Notes

PREFACE

1. The historian-philosophers Ernst Troeltsch (1865-1923), Benedetto Croce (1866-1952) and R.G. Collingwood (1889-1943) considered the compre• hension of the present as the final goal of all historical study. Under• standing the present is not the only legitimate goal of history, but it is a very important one.

1. INTRODUCTION

1. Published in Leipzig in nine volumes, 1883-8. 2. See M.K. Gandhi, An Autobiography, Boston, Mass., 1957; also J.M. Brown, Gandhi: Prisoner of Hope, New Haven, Conn., 1989. 3. A point emphasized by the philosopher Karl Jaspers (1883-1969): 'All the crucial problems are world problems: See his The Origin and Goal of History, London, 1953, the first part of which deals with 'World History'. See also J. Huizinga (1872-1945), 'Fundamentals of Culture', In the Shadow of Tomorrow, 1936. 4. See C. Sterling, Thieves World: The Threat of the New Global Network of Organized Crime, New York, 1994. 5. The line that had been drawn along arbitrarily chosen meridians of longitude was moved 270 leagues to the west in 1494. The new line brought Brazil within the Portuguese half of the world. 6. Prior to the mid-nineteenth century, the term 'Christian nations' was used regularly in western diplomatic exchanges. Mter Muslim Turkey was invited to join the Concert of Europe in the mid-nineteenth century, the term' civilized nations' was substituted for 'Christian nations'.

2. AN ASIAN-DOMINATED WORLD

1. Christian Europe had responded to the Islamic threat by closing its ranks under the papacy and the renewed Roman (later the Holy Roman) Empire. Charlemagne was crowned as emperor in AD 800. Christendom's counterattack against Islam took the form of eight major crusades launched between 1096 and 1270. 2. The Islamic religion began with Mohammed's flight from Mecca to Medina on 16 July AD 622 (the hajira). The basic statement of Muslim belief is contained in the shahada, which holds that 'There is no God but Allah, and Mohammed is His prophet: The whole of Mohammed's revelation is written down in the Koran. Islam claims to be the most

333 334 Notes

perfect revelation of God's will. In their monotheism Islam and Christianity are the two branches of the Judaic tree. Islam has a definite set of laws - the sMri'a, or straight path - which provides guidance to every aspect of a Muslim's life. The god of Islam, unlike the Christian god of love, is a god of power, who tempers his justice with mercy. 3. The feud between the Sunni sect and that of the Shi'a (the party of Ali, son-in-law of Mohammed), the chief minority sect, dates from Mohammed's death in AD 632. The Shi'a differs from the orthodox Sunni sect in its belief that succession to the prophet should have remained in Mohammed's family. The Sunnis believe that they have a direct relationship with God (the principal role of the Sunni Imams is to lead the prayers of the congregation); the Shi'ites accord great importance to their religious leaders, who are responsible for inter• preting Islam. Following the example set by the martyred Hussein, they also stress martyrdom, which is a reward, not a penalty. When the Prophet Mohammed died in AD 632, Ali, his son-in-law, was denied his right to become Islam's leader. But Ali persisted in his claim and in AD 656 was installed as the rightful successor (caliph) to Mohammed. Five years later he was assassinated by religious rivals. His son Hussein, who now fought to establish his own claim as Islam's leader, was subsequently tortured and killed at Karbala in Iraq. Karbala, the place of Hussein's martyrdom, was used by the Shi'ite Iranians as a rallying cry in their recent war against Iraq. 4. Persian for Mongol. Babar was a descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan. 5. Its population in the fifteenth century, 100-30 million, is thought to have been twice that of the whole of Europe. 6. However primitive the Mongols may have appeared, adopting mili• tary and administrative techniques from the Chinese, they founded the largest contiguous empire there has ever been. The Venetian Marco Polo, carrying a Mongol 'passport' in the form of a seal, made an unhindered journey from the Mediterranean to the Yellow Sea in the late thirteenth century. Only the Egyptians in the west (in 1260 at Ain Jalut, Syria), and the Japanese in the east (1274 and 1281), were able to withstand the Mongol tide. 7. Confucius, known originally as K'ung Ch'iu (551-479 Be) was a public administrator and teacher who profoundly influenced Chinese philos• ophy and ethos. 8. See Philip F. Riley et al. (eds.), 'Cheng Ho: Ming Maritime Expedi• tions', in The Global Experience, Readings in World History since 1500, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1987, Vol. II, pp. 3-5. 9. Members of the Society of Jesus, founded by the Spaniard Ignatius de Loyola in 1534, and given papal authorization in 1540, played a leading role in all early East-West relations. The Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689), the first treaty concluded between China and the West, was their doing. In providing a bridge between East and West, they also introduced Confucius to Europe, and the Bible, Copernicus and Euclid to China. Notes 335

10. See Riley et al. (1987), pp. 26-7. 'If the Chinese were warlike they could conquer the world,' wrote Marco Polo in the thirteenth century, 'thank goodness they're not: 11. Certain Jesuits remained behind in Peking to care for the dynastic calendar. Almost two centuries later in 1939 the pope decreed that ancestor worship and Confucian rites were not incompatible with the dogma of the Church. 12. Japan had a population of about 25 million at the beginning of the seventeenth century (as against approximately 16 million for France, 7 million for Spain and 4.5 million for England. 13. See Riley et al. (1987), pp. 31-2. See also C.R. Boxer, The Christian Century in Japan, 1549-1650, Berkeley, Cal., 1951.

3. EUROPE: 1500-1914

1. In 1498 the Venetian mariner John Cabot (1450-98), in the service of England, had 'explored for lands unknown to Christians'; in 1764, the English mariner John Byron (1723-86) sought lands 'unvisited by any European power'. 2. See R. Bainton, Erasmus of Christendom, New York, 1969. 3. See R. Bainton, Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther, New York, 1950. 4. The sale of indulgences had been increased greatly by Pope Leo X (1513-22) to raise funds to complete St Peter's basilica in Rome on a scale worthy of a universal faith. 5. See W.J. Bouwsma, John Calvin, New York, 1988. 6. In 1567 Mary was forced to yield the throne to her Protestant son James. Her last and greatest blunder was to seek refuge with her Protestant cousin Queen Elizabeth I. The rightful heir to the English throne, Mary was executed by Elizabeth 20 years later. 7. See A.G. Dickens, The Counter Reformation, New York, 1969. 8. See R.S. Dunn, The Age of Religious Wars 1559-1715, 2nd edn., New York, 1979. The vital port of Antwerp was sacked in 1576. 9. See J.1. Israel, Dutch PrirrulCY in World Trade, 1585-1740, Oxford, 1989. 10. See R. Bullen and F.R. Bridge, The Great Powers and the European State System, 1815-1914, London, 1980. 11. See J.M. Sherwig, Guineas and Gunpowder: British Foreign Aid in the Wars with France, 1793-1815, Cambridge, Mass., 1969. 12. See C. Barnett, Napoleon, London, 1978. 13. The number of French soldiers who returned to France is unknown. Estimates range from 10,000 to 100,000. The Russian Army, the intense cold, famine and sickness, especially typhus, destroyed most of Napoleon's army. 14. France's boundaries were settled along those existing in 1792, which included areas that the French did not possess in 1789. England gave back all that it had taken from the French except the islands of Tobago, St Lucia, Mauritius and Malta. England also undertook to return any Dutch territory seized during the war, but not Ceylon or the Cape of Good Hope. No indemnity was demanded. 336 Notes

15. France had to give up its frontier fortresses and was to be garri• soned by an allied force for 3-5 years; pay an indemnity of 700 million franks, and have its boundaries reduced from those of 1792 to those of 1790. None of these things, however, amounted to humiliation. 16. See R. Gildea, Barricades and Borders, Europe 1800-1914, Oxford, 1987. 17. The Quadruple Alliance or Holy Alliance was formed in 1816 as a counter-revolutionary measure against the French. Its aim was to uphold the status quo in Europe - especially the conservative monarchies - for 20 years. France became a member in 1818. 18. See D.M. Smith, Victor Emmanuel, Cavour and the Risorgimento, London, 1971. 19. See E. Cranks haw, Bismarck, New York, 1981.

4. AFRICA: 1500-1914

1. Such as Ghana (eighth to eleventh centuries), Mali (twelfth to four• teenth centuries) and Songhai (fourteenth to sixteenth centuries). 2. Propelled by the reconquest of Spain in 1492, the Iberians attacked the North African Muslim cities of Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, Jerba and Tripoli. In 1578 the Portuguese suffered a shattering defeat at Al Kasr al-Kabir in Morocco. The inability to defeat Islam in North Africa provided Portugal with the necessary incentive to outflank it by sea. 3. Mungo Park (1771-1806) the Niger, David LiVingstone (1813-73) the Zambezi, Richard Burton (1821-90) and John Speke (1827-M) the Nile, and Henry Stanley (1841-1904) the Congo. 4. See Thomas Pakenham, The Scramble for Africa, 1876-1912, New York 1991. 5. See S.E. Crowe, The Berlin West African Conference, Westport, Conn., 1970. 6. See T. Pakenham, The Boer War, London, 1979. 7. In 1795, during the French wars, Britain had seized the Cape from the Dutch. It handed it back after the Peace of Amiens in 1803, and reoccupied it in 1806. It was ceded to the British by the Convention of London in 1814.

5. THE RISE OF THE WEST

1. In Burckhardt's words, the Renaissance shed the 'fantastic bonds of the Middle Ages'. See Jakob Burckhardt, The Civilization of the Renaiss• ance in Italy, 1860, trans. S.G.c. Middlemore, London, 1944, which provided the first rounded synthesis of Italy's contribution. On the contributions of Arab Spain, Byzantium and Northern Germany, see Wallace K. Ferguson, The Renaissance in Historical Thought: Five Centuries of Interpretation, New York, 1948. Despite all the work that has been done on character, causes and geographical and chronological limits, the Renaissance remains one of the most intractable problems of historiography. Notes 337

2. Copernicus studied at Padua and Bologna. In 1503 he obtained his doctorate of canon law at Ferrara. Galileo was professor of math• ematics at Padua. 3. See J.B. Bury, The Idea of Progress, New York, 1955. 4. Contrast this with the English novelist, Tobias George Smollett (1721-71), who wrote at a time when England's respect for money and commerce grew by the hour: 'Without money, there is no respect, honour, or convenience to be acquired in life: 5. Some scholars, such as Werner Sombart (Der Moderne Kapitalismus, 1928) ascribe Spain's penury to the persecution of the Jews. The Inquisition, Sombart argued, drove from Spain the best Jewish financial talent. Others, such as Max Weber ([1864-1920) The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, London, 1930), and R.H. Tawney ([188(}"1962) Religion and the Rise of Capitalism, London, 1936) place greater stress on the Protestant spirit which enabled both Britain and Holland to outstrip Spain. 6. Even though a Spanish state did not yet exist in 1492. The Reconquista was chiefly the work of Castile. 7. Portuguese power in the Indian Ocean in the sixteenth century rested upon its superior naval artillery. The Muslim fleets, though supe• rior in numbers, were no match for them. See C.M. Cipolla, Guns, Sails, and Empire 1400-1700, New York, 1965. 8. See Geoffrey Parker, The Military Revolution, Cambridge University Press, New York 1989. 9. In 2,540 years of recorded Chinese history the Yellow river has flooded 1,590 times. 10. See E.L. Jones, The European Miracle, Cambridge University Press, 1981, and W.H. McNeill, Rise of the West: A History of the Human Community, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1970. 11. Goethe, Faust. 12. Lao-tzu, its founder, was born c.600 Be. Taoism aims at individual salvation, but it is mystical rather than rational. 13. Even allowing for the Persian and Mogul miniatures. 14. After the French philosopher Rene Descartes.

6. THE IMPACT OF WESTERN MAN

1. Europeans reached the Americas long before Columbus. See Tim Severin, The Brendan Voyage, New York, 1978. Also Alfred W. Crosby, Ecological Imperialism, Cambridge University Press, 1986, chapter 3, 'The Norse and the Crusaders'. Artifacts found off the coast of Brazil suggest that the Romans may have discovered the New World before the birth of Christ. 2. So much so that in 1707, England and Scotland began to call them• selves the United Kingdom of Great Britain. 3. Coupled with British victories at Wandewash (1760), Pondicherry (1761) and Buxar (1764). 4. Little more than a century after Waterloo, British supremacy was 338 Notes

undermined by the far greater strain imposed by the First Great War. Conditions in the post-1918 years were to prove much less favourable to Britain than they had been after 1815. 5. Abandoned in 1973. 6. See Heinrich von Treitschke, Politics, trans. by Blanche Dougdale and Torbende Bille, 2 vols London, 1916. Vol. I, pp. 115-16. 7. 'The term civilization refers literally to a city-state ... in its more general usage it implies a system of living where law and order are maintained with justice and equality, human conflicts both inside and outside the group are resolved with a minimum of violence, and there is a moral code which people keep, more because they believe in it than because they are afraid of the consequences of breaking it.' In this light, Africa has a long tradition of civilization. See Colin M. Turnbull, The Peoples of Africa, Leicester, 1963, pp. 29-30. 8. George Martelli, Leopold to Lumumba: a History of the Belgian Congo 1877-1960, London, 1963, p. 19. 9. Some of the reasons given for the increase in numbers are the retreat of the plague (which last appeared in England in the seventeenth and in France in the eighteenth century), New World crops includ• ing potatoes, a marked fall in infant mortality rates, better trans• port and improved sanitation and medicine. See T. McKeown, The Modern Rise of Population, London, 1976. 10. Including measles, smallpox, typhus, influenza, tuberculosis, diph• theria, chicken pox, whooping cough, typhoid fever and scarlet fever from Europe, and trachoma, yellow fever, dengue fever, amoebic dysentery and malaria from Africa. See Alfred W. Crosby cited above, Chapter 9, 'Ills'. Also W.H. McNeill, Plagues and People, New York, 1976, and Arno Karlen, Man and Microbes, New York, 1995. 11. In the Ottoman Empire all railroads were operated by European companies; in China most of the railroads belonged to Europeans by 1911. The same was true of Africa and South America. 12. Its introduction to Africa is said to have altered the course of Afri• can history. According to some writers, maize helped to offset the loss of lives caused by the slave trade. Statistically, very little is known. 13. Karl Jaspers, in his Origin and Goal of History, p. 76, quotes the German philosopher Hegel: 'The Europeans have sailed around the world and for them it is a sphere. Whatever has not yet fallen under their sway is either not worth the trouble, or it is destined to fall under it.'

7. 'WHITE PERIL' IN THE EAST

1. See A. Whaley, The Opium War through Chinese Eyes, London, 1958. 2. In 1836 British sales of opium in China totalled $18 million; Chinese sales of tea and silk to the British amounted to $17 million. 3. Four new ports - in addition to Canton (Ghangzhou) - were opened up for western trade; tariffs on imported British goods were limited; under the principle of extra-territoriality, British subjects in China Notes 339

could only be tried by British laws; a substantial indemnity - $21 million - was demanded; Hong Kong was ceded to Britain. The opium trade was never mentioned. 4. The famine of 1877-9 in northern China left ten million dead. 5. See F. Michael and C. Chung-Ii, The Taiping Rebellion, 3 vols, Seattle, 1966-71. . 6. See H.Z. Schiffren, Sun Yat-sen and the Origins of the Chinese Revolu• tion, New Haven, Conn., 1968. 7. See F. Wakeman, The Fall of Imperial China, New York, 1975. 8. Cun production was restricted as a safeguard against insurrection under the long peace of the Tokugawas; more importantly, in comparison with the much more widely used sword, a gun was culturally unaccept• able. See Noel Perrin, Giving Up the Gun, Boston, Mass., 1979. 9. See W.C. Beasley, The Meiji Restoration, Stanford, Cal., 1972. 10. See I. Nish, The Origins of the Russo-Japanese War, London, 1985. 11. See D. Rees, A Short History of Modern Korea, New York, 1988. 12. Mutinies had also occurred in 1764, 1829 and following Britain's defeat in Afghanistan in 1844. 13. See F. Kazemzadeh, Russia and Britain in Persia, 1864-1914, New Haven, Conn., 1968. 14. See A. Reid, Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450-1680, New Haven, Conn., 1989. 15. The sultanate of Brunei was a powerful state in the sixteenth century, with authority over the islands of Borneo, part of the Sulu islands and the Philippines.

8. THE EXPANSION OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE

1. See J.V. Stalin, Works, Vol. XIII. 2. The word Tatar was used to describe Mongols and Turks in old Russian and Chinese texts. 3. The 1908 poem 'On the Field of Kulikovo' by the Russian poet Alexander Blok is a brilliant distillation of the Russian view of war and the nature of power. 4. See M.s. Anderson, Peter the Great, London, 1978. 5. Russia's population was about 17.5 million; France 19 million; Britain 9 million; the Habsburg Empire 8 million; Prussia 2 million; Spain 6 million. 6. Russian historians stress the brilliant strategy of the Russian comman• ders, the tsar's courage and persistence, and the heroism and patriot• ism of the Russian people. French historians stress the immensity of the task Napoleon undertook, as well as the impossible logistics and climate. 7. In 1849 Russia had helped put down a rebellion against the Austrian throne. In 1866, when Prussia threatened Austria, Russia left Austria to her fate. 8. See S.C. Marks, Road to Power: The Trans-Siberian Railroad and the Colonization of Asian Russia, 1850-1917, Ithica, NY, 1991. 340 Notes

9. Although the Treaty of Berlin of 1878 had granted Serbia its inde• pendence, the coveted territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina remained under Austrian occupation. 10. See D. Field, The End of Serfdom: Nobility and Bureaucracy in Russia 1855-1861, Cambridge, 1976.

