason of honour as a sweeping spread for a huge number of sins." The longing to get terrestrial may likewise lie overdue some phony honour killings. Incapable to reimburse credits, a few men are known to have executed their very own lady family to involve somebody in the account holder's family to guarantee the advance would be quenched in remuneration (Bhatti et al, 2011). Research Methodology The present study was quantitative and the tables were formed to analysis the data. The universe of the study was Quetta district. The population of the study were youth from public sector universities. A sample of 400 respondents was drawn through taro Yamani formula. A survey method was used to collect the data from the respondents. After the collection of data, it was coded and analysed through the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS)

Table 1 shows data about the age of the subjects of the study. Data shows that majority 201 of the subjects of the study were in the age group of 22- 25 year while 128 subjects of the study were in the age group of 18-21 years. Moreover, data shows that 56 subjects of the study were in the age group of 26-29 year whereas only 15 subjects of the study were above 30 years.

284

Table 2 illustrates the data about the family type of the subjects of the study. Statistics illustrations that majority of 211 subjects of the study were from joint family while 153 subjects of the study were from Nuclear family. Data further shows that only 36 subjects of the study were from the extended family.

Table 3 shows data about the area of residence of the subjects of the study. Statistics display that majority of 252 subjects of the study were from urban areas while 148 subjects of the study were from rural areas.

285

Table 4 Shows statistics regarding the perception of the respondents about honour killing. Data shows that the majority of 257 respondents considered honour killing as human rights violation while 102 respondents considered it as domestic violence. Data further shows that only 41 respondents considered honour killing as personal mater of the family. Conclusion The tribal patriarchal culture where aggressive behaviour at home is wild, it isn't surprising for males to kill female relatives to rebuff conduct they esteem unsuitable. In some detailed cases, the strictest disciplines on estates of respect originate from male commanded Jirga's, family and town chambers. The on-going epidemic in respect killings exhibits that severer disciplines don't consequently convert into equity for ladies. The experts ought to guarantee that police fair-mindedly explore respect killings deprived of prostration to radical or other weight from spiritual and neighbourhood pioneers, counting Jirga's. The administration ought to likewise guarantee ladies and young ladies approach safe crisis safe house and different administrations, particularly insurance when they loud noise dangers from their household. Pakistani ladies worry about an overwhelming concern of traditional standards, communal observes and limited chances. Savagery is regularly utilized as an instrument to control and cause them to adjust to the patriarchal belief system. There is a need for an opportunity to outline the laws explicitly with respect to respect

286 executing and it must ensure that the usage of such rules will be the primary worry of government. On the other hand enactment unaided can't wipe out respect killings; culture needs to have its influence by destroying the communal and preferential standards beside ladies. Communal frames of mind that consign ladies to a position secondary to males and on their job and spot in a network winning in a huge piece of the general public; inc1uding police, judges and administrators, thwart ladies casualties of respect killings looking for equity. Traditions can be changed and shaped by the requirements of the general public. Society needs to play an all the more star dynamic job utilizing its methods and procedures to kill this wrongdoing in the male-dominant network over the Islamic church's messages. The legislature ought to energize a countrywide social discourse that supporters uniformity among ladies and men and an extensive open crusade planned for changing conventional frames of mind.

287

References Sadik, N. (2000). The State of World Population: Lives together, worlds apart - men and women in a time of change, United Nations Populations Fund. Sigal, J., Perrino, C., Florence, D., Dow, E., Strashnaya, R., Zarbiv, T. and Wright, F. (2016). Violence against girls. In Gielen & Roopnarine (Eds). Childhood and adolescence: Cross-cultural perspectives and applications. ABC-CLIO. Tripathi, A., & Yadav, S. (2004). For the sake of honour: But whose honour? Honour crimes against women. Asia Pacific Journal on Human Rights and the Law, 5(2), 63. Steinke, C. (2013). Male Asylum Applicants Who Fear Becoming the Victims of Honour Killings: the Case for Gender Equality. CUNY L. Rev., 17, 233. Nasrullah, M., Haqqi, S., & Cummings, K. J. (2009). The epidemiological patterns of honour killing of women in Pakistan. European Journal of Public Health, 19(2), 193-197. Khoso, I., Shafiq, K., Abdi, A. R., & Shaikih, F. M. (2011). Problems and Challenges Faced by the Rural Women: A Case Study of Balochistan. Asian Culture and History, 3(1), 158. Tripathi, A., & Yadav, S. (2004). For the sake of honour: But whose honour? Honour crimes against women. Asia Pacific Journal on Human Rights and the Law, 5(2), 63. Laghari, S. (2016). Honour Killing in Sindh: Men's and Women's Divergent Accounts (Doctoral dissertation, University of York). Prochazka, S. J. (2011). There is No Honour in Honour Killings: Why Women at Risk for Defying Sociosexual Norms Must Be Considered a Particular Social Group under Asylum Law. T. Jefferson L. Rev., 34, 445. Hakim, A., & Aziz, A. (1998). Socio-cultural, religious, and political aspects of the status of women in Pakistan. The Pakistan Development Review, 727-746.

288

Bi-Annual Research Journal “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. 45 NO. 1, 2020

Allegations of Rigging in General Election-2018 in Pakistan

Syed Nazir Ahmed Harifal1 Shaukat Tareen2 Wahid Khan3 Muhammad Yousaf Baloch4

Abstract The GE-2018 held in Pakistan has been criticized by many candidates and political parties. Mismanagement and irregularities at some of the Polling Stations as well as untrained poling staff are particularly highlighted. Most of the allegations were found to be political in nature. However, some genuine concerns like untrained election officials, mismanagement at the polling stations, delay in announcement of elections results, created doubts in the transparency of electoral system. For making the conduct of elections fair and to redress the reservations of complainants, ECP should practically exert its authority. Its regional and district offices should be empowered, the use of Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) in elections should be considered and election training should be imparted to all of the concerned polling as well as election staff. Sincere efforts must be made by all of the stakeholders to ensure the conduct of fair elections in Pakistan.

Key words: electoral system, free and fair election, rigging, voting, representation. ______1 M.Phil. Scholar, Department of Political Science, University of Balochistan, Quetta. 2 Lecturer, Department of Political Science,University of Balochistan, Quetta. 3 Lecturer, Department of Political Science,University of Balochistan, Quetta. 4 Chairman,Balochistan Board of Intermadiate and Secendory Education,Balochistan, Quetta

289

Introduction: Free and fair elections not only ensures democracy but it also extends legitimacy to governments at all levels. It ensures peace, stability and development. It gives vent to the expressions of individuals and enables them to choose the representatives of their choice to hold public offices for public interests. The conduct of free elections also ensures the protection of legitimate human rights. Election is a democratic process through which representatives of the people are elected to public offices (Atif, 2019). Representative democracy is in operation since 17th century due to the blessing of modern system of free and fair elections that are being held by the truly democratic states of the world. It is a wide process through which offices of legislature and sometime judiciary and executive are filled. Historically elections were held by ancient Greece and ancient Roman and through medieval period to elect their leaders. Elections were also held in the period of Rashideen Caliphate. The modern system of election emerged in the 17th century in North America and Europe. The theme of my research has been proposed for systematic research with reference to Pakistan’s electoral system through analytical review of the elections held in Pakistan to evaluate the question of free, fair and transparent elections based on International standard and apparatus enshrined in multiple International/national documents. Moreover, the general election 2018 is particularly focused with regard to the assessment of free elections in Pakistan and suggestions are given for improvement. Article 21 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UNDHR) (1948) states that the will of the people is the basis of every authority. People express their will through free and genuine elections which are held periodically through universal and equal suffrage (Compendium of International Standards for Elections, 2007). Need/Importance of Free and Fair Elections and its Impacts on Democracy: Electoral system has profound impacts on the political life of the people. Each and every democratic state has the electoral system which responds to their demands on due times. Though Electoral Management Bodies (EMBs) as well as the electoral systems or rules may differ from state to state, yet the sole objective of these all system is the conduct of free and

290 fair election (Alan Wall et al, 2006). Elections play vital role on multiple fronts in a state. Translation of votes into seats: The very fundamental purpose of Electoral System is to translate votes cast by the voters of a particular constituency into seats. The seats are won by political parties and candidates. The system provides huge opportunities to the masses to exercise their rights and express their opinions through ballot. According to (Ahmed Nawaz, 2019) People are equipped with the most powerful weapon of vote which is registered, cast, calculated and represented in the National Parliament exclusively through elections. The right to vote of the people is often enshrined in the Constitution of the concerned states but practically it is exercised in elections. Conflict Management: Electoral System is an effective tool of conflict Management. It provides due opportunities to all individuals, groups, communities, etc. to participate in the affairs of the governments either directly or indirectly. The absence of a suitable electoral system in a society brings about the emergence of conflicts, crises and disputes among the people. In Lesotho, a country in southern Africa, Mixed Member Proportional (MMP) Electoral System was adopted which not only ended the existing but also provided a viable solution to the issue of representation. (Jorgen Elklit. 2008). Adequate Representations: The electoral systems are usually designed in such a manner as to provide to all of the people, groups and communities etc. representation in governance indiscriminately. The Electoral system in British Columbia, a Canadian province, was not working properly in term of providing due representation to its citizens. Therefore, a shift in the electoral system i.e. from First Past The Post (FPTP) to Proportional Representation (PR) of Single Transferable Vote (STV) was made in October, 2004 (The British Colombia Citizens’ Assembly on Electoral Reform. 2005). Contrary to this, FPTP electoral system of India has given indiscriminate representation to all of the communities and groups living in India (Vijay Patidar. 2005). Similarly, FPTP Electoral system in Pakistan has been adopted with the same intentions to provide due representation to all of the