9. THE EXPANSION OF THE AMERICAN EMPIRES

1. S.E. Morison, The European Discoveries of America, New York, 1974. 2. At the time of the arrival of the Spaniards, overall population density, so scholars argue, was not very different from that of Europe, Persia, India and China. See Russel Thornton, An American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History since 1492, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987. 3. See A.W. Crosby, The Columbia Exchange, Westport, Conn., 1972. 4. Imports of gold at Seville between 1503 and 1560 totalled 185,000 kilograms; imports of silver were 16 million kilograms. Silver produc• tion of the Spanish Indies in 1570 was about five times Europe's and Africa's combined production 30 years earlier. 5. It has been estimated that the native population of North America numbered one million. 6. Estimates are 21 million native Americans. Syphilis spread across Europe and later Asia and Africa like a scourge shortly after the discovery of America. Whether the disease originated in the Old or the New World is still uncertain. 7. See Crosby (1972). 8. Friedrich von Gentz, 'On the Influence of the Discovery of America on the Prosperity and Culture of the Human Race', translated and quoted in H.S. Commager and Elmo Giordanetti, Was America a Mistake? An Eighteenth Century Controversy, New York, 1967, p. 219. 9. 'And God ... said ... replenish the earth and subdue it; and have dominion over ... every living thing that moveth upon the earth ...' Genesis, I, 28. 10. See Daniel Cosio Villegas, American Extremes, University of Texas Press, Austin, 1964, pp. 37-8, who speaks of Mexico as a miracle of survival; in contrast he describes the US as a miracle of fecundity. 11. Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation was made in 1863. 12. See W.W. Howard, 'The Rush to Oklahoma', Harpers (18 May 1889) pp.391-2. 13. See P.J. Parish, The American Civil War, New York, 1975. 14. Then as now, the countries most attracted by a gold standard were those that stood to gain from it. Because of its access through its ally Portugal to Brazilian, and later Australian and South African gold deposits, Britain led the way. 15. Comparative figures, per capita, were US $377, Britain $244, Germany $184, France $153, Italy $108, Austria-Hungary $57, Russia $41, Japan $36. Similarly its national income of $37 billion far exceeded that of Germany $12 billion, Britain $11 billion, Russia $7 billion, Notes 341

France $6 billion, Italy $4 billion, Austria-Hungary $3 billion and Japan $2 billion. 16. See H.K. Beale, Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power, New York, 1962. 17. On the religious front alone, the number of American missionaries to China rose from 436 in 1874 to 5,462 in 1914.

10. THE SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTIONS

1. The word science comes from the Latin word scientia, which means knowledge. 2. See H. Butterfield, The Origins of Modern Science, New York, 1962. 3. Made possible by Johannes Gutenberg's (c.1400-68) discovery of moveable type. 4. Gerardus Mercator (1512-94), a Flemish cartographer, was the first to draw a map of the globe based on his scientific 'Mercator' projection. 5. Protagoras (480-15 BC) had said that 'man is the mean and measure of all things'. 6. The Greek astronomer Aristarchus had put forward a sun-centred theory in the third century BC, but the time was not ripe and his ideas were rejected. See Hans Blumenberg, trans. by Robert Wallace, The Genesis of the Copernican World, Cambridge, Mass., 1987. 7. Three hundred and sixty years later, in November 1992, the Roman Catholic Church conceded that it was wrong to have condemned Galileo for asserting that the earth orbits the sun. 8. Until quite modem times 'knowledge' also meant 'magic'. The Sanscrit word 'Vidya' has this double meaning. Copernicus, Galileo, Keppler and Newton all dabbled in occult science. 9. Alexander Pope. 10. In some aspects of his work on relativity, Einstein was preceded by James Clerk Maxwell (1831-79), Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (1853-1928) and Henri Poincare (1854-1912). 11. Anyone who has studied Isaac Newton's law of gravity, Daniel Bernoulli's (1700-82) law of hydrodynamic pressure, Michael Fara• day's law of electromagnetic induction, Rudolf Clausius' (1822--88) law of entropy (the second law of thermodynamics), or Albert Einstein's law of mass-energy equivalence cannot doubt that these 'attempts to make infinite realities comprehensible to finite beings' are examples of objective truth. See Michael Guillen, Five Equations that Changed the World, New York, 1995. 12. By Antoine Henri Becquerel (1852-1908), the Curie family (Pierre [1859-1906), Marie [1867-1934) and Irene [1897-1956)), Frederic Joliot (1900-58), James Chadwick (1891-1974), Otto Hahn (1879-1968) and Fritz Strassmann (1902--80), Joseph John Thomson (1856-1940) and Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937), who in 1919 split the atom, and the Dane Niels Bohr (1885-1962). 13. Technology is derived from the Greek word techne meaning art or skill. 342 Notes

14. Arnold Toynbee, who popularized the term, dates the Industrial Revolution to the reign of George III (1760- 1820). See P. Mathias, The First Industrial Nation, An Economic History of Britain, 1700-1914, 2nd edn., New York, 1983; also E.A. Wrigley, Continuity, Chance, and Change: the Character of the Industrial Revolution, Cambridge Univer• sity Press, New York, 1988. 15. See C. Treblicock, The Industrialization of the Continental Powers, 1780- 1914, London, 1981. 16. Between 1815 and 1840 the output of coal quadrupled; the produc• tion of iron grew from 17,000 tons in the 1740s to three million tons in the 1850s. 17. In 1781 Britain imported about five million tons of raw cotton; the figure for 1789 was six times greater. 18. Watt made Newcomen's engine more economical in fuel. He also developed in 1782 the rotary motion to drive other kinds of machinery. The first known Newcomen engine was built in 1712. 19. Though it is not until 1957 that world trade in manufactured goods exceeded the trade in primary produce. 20. The first successful internal combustion engine was invented in 1859 by Etienne Lenoir of France. German contributions were made by N.A. Otto (1876), Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach (1886), Rudolf Diesel (1892) and Karl Benz (1894). 21. See Rupert Sheldrake, A New Science of Life, London, 1981, and The Presence of the Past, New York, 1988. See also John Maddox, 'A Book for Burning', Nature, 1981.

11. THE GREAT WAR: 1914-18

1. See D.C.B. Lieven, Russia and the Origins of the First World War, New York, 1984. 2. Helmuth von Moltke, chief of the German Staff at the outbreak of war, is thought to have exaggerated the importance of railways in general mobilization. Nevertheless, strategy (even by 1870) depended less on soldiers' legs and more on railway wheels. The German General Staff had planned to move three million men, and 600,000 horses in 11,000 trains in a period of 312 hours. 3. Greece had won its independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1830; Romania in 1856; Serbia and Bulgaria in 1878; Albania, Macedonia and Montenegro in 1912. 4. See L.S. Stavrianos, The Balkans, 1815-1914, New York, 1963. 5. See J.R.B. Bosworth, Italy and the Approach of the First World War, London, 1983. 6. The United Kingdom's share of world manufacturing output declined from 22.9 per cent in 1880 to 13.6 per cent in 1913. A similar down• ward trend is reflected in Britain's share of world trade which fell from 23.2 per cent in 1880 to 14.1 per cent in 1911-13. 7. See Z.S. Steiner, Britain and the Origins of the First World War, New York, 1977. Notes 343

8. See Michael Balfour, The Kaiser and his Times, Boston, 1964, p. 425. 9. 'Were Germany united,' said the English writer David Hume in 1748, 'it would be the greatest power that ever was in the world.' 10. See V.R. Berghahn, Germany and the Approach of War in 1914, London, 1973. 11. See J.F. Keiger, France and the Origins of the First World War, New York, 1984. 12. In 1913 France's GNP, its share of world manufacturing produc• tion, and its national income were all about half of those of Germany. On the eve of war it planned to mobilize 80 divisions, the Germans 100. 13. See R.W. Clark, Lenin, New York, 1988. 14. Wars take place for all kinds of reasons. The inner dilemma of capi• talism might explain Britain's onslaught on China in the nineteenth century, but it does not explain the struggles going on in Italy and Greece, where independence was at stake. Britain's war against China in 1839-42, or Japan's wars with China 1894-5 and Russia in 1904-5, as well as the US clash with Spanish forces in 1898, were wars of conquest; but this was not true of Austria's war against France in 1859 or France's war against Prussia in 1870. Apprehension, impa• tience, exasperation and downright stupidity were at work here. The militarists may have played a leading role in causing the war between France and Prussia in 1870, but this can hardly have been true of the Crimean War or the Spanish American War. In the latter two conflicts, the militarists and the ruling elites would have gladly preserved the peace but for the popular will. The Crimean War was thought to have begun over a religious dispute. 15. See Richard Hough, The Great War at Sea, Oxford, 1983. Hough maintains that the unrelenting pressure of the Royal Navy was the prime factor which led to the defeat of the Central Powers on land by 1918. 16. There is some controversy about the value of the Dreyse breech• loading rifle. It had been available since the 1840s and had been rejected by Austria and other countries. Comment of the time leaves no doubt that the Dreyse rifle helped Prussia to prevail. 17. At that time France was conscripting 89 per cent of its eligible young males; Germany 53 per cent. Germany's army budget grew from $204 million in 1910 to $442 million in 1914. Similar figures for France were $188 and $197 million. 18. Inspired by eighteenth-century Enlightenment ideas, the First Inter• national of the International Workingmen's Association was established in London in 1864. Karl Marx drafted its constitution. The Second International was formed in London in 1889. The Third International resulted from meetings held at Bern in 1919. Since then there have been two separate international organizations of labour: the Third Communist International in Moscow, based on revolu• tionary principles, and the non-revolutionary Labour and Socialist International in Zurich. When war came, despite all rhetoric, the labour movement shed its internationalism. To reassure his war-time 344 Notes

allies, who were providing massive aid to Russia and who had promised to open a second front in the west in 1944, Stalin abolished the Communist International established by Lenin in Moscow in 1919. 19. Before the war ended the 4 per cent (on average) of the national incomes being spent by the combatants before 1914 on armaments had risen to something in the region of 25-30 per cent. In 1914 Russia was spending 35 per cent of total government expenditures on the mili• tary - much more than the advanced industrial nations were doing. 20. Rupert Brooke, 'The Dead', The Complete Poems, New York, 1977, p.148.

21. First World War Deaths Austro-Hungarian Empire 1,200,000 Belgium 14,000 British Empire 908,000 Bulgaria 88,000 France 1,358,000 Germany 1,774,000 Greece 5,000 Italy 650,000 Japan 1,300 Montenegro 3,000 Portugal 7,000 Romania 336,000 Serbia 45,000 US 126,000 Russia 1,700,000 Ottoman Empire 325,000 Total 8,538,000

Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1965.

22. There was even controversy on how dead German airship crew should be buried in England - as soldiers (with military honours), or as pirates. 23. The decision meant 'finis Germaniae', said the German Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg, who had resolutely opposed the move. 24. The sinking of the SS Lusitania with the loss of 1,198 lives, includ• ing 128 Americans, helped to turn US public opinion against Germany. For the sharp divergence between official and non-official accounts of this tragedy, see Colin Simpson, The Truth about the Lusitania, Boston, Mass., 1972. 25. Germany's secret proposal of an alliance with Mexico against the US, the Zimmerman Note of January 1917, harmed the isolationist cause in the US. 26. Under which Russia surrendered the Baltic provinces, Poland, Ukraine, West Byelorussia, Finland and parts of Transcaucasia. Russia lost one million square miles of territory and 60 million people. Notes 345

27. Wilson's Fourteen Points included open in place of secret diplo• macy, disarmament, adjudication; self-determination, and international cooperation - which became the basis of the Paris Peace Confer• ence and the League of Nations. 28. Wilson's Covenant of the League of Nations was written into the four subsequent European treaties: St Germain (September 1919 with Austria); Neuilly (November 1919 with Bulgaria); Trianon Gune 1920 with Hungary); and Lausanne (July 1923 with Turkey). 29. The signatories to the covenant pledged themselves to work for disarmament, provide mutual protection, guarantee national indepen• dence and territorial integrity, submit to arbitration in case of onflict, and agree to apply economic sanctions on dissident members. Posi• tive contributions were made by the League in labour legislation, and in the control of international health and disease. 30. Hitler was the son of an Austrian customs official and a veteran of the First World War with two iron crosses. He was probably the most disturbing element in world affairs since Napoleon. At 3D, with the war over, he returned to the life of a drifter obtaining a precarious living as a painter. His astonishing political career began when in 1919 he joined the anti-communist German Workers Party, which in 1921 became the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (Nazi - National Socialist German Workers Party). See Alan Bullock, Hitler: A Study in Tyranny, New York, 1952. 31. Rupert Brooke (1977), 'Peace', p. 146. 32. Wilfred Owen, 'Dulce Et Decorum Est', The Complete Poems and Frag• ments, Vol. I: The Poems, New York, London, 1984, p. 140. 33. Poland had been divided in 1772, 1793, 1795 and 1815 because Brit• ain and France would not risk war. It regained its freedom in 1919, not because of President Wilson, but because Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany were convulsed and defeated. 34. Founded after the First World War from the former provinces of Croatia, Dalmatia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Slovenia, Voyvodina and the independent state of Montenegro, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slavs was renamed Yugoslavia in 1929. 35. The Irish Republic was first proclaimed with the uprising in Dublin in April 1916. Under the leadership of Eamon De Valera (1882-1975) Ireland (except Northern Ireland) eventually obtained full indepen• dence (partial independence had been gained by the Anglo-Irish Treaty of December 1921) under the Republic of Ireland Act in April 1949. 36. During 1915 and 1916, Sir Henry McMahon, British High Commis• sioner in Egypt, exchanged ten letters with Hussein ibn Ali, Sherif of Mecca. The purpose: to enlist Arab support against the Turks. The promise behind the correspondence, however ambiguously worded, was Arab independence. See British Parliamentary Papers, 1939, Misc. No.3, Cmd. 5957. 37. The Balfour Declaration was contained in a letter dated 2 Novem• ber 1917, addressed to Lord Rothschild, a Zionist leader (who had, along with President Wilson's legal aide, Louis Brandeis, an American 346 Notes

Zionist, already helped in its drafting). It was signed by Britain's Foreign Secretary, Arthur James Balfour (1848-1930), and appeared in the London Times, 9 November 1917. 38. The Dawes and Young Plans were terminated by the Lausanne Conference in 1932. After this date reparation payments ceased. 39. See c.P. Kindleberger, The World in Depression, 1929- 1939, rev. edn., Berkeley, Cal., 1986. 40. See R.J. Sontag, A Broken World, 1919-1939, New York, 1971. 41. See Alfred Crosby, America's Forgotten Pandemic: the Influenza of 1918, Cambridge, 1989. 42. New Zealand (1893), Finland (1906) and Norway (1913) had led the way. Women's suffrage was not granted in Italy, Spain, France and Switzerland until after the Second World War. Only then did femi• nism become a popular movement, especially in the US.

12. 1917: COMMUNISM - A NEW WORLD RELIGION

1. The Revolution of 1905 had forced Nicholas II (who had come to the throne in 1894) to accept an elected Duma (parliament), but its power was limited. 2. In a desperate effort to turn the tide of war, Tsar Nicholas had hurriedly taken command of the army at the front, leaving the affairs of state in the hands of the Tsarina Alexandra. Ominous rumours of her incompetence, and that of the corrupt courtiers who surrounded her (including the Stannik [holy man] Rasputin, who was assassi• nated in 1916), circulated in Petrograd (St Petersburg). By March 1917, Russia's political, administrative and military situation had deteriorated beyond recall. 3. In 1903 the Russian Socialist Democratic Party had split into two groups: the Bolsheviks or extremists, who wanted party leadership to be restricted to a select number of revolutionaries, and the Mensheviks or moderates, who wanted a wider membership and a more democratic leadership. 4. See Leon Trotsky, A History of the Russian Revolution, vols. 1-3, New York, 1932. Earlier Trotsky had been a Menshevik who denounced the Bolsheviks. 5. See R.H. McNeil, Stalin, Man and Ruler, New York, 1988. 6. The Provisional Government's warrant for the arrest of the Bolshe• vik leaders, issued on 6 July, did not include Stalin. 7. By the old Julian calendar then used in Russia; 7 November by the Gregorian calendar. 8. The election returns, made known in November 1918, showed the Bolsheviks with 225 out of the 707 delegates. 9. Which in 1922 became the GPU, and in 1923 the Unified Govern• ment Political Organization - OGPU. 10. See J. Bradley, Allied Intervention in Russia 1917-1921), New York, 1968. 11. People who thought of themselves as a distinct civilization, belong• ing neither to the east nor to the west. Notes 347

12. See D. McLellan, Karl Marx, New York, 1974. 13. Volumes II and III were published posthumously 1885-94. 14. Contrary to the commonly held opinion that pre-revolutionary Russia was a country of economic stagnation, Russia's growth rate between 1908 and 1914 was 8.8 per cent. Production of pig iron - in those days one of the yardsticks of economic development - rose faster in Russia than it did in Germany. 15. One hundred years after Pope Leo XIII issued 'Rerum Novarum', the historical encyclical on economic issues, Pope John Paul II released his encyclical on economics, 'Centessimus Anno', in which he endorsed the market economy enjoined with powerful changes. The term John Paul II uses is 'free economy', not capitalism. 16. It was the socialist theoretician Eduard Bernstein (1850-1932) who said that Marxism is Calvinism without God. Marxism has the comfort of faith and religion without the belief in a supreme being. 17. See Max Weber (1930). 18. See Robert Conquest, The Harvest of Sorrow, Oxford, 1986.

13. ASIA IN THE INTERWAR YEARS

1. During the First World War Japan had made demands upon China that threatened China's independence. In 1915 Japan established its rule in Shantung. Manchuria and Inner Mongolia. 2. In 1921 Outer Mongolia declared its independence. In 1924 it became the Mongolian People's Republic and was recognized as such by China in 1946; its independence was guaranteed by China and the Soviet Union in February 1950. Tibet's experience was much more ill-starred. Following the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, communist China proceeded to enforce its will in Tibet. Since the revolt of 1959, when the Dalai Lama fled to India, any aspirations for Tibetan independence have been brutally suppressed. 3. Sun Yat-sen founded the Republic of South China in 1911. See H.Z. Schifferin, Sun Yat-sen and the Origins of the 1911 Revolution, Univer• sity of California Press, 1969. 4. See E. Hahn, Chiang Kai-shek: An Unauthorized Biography, New York, 1955. 5. For a first-hand view, see the autobiography of Han Suyin, Book Three, Birdless Summer, London, 1968. 6. Born the son of a farmer, Mao Zedong (1893-1977) helped found the Chinese Communist Party in 1921. After 1935 he dominated it. In 1949, having defeated the nationalist forces, he became the first Chairman of the People's Republic of China, a position he held until his death. Contrary to Marxist doctrine, he was the first communist leader to express the view that revolution must come from the peas• antry rather than the urban proletariat. See Stuart Schram, Mao Tse• Tung, New York, 1966. 7. Participants were the US, Britain, China, Japan, France, Italy, Bel• gium, the Netherlands and Portugal. China's independence and 348 Notes

territorial integrity were guaranteed; Japan undertook to return the Shantung province to China; a ten-year moratorium on capital-ship construction was agreed upon. 8. The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 made the Chinese the first nation• ality specifically banned from immigration into the US. US hostility to Japan grew only after Japan's victory over Russia in 1904-5. In World War II all Japanese Americans were interned. 9. See R.J. Butow, Tojo and the Coming of War, Princeton, N.J., 1961. 10. On 10 December they sank Britain's only two battleships in eastern waters, the Repulse and the Prince of Wales. 11. The trend towards Indian nationalism and representative govern• ment was stimulated by the British. In 1885 Allan Hume, a retired British civil servant, helped to found the Indian National Congress, the first all-India political organization. 12. Leader of the Muslim League and later the founder of Pakistan. 13. Born of peasant stock in Annam, Ho Chi Minh became a commu• nist early in life. He fought with the Allies in France in the First World War. In 1918 he helped to found the French Communist Party. In 1930, after socialist activities in Russia and southern China, he returned secretly to Vietnam, where he established the Communist Party of Indo-China and the Vietminh movement. Forever fleeing his political enemies, he was jailed in Hong Kong by the British and in China by the Nationalists. In September 1945, when the Democratic Republic of Vietnam was proclaimed, Ho Chi Minh was in Hanoi ready to seize power. 14. See J.P. Balfour, Ataturk, London, 1964. 15. See D. Vital, The Origins of Zionism, Oxford, 1975. 16. A 1893-4 census by the Ottoman Empire, which controlled Pales• tine until the end of the First World War, showed a total of 9,817 Jews in Palestine and 371,969 Arabs. The figures for 1914 were 60,000 Jews and 500,000 Arabs.