291 groups as well as communities and augment integration. In Palestine, after the conclusion of the Oslo agreement in 1993, single round FPTP and Block Vote (BV) electoral systems were adopted for ensuring due representation of the communities and groups living there (Andrew Ellis. 2005). Indiscriminate and due representation to the people in the affairs of government is the main purpose of all electoral systems. National Integration/Political Inclusion: The ultimate goal of each and every electoral system must be national integration. It can be achieved through political inclusiveness. The 1994 Elections under the system of List Proportional Representation (LPR) in South Africa is the leading instance of social unification and political inclusion. This system of LPR, adopted after the termination of the Apartheid, provided equal opportunities to the entire population and all of the political parties maintained their due share in the parliament (Andrew Reynolds. 2005). Social Unification: Beside political unity, social cohesion is also very much necessary for the achievement of robust national integration. The Papua New Guinea, a south western pacific country in the Oceania Continent is a multi-ethnic and socially fragmented country having 850 separate languages and many clans and tribal groups. Electoral System has provided stability and integration to this religiously and socially divided nation of the land. (Ben Reilly. 2008). Similarly, electoral system in USA, Canada as well as other states have been used to achieve social cohesion. Allegations of Rigging in General Election 2018: After the announcement of the election result of General Election-2018, most of the political parties, except Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI), Balochistan Awami Party (BAP) and some smaller political parties and several Independent Candidates, rejected the results and they leveled various allegations of rigging in election. Pakistan People’s Party Parliamentarians (PPPP) Chairman, Bilawal Bhutto Zardari rejected result of the poll and lambasted the failure of the Election Commission of Pakistan (ECP), (Guramani, 2018). The Jailed leader of the Pakistan Muslim League (Nawaz) (PML-N), Mian Muhammad Nawaz Sharif, declared that the mandate of the people is stolen. (Yasin & Junaid, 2018).

292

Similarly, the Muttahida Majalis-e-Amal (MMA) rejected out rightly the entire results of GE-2018 and demanded that this election must be declared null and void and the conduct of re-election shall be announced in the country. ( Abbasi, 2018). The major allegations levelled are summarized below: 1. The presence of Polling Agents/Election Agents/Candidates in some of the polling stations during vote counting was not properly ensured. The absence of polling agents during result compilation vitiates the entire electoral exercise (Rehmat Saleh Baloch, 2019 & others). 2. The provision of insufficient election materials especially Forms and Stamp Pads at some polling stations. 3. The signatures of the polling agents / election agents or candidates in some of the polling stations had not been taken on form-45 (result of the count) and form-46 (ballot paper account). 4. The failure of the Result Transmission System (RTS) in the neck of time. 5. Inordinate delay in the announcement of unofficial as well official election results in some constituencies. 6. The appointment of untrained polling staff in some of the polling stations of some constituencies. 7. In some of the polling stations the number of voters were more than the number provided in sub-section-3 of section-59 of the Election Act, 2017. (Haji Nawaz Kakar, 2019). Similarly, the ban regarding the transportation of voters to the polling stations by the candidates was criticized. It was suggested that voters should be facilitated to a greatest extent either by the candidates or by the EMB (Muhammad Amin Jogezai, 2019). 8. The absence of effective complaints mechanism systems at the district level.

Analysis of the allegations: According to Section-90 of the Election Act, 2017, “counting of the votes shall be immediately started by the Presiding Officer in the presence of contesting candidates, election agents, polling agents and authorized

293 observer as may be present. They shall be provided due opportunities to observe the counting process in the polling station”. The provision of the law states that counting may be done in the presence of the mentioned persons. If they were not present during the counting process, it will not invalidate the result. “Similarly, subsection-12 of the section-90 provides that the Presiding Officer shall obtain signatures of the candidates, election agents or polling agents, observers in addition to the signature of the senior most APO on form-45 and 46”. It reveals the fact that signature is taken from those who are present in the polling stations during the counting process. If they were either not present or were unwilling to sign the said forms, the Presiding Officer will just write down on the said forms his / her note to that effect. It is construed from the spirit of this Section that the absence of signatures of the candidates, election agents or polling agents as well as observers on the form-45 and form-46 does not invalidate the result. Though election training to the entire election as well as polling staff including District Returning Officers (DROs) and Returning Officers (ROs) were imparted but its duration was insufficient. It would have been better if the duration of the training for DROs, ROs as well polling staff had been extended. Sub-section-2 of section-13 of the Election Act, 2017 provides for the use of the RTS. “The Presiding Officers is responsible to make snapshot of the form-45 immediately after the counting and as and when the connection is available send the same to the Returning Officer and ECP. Several issues surfaced due to the application of this provision of law. During the training almost all of the Presiding Officers either did not have the android mobiles set or pretended that they did not have the android phone set. Android Mobiles were necessary for the installation of RTS software in their mobiles. Even those who had the said mobile did not comprehend fully the use of the installed RTS software. Connectivity was another issue which impeded the full-fledged application of this option. The failure of RTS gave rise to unexpected uncertainties. The hon’able Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) told that there happened technical fault in RTS and ECP has directed the cabinet division to investigate its failure. It has also been requested that an inquiry committee

294 consisting of experts from Pakistan Telecommunication Authority (PTA) and National Telecom and Information Technology Board (NTISB) shall be formed for the purpose (The daily Balochistan Time, 27th July, 2018). While, the Chairman of National Database and Registration Authority (NADRA) Mr. Usman Yousaf, has told that RTS did not crush in elections. He refuted the allegations that there were technical fault in RTS designed by NADRA. (Daily Jang, 3rd September, 2018). The allegations of untrained staff and overburdened polling stations have not been proved substantially but such cases had happened in very few constituencies. European Union Election Observation Mission (EUEOM) chief termed the entire process transparent and said the delay in result will not damage the process taken place or the conduct of election (The daily Balochistan Time, 28th July, 2018). Free and Fair Election Network (FAFEN) says in its observation report that GE-2018 were comparatively better than GE-2013. The report has lauded its better management, intensified contest and peaceful environment (FAFEN, 2018). Similarly, the Commonwealth observer groups described the 2018 election as a landmark in the political history of Pakistan. Conclusion & Recommendations: International standards of free and fair elections are not fully observed in the conduct of elections in Pakistan. The confidence of the people in elections is dwindling. ECP is supposed to restore the confidence of the voter in letter and spirit in the electoral system of the country. Most of the allegations of rigging in GE-2018 levelled by some of the political parties or candidates are political in nature rather than technical and logical. However, some of the apprehensions raised by them are genuine and needs attention. The following suggestions are given for making elections in Pakistan free, fair and acceptable: I. Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) should be used in the upcoming bye as well as General Elections in Pakistan in order to make the entire process of election trust worthy. It would be helpful in the restoration of the confidence of the people and ensuring fair elections. II. Polling day occupies utmost importance in the entire electoral process. As electoral exercise takes place in three periods_ Pre,

295

during and Post-election periods_ in which the middle period shall be focused more than the others. In Pakistan General Elections to the National Assembly and four Provincial Assemblies are held on one day in the entire country. This is really a herculean task. It needs immense human resource as well as huge financial package to conduct the Poll. It would be better if phase wise elections are conducted like in our neighboring country and several other democracies in the world. III. ECP should establish a committee of experts on legal matters. The committee should see all of the lacunas and shortcoming of the legal framework (LFW) of the electoral system and propose such amendments or addition where necessary in order to make Elections Laws updated and complete. IV. District Returning Officers (DROs) as well as Returning Officers (ROs) along with the other election officials/polling staff must be fully trained by ECP. The duration of the training should be extended. Practical exercises should be included in the trainings (DROs/ROs, 2018). V. The offices of the District Election Commissioners (DECs) and Regional Election Commissioners (RECs) are the backbone of ECP in Pakistan. Unfortunately, these offices are just used as a post offices for the conveying of election materials. Offices of the DECs/ RECs should be empowered. VI. Transportation of polling staff to the polling stations and back to the offices of ROs is often mismanaged. Separate transport facility for polling staff and security personnel be arranged in elections and one vehicle should be used just for the staff of one polling stations. VII. Effective measures shall be taken regarding facilitation of voters at the polling stations. The buildings of polling stations and the availability of necessary arrangement in them should be particularly focused. VIII. Political parties should train their candidates and workers regarding the election process. It would ensure better management of elections at each stage.

296

IX. Political parties should realistically ensure that five percent of representation on general seats, as per section 206 of the Election Act-2017, are given to female members. X. ECP in Pakistan is independent and autonomous as per the legal framework but it is still a long way to go to make ECP financially and administratively autonomous and powerful practically. ECP should also assert its independence in Elections like the Supreme Electoral Tribunal (TSE) in Costa Rica which enjoys immense powers including constitutional and legislative in the realms of elections (Ruben Hernandez Valle, 2006). Similarly, Vijay Patidar and Ajay Jha, (2009) have termed the Election Commission of India (ECI) as the embodiment of EMB independence. ECP should take a leaf out of these independent bodies’ books.