14. THE SECOND WORLD WAR: 1939-45

1. See David Kaiser, Economic Diplomacy and the Origins of the Second World War, Princeton, NJ, 1980. 2. See S. Marks, The Illusion of Peace: 1918-1933, New York, 1976. 3. See J.M. Keynes, The Economic Consequences of the Peace, New York, 1920, which did much to create the legend of the 'Carthaginian Peace' imposed on the Germans at Versailles. See also M. Trachtenberg, Reparations in World Politics, New York, 1980. 4. Benito Mussolini was born in north-central Italy, the son of a black• smith. In 1911 he became the editor of the socialist paper Avanti! Abandoning his socialist and pacifist principles, in 1915 he joined the Italian Army on the northern front. The war over, he helped to form the Fasci d'Italiani di Combattimento (Black Shirts), which quickly attracted the support of anti-communist groups throughout Italy. Following the murder of his political opponent Giacomo Matteotti Notes 349

in 1924, all opposition to fascism was silenced. See D.M. Smith, Mussolini: A Biography, New York, 1982. 5. Tacitus tells us that the Roman Republic succumbed to the Caesars because people became sick of disorder. 6. Most historians attribute the nine-fold increase in Nazi votes to the deepening of the economic crisis. Yet the communal elections of 1929 - a relatively prosperous year - show that the appeal of the Nazis had already begun to grow. 7. The onset of the Great Depression began with the commercial collapse in the US in 1929. By 1932 Germany's output and trade had fallen to about half their 1928 figures. 8. See 'Great Men in History', Chapter 7, Morris R. Cohen, The Mean• ing of Human History, New York, 1947. 9. The League's failure to halt Mussolini in Abyssinia convinced Hitler that the democracies lacked the will to uphold the Covenant of the League. 10. Italy (1937), Hungary and Spain (1939), Slovakia and Bulgaria (1940), Romania (1941). 11. Czechoslovakia was one of a number of nation-states (others were Austria, Hungary, Poland, Yugoslavia, Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) which came into existence as a result of the First Great War. Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania gained their indepen• dence as a result of the breakdown of Russian rule in 1917-18. Except for Finland, they were repossessed by the Soviet Union under the secret protocol of the Soviet-German frontier treaty of August 1939. 12. Before 1938 the term was commonly understood to mean a necess• ary and desirable relation between nations. See Andrew J. Crozier, Appeasement and Germany's Last Bid for Colonies, London, 1988. 13. See Anthony Read and David Fisher, The Deadly Embrace: Hitler, Stalin, and the Nazi-Soviet Pact 1939-1941, London, 1988. In 1940 the USSR forcibly annexed Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Finland, attacked in the winter of 1939, offered heroic resistance, but by March 1940 was forced to accept Russia's terms. Because it had violated the Covenant, the USSR was expelled from the League of Nations on 14 Decem• ber 1939. 14. In the First Great War the Germans had invaded Belgium not knowing what the British would do. This time they knew that an attack upon Poland would bring Britain (and France) into the war. On 31 March 1939 Chamberlain had announced in Parliament that if Poland were to be attacked, 'His Majesty's Government would feel themselves bound at once to lend the Polish Government all support in their power: Having declared war, Britain and France found themselves virtually unable to help Poland. 15. Influential in helping to form American policy was J.P. Kennedy (US ambassador in London). Like many other ardent American isolationists, he supported the powerful America First Movement led by the famous aviator Charles Lindbergh. The America First Move• ment, which at one time appeared to represent the majority opin• ion in the US, died within hours after Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941. 350 Notes

16. Well might Winston Churchill write: 'I slept that night with the peace of one who knows he has been saved.' 17. Including Edouard Daladier, Georges Bonnet, Pierre Laval, Stanley Baldwin, Samuel Hoare, Ramsey MacDonald, John Simon, Edward Halifax and Neville Chamberlain. 18. In 1938 Germany devoted to war preparation 17 per cent of its GNP, an amount exceeding that of Britain, France and the US combined. 19. See Lieutenant Commander P.K. Kemp, RN (Ret.), Key to Victory, Boston, 1958, p. 26. 20. Only Portugal, Spain, Switzerland, Sweden, Eire and Turkey succeeded in remaining neutral. 21. At this point United States' naval protection against German warships was advanced to the mid-Atlantic; economic and military aid was given to Britain. 22. 'The hand that held the dagger', said President Roosevelt in a speech made at the University of Virginia on the same day, 'has struck it into the back of its neighbor.' 23. See H.G. Dahms, Die Geschichte des zweiten WeItkrieges, Munich, 1983, p. 211, note 64. German civilian casualties from Allied bombing were in the region of 570,000, p. 621, note 15. 24. The British lost 449 fighter pilots and 900 aircraft. 25. See A. Clark, Barbarossa, The Russo-German Conflict, 1941-1945, London 1965. 26. In the terrible blood-letting in Yugoslavia in the Second World War between communist-led partisans, Serbian royalist Chetniks and the forces of Nazi-puppet Croatians, 1.7 million died. 27. See W.H. Baldwin, Battles Lost and Won, New York, 1966, pp. 112-13. 28. Emulating Hitler's annexation of Czechoslovakia in 1939, Mussolini had annexed Albania. He went on to attack Greece in October 1940. 29. These efforts were frustrated by communist resistance led by Marshal Tito (Josip Broz, 1892-1980), who later became head of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. 30. See John Toland, Infamy, Pearl Harbor and its Aftermath, New York, 1982. Toland argues that Roosevelt and his top advisers knew about the planned attack but remained silent in order to draw the US into the war. Major damage was done to US aircraft and battle• ships, but the fleet's aircraft carriers were out of harbour. More recent writers have suggested that code-breaking was involved. Washing• ton wished to conceal the fact that it had already broken the Japa• nese codes. 31. For three years, from June 1941 until June 1944, the Red Army inflicted over 90 per cent of German Army battle losses. 32. At the outset of the battle, in October 1942, the British had over• whelming superiority in the air, three times the number of soldiers, and six times as many tanks as the Germans and the Italians combined. 33. Being an ally rather than an enemy was to make a very great differ• ence to Italy once the war was done. 34. The Allies had an almost inexhaustible supply of troops, a 20:1 Notes 351

advantage in armour, and a 25:1 advantage in aircraft. In addition they had complete command of the waters separating Britain from the continent. 35. Although none of the Japanese victories had a crippling effect on overall allied strategy. See C. Bateson, The War with Japan, East Lancing, Mich., 1968. 36. Although Truman thought the use of the bomb would save half-a• million Allied lives, a worst-case scenario of the time envisaged 20,000 deaths. 37. The Japanese had 600,000 troops in the area.

38. Second World War Deaths Military Civilian Jewisha

Austria 380,000 145,000 (60,000) Belgium 9,600 75,000 (25,000) Britain 271,300 60,000b British Commonwealth 133,000 Bulgaria 18,500 n.a. 14,000 China 1,324,500 10,000,000< Czechoslovakia 6,700 310,000 (250,000) Denmark 4,300 n.a. Estonia 140,000 Finland 79,000 n.a. France 205,700 173,300 (65,000) Germanyb 4,000,000 3,100,000 188,000 Greece 16,400 155,300 (60,000) Hungary 147,400 280,000 (200,000) Italy 262,400 93,000 (8,000) Japan 1,140,400 953,000 Latvia 120,000 Lithuania 170,000 d Netherlands 13,700 236,300 (104,000) Norway 4,800 5,400 900 Poland 320,000 6,028,000 (3,200,000) Romania 519,800 465,000 (425,000) US 292,100 USSR 13,600,000 7,720,000 (1,252,000) Yugoslavia 305,000 1,355,000 (55,000) Total 23,054,600 31,584,300 5,906,900

(a) Figures in parentheses are also included as civilian casualties. (b) Figures taken from Dahms (1983), p. 616. (c) Estimate. (d) Baltic states (228,000). Source: Robert Goralski (ed.), World War II Almanac, New York, 1981.

39. See Arno J. Mayer, Why did the Heavens Not Darken? The Final Solu• tion in History, New York, 1989. Also Charles S. Maier, The Unmasterable 352 Notes

Past: History, Holocaust and German Identity, Cambridge, Mass., 1989. Also Lucy S. Dawidowicz, 'Perversions of the Holocaust', Commen• tary, October 1989. 40. Not Italy, which avoided indictments by changing sides in 1944. 41. Said Jackson: 'The wrongs which we seek to condemn and punish have been so calculated, so malignant and so devastating, that civi• lization cannot tolerate their being ignored because it cannot survive their being repeated: Robert H. Jackson, 'Opening Address', in Trial of German War Criminals, Senate Doc. no. 129, 79th Cong., 1st sess., Washington DC, Government Printing Office, 1946, p. 1. Twelve of the accused at Nuremberg, and seven in Japan, were sentenced to death by hanging. 42. The Geneva Convention of 1897 and the Hague Convention of 1899, concerning the treatment of civilians and prisoners of war, were violated to a greater or lesser extent by all the warring powers. 43. See Dahms (1983), p. 618. 44. Those on trial at Nuremberg and Tokyo used the same defence as Shakespeare's soldiers accused of crime in Henry V: 'We know enough if we know we are the kings men. Our obedience to the king wipes the crime of it out of us: 45. See Ann and John Tusa, The Nuremberg Trial, New York, 1984; also, R.H. Minear, Victor's Justice: The Tokyo War Crimes Trial, Princeton, NJ,1971. 46. The evidence since 1945, despite the United Nations General Assem• bly's approval of the Convention of the Prevention and Punishment of the crime of Genocide in 1948, and the Geneva Conventions in 1949, which grew out of the Nuremberg trials, suggests that the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials have had limited effect. 47. At the Cairo Conference in 1943 Roosevelt had insisted on treating China as the fifth power. Churchill had demurred. 48. In invading Poland, Russia was reoccupying the land it had lost to Poland in 1919-20. Poland was compensated for its losses to Russia with German territory. About one-third of present-day Poland, comprising Silesia, Pommerania, West Prussia and part of East Prussia, was German territory. The Yalta settlement not only laid the ground• work for future discord between Poland and Germany, it also made Poland a hostage to Russia. 49. Because the Russians were now feared more than the Germans, and the weakening of Germany would have meant the strengthening of Soviet communism, some Americans and Britons (particularly Church• ill) prevented Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau from reducing Germany to a pastoral state. The Russians were the strongest supporters of the Morgenthau Plan. 50. A communist-led attempt to seize power in Greece in 1944 was thwarted by British intervention. Further communist attempts to seize power (1946-9) were foiled by the US. Notes 353

15. THE BALANCE OF TERROR

1. Roosevelt's ideas reflected the same grand design for world peace put forward by Metternich, the Austrian foreign secretary, in the Holy Alliance of 1815. It is chiefly due to Roosevelt that the idea of a United Nations came to fruition. 2. Also to the shame of those involved, the British and the Americans agreed to Russian demands to return those Russians who had either fought for Germany, or fled to the West; though it was realized at the time that many of these men would be executed. See Nicholas Bethell, The Last Secret: The Delivery to Stalin of Over Two Million Russians by Britain and the United States, New York, 1974. 3. Truman's stiffness with the Russians (after receiving news at Potsdam that America possessed the atomic bomb), and his inexperience, helped the cold war to get under way. 4. In October 1947 the Cominform (successor to the Comintern - the Third Communist International - which was dissolved by Stalin in 1943) was re-established to coordinate communist action through• out the world. As a gesture of renewed friendship with Yugoslavia, the Cominform was dissolved in 1956. 5. The author of America's policy of containment was the US ambas• sador to the USSR, George F. Kennan. See his article signed 'X' in Foreign Affairs, July 1947. 6. Proposed in 1947 by US Secretary of State, General George Marshall (1880-1959), it provided western European countries (the aid was rejected by the Soviet bloc; Poland was ordered by the Kremlin to withdraw its application for aid) with $13.5 billion of economic and financial assistance. Introduced in 1948, Marshall Aid was discontin• ued in 1952. See Michael J. Hogan, The Marshall Plan, Cambridge, 1987. 7. See Ann and John Tusa, The Berlin Blockade, London, 1988. 8. Member states were: Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France (nominal membership since 1966), United Kingdom, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, and the US. Greece and Turkey joined in 1952, Federal Republic of Germany in 1955 and Spain in 1982. 9. The death of the Portuguese dictator Antonio de Oliveira Salazar in 1968 prompted a struggle between the militarists and the communists. 10. Including East Germany, Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Albania and the Soviet Union. 11. Hostilities between the Soviet Union and Japan were officially termin• ated in 1956. With Russian opposition withdrawn, Japan took its place as a member of the United Nations. In June 1968, the US returned to Japan control of certain Pacific Islands including Iwo Jima and the Marcus Islands. In May 1972 Okinawa was returned, the US retaining military bases. 12. It included Australia, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, the UK and the US. 13. It was meant to guard against possible Russian aggression. It inclu• ded Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Turkey and the United Kingdom. Although 354 Notes

the US had sponsored the defence agreement, it refused to become a full member. Iraq withdrew in 1959. 14. See Riley, pp. 257-62. 15. On 20 May 1989, India became the first third world nation to admit developing an intermediate-range ballistic missile.

16. THE DECOLONIZATION OF AFRICA

1. The National Congress of British West Africa was formed in 1919. 2. See J.D. Hargreaves, The Decolonization of Africa, London, 1988. 3. Following the Berlin Conference of 1884, Germany took possession of Togoland and Cameroon. It also obtained a block of coastal land which became German South-West Africa. Germany lost these terri• tories to Britain in 1919. 4. Proclaimed the protectorate of German East Africa in 1890. In return for a German promise to keep out of Uganda, the British gave up German Helgoland, which they had obtained from Denmark in 1815. German East Africa, later called Tanganyika, with all other German possessions in Africa were seized by the British during the First World War. 5. In 1966 sanctions were imposed on Rhodesia by the UN Security Council. 6. See Lance E. Davies and A. Huttenback, Mammon and the Pursuit of Empire, Cambridge, 1988. 7. See T.R.H. Davenport, South Africa: A Modern History, 2nd edn, Toronto, 1978. 8. Despite the almost uniformly discouraging history of such measures in the present century, in the 1980s the United Nations tried to strengthen its hand against South Africa by imposing sanctions. Sanctions were also imposed against Cuba, Libya and Nicaragua. In 1990 the United Nations imposed sanctions against Iraq. 9. Nelson Mandela was banned from South Africa in the 1950s for his opposition to apartheid; he was given a life sentence in the 1960s, and released in 1990 after 27 years. 10. Possessing about half the world's known reserves of gold, it prod• uces most of the gold mined in the non-communist world. Although at the lowest level in 40 years, gold exports still account for 20 per cent of South Africa's export earnings. South Africa also mines more gems, diamonds and platinum than any other country. It is the leading source of antimony, chrome ore and vanadium. Its supplies of uranium and chrome are essential to the West. It is the leading supplier to the US of manganese, platinum and industrial diamonds. 11. Sub-Saharan Africa receives about 3 per cent of the flow of private direct investment into the developing world; Latin America receives about 20 per cent, East Asia and the Pacific region 59 per cent. 12. On African accomplishments, see 'Whose Dream Was It Anyway? Twenty-Five Years Of African Independence', Michael Crowder, African Affairs, January 1987. Notes 355

13. When Zaire, then known as the Belgian Congo, gained its inde• pendence in 1960, it had 58,000 miles of good roads; now it has 6,200 miles that are passable. 14. Swahili is an African international language, but most Africans do not speak it. 15. OAU's aims are the furtherance of African unity, the coordination of the political, economic, cultural, health, scientific and defence policies, the elimination of colonialism in Africa, the retaining of existing frontiers and neutrality in the cold war.

17. COMMUNISM AND ITS COLLAPSE

1. See Nikita Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, trans. Strobe Talbot, Boston, 1970. 2. See S. White, Gorbachev and After, Cambridge, 1991. 3. Mikhail Gorbachev, Perestroilaz, New York, 1987. 4. Lithuania declared its independence in May 1989, Estonia in March 1990, Ukraine and Byelorussia in July 1990 (and again in August 1991), Turkmenistan and Tajikistan in August 1990, Kazakhstan in October 1990, Georgia in April 1991, Moldova, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan in August 1991, and Armenia in September 1991. 5. Born 1931, he became a member of the politbureau in 1986, and President of the Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic in 1991, which after the dissolution of the USSR became the Russian Federation. 6. Although the war between the Russian Federation and Chechnya ended with a truce in July 1996, the future status of Chechnya has still to be resolved. 7. See W. Laqueur, Soviet Union 2000: Reform or Revolution?, New York, 1990. 8. See T.G. Ash, The Polish Revolution: Solidarity, New York, 1984. 9. See S. Ramet, Nationalism and Federalism in Yugoslavia, Bloomington, Indiana, 1992. 10. Macedonia was the southern area of Serbia. In 1946 Tito, a Croat, created it to weaken the Serbs, to prepare a claim to Greek Mace• donia and to neutralize Bulgaria's claims to the area.