297

References: Ahmed Nawaz, B. (2019, October 14). Application of International Standards of Election in Paksitan's Elections. (S. N. Harifal, Interviewer) Alan wall et al. (2009). Electoral Management Design: The International IDEA Handbook. Stockholm: International IDEA. Andrew Reynolds et al. (2005). Electoral System Design. Stockholm: International IDEA Baloch, R. S. (2019, October 16). Elections in Paksitan and the Question of Transparency and Fairness. (S. N. Harifal, Interviewer) Commission, E. (2007). Compendium of International Standards for Elections. London, Brussels: NEEDS. EUEOM. (2018, October 26). European Union Election Observation Mission Pakistan 2018, General Election 25 july. Islamabad, Punjab, Pakistan. FAFEN. (2018). General Election Observation 2108, Pre Eelection Environment Assessment: Observation and Analysis. Islamabad: FAFEN. Haji Nawaz Kakar, A. A. (2019, October 14). Rigging in General Election 2018. (S. N. Harifal, Interviewer) https://dailybalochistantimes.com/. (2018, July 26). Retrieved from The Balochsitan Times: https://dailybalochistantimes.com/ https://dailybalochistantimes.com/. (2018, July 27). Retrieved from The Balochistan Time: https://dailybalochistantimes.com/ https://epaper.pakistantimes.com/daily-mashriq/quetta/. (2018, July 25). Retrieved from https://mashriq.epaper.pk/: https://epaper.pakistantimes.com/daily-mashriq/quetta/ https://epaper.pakistantimes.com/daily-mashriq/quetta/. (2018, July 28). Retrieved from https://mashriq.epaper.pk/: https://epaper.pakistantimes.com/daily-mashriq/quetta/ Jogezai, H. M. (2019, August 14). Importance of Vote & its Impacts on Democracy. (S. N. Harifal, Interviewer) Jorgen Elklit et al. (2005). Electoral System Design. Stockholm: International IDEA Patidar, V. (2005). India: First Past The Post on a Grand Scale. Stockholm: International IDEA.

298

Reform, T. B. (2005). British Columbia: Empowered Citizen Participation. Stockholm: International IDEA. Valle, R. H. (2006). Costa Rica: A powerful Constitutional Body. Stockholm: International IDEA. Vijay Patidar & Ajay Jha. (2009). India: The Embodiment of EMP Independence. Case Study. Stockholm: International IDEA.

299

Bi-Annual Research Journal “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. 45 NO. 1, 2020

Pashtunwali as geostrategic challenge in Pak-Afghan Relation

Dr. Fida Bazai1 Ms Ruqia Rehman2 Mujeeb ur- Rehman 3 Abdul Qadir 4 Abstract This article basically analyses how Pashtunwali, which is a prominent culture in Pak-Afghan border region, has been turning into a geo-strategic challenge. Pashtunwali is a tribal of conduct in Pashtun majority areas that regulate their way of life. It is primitive conservative gender biased value system that promotes conservativism, tribalism, extremism and use of force to settle disputes. Pashtunwali as a social structure poses three fundamental challenges to Pakistan; promotion of terrorism and extremism, obstacle to mainstreaming of Pashtuns, and mutual distrust with the government, which turned into geo-strategic challenges after the US invasion of Afghanistan in October 2001. Pashtunwali in Pak-Afghan border region, especially, turned into a liability from asset after the four decades of war in Afghanistan and flood of refugees from to Pashtuns majority areas. War in Afghanistan since 1979 created a new social structure that was facilitated by Pashtunwali, which is based upon ruthless bloodshed, rise of Islamic extremism and disenfranchisement of the Pashtun population in Pakistan. This article explores how Pashtunwali has been turning into a security challenge to Pakistan from a local culture due to geo-strategic shift in the wake of 9/11.

1 Dr. Fida Bazai is Assistant Professor in department of International Relations, University of Balochistan, Quetta. 2 Ms Ruqia Rehman is PhD student in Department of Disaster Management and Development, University of Balochistan. 3 Mujeeb ur Rehman is M.Phil Scholar in Department of International Relations, University of Balochistan, Quetta. 4 Abdul Qadir is Assistant Professor in department of International Relations, University of Balochistan, Quetta.

300

Keywords: Phastunwali, Jirga, Terrorism, Siali, Constructivism, War on Terror, Extremism.