18. TWENTIETH-CENTURY LATIN AMERICA

1. Ethnically the Southern Cone nations of Argentina, Uruguay and Chile are largely homogeneous societies of European stock; Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Paraguay and Mexico are dualistic Indian-Spanish societies; Brazil, Venezuela and Cuba are blends of Indian, Iberian and African. Most countries are strongly Iberian in culture. For most of the twentieth century, the countries have varied from repressive authoritarian regimes (Paraguay until 1989) to liberal and democratic societies (Costa Rica). Economic conditions are equally diverse. 356 Notes

Capitalism, socialism, semi-feudalism and mercantilist economies exist alongside each other. Argentina, Mexico and southern Brazil are considered to be industrially developed economies. Ecuador and Paraguay, among others, are essentially agricultural economies. Brazil and the Caribbean nations share a distinct plantation tradition. The countries vary all the way from virtual feudalism, with rigidly stratified social structures, to increasingly egalitarian conditions. The official languages of Spanish, Portuguese and French are only three of the many languages spoken. Even military regimes have been intrigu• ingly different: rightist, leftist, nationalist and a variety of mixed civilian-military regimes exist. 2. In 1921, after seven years of dispute, the US paid Colombia $25 million for the loss of its Panama territory. 3. Proclaimed by President James Monroe on 2 December 1823, it forbad further colonization of the western hemisphere by Europeans. Until well into the twentieth century, it was the British not the American navy that guarded the Latin American republics from outside political interference and military intimidation. 4. In the nineteenth century national rivalries and boundary disputes caused the republics to fight at least five wars among themselves. Between 1825 and 1828 Brazil fought Argentina. Between 1842 and 1852 Argentina fought Uruguay and then Brazil. Between 1864 and 1870 Paraguay fought Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina. Between 1836 and 1839, and 1879 and 1883 Chile fought Peru and Bolivia. 5. On 19 January 1917 the German Foreign Secretary, Alfred Zimmer• mann, sent a coded message to von Eckhardt, German Minister in Mexico, trying to enlist Mexico's support in the event the US entered the war. The Germans undertook to restore Mexico's lost territories in New Mexico, Texas and Arizona. The message was intercepted by the British and released to the US press on 1 March 1917. 6. Britain's total investment between 1900 and 1914 had grown from $2.5 billion to $3.7 billion, with Argentina and Brazil receiving 60 per cent of the total, and Chile, Peru, Mexico and Uruguay taking most of the remainder. In 1914 British investments in the western hemisphere were almost equally divided: 20 per cent of the total was in Latin America, 20 per cent in the US. French investments, a major source since the 1860s, had grown threefold by 1914 to $1.2 billion. German investments in 1914, principally in Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Mexico, were about $900 million. Like those of Britain, German funds were equally divided between the northern and south• ern half of the continent. 7. By 1918, 92 per cent of Chilean copper, 50 per cent of Venezuelan, Peruvian and Colombian oil, 50 per cent of Venezuelan iron and two-thirds of Cuban sugar were in the hands of US investors. By then banana monopolies had been established with US money in Guatemala, Nicaragua, Honduras and Panama (hence the name the Banana Republics). 8. During the 1930s the League intervened to halt warfare between Bolivia and Paraguay (1928-38) and Peru and Colombia (1932-5). Notes 357

9. The value of a country's exports varied all the way from 20 to 40 per cent of its GNP. 10. Arthur Salter, quoted in The Problem of International Investment, R.l.l.A., 1937, reprinted edn, New York, 1965, p. 11. 11. Based in Washington, membership included: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, EI Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, US, Uruguay and Venezuela. (Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, Jamaica, Grenada and Surinam were added later.) The OAS was effective in settling regional conflicts between Nicaragua and Costa Rica in the 1940s and 1950s, a boundary dispute between Nicaragua and Honduras in 1957, and the war between EI Salvador and Honduras in 1969. 12. Castro, having overthrown General Fulgencio Batista (1901-1973) in 1959, expropriated the landholdings and refineries of the US sugar companies in June 1960. In October that year he went on to nationalize US-owned financial, commercial and industrial undertakings. The US responded by reducing its Cuban sugar quota by 95 per cent, by imposing a trade embargo and, in January 1961, by breaking off diplomatic relations. In February 1962, at a meeting of the OAS at Punta del Este, Uruguay, the US succeeded in excluding Cuba from the OAS. 13. Under the treaty ratified in 1978, the Panama Canal will pass into complete Panamanian control by the end of the century. Carter reaffirmed the United States' commitment to 'honor national sover• eignty and the principle of non-intervention'. 14. Rebel leader Augusto Sandino, having been assassinated in 1934 by the Nicaraguan National Guard, became a national hero. Led by Daniel Ortega, in 1979 the Sandinistas were successful in ending the 40-year, US-backed dictatorial regime of Anastasio Somoza Debayle. See Neill Macaulay, The Sandino Affair, Durham, N.C., 1984. 15. Yet, for all its political instability, Latin America has had only three social revolutions: Mexico (1911-17, after the long dictatorial rule of Porfirio Diaz [1876-1911)), Argentina (1943, when the government of Ramon S. Castillo was overthrown by a military junta), and Cuba (1959, when Castro overthrew Batista). 16. Oil prices quadrupled from $2.70 per barrel in 1972 to $9.76 in 1976. The second round of oil price increases in 1979 raised the price per barrel to $33.47 in 1982. 17. Brazil's total capital receipt for the period 1947-60 was $1.8 billion; its total outgoings were $3.5 billion. Between 1960 and 1966, the flow of direct investment from the US to Latin America amounted to $2.8 billion. Repatriation of profits and income was $8.3 billion. 18. The Alliance for Progress was formally brought into existence at the Inter-American Economic and Social Conference at Punta del Este, Uruguay, in August 1961. 19. Several countries began agrarian reform; one of the larger and most successful was Chile's, launched in 1965. After 1973, the govern• ment of General Pinochet undermined these efforts. 358 Notes

20. By the mid-1960s, once-dominant Britain was taking only about 9 per cent of Latin America's exports and supplying a little more than 5 per cent of its imports. Similar figures for imports and exports of the US were about 40 per cent. By 1970 half of US imports came from the western hemisphere (including Canada); almost half the total exports of US manufactures went to Central and South America. 21. In 1970 West Germany replaced the US as the world's leading expor• ter of manufactured goods. The US recovered its leadership in 1989. 22. In 1989 Japan supplanted the US as the largest donor of foreign aid. 23. Brazil's external debt repayment in 1989 (on a principal of $115 billion) was 4.5 per cent of its GNP which in 1989 increased 0.5 per cent. To make matters worse, the world dollar price for its primary produce continued to decline. 24. LAFTA was established under the Treaty of Montevideo, Uruguay, in June 1960. Members were Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Mexico, Para• guay, Peru and Uruguay. Colombia and Ecuador joined in 1961, Venezuela and Bolivia in 1966 and 1967 respectively. 25. The groundwork was laid in December 1960 by the Treaty of Central American Economic Integration; it included EI Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras (withdrew in 1969) and Nicaragua; Costa Rica joined in 1962. It was also called the Organization of Central American States or ODECA (Organizaci6n de Estados Centroamericanos). 26. Members were Bolivia, Chile (withdrew 1976) Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. 27. Members were Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Uruguay and Paraguay. 28. Members were Barbados, Guyana, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago. They were joined in 1974 by Antigua, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, St Lucia, St Vincent, Monserrat and St Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla. It was also called CARIFTA (Caribbean Free Trade Association) founded early in 1968. 29. In protest to the austerity programmes imposed by the World Bank and the IMF, in March 1989 Brazil experienced the largest general strike in its history. 30. Peru's inflation rate in 1988 was 1,720 per cent; in 1989 it was 2,775 per cent. In early 1990 Argentina had an inflation rate of about 3,000 per cent.

19. EUROPE AND THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE

1. The European Parliamentary Assembly of 567 members dates back to the signing of the Statute of the Council of Europe in May 1949. Founding members were Belgium, Denmark, France, the Irish Republic, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom. Many other European states subsequently joined the Assembly. 2. See M. Balfour, West Germany: a Contemporary History, London, 1983. 3. See W.E. Griffith, The Ostpolitik of the Federal Republic of Germany, Cambridge, Mass., 1978. 4. See P. Williams and M. Harrison, Politics and Society in de Gaulle's Republic, New York, 1991. Notes 359

5. See A. Sampson, The Changing Anatomy of Britain, New York, 1982. 6. See P. Riddell, The Thatcher Decade, Oxford, 1989. 7. See R. Bothwell, T. Drummond and J. English, Canada Since 1945, Toronto, 1981.

20. THE RESURGENCE OF ASIA

1. He was the first prime minister of independent India (1947-64); and was four times President of the Indian National Congress Party (1929- 30,1936-7,1946 and 1951-4). See The Autobiography of Jawaharlal Nehru, New York, 1941. 2. See H. Belitho, Jinnah, London, 1954. 3. A second conference of the non-aligned nations took place in Belgrade in 1961. 4. See K. Bhatia, Indira: A Biography, New York, 1974. 5. See J. Silverstein, Burmese Politics: The Dilemma of National Unity, New Brunswick, NJ, 1980. 6. See K. von Vorys, Democracy without Consensus, Princeton, NJ, 1975. 7. See S. Karnow, Vietnam, New York, 1983. 8. See D. Wyatt, Thailand, New Haven, Conn., 1982. 9. Sukarno helped to found the Indonesian National Party in 1928. In 1955 he hosted the Bandung Conference of non-aligned African and Asian nations. In 1959 he assumed dictatorial powers. In 1967, follow• ing a military coup, he was deposed. See J. Legge, Sukarno, New York, 1972. 10. See D.]. Steinberg, The Philippines, Boulder, Col., 1971. 11. See S. Karnow, Mao and China: Inside China's Cultural Revolution, New York, 1972. 12. Jiang Qing, Zhang Chungqiao (then Deputy Prime Minister), Wang Hongwen (the Vice-Chairman of the Party) and Yao Wenyuan (the polemicist). 13. See R. Evans, Deng Xiaoping and the Making of Modern China, New York,1994. 14. See H. Harding, A Fragile Relationship: the US and China since 1972, Washington, DC., 1992. 15. Massacres of students and civilians have been common in recent Asian history: in 1976 the Thai army killed hundreds of students at Thammasat University, Bangkok; in 1980 the South Korean army killed thousands of civilians in Kwangju; the rule of Chiang-kai Shek in Taiwan and Suharto in Indonesia was only established after the massacre of thousands; Mao's killing of his countrymen is legendary. 16. See E.F. Vogel, The Four Little Dragons, Cambridge, Mass., 1991. 17. See M. Schaller, The American Occupation of Japan, New York, 1985. 18. See Michio Morishima, Why has Japan 'succeeded?, Cambridge, 1982. 19. See Martin and Susan Tolchin, Buying into America, New York, 1988. For a more sanguine view see Edward M. Graham and Paul R. Krugman, Foreign Direct Investment in the United States, Washington DC, 1990. 20. The Greater Syria existing from biblical times to 1920 (when it became 360 Notes

a French mandate) included Palestine, Trans-Jordan, Lebanon and part of Iraq and Turkey. 21. Israel's population in 1997 was 5 million, about one-fifth non-Jewish. 22. Since the creation of the State of Israel in 1948 the US has unstintingly supported Israel's cause. In the United Nations it has used its veto power several times on Israel's behalf. No other country has received so much of its talent, its time and its treasure. In public aid alone, the US since 1948 has granted more aid to Israel than it did under Marshall Aid to Europe. In 1997 Israel was still the largest recipient of US aid. In addition, since 1953 West Germany has paid Israel $37 billion in reparations. Israel has also been provided with funds by Jews living abroad, especially those in the US. 23. OPEC was founded in 1960. Members in 1989 were Algeria, Ecua• dor, Gabon, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates and Venezuela. Saudi Arabia, Iran and Iraq lead both in oil quotas and reserves. 24. Until 1993 Israel had refused to negotiate with the PLO because it had denied Israel's right to exist. In 1985, King Hussein of Jordan and Yasser Arafat of the PLO declared their willingness to make peace with Israel provided Israel withdrew from the territories occupied in 1967. Arafat undertook to accept United Nations Reso• lution 242 guaranteeing Israel's right to exist if the US explicitly endorsed the right of Palestinians to self-determination. On 13 November 1988 the PLO accepted UN Resolution 242. 25. See Edward W. Said, The Politics of Dispossession, New York, 1995. 26. See Nadav Safran, Saudi Arabia: The Ceaseless Quest for Security, Cambridge, Mass., 1985. 27. Australia was not the only country in Australasia to have practised racism. Japan, Malaysia, Thailand and China, for example, have insti• tutionalized racism in their immigration policy. 28. The percentage of Asian migrants entering the US multiplied more than four times between 1960 and 1980: from roughly 9 to 42 per cent of total immigration. Immigrants from Latin America almost doubled: from about 20 to 40 per cent. Europe, at one time the chief source of US immigrants, provided only 10 per cent of the total in 1988. In the 1990s these trends continued.

21. THE THREAT OF WORLD ANARCHY

1. See United Nations Conference on Trade and Development Report 1989, Part II, The Least Developed Countries. UN, New York, 1990. 2. On the face of it, the peak share of US GNP allocated to defence, 6.5 per cent in 1986-7, is small compared with the 39 per cent allo• cated in 1944-5, the 14.9 per cent allocated in 1953 during the Korean War, or the 10 per cent allocated in 1968 during the Vietnam War. In March 1990 the US still held a dominating position (both in manu• facturing output and employment) among the Organization for Econ• omic Co-operation and Development (OECD) nations. Notes 361

3. 'This conjunction of an immense military establishment and a large arms industry is new in the American experience. We must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought by the military-industrial complex. The potential for the disastrous rise of misplaced power exists and will persist.' See E.M. Bottome, The Balance of Terror: A Guide to the Arms Race, rev. edn, Boston, 1986. 4. The Middle East is not the only part of the world where religious wars are under way. Fighting is endemic between Protestants and Catholics in Northern Ireland; between Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs in India; between Buddhists and Hindus in Sri Lanka; and Chris• tians and Muslims in Bosnia and the Sudan. 5. The Kurds have aspired to nationhood for half a century. Until now their lack of support by any great power, their own disunity and the absense of a common language have denied them self-determination. 6. Dilatory attempts to establish international control of chemical and biological weapons have been made since 1969. 7. Nineteenth-century world population was thought to have expanded more rapidly than in any other period of history. Twentieth-century population has grown approximately four times faster, from two billion in 1930 to almost six billion today. Fortunately, there are signs that the growth in numbers is stabilizing. Bedevilling the problem of food production is not so much the lack of good land as the lack of good government. Improved cultivation is the only immediate answer to our rapid growth in numbers. Plant technology is brightly promising. 8. Founded to promote the liberalization of international trade and finance, together with the coordination of economic aid to develop• ing countries, its member states in 1997 were Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Luxem• bourg, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portu• gal, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, UK and US. 9. Formed in 1989 to further cooperation among the nations of the region, in 1995 its members included Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile, China, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand and the US. 10. Inspired by Jamal ad-Din ai-Afghani (1838-97) and the Arab awak• ening of the nineteenth century, and in response to increased Jewish immigration into Palestine, the Arab League was formed in Cairo, Egypt in 1945. Original members were Egypt, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and Yemen. Membership in 1995 also inclu• ded Algeria, Bahrain, Comoros, Djibouti, Kuwait, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, the Palestine Liberation Organization, Qatar, Somalia, Sudan, Tunisia, the United Arab Emirates and the Yemen People's Democratic Republic. 11. Formed in August 1967, members include Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam (the first communist member). 362 Notes

12. In 1995 it consisted of 51 self-governing, independent nations, 16 of which recognized the British monarch. Its purpose is consultation and cooperation on economic, scientific, educational, financial, legal and military matters. 13. Created in May 1960 to promote expansion of trade. In 1992 the EFTA and the EU concluded an agreement to create a single market of the two organizations. 14. First established in September 1985, it included the seven major industrial economies: Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the UK and the US. Russia was admitted as the eighth member in 1995. 15. Formed in 1965 by Iran, Turkey and Pakistan, it was joined in February 1992 by five former Soviet Republics: Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. 16. Under GNP the earnings of a multinational corporation are counted in the country where the corporation is owned. Under GOP the earnings are counted in the country where the factory is located, but where the profit wiII not stay. 17. From the Chinese point of view, three things prevented the normalization of relations with Russia: the Soviet's support for Vietnam in Cambodia, Russia's intervention in Afghanistan, and the Sino-Soviet frontier dispute. The frontier dispute remains. 18. The Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928 foolishly outlawed war while taking no steps to prevent it. 19. It was Friedrich II, the Great, of Prussia who wrote Testament Politique which embodied the belief that Reason of State (raison d'etat) should overrule law and international obligation. The Venetians, arguing that reasons of state justified the end (and in so doing removed politics from morals) had spoken of 'Ragione di Stato'. 20. In April 1993 ASEAN countries meeting in Bangkok condemned the West's attempt to use human rights as a condition for development aid. So used, human rights become an obstacle in the improvement of international relations. They also questioned the right of the rich world to set standards, arguing that human rights should be consi• dered against a background of geography, culture and religion. 21. In a 1986 ruling of the International Court of Justice concerning the iIIegal mining by the US of Nicaragua's harbours, the US was found in violation of international law. Before the ruling it had already withdrawn from the compulsory jurisdiction of the court. Since then it has again accepted the court's jurisdiction. 22. Of the four kinds of lies - lies, damned lies, statistics and govern• ment statements - the official lie in our age has become the biggest. Perhaps George Orwell said it all: 'Political language is designed to make lies sound truthful and murder respectable.' 23. See D.P. Moynihan, On the Law of Nations, Cambridge, Mass., 1990. 24. See H. Kung, Global Responsibilities: In Search of a New World Ethic, New York, 1990. 25. The philosopher Immanuel Kant argued that war would cease only when there was nothing left to fight about, or when new moral insights were obtained. See his Plan for Perpetual Peace, 1795. Select Bibliography

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Braybon, C., Women Workers in the First World War, London, 1981. Brierly, J.L., The Law of Nations: an Introduction to the International Law of Peace, Oxford, 1955. Buchanan, R., The Power of the Machine: The Impact of Technology from 1700 to the Present Day, New York, 1992. Bull, H., The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics, New York,1977. Bullock, A., Hitler and Stalin, London, 1991. Bushnell, D. and N. Macaulay, The Emergence of Latin America in the Nine• teenth Century, New York, 1988. Cameron, E., The European Reformation, New York, 1991. Cameron, R., A Concise Economic History of the World from Paleolithic Times to the Present, New York, 1989. Carr, R., Spain 1808-1975, 2nd edn, Oxford, 1982. Carsten, P.L., The Origins of Prussia, Oxford, 1954. Chafe, W., The Unfinished Journey: America since World War II, New York, 1991. Chan,S., East Asian Dynamism: Growth, Order, and Security in the Pacific Region, Boulder, Col., 1990. Chaudhuri, KN., Trade and Civilization in the Indian Ocean, Cambridge, 1985. Cipolla, C.M., The Economic History of World Population, Baltimore, 1962. Clark, C.N., Early Modern Europe from about 1450 to about 1750, London, 1957. Connelly, 0., The French Revolution and the Napoleonic Era, 2nd edn, Fort Worth, 1991. Conquest, R., The Great Terror: Stalin's Purges of the Thirties, rev. edn, New York, 1973. Costigliola, F., France and the US: The Cold Alliance Since World War II, New York, 1992. Craig, C.A., Germany, 1866-1965, Oxford, 1978. Curtin, P., The Atlantic Slave Trade, Madison, Wise., 1969. -- Death by Migration, New York, 1989. Daniels, R.V., Russia, the Roots of Confrontation, Cambridge, Mass., 1985. Davidson, B., Modern Africa, London, 1989. Davis, D.B., Slavery and Human Progress, New York, 1984. Dawson, c., The Dynamics of World History, New York, 1956. Deane, P., The First Industrial Revolution, Cambridge, 1965. Dehio, L., The Precarious Balance, New York, 1963. Diebold, J., The Innovators: The Discoveries, Inventions, And Breakthroughs of Our Time, New York, 1990. Doyle, W., Origins of the French Revolution, Oxford, 1988. Draper, T., Israel and World Politics, New York, 1968. Dudden, A., The American Pacific: From the Old China Trade to the Present, New York, 1992. Edwardes, M., The West in Asia, 1815-1914, New York, 1967. Elliot, J.H., Imperial Spain, 1469-1716, London, 1963. -- The Old World and the New, New York, 1992. Evans, R.J.W., The Making of the Habsburg Monarchy, 1550-1700, Oxford, 1979. Select Bibliography 365

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Abbas I, Shah of Persia, 12 AIDS, 3, 236 Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud, King of Saudi Aigun, Treaty of (1858), 82, 107 Arabia, 201, 202 Ain Jalut, 334 n.6 Abd ai-Qadir, 51 airplane, 77 Abd ai-Rahman, 9 Akbar, Mogul Emperor, 13 Abdullah, King of Jordan, 201, 202, Al Kasr al-Kabir, 336 n.2 308 Alamo, Battle of the (1836), 129 absolutism, 28, 31 Alaska, 107, 128, 284 Abu Dhabi, 312 Alawites, 322 Abyssinia (see also Ethiopia), 49, 52, Albania, 154, 193, 204, 210, 211, 216, 91, 206, 349 n.9 220, 240, 246, 24~ 248, 277, 342 Academie Royale des Sciences, 141, n.3, 350 n.28, 353 n.l0 148 alcohol, 47, 67, 74, 194 Acton, Lord John, 2 Aleppo, 197 Adams, Henry, 2 Alexander I, Tsar of Russia, 104 Adams, John Quincy, 132 Alexander II, Tsar of Russia, 111 Addis Ababa, 234, 237 Alexander III, Tsar of Russia, 111 Adenauer, Konrad, 273 Alexander VI, Pope, 2, 5, 24, 113 Adowa, Battle of (1896), 51, 52 Alexandra, Tsarina of Russia, 346 n.2 Adrianople (Edirne), 106 Alexandretta, 197 Adrianople, Treaty of (1829), 94 Alexandria, 212 Mghani, Jamal ad-Din al-, 361 n.l0 Alfonso XIII, King of Spain, 222 Mghanistan, 13, 92, 93, 108, 110, 193, Algeria, 226, 234, 235, 273, 275, 322, 194, 195-6, 226, 290, 310-11, 324, 360 n.23, 361 n.l0 327, 362 n.17, 339 n.12 French occupation, 51, 52, 69, 230 Africa, 8, 16, 44-53, 63, 72, 79, 125, independence, 230, 273 152, 159, 181, 228-38, 317 Algiers, 336 n.2 Berlin conference (1884-5), 48, 49, Ali, son-in-law of the Prophet 52,354 n.3 Mohammed, 334 n.3 colonization, 49 Allahabad, 92 decolonization, 228-38 Allende, Salvador, 261 disease, 47, 48, 74, 236, 238 Alliance for Progress (1961), 263, 264, exploration, 48 357 n.18 export industries, 49 Alsace-Lorraine,42, 158, 165 population, 47 Alvarado, Pedro de, 114 slavery, 46, 47 Amanullah, Shah of Mghanistan, 195 wild-life, 49 Amboina,96 Mrican National Congress (ANC), 232 America First Movement, 349 n.15 Mrikaans, 46 American Civil War (1861-5), 47, 85, Agadir,161 129, 130, 134, 161, 279 Agra,13 American Declaration of agriculture, 16, 75, 88, 117, 146, 147, Independence, 124 175, 255, 257 American Independence, War of agribUSiness, 235 (1775-83), 31, 129 collectivization, 181, 241, 296 American Indians, 116, 121, 122, 123, tropical, 76 125, 127, 128, 133 Ahmad, Shah of Persia, 93, 194 population, 114, 123, 340 n.2, n.5, n.6

369 370 Index

American Revolution, 36, 125 Arabia, 8, 16, 168, 200, 201 Americas, 46, 47, 63, 64, 73, 74, 77, Arabic, 9, 44 113-35, 226, 251--68, 337 n.1 Arabs, 8, 16, 17, 53, 95, 169, 196, 198, Amiens, Peace of (1803), 336 n.7 199, 200, 201, 202, 214, 223, 281, Amin, HafizuUah, 311 305, 306, 314, 320, 345 n.36, 348 Ampere, Andre Marie, 144 n.16, 336 ch.5 n.l Amritsar, 288 Africa, 44, 46 Amritsar massacre (1919), 188 Arab revolt (1916), 198 Amsterdam, 34, 59 Iberia, 5, 9 Amur River, 17, 20, 82, 83, 107 Pan-Arabism, 196, 228, 311 Anatolia, 8, 191 trade, 8, 59, 63 ANC (see African National Congress) WWI, 163, 168, 196 Andean Group, 265 Arafat, Yasir, 306, 360 n.24 Andropov, Yuri, 241 Arbenz Guzman, Jacobo, 259 Angell, Norman, 160 Archangel, 101, 175 Angkor Kingdom, 95 Archimedes, 137 Anglo-Dutch treaty (1824), 97 Ardennes offensive (1944), 213 Anglo-Dutch wars, 34 Argentina, 113, 114, 118-20 passim, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 51 254--6 passim, 258, 259, 262--6 Anglo-French Entente (see Entente passim, 267, 276, 355 ch.18 n.l, Cordiale) 356 n.l, nA, n.6, 357 n.ll, n.15, Anglo-Irish Treaty (1921),345 n.35 358 n.24, n.27, n.30 Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902), 87, Aristarchus, 341 n.6 88, 108, 185 Aristotle, 138 Anglo-Japanese treaties (1902 and Arizona, 128 1905), 154 Arkansas, 121 Anglo-Persian Agreement (1919), 193, Arkwright, Richard, 148 194 Armada, 58 Anglo-Persian Oil Company, 195 armaments (see weaponry) Angola, 46, 50, 53, 226, 230, 231, 234, Armenia, 105, 171, 175, 304, 322, 355 235, 237, 278, 327 nA Annam, 16,79 arms control, 327 Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty arms race (see also weaponry), 159, (1972), 227 227,242 an tibiotics, 150 Arouet, Fran~ois Marie (Voltaire), 19 Anti-Comintern Pact (1936), 186, 207 ASEAN (see Association of Southeast anti-Semitism, 204, 205, 206, 207 (see Asian Nations) also Judaism) Ashanti, 47, 51 Antigua, 358 n.28 Ashkabad, 110 Antwerp, 335 n.8 Asia, 8-22, 23, 60, 72, 73, 76, 77, 79, ANZUS Treaty (1951), 222, 314 81-98, 105, 113, 120, 121, 123, apartheid (see South Africa) 125, 147, 149, 152, 159, 170, 181, APEC (see Asia-Pacific Economic 183-202, 226, 286-315, 316 Cooperation Group) Asia Minor, 163 191, Appalachians, 125 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation appeasement, 207, 208, 349 n.12 Group (APEC), 328 Aquinas, St Thomas, 145 Assam, 97, 289 Aquino, Maria Corazon, 295 Association of Southeast Asian Arab League, 202, 282, 311, 328, 361 n.l0 Nations (ASEAN), 295, 299, 328, Arab-Israeli wars 362 n.20 (1948), 214, 305, 308, 322 Astrakhan, 101 (1956), 228, 275 astronomy, 18, 88, 137, 139 (1967), 305, 306, 308, 312 Atahualpa, Inca emperor, 115 (1973), 225, 281, 306, 309, 312 Atatiirk (see Kemal Atatiirk) Index 371 atheism, 142, 174, 178 Baldwin, Stanley, 350 n.17 Atlantic Charter (1941), 228 Balfour, Arthur James, 346 n.37 Atlantic Ocean, 8, 31, 38, 47, 58, 59, Balfour Declaration (1917), 169, 198 113, 164, 208, 209, 212, 256 Bali, 96 atomic bomb, 188, 214, 220, 221, 225, Balkan Pact (1934), 193 289,353 n.3 Balkans, 2, 8, 10, 23, 42, 92, 94, .104-7 Attlee, Clement, 275 passim, 110, 153, 154, 156, 248, Auerstadt, Battle of (1806), 38 250, 270, 273, 277, 324 Augsburg, Peace of (1555), 27 Balkan crisis (1908-9), 153 Aung San Suu Kyi, 291 Balkan wars (1912 and 1913), 154 Aurangzeb, Mogul Emperor, 13 ballistic missiles, 223, 224, 225, 227, Austerlitz, Battle of (1805), 38 260,280,283,289,354 n.15 Australasia, 74, 78, 312, 313, 360 n.27 Baltic Sea, 34, 101, 103, 165 Australia, 64, 67, 69, 74, 163, 169, 186, Baltic states, 174, 175, 207, 216, 270, 299, 312-14, 353 n.12, 360 n.27, 324, 351 n.38 361 n.9 Baluchis, 324 Immigration Restriction Policy, 67 Banana Republics, 356 n. 7 WWII, 211, 213 Bandung Conference (1955 ), 288, 359 Austria, 10, 13, 30, 36, 37, 41, 42, 73, n.9 94, 104-6 passim, 160, 161, 165, Bangkok, 359 n.15, 362 n.20 168, 206, 269, 339 ch.8 n.7, 340 Bangladesh, 290 ch.8 n.9, 343 n.14, n.16, 345 n.28, Banham Silpa-archa, 294 349 n.ll Barbados, 116, 357 n.ll, 358 n.28 Balkans, 110 'Barbarossa', 210 Napoleonic wars, 37-40 Basques, 168, 278, 324 WWI, 153--8, 163 Batavia (Jakarta), 64, 96 WWII, 207-18, 351 n.38 Batista, Fulgencio, 357 n.12, n.15 Austro-Hungarian Empire, 340 n.15, battle (see name of battle) 345 n.33 Battle of the Bulge (see Ardennes dual monarchy (1867), 41 offensive) WWI, 344 n.21 Battle of the Downs (1639), 32 Austro-Prussian War (1866), 42, 157, bauxite (see mining) 160, 339 ch.8 n.7 Bavaria, 35, 40 automobile, 77, 156 'Bay of Pigs' landing, 224, 260 aviation, 77 Bechuanaland, 51 Avignon,24 Becquerel, Antoine Henri, 341 n.12 Axis powers (Germany, Italy, Japan), Begin, Menachem, 281 207, 208, 210, 211, 212, 215 Beijing (see also Peking), 330 Azerbaijan, 12, 175, 322, 324, 355 nA, Beirut, 197,306 362 n.15 Belarus (see also Byelorussia), 324 Aznar, Jose Maria, 278 Belgium, 40, 41, 125, 157, 158, 165, Aztecs, 79, 113, 114, 115, 116 269,272, 324, 347 n.7, 349 n.14, 353 n.8, 358 n.l Babar, Mogul Emperor, 13, 334 nA Africa, 53, 72, 230 Bacon, Francis, 138, 141, 151 Congo, 49, 50, 53, 228, 355 n.13 Baffin Island, 284 interwar years, 205 Baghdad, 9, 12 WWI, 153, 171, 344 n.21 Baghdad Pact (1955), 223, 310 WWII, 351 n.38 Bahrain, 312, 361 n.l0 Belgrade, 210, 359 n.3 Bakr, Ahmed Hassan aI, 309 Belize, 358 n.28 balance of power, 32, 42, 88, 91, 95, Bell, Johann Schall von, 18 122, 149, 158, 227, 298, 302 Belloc, Hilaire, 150 balance of terror, 218, 219-27, 327 Bencoolen, 96 Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, 113 Benedictine Order, 149, 177 372 Index

Benelux customs union, 269 Bosphorus, 94 Bengal, 14, 324 Botswana, 234 Benin, 47, 234 Boulogne, 209 Benz, Karl, 342 n.20 Bourbons, 28 Berbers, 322 Boxer Rebellion (1899-1900),79, 84 Bering Straits, 107 boyars, 101 Berlin, 42, 213, 223, 226, 246, 272, 273 Boyle, Robert, 141 Berlin Conference (see Africa) Brahe, Tycho, 136, 137, 151 Berlin crisis (1948-9), 220, 221, 226 Brandeis, Louis, 345 n.37 Berlin, Treaty of (1878), 340 ch.8 n.9 Brandt, Willy, 273, 281 Bermuda, 116 Brazil, 4, 34, 113, 116-20 passim, 254-8 Bernoulli, Daniel, 341 n.ll passim, 264-7 passim, 278, 299, 333 Bernstein, Eduard, 347 n.16 n.5, 337 n.l, 340 n.14, 355 ch.18 Bessarabia, 106, 207, 239 n.l, 356 n.l, n.4, n.6, 357 n.ll, Bessemer steel converter, 150 n.17, 358 n.23, n.24, n.29 Bethlehem, 308 agriculture, 117 Bethmann-Hollweg, Theobald von, population, 116 344 n.23 slavery, 47 Bhutto, Benazir, 290 WWII,208 Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali, 290 Brest-Litovsk Treaty (1918), 164, 174 Biafra, 216, 324 Brezhnev Doctrine (1968), 224 Bill of Rights (1789), 125 Brezhnev, Leonid, 224, 240, 241 biological weapons, 283, 326 Brindley, James, 148 Bismarck Archipelago, 69 Britain, 7, 14, 31-2, 34, 35, 36, 41, 42, Bismarck, Otto von, 42, 43, 106, 157 43, 59, 87, 94, 95, 104, 106, 107, Black Sea, 94, 104, 105, 106, 303 122, 169, 171, 175, 185, 225, 228, Black Shirts, 204, 348 n.4 256, 261, 269, 275-6, 280, 310, 336 Blair, Tony, 276 n.7, 337 n.5, 338 n.3, n.4, 339 Blenheim, Battle of (1704), 32, 37 n.12, 340 n.15, 342 n.17, n.6, 343 Blok, Alexander, 339 n.3 n.14, 345 n.33, 347 n.7, 348 n.lO, Boer War (1899-1902), 49, 158 349 n.14, 350 n.18, n.21, 354 n.3 Boers, 46, 50, 125 Afghanistan, 195 Bogota, 117 Africa, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 230 Bohr, Niels, 341 n.12 agriculture, 147 Bolivar, Simon, 118, 119 Arab-Israeli war (1956), 228 Bolivia, 78, 114, 118, 119, 120, 257, Arabs, 199 260--4 passim, 355 ch.18 n.l, 356 Australasia, 313 n.4, n.8, 357 n.ll, 358 n.24, n.26, Balkans, 110 n.27, Battle of Britain, 210 Bologna, 54, 337 ch.5 n.2 Boer War, 49, 50 Bolshevik Revolution (1917), 53, 171, Bolshevik Revolution, 179 172--4, 176, 180, 203 Burma, 190 Bolsheviks, 163, 172, 194, 196, 346 n.3, Canada, 284, 285 n.4, n.6, n.8 central Asia, 108-10 Bombay, 14, 92, 289 China, 20, 81--4 Bon, Gustave Ie, 178 colonial expansion, 97 Boniface VIII, Pope, 23 conscription, 159, 163 Bonnet, Georges, 350 n.17 Crimean War, 40, 94, 105, 106 Bordeaux, 9 East Asia, 107-8 Borneo, 95, 96, 294, 339 n.15 EC, 269, 274 Borodino, Battle of (1812), 39 EFTA,269 Bosnia and Herzegovina, 94, 106, 110, Egypt, 51 171, 216, 324, 247, 248, 270, 330, exploration, 64 340 ch.8 n.9, 345 n.34, 361 n.4 Great Britain, 337 ch.6 n.2 Index 373

Great Depression, 170 Brooke, Rupert, 165, 345 n.31 imperial army, 91 Brunei, 78, 97,295,339 n.15, 361 n.9 India, 14, 63, 80, 90-2, 188-9 Brunelleschi, Filippo, 137 Indonesia, 96 Brussels, 72 Industrial Revolution, 147-9 Bucharest, 246 industrialization, 76 Buddhism, 15, 21, 56, 61, 88, 95, 96, industry, 150 149 interwar years, 208 Buenos Aires, 117 Japan, 87, 88, 185, 187 Buganda,51 Jordan, 308 Bukhara, 108 Korea, 89 Bukovina, 239 Latin America, 118, 120, 251, 253, Bulganin, Nikolai, 240 254, 356 n.6, 358 n.20 Bulgaria, 8, 94, 106, 110, 154, 162, 168, Malaya, 190 213, 216, 218, 220, 244, 246, 250, Middle East, 163, 168, 169, 196, 197, 342 n.3, 344 n.21, 345 n.28, 349 201 n.l0, 351 n.38 ,353 n.l0, 355 n.l0 migration, 73, 312 Burckhardt, Jakob, 4, 336 ch.5 n.l Morocco, 53 Burma (see also Myanmar), 17, 20, 79, Napoleonic wars, 37-40, 64 83, 97, 189-90, 211, 291, 295, 299 navy, 160, 163, 343 n.15 Burton, Richard, 336 n.3 New Zealand, 313 Burundi, 234, 237 North America, 120-2 Bush, George, 282, 285 Opium War (1839-42), 20, 81, 82 bushido, 21 Ottoman Empire, 191 Buxar, Battle of (1764), 14, 337 ch.6 Pacific Ocean, 69 n.3 Pakistan, 290 Byelorussia (see also Belarus), 174, Palestine, 198, 200 244, 344 n.26, 355 nA, Persia, 13, 92-3, 110, 193 Byron, John, 335 n.l population, 32, 74, 339 ch.8 n.5 Byzantine Empire, 8, 60, 99, 100, 336 post-WWII, 221 ch.5 n.l postwar imperialism, 219 Saudi Arabia, 201 Cabot, John, 120, 335 n.1 science, 141 Cabral, Pedro, 116 Siam, 97 CACM (see Central American slavery, 47, 48 Common Market) southeast Asia, 213 cacao (see food crops, diffusion of) trade, 78, 275 Cadiz, 29 Trans-Jordan, 202 Caesar, Julius, 77 Treaty of Versailles, 170 Caetano, Marcello Jose De Neves Turkey, 193, 304 Alves, 278 War of American Independence, 124 Cairo Conference (1943), 352 nA7 West Africa, 354 n.l Calais, 25, 209 WWI,153-71 Calcutta, 92, 289 WWII, 203-18, 351 n.38 Calicut, 96 British Columbia, 134 California, 116, 127, 128 British Commonwealth, 190, 232 caliphate, 191, 334 n.3 WWII, 351 n.38 Calvin, John, 25 British Empire, 43, 67, 69, 157, 185, Calvinism, 33 286 Cambodia (Kampuchea), 79, 95, 190, WWI, 344 n.21 226, 281, 292, 293, 294, 295, 299, British Guiana, 251 315, 362 n.17 British North America Act (1867), 134 Cambrai, Battle of (1917), 163 Bronstein, Leib Davydovich (see Cameroon, 49, 230, 354 n.3 Trotsky, Leon) Camp David Accord (1979), 281, 308 374 Index