Introduction: The tribal code, norms and laws of Pashtuns is known as Pashtunwali. This includes the concept of Nang so called as honor. The respect of elders, guest and women is highly regarded as sign of Pashtunwali. It consists of Tarboorwali, Siyali, Ghairat, and resolution of disputes through tribal law called as Jirga. Although Pashtuns compete among themselves but when face with external threat, they coordinate and support each other. Pashtuns are known for resistance to occupation of land and exploitation of natural resources by imperialists force. They always live in groups and communities. Pashtuns have defeated several great powers like British, Americans and Russians to protect their sovereignty and integrity (RZEHAK, 2007). They usually resolve their bilateral issues through Jirga system rather than courts. In Jirga system every party is given equal chance to present their grievances in front of the jury, which is consists of tribal chiefs, religious leaders, and people who are known for their integrity in areas. Pashtunwali also include hospitality; (melmastia) Asylum (Nanawati) and Revenge (Badal). Geostrategic is about the strategic importance of a country geographical location. It gives information about a country borders, relation with neighboring countries and natural resources. Geostrategic studies evaluate the available options for trade route, rivers, sea route, specific strategic location for the purpose of curtailing immediate threats and building trade relations with other states. It also helps in formulating foreign policy and forecasting the foreign policy of other neighboring states and great powers. Pakistan lies in the middle of great powers like Russia, China and India. Pakistan and Afghanistan shared 2250 KM porous border. Great powers of the world several times intervened in Afghanistan to tackle the emerging economic powers and ensure presence to watch over the activities of South Asia. Importance of Pakistan geostrategic location cannot be denied. Persian Gulf, 70% of oil is transported through all over the world lies near

301 to Pakistan. In south lies the Arabian Sea and in the north is the Wakhan strip separating Tajikistan from Pakistan. The Soviet intervention in Afghanistan in 19 79 during the Cold war further increased the geo-strategic importance of Pakistan. The US in alliance with Pakistan and Saudi Arabia indirectly restricted the expansion of Soviet forces in Afghanistan by providing military support to Mujaideen. As a result millions of refugees came to Pakistan in time of Soviet occupation of Afghanistan. Again after 9/11 incident, Pakistan was given strict instructions from the US to help in curbing War on Terror. Pakistan became reliable on US aid and 70 thousand people live lost and results in major security challenges (Gall, 2014). The US State department and American think tanks several times realized that War in Afghanistan could never be won without the help of Pakistan. Containing the rise of China as economic power is another challenge for US. CPEC project will be affected in future if the tension between US and China does not stop. Pak-Afghan relationship several times reached to lowest point due to blame game. Terrorists have halted the Afghan peace process, every time the peace process starts terrorist attacks inside Pakistan and Afghanistan and the peace process gets delayed. Pakistan want peace in its neighboring countries and peace in Afghanistan can be brought by mutual trust and cooperation. The location of Pakistan in world map is bigger problem for Pakistan itself due to great power interest in the region. There are multiple players and new actors who have entered the region after 9/11. India and Iran is in continuous struggle to influence Afghanistan’s future stability when foreign troops leave Afghanistan. Blame game, mistrust and assuming Pakistan responsible for all the troubles in Afghanistan continuously derailed the improvement of relations between both Pak-Afghan relations. Theoretical Perspective: Constructivism is a theory of international relations that believe in the influence of culture, norms and values in a country foreign policy. It says that it is fundamentally important to understand the culture, religion and politics of a country to understand the identity and national interest of that country. This paper analyses how Pashtunwali as geo-strategic challenge affect the bilateral relation between Afghanistan and Pakistan. This paper

302 is basically interested to analyze how Pashtunwali as culture, norm and values have affected the security of Pakistan and its relationship with Afghanistan. Constructivists argue about individual cannot be isolated from environment and the role of norms, homogeneity of understandings between different actors and its interaction among themselves shapes the environment. According to Constructivists neither identity nor the shared interests can be put aside from a society. According to Richard Ned Lebow, culture and identity play its role and shape the political order in international relations. He criticizes the positivist work of assuming international relations as unchanging, timeless and universal. Lebow questions how beliefs and norms are in contact and what shapes the specific role of an actor with in interaction of different actors (Lebow,2010). Pashtunwali as social framework Pashtuns are the second largest minority in Pakistan. They are 15% of the country two hundred million populations. Pashtuns in Pakistan live in Khyber Pushthunkhawa, North West Balochistan, and Karachi. The topography of their region is “towering mountain ranges, narrow valleys, desert plains, and rocky, barren wasteland” (Johnson & Mason, 2008, p43). They live on 1640 miles long Pak-Afghan border. According to Abubakar Saddique, While accurate current census data is lacking, it can be estimated that at least forty million—and perhaps as many as fifty million—Pashtuns live in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Pashtuns are estimated to constitute nearly half of Afghanistan’s population of 25.5 million. They are Pakistan’s largest minority, making up about 15–20 per cent of the country’s 174 million citizens in 2010 (2014, p27). The traffic at Pak-Afghan border is regulated at two officially established points; the north end at Torkhem and south section is at Chaman point. This region, inhabited by Pashtuns, has always been at the border of either great empires or major powers, which significantly affected their socio- political structures. Their geo-strategic location; at the cross-road of great international and regional powers, have profoundly influenced the evolution of Pashtuns’ social structure. According to Siddique, Pashtun’s land has always been a curse for them,

303

Their land, near the center of the Eurasian landmass, has for centuries been both a contested zone and a crossroads of cultures and civilizations. The latest transformation began when the Cold War became a hot war with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979. What had begun as an indigenous nationalist resistance to a domestic communist coup was, upon the arrival of Soviet troops, swiftly transformed into a religious struggle, or jihad. Leaders in neighboring Pakistan encouraged the jihad—partly over fears that the perpetuation of unfettered Afghan nationalism could lead to renewed irredentist Afghan claims to Pakistani territory. Islamabad also feared a surge of ethno-nationalism among Pakistani Pashtuns (2014, p29/217). The large majority of Pashtuns is Sunni Muslims and belongs to Hanafi School of thought. A small number of them are Shiites, primarily living in Kurram Agency of the FATA. The southern section of the border is home to three major groups of Pashtuns. Beginning at the Pishin hills and running east to the FATA live Pashtuns of the Ghurghusht and Karlanri tribes. Of all the Pashtun tribes, the Waziris of greater Waziristan (a region that includes North Waziristan Agency, South Waziristan Agency, and the Bermol District of Afghanistan’s Paktika Province) are reputed to be the most conservative and irascible. The Waziris pride themselves on never having paid taxes to any sovereign and never having their lands, which they consider veiled, or in purdah, conquered (Johnson & Mason, 2008, p47). Pashtunwali and Geo-strategic challenges in Pak-Afghan relation: The presence of Pashtunwali in Pashtun’s culture on both sides of the border has seriously affected the bilateral relation between Afghanistan and Pakistan. Pashtunwali, which is a strict code of life promoting conservatism, tribalism and gender inequality created a masculine society. Pashtunwali has also promoted extremism in Pashtun belt of Pakistan, which has strategically affected Pakistan’s relationship with Afghanistan. According to Johnson and Mason, The Taliban is neither unique nor a new phenomenon to the Pashtun border area. Historically, many jihadi groups and charismatic religious leaders similar to the Taliban have arisen from this area at generational intervals to challenge governments on both sides of the border. For example, a remarkably similar to Taliban leader Mullah Mohammed

304

Omar, Mirza Ali Khan—a Tori Khel Waziri Pashtun known to the West as the Fakir of Ipi—led British and later Pakistani security forces on a frustrating chase around the frontier for thirty years. Protected by his Pashtun tribal supporters in the mountains, he was never caught (2008, p53). FATA (Federally administered Tribal Areas), KP (Khyber Pushthunkhawa) and Baluchistan are the worst affected areas of terrorism because of the presence of Pashtunwali culture. Various Schools, colleges and religious seminaries are destroyed in Pashtun belt. These terrorists’ activities are against the Phastun traditions. More than 450 tribal leaders have lost their lives and their tribal system is fractured (Ginsburg, 2011). There is a fear that in Pakistan’s security establishment that it will again face massive security challenges from instability in Afghanistan as at the time of Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. The presence of NATO and ISAF in Afghanistan is similar kind of challenge for Pakistan due to continuous war and breakup of peace agreement with the Taliban. The trust deficit in bilateral relation between Pakistan and Afghanistan will further increase security dilemma between the two countries and locked them into a permanent conflict Islamabad and New Delhi. This security dilemma and bilateral conflict could also affect Pakistan’s relation with the US and NATO, because of the later presence in Afghanistan. It could also encourage terrorism, smuggling, lawlessness in the region, drug trafficking and violence in Pashtuns conservative society, which is already prone to conflict due to badal characteristic of Pashtunwali. The trust deficit and security situation started improving after the visit of President’s Ashraf Ghani to Pakistan after winning the election in June 2014 in which both countries agreed to work mutually for Peace and security in the region. Afghan National Army also attended a training course in Pakistan Military Academy (PMA) which was opposed by the previous Afghan government. The relation between Afghanistan and Pakistan again deteriorated after terrorist attack on Army Public School (APS) Peshawar that resulted in 141 children killed and hundreds of them wounded. Pakistan blamed that Afghanistan based terrorist organization Tarik Taliban Pakistan (TTP) was responsible for the attack and asked the Afghan Government to take