Canada, 74, 120, 122, 125, 129, 133-5, CENTO (see Central Treaty 225, 264, 266, 283-5, 324, 353 n.8, Organization) 361 n.9, 362 n.14 Central America, 117, 119, 187, 254, agriculture, 134 260,261 immigration, 134 Central American Common Market population, 121, 123, 124, 134 (CACM),265 Canadian Pacific Railway, 134 Central American Economic Canning, George, 41 Integration, Treaty of, 358 n.25 Cano, Juan Sebastian del,S Central Powers, 154, 193, 254, 343 Canton (Guangzhou), 20 n.15 Cap de La Hogue, Battle of (1692), 32 Central Treaty Organization Cape of Good Hope, 46, 335 n.14, 336 (CENTO), 223, 353 n.13 n.7 Ceuta,8 Cape Province, 50 Ceylon (see also Sri Lanka), 286, 335 Cape St Vincent, Battle of (1797), 38 n.14 Cape Verde Islands, 278 Chad,234 capitalism, 55, 59, 72, SO, 117, 119, Chadwick, James, 341 n.12 158, 159, 177, 179, 180, 181, 218, Chaldiran, Battle of (1514), 12 226, 279, 288, 297, 318, 324, 337 Chamberlain, Neville, 182, 207, 208, n.5, 343 n.14, 347 n.15, 356 n.l 209, 349 n.14, 350 n.17 Caracas, 267 Chamorro, Emiliano, 256 Cardenas, Lazaro, 258 Chamorro, Violeta Arrios de, 261 Cardoso, Fernando Henrique, 266 Champa, 95 Caribbean, 47, 116, 122, 168, 187, 251, Champlain, Samuel de, 120 254, 256, 258, 356 n.l Chandernagor, 122 Caribbean Community (CARl COM), Channel Tunnel, 276 265 Chardzhou, 110 Caribbean Free Trade Association Charlemagne, Holy Roman Emperor, (CARIFTA), 358 n.28 333 ch.2 n.l Carolinas, 113, 121 Charles I, King of England, 31 Caroline islands (see Mariana, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, 27, Caroline and Marshall islands) 28,58 Carrera, Rafael, 119 Charles VIII, King of France, 30 Carter Doctrine (1980), 282 Charter of Paris (1990), 327 Carter, Jimmy, 261, 281, 282, 357 n.13 Chavalit Yongchaiyudh, 294 Cartier, Jacques, 120 Chechnya, 244, 324, 330, 355 n.6 Cartwright, Edmund, 148 Cheka, 175, 346 n.9 Caspian Sea, 103, 195 chemical weapons, 283, 326 Cas tile, 337 n.6 Chemulpo (Inchon), 87, 222 Castillo Armas, Carlos, 260 Chernenko, Konstantin, 241 Castillo, Ramon 5., 357 n.15 Cheyenne, 127 Castro, Fidel, 224, 260, 357 n.12, n.15 Chiang Ching, 297 Catalonians, 168, 278, 324 Chiang Ching-kuo, 300 Cathay (China), 113 Chiang Kai-shek, 184, 185, 296, 298, Catherine II, Tsarina of Russia, 28, 359 n.15 104, 107, 111 Chile, 114, 118, 119, 120, 226, 254, Catholicism (see Roman Catholic 255, 257, 258, 259, 261, 262, 263, Church) 266, 267, 355 ch.18 n.l, 356 n.4, Caucasus, 92, 104, 105, 108, 174, 244, n.6, n.7, 357 n.11, n.19, 358 n.24, 270 n.26, 361 n.9 caudillism, 119, 262 Ch'in, Chinese Emperor, 62 Cavour, Camillo Benso di, 41 China, 8, 14-20, 21, 56, 59-61 passim, Ceausescu, Nicolae, 246 67, 75, 79, SO, 81-4, 85-9 passim, Celebes, 96, 294 110, 131, 169, 183-5, 216, 223, Index 375

225, 226, 239, 260, 274, 281, 283, Lebanon, 197 288, 289, 291, 292, 293, 296-300, missionaries, 341 n.17 313, 317, 324, 327, 329, 330, 338 slavery, 46 n.2, n.3, 339 ch.7 n.4, 341 n.17, Chung Hee Park. 303 343 n.14, 347 n.l, n.2, n.7, 352 Chungking (Chongqing), 185 n.47, 360 n.27, 361 n.9, 362 n.17 Church of England, 7, 25 ancestor worship, 19 Churchill, Winston Spencer, 157, 175, Communist Party, 183, 347 n.6 182,208, 209, 210, 215, 218, 219, coolie labour, 83 220, 226, 228, 276, 350 n.16, 352 Great Leap Forward, 296 n.47, n.49 Great Proletarian Cultural Ciller, Tansu, 304 Revolution, 297 cinchona, 76 industrialization, 169 cinnamon (see trade: spice trade) Japan, 87, 185, 186, 187, 301 Dark. Champ, 134 Korea, 89, 222 Dark. William, 127 May Fourth Movement, 183 Clausius, Rudolf, 341 n.11 nationalists, 125 Demenceau, Georges, 164 naval expeditions, 16, 334 n.8 Dement V, Pope, 23 Opium War (1839-42), 20, 81 Dement XN, Pope, 28 People's Republic of, 296, 347 n.6 Clinton, Bill, 268, 283, 285, 298, 314 population, 60, 81, 83, 300 Clive, Robert, 64 railways, 108, 338 n.ll cloves (see trade: spice trade) Revolution, 79 coal, 77, 147, 156, 169, 232, 313, 342 Russia, 107 n.16 self-strengthening movement, 83 coca (see plants, diffusion of) Taiwan, 300 Cochin China, 97 United States, 131 Code Napoleon, 39 Versailles Treaty, 168, 183 coffee (see trade: primary produce) Vietnam, 95 cold war, 218, 221, 223, 226, 227, 237, western science, 18 242, 259, 272, 278, 283, 288, 289, WWI, 156 292, 299, 320, 329, 353 n.3 WWll, 351 n.38 collectivism, 61, 62, 140, 177, 181, 183, Ch'ing Dynasty (see Manchu Dynasty) 240,315 Chin sura, 14 Collor de Mello, Fernando, 266 Chirac, Jaques, 275, 308 Colombia, 78, 114, 118, 119, 123, 131, Chou En-Iai, 184, 296 253, 254, 259, 260, 262, 263, 266, Chretien, Jean, 284 356 n.2, n.7, n.8, 357 n.ll, 358 Christendom, 7, 9, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, n.24, n.26 29, 333 ch.2 n.l Colombo Plan (1951), 311 Christianity (see also Copts, colonialism, 72, 79, 233 Christendom, Church of Columbus, Christopher,S, 16, 29, 63, England, Presbyterian Church, 113, 123 Protestantism, Roman Catholic Comecon (see Council for Mutual Church), 7, 33, 54-8 passim, 79, Economic Assistance) 80, 140, 142, 154, 178, 279, 316, Cominform (see Communist 321, 322, 333 ch.l n.6 Information Bureau) Africa, 44, 49 Comintern (see Internationals: Third) Bible, 178, 334 n.9 commerce, 3, 20, 33, 34, 44, 49, 56, 57, China, 19, 82 59, 77, 78, 82, 90, 114, 124, 156, Christ, 3, 22, 28, 145, 179, 180 159, 161, 186, 189, 291 Eastern Orthodox Church, 8, 99, Common Market, 269 100, 103, 105, 106, 111, 174 Commonwealth (see also British India, 90 Commonwealth), 284, 290, 328, Japan, 21, 22 362 n.12 376 Index

Commonwealth Immigration Act, 275 cotton (see trade: fibres, textiles) communism, 108, 168, 172-82, 183, Council for Mutual Economic 203, 205, 218, 220, 221, 222, 225, Assistance (Comecon), 221 227, 239-50, 257, 258, 259, 270, Coun ter-Reformation, 111 275, 296, 304, 317, 318, 321, 324, Covilhii, Pedro de, 46 326, 329, 344 n.18, 352 nA9 Crazy Horse, Chief of the Oglala Communist Information Bureau Sioux, 127 (Cominform), 220, 223, 239, 247, Crete, 211 353 nA Crimea, 104 Comoros, 361 n.l0 Crimean War (185~), 40, 92, 94, 105, computer, 77, 150 343 n.14 Concord, Battle of (see Lexington and Croatia, 168, 247, 248, 250, 324, 345 Concord) n.34, 350 n.26 Condorcet, Marie Jean Marquis de, Crompton, Samuel, 148 142 Cromwell, Oliver, 31 Confucianism, 15, 17, 19, 56, 61, 82, Cuba, 3, 83, 117, 118, 131, 132, 221, 89, 95, 96, 183, 334 n.9, 335 ch.2 225, 226, 231, 240, 253-6 passim, n.ll 260, 261, 264, 283, 354 n.8, 355 Confucius, 334 n.7 ch.18 n.l, 356 n.7, 357 n.12, n.15 Congo (see also Zaire), 50, 53, 226, Cuban missile crisis, 223, 224, 260, 230, 279, 331 276,280 Congo River, 48, 336 n.3 Curie, Irene, 341 n.12 Congress of Mantua (1459~0), 7 Curie, Marie, 341 n.12 Connecticut, 121 Curie, Pierre, 341 n.12 conquistadors, 113-16 Custer, George, 127 Constance, Council of (1414-17), 24 Cuzco, 115 Constantine, Byzantine Emperor, 8 Cyprus, 106, 279, 304, 331 Constantinople (Istanbul), 8, 10, 99, Cyrenaica, 53 100, 106, 163, 191 Czech Republic, 246 Constantinople Agreement, (1915), Czechoslovakia, 165, 168, 175, 207, 163 216, 224, 226, 239, 241, 244, 246, constitutionalism, 31 250, 331, 349 n.ll, 350 n.28, 351 containment policy (see Truman n.38 Doctrine) Continental Congresses (1774 and D-Day (1944), 213 1775), 124 Daghestan, 92 Cook Islands, 69 Dahomey, 47, 52 Cook, James, 67, 79 Daimler, Gottlieb, 342 n.20 Coolidge, Calvin, 253 Daladier, Edouard, 350 n.17 coolie labour, 83 Dalai Lama, 299, 347 n.2 Copenhagen Declaration of Dallas, 280 Neutrality (1938), 209 Dalmatia, 345 n.34 Copernicus, Nicolaus, 18, 54, 136, 137, Daman, 63 138, 145, 151, 337 ch.5 n.2, 341 Damascus, 197, 305 n.8 Danish-Prussian War (1864), 42 copper, 20, 21, 44, 77, 261, 263, 265, Danton, Georges Jacques, 36 356 n.7 Danube River, 106 Copts, 46, 322 Danzig, 165 Coral Sea, Battle of the (1942), 213 Daoism (see Taoism) C6rdoba,9 Daoud, Mohammed, 311 Cort, Henry, 148 Darby, Abraham, 148 Cortes, Hernando, 113, 114, 115 Dardanelles (Turkish Straits), 94, 104, Corunna, Battle of (1809), 39 105, 163, 191, 303 Costa Rica, 357 n.ll, 358 n.25 Darwin, Charles, 1, 144, 177 Index 377

Dawes and Young Plans (1924, 1929), Dominican Republic, 132, 253, 254, 169, 346 n.38 255, 256, 260, 264, 281, 357 n.ll Dayton Peace Accord (1995), 248, 273 Don Quixote, 57 De Gaulle, Charles, 209, 213, 230, 273, Don River, 100, 103, 174 274,284, 292 Donne, John, 58 De Valera, Eamon, 345 n.35 Dorpat, 101 debt, 58, 169, 194, 226, 236, 255, 257, Dostoyevsky, Fyodor, 329 264-6, 268, 270, 282, 302, 319, Drake, Francis, 29 320. 358 n.23 Dreadnought, 160 Declaration of American Dresden, 210 Independence, 124 drought, 44, 175, 236, 326 decolonization (see Africa) DTA (see Democratic Turnhalle defence spending, 282, 312, 320, 327, Alliance Party) 344 n.19 Dulles, John Foster, 280 Delaware, 121 Duma (see Russia: Duma) Delhi, 13 Dunkirk, 209 democracy, 125, 132, 144, 168, 174, Durham Report (1839), 133 183, 205, 221, 232, 233, 234, 242, Dutch (see Netherlands) 244, 246, 250, 262, 264, 266, 270, Dutch Republic (see also 279, 290, 293, 318, 329 Netherlands), 33, 40 Democratic Turnhalle Alliance Party DzhugashviJi, Iosif Vissarionovich (DTA),231 (see Stalin) Deng Xiaoping, 297, 300 Denmark, 14,40,42,48,52, 156, 157, East India companies, 12, 33, 63, 90, 96 209, 269, 272, 351 n.38, 353 n.8, East Prussia, 324, 352 nA8 354 nA, 358 n.l East Rumelia, 106 Descartes, Rene, 139, 140, 142, 144, Eastern Orthodox Church (see 151, 337 n.14 Christianity) Deshima Island, 22 EC (see Eur~pean Community) D'Estaing, Valery Giscard, 274 Echeverria Alvarez, Luis, 267 detente, 225, 227, 240, 241, 280 ecology, 3, 319, 326 determinism, 177, 180, Economic and Monetary Union Dias, Bartolomeu, 46 (EMU),270 Diaz del Castillo, Bernal, 115 economic aid (see foreign aid) Diaz, Porfirio, 357 n.15 economic power, 3, 315, 329 Diderot, Denis, 142 economic sanctions, 3, 187, 260, 345 Diem, Ngo Dinh, 292 n.29, 354 n.8 Dien Bien Phu, 292 economics, 1, 3, 49, 115, 179, 316, 322, Diesel, Rudolf, 342 n.20 326, 328, 332, 347 n.15 diesel engine (see industrial Ecuador, 114, 119, 262, 264, 265, 355 technology) ch.18 n.l, 356 n.l, 357 n.ll, 358 disarmament, 185, 206, 345 n.27, n.29 n.24, n.26, 360 n.23 'discoveries', 58 Edict of Nantes (1598), 28 disease, 17, 47, 48, 67, 74, 75, 106, Edirne (see Adrianople) 114, 115, 117, 122, 143, 144, 162, education, 39, 72, 86, 92, 103, 142, 170, 236, 238, 316, 335 ch.3 n.13, 192, 194, 233, 251, 276, 301, 302, 338 n.l0, 340 n.6, 345 n.29 320, 362 n.12 Diu, 63 EEC (see European Economic Djibouti, 230, 361 n.l0 Community) Dnieper River, 103 egalitarianism, 80, 318 Dodecanese Islands, 163 Egypt, 50, 51, 78, 94, 158, 168, 201, 212, Dollfuss, Engelbert, 206 226, 228, 234, 273, 275, 279, 281, domestic animals, diffusion of, 76 282, 299, 305, 308, 311, 312, 314, Dominica, 358 n.28 322, 327, 334 n.6, 345 n.36, 361 n.10 378 Index

Einstein, Albert, 144, 145, 151, 341 Asian trade, 81 n.l0, n.ll balance of power, 42 Eire (see also Ireland), 350 n.2O China, 19 Eisenhower, Dwight D., 213, 223, 'l:J7, civilization, 54, 56, 61, 72, 73, 80 280,284,298,320 investment, 75 EI Alamein, Battle of (1942), 212, 350 migration, 73, 270, 272, 312 n.32 Muslim invasions, 23 EI Salvador, 226, 261, 267, 357 n.ll, population, 74 358 n.25 unemployment, 170, 270, 'l:J7 Elba, 39, 40 European Coal and Steel Community, Elbe River, 213 269 electricity, 77, 146, 150, European Community (EC), 269, 270, Elizabeth I, Queen of England, 28, 272, 274, 276, 278 29, 31, 33, 335 n.6 European Economic Community Elizabeth II, Queen of England, 284 (EEC), 235, 264, 269, 272, 274, encyclicals (see papal encyclicals) 277,328 energy (see electricity, nuclear power, European Free Trade Association steam power) (EFTA), 269, 328, 362 n.13 Engels, Friedrich, 176 European Parliamentary Assembly, England (see also Britain), 20, 24, 25, 269 28, 29, 30, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 47, European Union (EU), 270, 276, 277, 57, 90, 93, 106, 116, 121, 138, 178, 279, 302, 328, 362 n.13 335 ch.2 n.12, n.14, 337 ch.5 nA, Ewe, 237 ch.6 n.2, 338 n.9, 344 n.22 exploration, 48, 64, 67, 113, 120 English Channel, 31, 38, 40, 276 Eylau, Battle of (1807), 38 English Civil War (1642-8), 31, 36 English East India Company, 12, 63, Fahd, King of Saudi Arabia, 312 96 Faisal I, King of Iraq, 197, 198, 201 Enlightenment, Age of, 19, 104, 111, Faisal II, King of Iraq, 309 124, 141-4, 167, 177, 316, 329, 343 Faisal, King of Saudi Arabia, 312 n.18 Falklands War (1982), 261, 262, 276, Entente Cordiale (1904), 51, 154 331 Erasmus, Desiderius, 25, 54 famine, 17, 74, 83, 91, 130, 143, 175, Erbakan, Necmettin, 304 188, 234, 236, 296, 316, 339 ch.7 Erhard, Ludwig, 272 nA Eritrea, 52 Faraday, Michael, 144, 341 n.ll Erivan, 12 fascism, 168, 170, 203, 204, 317, 349 Esperanto, 161 nA Estonia, 168, 174, 349 n.l1, n.13, 351 Fashoda, 49, 52 n.38, 355 nA Faulkner, William, 4 ethics, 1, 2, 3, 15, 21, 23, 24, 27, 29, feminism, 346 nA2 50, 84, 133, 138, 142, 151, 179, Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria, 165 189, 204, 224, 281, 282, 299, 316, Ferdinand II, King of Aragon, 9 324,330,331,332,362 n.19, n.25, Ferrara, 54, 337 ch.5 n.2 338 n.7 feudalism, 7, 24, 86, 119 Ethiopia (see also Abyssinia), 46, 51, Fiji, 69 52, 204, 228, 233, 237, 238, 316 Finland, 40, 105, 168, 174, 182, 269, ethnic cleansing, 2 'l:J7, 279, 344 n.26, 346 n.42, 349 Euclid, 18, 137 n.ll, n.13 Euler, Leonhard, 56 WWII, 207, 209, 210, 216, 218, 351 Eupen-Malmedy, 165 n.38 Europe, 7, 47, 5~2, 123, 149, 169, Flanders, 30, 324 170,269-79 Flemings (see Flanders, also Belgium) agriculture, 130 Florence, 31, 54 Index 379