305 stringent action against them. Trilateral meeting was inaugurated in Islamabad on December 23, 2014 between Afghan National Army chief, ISAF commander Gen. John Campbell and Pakistani Army chief Raheel Sharif to improve cross border management and peace on both sides of Pak-Afghan border (Kathrine, 2011). Every time there is an attack in either of the two countries, it increases mutual distrust between both neighboring countries that share common culture, religion and value. There should be a mutual agreement between them that terrorism and terrorists are their biggest enemy, therefore they need to work together to address the menace of terrorism. Pashtunistan issue: Durand line, the border between Afganistan and Pakistan, is settled in 1893 and Emir of Afghanistan, King Abdur Rahman opposed British formula. This border line divided the Pashtuns living on both sides of the border. The Afghan government has always been critical of the Durrand line. After the independence of Pakistan, the Pashtunistan issue emerged as the bone of contention between two friendly neighboring countries. Pashtunistan means the “the land of Pashtuns”. The main aim of Afghanistan behind the Pashtunistan issue was to merge the strategic areas of Pakistan tribal belt, Balochistan and Khyber Pashtunkhawa into Afghanistan to solve the weakness of the country and get access to sea through Gawadar (Singh, 2014). Afghanistan was the first country in the United Nations that opposed the recognition of Pakistan due to Durrand line issue. President Daud especially took strong position and was very vocal against Pakistan on Pashtunistan issue. He even burnt Pakistani flag in protest after Islamabad extended its control to tribal belt and called his ambassador back from Pakistan. The Afghan Lashkar even attacked Bajour but failed to capture the agency. President Daud was also accused of providing shelter, weapons and training to Pashtun and Baloch insurgent and separatist forces in 1970s. Ethnic insurgency in Pakistan started with the help Afghanistan in 1970s at the time of separation of East Pakistan, known as Bangladesh, which profoundly affected the bilateral relationship. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto started operations in FATA and Balochistan to suppress the nationalist forces and weakened the Pashtunistan movement. The Pashtunistan issue had been a

306 burning issue in the bilateral relation till the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan in 1979. The Soviet occupation of Afghanistan then opened a new chapter in the bilateral relationship, which was characterized by great power intervention, use of proxy against each other and the rise of Islamic extremism at the horizon. Conclusion: Pakistan and Afghanistan shared long porous border and ethnic and religious similarities. Pakistan and Afghanistan both have geo-strategic interests. There is an opportunity an opportunity for both states to turn Pashtunwali from liability into asset by stressing upon the similarities and undermines differences. Pashtunwali in its current form is bone of contention between Pakistan and Afghanistan and seriously affected the bilateral relationship between the two countries. It was the Pashtun factor and by extension Pashtunwali, which initiated the rivalry between Kabul and Islamabad. There are number of examples when minorities of one ethnic group living in different countries that are sources of friendship rather than rivalry. Unfortunately, in Pak-Afghan region, Pashtunwali has promoted the rise of Islamic extremism, rivalry between Pakistan and Afghanistan and promotion of a rigid society based upon conservation of traditional primitive tribal gender biased values, Islam and frequent use of violence to resolve bilateral issues. Pashtunwali, which was a cultural national identity issue at the beginning has turned into geo-strategic challenge after the rise of the Taliban, Al-Qaeda and ISIS from Pashtun majority areas.

307

References: Tellis AJ (2008) Pakistan and The War on Terror. Washington DC: Carnegie Endowment. Chritine CF, Jones SG (2011) Pakistan’s War Within. New York: Taylor and Francis, pp. 161-188. Shah SA (2010) War on Terrorism: Self Defense, Operation Enduring Freedom, and The Legality of US Drones in Pakistan. Washington: Washington University Global Studies Law Center, p: 9. Javed U (2016) Zarb-I-Azb and the State of Security in Pakistan. Research Gate, pp: 8-21. Zahid F (2015) The Successes and Failures of Pakistan’s Operation Zarb- eAzb. Terrorism Monitoring, James Town Foundation 13: 1-10. Gall C (2014) The Wrong Enemy; America in Afghanistan, 2001-2014. New York: Mifflin Harcourt. Hameed N (2015) Struggling IDP’s of North Waziristan in the Wake of Operation Zarb-I-Azb. National University Journal, pp: 1-22. Bergen P, Kathrine T (2012) Talibanistan: Negotiating the Borders Betweenterror, Politics and Religion. New York: Oxford University Press. Benjamin M (2012) Drone Warefare, Killing by Remote Control. New York: Brook Publisher. Butt, Q. (2014). 1100 km trench across border. islamabad: Dawn. Afzal, M. (2017). Pakistan Under Siege Extremism Society and the State. Washinton D.C: Brookings Instituion. Lebow, Richard (2010), A Cultural Theory of International Relations(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) Ginsburg, T. (2011). An Economic Interpretation of the Pashtunwali. University of Chicago Legal forum , 10-16. RZEHAK, L. (2007). Afghanistan Analysts Network , 6-14. Singh, P. (2014). Beyond Strategies Cultural Dynamics in Asian Connections. new Delhi: Mulana Abdul Kalam Azad of Institute of Asian Studies.