Florida, 121, 122, 125 post-WWII, 221 flying shuttle, 148 postwar imperialism, 219 Foch, Ferdinand, 175 science, 141 food crops, diffusion of, 17, 75, 147, southeast Asia, 97--8, 213 338 n.9 Syria, 305 Ford, Gerald, 281 Treaty of Versailles, 170 Ford, Henry, 149 Tunisia, 52 foreign aid, 235, 279, 280, 358 n.22, Turkey, 193 360 n.22 West Africa, 230 Formosa (see also Taiwan), 22, 83, 87 WWI, 153-71, 344 n.21 Four Power Agreement on Berlin WWII, 203-18, 351 n.38 (1971), 227 Francis I, King of France, 25 Four Power Pacific Treaty (1922), 185 Franco, Francisco, 207, 222, 278 Fra Angelico, 55 Franco-Prussian War (1870), 158 France, 7, 14, 19, 24, 28, 29, 30-43 Franco-Russian Alliance (1894), 154 passim, 56, 57, 59, 85, 95, 104, 105, Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of 106, 107, 110, 116, 120, 138, 146, Austria, 153 150, 161, 165, 169, 171, 175, 178, Franz Joseph I, Emperor of Austria, 225, 230, 258, 269, 272, 273, 275, 110 299, 308, 335 ch.3 n.13, n.14, 336 free trade (see trade) n.15, n.17, 338 n.9, 340 n.15, 343 freedom of religion (see religion) n.12, n.14, n.17, 345 n.33, 346 freedom of the seas, 33 n.42, 347 n.7, 349 n.14, 350 n.18, French Revolution (see France) 353 n.8, n.12, 358 n.l, 362 n.14 Freud, Sigmund, 177 Africa, 48, 50, 51-3, 228 Friedland, Battle of (1807), 38 Algeria, 51 Friedrich I, King of Prussia, 35 Arab-Israeli war (1956), 228 Friedrich II, King of Prussia, 35, 362 army, 335 ch.3 n.13 n.19 Catholicism, 28 Friedrich Wilhelm I, King of Prussia, China, 82, 83, 84 35, 103 colonial expansion, 97 Friendly and Savage Islands, 69 Communist Party, 348 n.13 Frobisher, Martin, 120 conScription, 159 Fujimori, Alberto, 262, 265, 266 Crimean War, 40, 94, 105, 106 East India company, 63, 96 Gabon, 360 n.23 Equatorial Africa, 230 Gadsden Purchase (1853), 128 French Revolution (1789-99), 32, Galen, 137, 139 33, 36, 37, 104, 111, 117, 125, Galicia, 40, 162 144, 162, 329 Galileo Galilei, 54, 136, 137, 138, 151, India, 63 337 ch.5 n.2, 341 n.7, n.8 Indo-China, 79, 187, 190, 211, 239, Gallipoli, 8 273, 292, 297 Gallipoli, Battle of (1915), 67, 163, 191 industry, 150 Gama, Vasco da, 5, 46, 59, 80, 96 interwar years, 205 Gambia, 51, 234 Japan, 185 Gandhi, Indira, 288 Latin America, 251, 255 Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand, 3, Middle East, 163, 168, 169, 196-7, 188, 189, 286, 333 ch.l n.2 201 Gandhi, Rajiv, 288 Napoleonic wars, 37-40, 64 Gang of Four, 297 North America, 120-2, 123, 125 Garibaldi, Guiseppe, 41 Ottoman Empire, 191 Gaza, 306 Pacific Ocean, 69 General Agreement on Tariffs and population, 32, 37, 74, 277, 335 ch.2 Trade (GATT), 280, 299 n.12, 339 ch.8 n.5 genetic engineering, 150 380 Index

Geneva Accords (1954), 292 Poland,207 Geneva Conference on Trade (1927), population, 210, 273 257 post-WWII, 219 Geneva Convention (1897), 352 n.42 Reichstag elections, 205 Genghiz Khan (see Temujin) reunification, 246, 272, 273 Genoa, 31 Second Empire, 42-43 Genoa Conference (1922), 205 southwest Asia, 110 genocide, 171, 181, 214, 216, 248, 352 war crimes trials, 215 n.46 West Germany, 221, 227, 264, 269, Gentz, Friedrich von, 123 272 George III, King of England, 20 WWI, 153-65, 344 n.21 George, David Lloyd, 164 WWII, 203-218, 351 n.38 George, Henry, 319 Ghana, 78, 230, 235, 237, 336 ch.4 n.l Georgia, 92, 174, 175, 324, 355 n.4 Ghazi, King of Iraq, 198 Georgia (US), 121 Ghilzai Afghans, 12 German Confederation, 40 Gibraltar, 8, 278 German East Africa, 49, 354 n.4 Gilchrist-Thomas basic steel process, German South West Africa, 50, 354 150 n.3 glasnost, 242 German-Soviet Pact (1939), 207 global economy (see international Germany, 4, 25, 28, 35, 36, 41, 42, 94, economy) 106, 108, 110, 149, 162, 168, 169, globalism, 4, 63, 73, 78, 177, 259, 312, 174, 175, 178, 182, 186, 187, 188, 328,329 197, 206, 225, 227, 250, 254, 255, Goa,S, 63, 288 258, 272-3, 274, 303, 304, 317, Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 61 322, 324, 336 ch.5 n.l, 340 n.15, Golan Heights, 305 343 n.12, n.17, 344 n.22, n.24, gold (see precious metals) n.25, 345 n.33, 350 n.18, n.21, 352 Gold Coast (see also Ghana), 46, 51, n.48, n.49, 353 n.2, 354 n.3, 358 228,230 n.21, 360 n.22, 361 n.8, 362 n.14 gold standard, 86, 131, 169, 257, 340 Afghanistan, 195 n.14 Africa, 48, 50, 52 Gomulka, Wladyslaw, 239 Africa Corps, 211 Gonzalez, Felipe, 278 army, 211, 212, 350 n.31 Good Neighbor Policy (1933), 256 Boer War, 50 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 227, 241, 242, Bolshevik Revolution, 179 244, 246, 282, 330, 355 n.3 China, 84 Goree, 122 Communist Party, 205 Goulart, Joao, 262, 264 conscription, 159 Granada, 9 Democratic Republic, 221, 272, 353 Great Britain (see Britain) n.l0 Great Depression (1929-33), 170, 192, East Germany, 216, 220, 227, 244, 205,349 n.7 272,273 Great Lakes, 133 Federal Republic, 221, 272, 353 n.8 Great Northern War (1700-21), 29, Great Depression, 170, 349 n.7 103 Greater Germany, 42 Greater Colombia, 119 industry, 150 Greece, 9, 41, 94, 154, 171, 191, 192, interwar years, 203, 204, 205, 207 193, 216, 220, 226, 250, 272, 277, migration, 73 278, 279, 280, 304, 324, 329, 342 Morocco, 52 n.3, 343 n.14, 350 n.28, 352 n.50, Napoleonic wars, 37 353 n.8 navy, 161, 163 migration, 73 Pacific Ocean, 69, 88 WWI, 154, 344 n.21 Persia, 92 WWII, 210, 211, 351 n.38 Index 381

Greenwich Royal Observatory, 141 Havel, Vaclav, 246 Gregorian calendar, 346 n.7 Hawaii, 131, 211 Grenada, 132,226,261, 282, 283, 357 Hawkins, John, 29 n.ll, 358 n.28 Hay, John, 131 Grey, Sir Edward, 153, 157 Hay-Pauncefote treaty (1901), 251 Grotius, Hugo, 1, 33 Hazen, Abu Ali al-, 137 Group of Eight (G-8), 328, 362 n.14 Hebron, 308 Guadalcanal, Battle of (1942), 212, 213 Hegel, Georg W. F., 176, 338 n.13 Guadeloupe, 116, 122 Hein, Piet, 4 Guadalupe Hidalgo, Treaty of (1848), Heisenberg, Werner, 145 127 Helgoland, 52, 354 nA Guam, 131 Helsinki Conference (1973-5), 227, Guantanamo Bay, 253 281, 330 Guatemala, 114, 119, 259, 260, 356 Henry the NaVigator, 56, 113 n.7, 357 n.ll, 358 n.25 Henry VII, King of England, 31 guerrilla war, 50 Henry VIII, King of England, 7, 25 Guevara, Ernesto 'Che', 260 Heraclitus, 2 Guinea, 47, 51, 226, 228, 230 Herat, 92, 93 Guinea-Bissau, 278 Herodotus, 1 Gujral, Inder Kumar, 291 Herzegovina (see Bosnia and Gulf of Finland, 103 Herzegovina) Gulf of Mexico, 33, 121, 253 Herzl, Theodor, 198 Gulf of St Lawrence, 120 Hindenburg, Paul von, 205 Gulf War (1991), 224, 276, 283, 304, Hinduism, 9, 13, 14, 56, 61, SO, 91, 95, 305, 308, 309, 310, 321, 327, 331 188, 189, 286, 324 gunboat diplomacy, 97 Hindustan, 13 gunpowder, 16, 116, Hippocrates, 137 Gustavus II Adolphus, King of Hiroshima, 188, 214 Sweden, 101, 103 Hispanic America (see Latin America) Gutenberg, Johannes, 88, 341 n.3 Hispaniola, 113 Guyana, 358 n.28 history, 1, 4, 5, 176, 179, 180, 218, 250, 333 Preface n.l, ch.l n.3 Habibullah Ghazi, 195 Hitler, Adolf, 165, 182, 203, 204, 205, Habsburgs, 28, 35, 171 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 213, 216, Hague Convention (1899), 352 nA2 218, 220, 250, 270, 317, 345 n.30, Hague Court (see International Court 349 n.9, 350 n.28 of Justice) Hizbollah, 306 Hague Peace Conference (1907), 163 Ho Chi Minh, 190, 292, 348 n.13 Hague Peace Conferences (1899), 161 Hoare, Samuel, 350 n.t7 Hahn, Otto, 341 n.12 Hobbes, Thomas, 2 Haifa, 198 Hobson, J. A., 158, 159 Haiti, 117, 123, 132, 253, 254, 255, 256, Hohenzollern, 35, 171 260, 357 n.ll holism, 151 hajira, 333 ch 2 n.2 Holland (see also Netherlands), 22, 28, Halifax, Edward, 350 n.17 32,337 n.5 Hamah,305 holocaust (see Judaism) Hamas, 306 Holy Alliance 2 Hamburg, 210 Holy League (1495), 2, 10 Hanoi, 348 n.13 Holy Roman Empire, 23, 24, 25, 35, Harding, Warren G., 253 40, 333 ch.2 n.1 Hargreaves, James, 148 Honduras, 253, 264, 356 n.7, 357 n.ll, Harvey, William, 139 358 n.25 Hashemites, 200, 308 Hong Kong, 91, 211, 285, 315, 339 Havana, 122 ch.7 n.3, 361 n.9 382 Index

Hoover, Herbert, 165, 256 308-9, 322-4, 342 n.3, 345 n.35, Hope-Simpson, Sir John, 200 n.36, 347 n.2, n.7, 349 n.ll, 354 Howard, John, 314 n.13, 355 nA Hua Guofeng, 297 Index of Prohibited Books, 138, 140 Hubertusburg, Peace of (1763), 36 India, 3, 5, 7, 8, 13, 14, 32, 34, 59, 60, Hudson, Henry, 121 63, 64, 75, 79, 80, 81, 85, 87, 90-2, Hudson River, 121 108, 110, 184, 188-9, 223, 225, Hudson's Bay, 122 226, 228, 240, 275, 286, 287-9, Hue, Robert, 275 290, 291, 299, 317, 324, 327, 330, Huguenots, 28 348 n.ll, 354 n.15, 361 nA human rights, 3, 72, 234, 241, 244, agriculture, 91 261, 267, 281, 282, 298, 299, 327, British rule, 90 330, 362 n.20 Congress Party, 188, 189, 286, 359 humanism, 136, 167, 321 n.l Humboldt, Alexander von, 79 Government of India Act (1919), Hume, Allan, 348 n.ll 188, (1935), 189 Hume, David, 142, 343 n.9 independence, 188, 189 Hungary, 10, 41, 168, 213, 216, 218, Indian Civil Service, 90 220, 223, 226, 244, 246, 324, 331, industrialization, 169, 296 345 n.28, 349 n.l0, n.ll, 351 n.38, Mutiny, 90 353 n.l0 National Congress, 188, 348 n.ll Huss, Jan, 24, 25 population, 286, 288 Hussein, grandson of the Prophet railways, 91 Mohammed, 334 n.3 western culture, 91 Hussein, King of Jordan, 308, 309 WWI,168 Hussein, Saddam, 309, 322 Indian Ocean, 5, 16,44,46, 47, 64, 96, Hussein, Sherif of Mecca, 197, 198, 241,337 n.7 200, 201, 345 n.36 Indians of America (see American Hutus, 216 Indians) hydrogen bomb, 220, 221, 274, 276, individualism, 55, 61, 73 298 Indo-China (see also France: Indo• China), 79, 83, 187, 190,211,273, Ibn Hazm, 9 292,297 Ibn Rushd (Averroes), 9 Indonesia, 20, 63, 95, 96, 97, 187, 190, lbo, 237, 324 288, 294, 295, 299, 300, 313, 315, Iceland, 269, 353 n.8 317, 331, 359 n.15, 360 n.23, 361 ideas and beliefs, 2-4, 5, 36, 49, 61, n.9, n.ll 72,73,75, 77, 80, 111, 141, 142, Industrial Revolution, 47, 55, 57, 60, 183, 238, 332, 341 n.6, n.8, 343 76, 86, 91, 112, 136, 146, 148, 149, n.18, 353 n.l, 152, 176, 178, 179, 317 IMF (see International Monetary industrial technology, 76, 77, 148, Fund) 150, 192, Immigration Quota Acts (1921-4), 186 industrialization, 76, 77, 107, 169, 184, imperialism, 22, 49, 69, 133, 158, 159, 239, 241, 255, 263, 288, 296 181, 231, 235, 286 INF (see Intermediate-Range Nuclear Imphal,213 Forces) inanimate energy, 146, 150 Inner Mongolia, 297, 347 n.l Incas, 79, 113, 114, 115, 116 Inquisition, 337 n.5 Inchon (see Chemulpo) Inter-American Development Bank, independence movements, 79, 83, 88, 265 95, 117-19, 124, 129, 163, 168, Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces 171, 174, 184, 188-202, 228-38, (INF) Treaty (1987), 242, 282 240, 242-4, 247, 248, 259, 273, internal combustion engine 278, 284, 286, 289, 291-4, 305, (see industrial technology) Index 383

International Conference of 187, 265, 312, 342 n.16, 347 n.14, Communist Parties (1960), 298 356 n.7, International conferences of Iron Curtain, 218 American States (see Pan Isabella I, Queen of Castile, 9 American conferences) Isfahan, 12 international corporation, 4, 318, 328 Islam, 8, 10, 13, 14, 95, 107, 275, 286, International Court of Justice 2, 362 295, 314, 320, 321, 324, 329, 333 n.21 ch.2 n.l, n.2, 334 n.3 international economy, 78, 318, 320 Afghanistan, 195, 310 international investment, 75, 120, 134, Africa, 44 158, 159, 169, 233, 236, 255, 257, Europe, 8 263, 266, 279, 289, 300, 302, 313, fundamentalism, 234 354 n.ll, 356 n.6, 357 n.17 India, 188, 189 international law, 1, 3, 41, 208, 216, Indonesia, 295 324, 327, 331, 362 n.21 Iran, 310 International Monetary Fund (1M F), Koran, 333 ch.2 n.2 235, 265, 275, 280, 328, 358 n.29 Lebanon, 197 international relations, 1, 36, 324, 330, mujaheddin, 290 362 n.20 North Africa, 46 international trade (see trade) Pakistan, 290 International Union of American Persia, 194 Republics (see Pan American Saudi Arabia, 311 Union) Shi'ism, 12, 306, 310, 321, 334 n.3 International Workingmen's slavery, 47 Association (First International, socialism, 228 1864), 343 n.18, (see also Sunnism, 12, 13, 201, 334 Internationals) Turkey, 192, 303, 304 internationalism, 180, 328, 343 n.18 Wahabi, 201, 311 Internationals Islamic Common Market (ICM), 328 First (see International Ismail I, Shah of Persia, 12 Workingmen's Association) Israel (see also Arab-Israeli wars, Second (Socialist International, Camp David Accord, Judaism, 1889), 161, 343 n.18 Palestine), 169, 199, 214, 218, 223, Third (Communist International or 225, 228, 274, 275, 280, 281, 283, Comintern, 1919), 175, 343 n.18 299, 304, 305, 306, 308, 309, 312, Fourth (1938), 181 320, 321, 322, 327, 360 n.21, n.22, intifadah, 306 n.24 Iqbal, Muhammad, 289 German reparations, 218 Iran (see also Persia), 195, 226, 280, immigration, 306 281, 299, 309, 310, 312, 314, 321, Lebanon, 305-6 322, 324, 331, 334 n.3, 353 n.13, nuclear potential, 225 360 n.23, 362 n.15 population, 360 n.21 Iran-Iraq War (1980-8), 309 statehood, 305 Iraq, 3, 9, 12, 168, 182, 192, 193, 194, US aid, 360 n.22 196, 197, 198, 201, 226, 283, 304, Italy, 9, 30, 40-3 passim, 57, 104, 106, 309, 310, 311, 312, 314, 320, 322, 138, 168, 170, 175, 187, 188, 192, 324, 326, 331, 334 n.3, 353 n.13, 218, 246, 269, 272, 276-7, 336 ch.5 354 ch.15 n.13, ch.16 n.8, 360 n.1, 340 n.15, 343 n.14, 347 n.7, n.20, n.23, 361 n.l0 350 n.33, 352 n.40, 353 n.8, 358 Ireland, 73, 74, 168, 269, 358 n.1 n.1, 362 n.14 Republic of Ireland Act (1949), 345 Abyssinia, 206 n.35 Africa, 52, 53, 228 Irian Jaya, 295 army, 211 iron, 44, 47, 146, 147, 148, 156, 169, fascism, 348 nA 384 Index

Italy - continued Jericho, 306 interwar years, 203, 204, 207 Jerusalem, 137, 308, 321 migration, 73, 120 Jesuits (see Society of Jesus) Napoleonic wars, 37 Jews (see Judaism) population, 277 Jiang Qing, 359 n.12 post-WWII, 221 Jiang Zemin, 299, 300 science, 141 Jihad-al Islami, 306 Treaty of Versailles, 170 Jinnah, Mohammed Ali, 189,286 WWI, 154, 156, 163, 164, 344 n.21 Joan of Arc, 30 WWII, 193, 207, 351 n.3 Joao VI, King of Portugal, 118 Istanbul (see Constantinople) John Paul II, Pope, 3, 321, 347 n.15 Iturbide, Agustin de, Emperor of Johnson, Lyndon B., 225, 260, 261, Mexico, 119 281,292 Ivan III, grand prince of Moscow, Joliot, Frederic, 341 n.12 100, 101 Jolliet, Louis, 120 Ivan IV, Tsar of Russia, 101 Jordan (see also Trans-Jordan), 305, Ivory Coast, 46, 51 306,308,309,311,320,361 n.l0 Iwo Jima, 214, 353 n.ll Joseph, Chief of the Nez Perce, 128 Jospin, Lionel, 275 Jahangir, Mogul Emperor, 13 Juan Carlos, King of Spain, 222, 278 Jakarta (see Batavia) Juarez, Benito Pablo, 120 Jamaica, 116, 261, 357 n.ll, 358 n.28 Judaism, 56, 320, 321 James I, King of England, 335 n.6 holocaust, 199, 214, 218 James II, King of England, 32 Jews, 9, 33, 39, 73, 169, 198, 199, Jamestown, 47, 121 200, 205, 207, 214, 306, 320, 337 Japan, 14, 17, 20-22, 39, 81, 84-8, 108, n.5, 348 n.16, 360 n.22, 361 n.l0 112, 131, 175, 182, 185-8, 190, Julian calendar, 346 n.7 201, 219, 222, 225, 227, 256, 258, Jutland, Battle of (1916), 163 264, 280, 286, 289, 291, 294, 295, 296, 299, 300, 301, 302, 303, 313, K'ang-hsi, Emperor of China, 19 316, 317, 322, 334 n.6, 340 n.15, Kabila, Laurent, 234 343 n.14, 347 n.l, n.7, 348 n.7, Kamchatka Peninsula, 107 n.8, 350 n.30, 351 n.35, n.37, 353 Kampuchea (see Cambodia) n.ll, 358 n.22, 360 n.27, 361 n.8, Kant, Immanuel, 142, 362 n.25 n.9, 362 n.14 Karbala, 334 n.3 China, 83, 84, 184, 185, 302 Karelia, 239 Co-prosperity Sphere, 187 Karlowitz, Treaty of (1699), 10 East Asia, 107-8 Karmal, Babra!<, 311 industrialization, 169 Kashmir, 286, 288, 289, 290, 291, 324, interwar years, 207 331 Korea, 88-90 Katyn Forest massacre, 215 political assassinations, 185 Kaunda, Kenneth, 228 population, 186, 302, 335 ch.2 n.12 Kay, John, 148 Versailles Treaty, 168, 170 Kazakhstan, 240, 324, 355 nA war crimes trials, 215, 352 nAl Kazan, 101 WWI, 154, 164, 183, 344 n.21 Keating, Paul, 314 WWII, 208-18, 351 n.38 Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928), 186, 215, Jaspers, Karl, 333 ch.l n.3, 338 n.13 362 n.18 Jaures, Jean, 161 Kemal Atatiirk, Mustapha, 171, 191, Java, 96 192, 193, 304 Jebel Druse, 197 Kennan, George F., 353 n.5 Jefferson, Thomas, 125, 283 Kennedy, J.P., 349 n.15 Jena, Battle of (1806), 38 Kennedy, John F., 224, 260, 261, 263, Jerba, 336 n.2 264, 276, 280 Index 385

Kenya, 51, 226, 228, 230, 237 La Plata Basin Group, 265 Kenyatta, Jomo, 228, 230 La Salle, Rene de, 121 Kepler, Johannes, 136, 137, 151, 341 Lafayette, MarqUiS de, 124 n.8 LAFTA (see Latin American Free Kerensky, Aleksandr, 173 Trade Association) Ketteler, Bishop Wilhelm von, 178 Lagos, 51 Keynes, John Maynard, 179 laissez-faire, 147 Khan, Ayub, 290 Lake Urmia, 12 Khan, Yahya, 290 Lansdowne, H.C.K., 93 Khattami, Mohammed, 310 Lao People's Democratic Republic, Khiva, 108 294 Khmer Empire, 95 Laos, 95, 97, 190, 216, 281, 292, 293, Khmer Rouge, 293 294, 295, 299 Khomeini, Ayatollah, 310, 321 Lao-tzu, 337 n.12 Khrushchev, Nikita, 223, 224, 240, Laplace, Pierre Simon de, 5 241, 280, 298, 355 ch.17 n.l Latin America, 40, 47, 74, 75, 113-20, Kiakhta, Treaty of (1727), 20 132, 152, 168, 181, 208, 235, 251- Kiev, 99, 100, 101, 175 68, 282, 288, 315, 317, 321, 329, Kim il-Sung, 303 356 n.3, n.6, 357 n.15, n.17, 358 Kim Jong II, 303 n.20, 360 n.28 Kim YungSam, 303 Latin American Free Trade King-Crane Commission, 196 Association (LAFTA), 265, 358 Kissinger, Henry, 281 n.24 Klerk, F. W. de, 232 Latvia, 168, 174, 349 n.U, n.13, 351 Knox, John, 27 n.38 Kohl, Helmuth, 273 Lauenburg, 40 Kokand,108 Lausanne Conference (1932), 346 n.38 Kokoda Trail, 213 Lausanne, Treaty of (1923), 171, 191, Kongo,46 192,345 n.28 Korea (see also South Korea, North Laval, Pierre, 350 n.17 Korea), 17, 20, 82, 83, 87, 88, 90, Lavoisier, Antoine, 141 107, 128, 168, 219, 222, 223, 226, League of Armed Neutrality, 104, 125 240, 284, 300, 302, 327 League of Nations, 3, 165, 168, 182, Korean War (1950-3), 221, 222, 275, 183, 186, 193, 196, 197, 198, 206, 297, 280, 296, 302, 331, 360 n.2 255,256,258,259,345 n.27, n.28, Kornilov, Lavr Georgievich, 173 n.29, 349 n.9, n.13, 356 n.8 Kosovo, 247, 248 League of the Three Emperors, 42 Kosygin, Aleksei, 224, 240 Lebanon, 168, 197, 199, 282, 305, 306, Kriangsak Chomanan, 294 311, 312, 322, 360 n.2O, 361 n.l0 'Kristallnacht', 207 Lee Teng-hui, 301 Kublai Khan, 15 Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 19 Kulikovo, 100 Leipzig, Battle of (1813), 39 Kunersdorf, Battle of (1759), 35 Lend-Lease Act (1941), 211 Kuomintang (Guomindang) Party, 84, Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich, 108, 158, 159, 184 172rli passim, 180, 181, 203, 223, Kurdistan, 12 317, 343 n.13, 344 n.18 Kurds, 192, 194, 216, 304, 309, 310, Leningrad (see also Petrograd, 322, 324, 326, 361 n.5 St Petersburg), 212 Kurile Islands, 87, 215, 219 Lenoir, Etienne, 342 n.20 Kursk-Orel,212 Leo X, Pope, 335 n.4 Kuwait, 78, 283, 299, 309, 312, 314, Leo XIII, Pope, 347 n.15 360 n.23, 361 n.l0 Leonardo da Vinci, 54 Kwangju, 359 n.15 Leopold II, King of Belgium, 53, 72 Kyrgyzstan, 324, 355 n.4, 362 n.15 Lepanto, Battle of (1571), 10 386 Index

Levesque, Rene, 284 Macartney, George, 20 Lewis, Meriwether, 127 MacDonald, Ramsey, 350 no17 Lexington and Concord, battles of Macedonia, 94, 247, 248, 279, 342 no3, (1775), 124 355 nolO Leyte Gulf, Battle of (1944), 214 Machiavelli, Niccola, 2, 35, 54, 330 Liaotung Peninsula, 87, 88, 108 machine gun (see weaponry) liberalism, 36 Macmillan, Harold, 230, 275, 276 Liberia, 49, 53, 78, 234, 237, 238, 316 Madagascar, 50, 52 Libya, 3, 49, 50, 52, 211, 226, 228, 237, Madras, 92 282, 322, 354 no8, 360 no23, 361 Magellan, Ferdinand, 5, 96 nolO Magna Carta (1215), 60 Liechtenstein, 269 Magyars, 23 Lima, 117 Mahdi, Muhammad Ahmad al-, 50, Lin Piao, 297 51 Lincoln, Abraham, 130, 340 noll Maimonides, 9 Lindbergh, Charles, 349 no15 maize (see food crops, diffusion of) Linne, Karl von, 141 Major, John, 276 Lisbon, 59 Malacca, 95, 96, 97 Lithuania, 100, 101, 165, 168, 174, 207, Malacca Strait, 16, 96 244, 349 noll, no13, 351 no38 Malan, Daniel Fo, 232 Little Bighorn, Battle of the (1876), Malawi, 233, 234 127,129 Malay Peninsula, 95 Livingstone, David, 48, 336 no3 Malaya (see also Malaysia), 190, 211, Livonian War (1557-1582), 101 239, 291, 297 Locamo treaties (1925), 205, 207 Malaysia, 291, 295, 300, 360 no27, 361 Locke, John, 36, 124, 142 no9, noll Lome Conventions (1975),235 Malenkov, Georgi, 240 London, 34, 163, 210 Mali, 336 ch.4 nol London, Convention of (1814), 336 Malta, 335 no14 no7 Malthus, Thomas, 143, 326 London Naval Treaty (1930), 185 Malvinas (see also Falklands War), 261 Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon, 341 nolO Manchu Dynasty, 17, 20, 83, 84, 85, Los Angeles, 116 88,89,107 Louis XIV, King of France, 32, 103, Manchukuo, 184 121, 156 Manchuria, 82, 87, 88, 90, 107, 108, Louis XVI, King of France, 37, 97, 104 128, 184, 214, 251, 296, 347 nol Louisiana Purchase (1803), 125 mandarin, 15, 17, 149 Louisiana Territory, 121, 122, 125 Mandela, Nelson, 232, 354 no9 Loyalty Islands, 69 Manhattan Island, 121 Loyola, Ignatius de, 27, 334 no9 manifest destiny (see United States) Luanda, 46 Manifesto of Arab Nationalism (1914), Luba,46 196 Lucca, 31 Manitoba, 134 Lumumba, Patrice, 228 Mann, Thomas, 167 Lunda, 46 Manoel I, King of Portugal, 29 Lushun (see Port Arthur) Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung), 62, 84, Lusitania, 164, 344 no24 184, 291, 296, 297, 298, 318, 347 Luther, Martin, 3, 25, 27, 28, 54, 145, no6, 359 no15 242 Maori, 69 Luxembourg, 269, 353 no8, 358 nol Marathas, 14 Marco Polo, 15, 137, 334 no6, 335 cho2 Maastricht, 270 nolO Macao, 20, 63 Marcos, Ferdinand, 295 MacArthur, Douglas, 213, 222 Marcus Islands, 353 noll Index 387

Marengo, 38 Medici,3 Maria Theresa, Empress of Austria, 35 medicine, 88, 139, 316, 338 n.9 Mariana, Caroline and Marshall Medina, 8, 311, 333 ch.2 n.2 islands, 156, 169, 215 Mediterranean Sea, 10, 38,44,46, 59, Marie Antoinette, Queen of France, 77,94,104,105,107,193,211, 37 212, 277, 303, 334 n.6 Marinids,9 Mehmet II, Ottoman Sultan, 8 maritime compass (see shipbuilding Meiji, Emperor of Japan, 85, 86 technology) Memel, 165, 207 Maritime Provinces of China, 82 Mendel, Gregor Johann, 144 market economy, 142, 175, 242, 246, Mendeleev, Dmitri, 144 347 n.15 Mensheviks, 346 n.3, n.4 Marlborough, Duke of, 37, 162 mercantilism, 59, 356 n.l Maronites, 322 Mercator, Gerardus, 341 n.4 Marquesas, 69 Mercosur, 266 Marquette, Pere Jacques, 121 mercury (see mining) Marshall, George, 353 n.6 Merv, 108, 110 Marshall Islands (see also Mariana, Mesopotamia, 168 Caroline and Marshall islands), Mesut Yilmaz 305 69 Metternich, Prince Klemens von, 353 Marshall Plan, 221, 226, 269, 353 n.6 n.l Martinique, 116, 122 Mexican War (1846-8), 127, 129 Marx, Karl, 1, 3, 145, 172, 176, 177, Mexico, 113, 114, 115, 117, 119, 123, 178, 179, 180, 181, 241, 296, 343 127, 129, 130, 132, 208, 253, 254, n.18 255, 258-66 passim, 299, 340 ch.9 Marxism, 158, 173, 174, 176, 178, 179, n.l0, 344 n.25, 355 ch.18 n.l, 356 180, 181, 231, 240, 261, 264, 347 n.l, n.5, n.6, 357 n.ll, n.15, 358 n.16 n.24, 361 n.9 Marxism-Leninism, 181, 230, 239, Mexico City, 114, 181, 259, 267 260,317 Meyer, Lothar, 144 Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, 27, 30, Michelangelo, 54, 61 335 n.6 Middle Ages, 5, 7, 9 Mary Tudor, Queen of England, 28 Middle East, 15, 163, 188, 197, 198, Maryland, 121 201, 202, 211, 214, 226, 303, 305, Mashona Revolt (1896), 51 306, 308-10, 311, 312, 317, 320, Massawa,52 321, 322, 329, 331, 361 n.4 Masurian Lakes, Battle of (1914), 162 Midway, Battle of (1942), 212, 213 Matabele Revolt (1896), 51 Midway Island, 131 materialism, 151, 181 migration, 35, 67, 73, 74, 75, 112, 186, mathematics, 55, 114, 137, 138, 139, 196, 272, 275, 277, 306, 312, 313, 140 319 Matsu Island, 280 Mikhail Romanov, Tsar of Russia, 101 Matteotti, Giacomo, 348 n.4 Milan, 31, 213 Maudslay, Henry, 148 minerals (see mining) Mauritania, 230, 235, 361 n.l0 Ming Dynasty, 14, 16, 17 Mauritius, 78, 234, 335 n.14 mining, 76, 77, 78, 147, 156, 169, 192, Maxwell, James Clerk, 341 n.l0 255, 263, 265, 313, 342 n.16, 347 Mayas, 79, 114, 116 n.14, 354 n.l0, 356 n.7 (see also Maybach, Wilhelm, 342 n.20 copper, iron, precious metals) Mazar-i-Sharif, 311 Minorca, 122 McKinley, William, 131 Mir Mahmud, 12 McMahon, Sir Henry, 345 n.36 Miranda, Francisco de, 118 meat, 67, 130, 313, Mischief Reef, 299 Mecca, 8, 311, 312, 321, 333 ch. 2 n.2 mission civilisatrice, 132 388 Index

Mississippi River, 121, 122, 125, 129 Mulroney, Brian, 284 Missouri River, 127 Munich Conference (1938), 182, 207 Mitterrand, Franc;ois, 274, 275 Muslim (see Islam) Mogul Empire, 13, 14, 59, 80 Muslim League, 188, 286, 289, 348 MoMcs, battles of (1526, 1687), 10, 13 n.12 Mohammed Ali, Shah of Persia, 93 Mussolini, Benito, 203, 204, 208, 210, Mohammed VI, Ottoman Sultan, 191 211, 212, 213, 317, 350 n.28, 348 Mohammed, the Prophet, 3, 179, 333 nA, 349 n.9 ch.2 n.2, 334 n.3 Muzaffar ud-Din, 93 Moldova, 355 nA Myanmar (see also Burma), 291, 295, molecular biology, 150 315 Moltke, Helmuth von, 342 n.2 Moluccas, 96, 294 Nablus, 308 Mongolia, 14, 17, 20, 108, 128, 221 Nadir Khan, Mohammed (see Nadir, Mongolian People's Republic, 347 n.2 Shah of Afghanistan) Mongols, 8, 14, 23, 60, 88, 100, 101, Nadir Shah, 12 334 nA, n.6, 339 n.2 Nadir, Shah of Afghanistan, 195, 196 Monnet, Jean, 269 NAFTA (see North American Free Monroe Doctrine, 118, 132, 224, 253, Trade Agreement) 256,260 Nagasaki, 21, 22, 188, 214 Monroe, James, 118, 356 n.3 NajibulJah, 311 Monserrat, 358 n.28 Namibia, 226, 231, 279 Montagu-Chelmsford Proposals Nanking, 184, 296 (1918), 188 Nanking Treaty (1842), 82 Montcalm, Louis de, 122 Naples, 31, 38, 41 Montejo, Francisco de, 114 Napoleon I, Emperor of France, 37, Montenegro, 94, 106, 154, 168, 247, 38, 39, 40, 77, 104, 105, 117, 118, 248, 342 n.3, 344 n.21, 345 n.34 156, 162, 210, 270, 339 ch.8 n.6, Monterey, 116 345 n.30 Montesquieu, Charles Louis de Napoleon III, Emperor of France, 41, Secondat, 142 130 Montevideo, Treaty of (1960), 358 Napoleonic wars, 37-9, 92, 118, 230, n.24 336 n.7 Montezuma, Aztec emperor, 115 narcotics (see trade: international Montreal, 120 drug trade) Moors, 28 Narva, 101, 103 morality (see ethics) Nasser, Gamal Abd al-, 228, 275, 298 Moresnet, 165 Natal,50 Morgenthau, Henry, 352 nA9 National Socialist (Nazi) German Moro, Aldo, 277 Workers Party, 204, 205, 206, 345 Moro National Liberation Front, 295 n.30 (see also Nazism) Morocco, 8, 9, 13, 49, 52, 53, 161, 228, nationalism, 7, 28, 29, 35, 36, 37, 53, 230, 322, 361 n.l0, 336 n.2 58, 80, 84, 87, 154, 165, 173, 177, Moscow, 39, 100, 103, 173, 174, 175, 179, 180, 192, 196, 200, 204, 205, 211, 212, 321 321, 322, 324, 348 n.l1 Mossadegh, Mohammed, 310 NATO (see North Atlantic Treaty Mosul, 192, 198 Organization) Mountbatten, Lord Louis, 286 Navarino Bay, Battle of (1827), 94, 105 Mozambique, 50, 53, 226, 230, 231, navigation, 16, 34, 46, 59, 139, 141 233, 237, 278 Nazi-Soviet Pact (see German-Soviet Mubarak, Mohamed Hosni, 234 Pact) Mudros, 191 Nazism (national socialism), 165, 168, Mugabe, Robert, 230 170, 199, 205, 206, 207, 212, 218, Mukden, 87 317, 349 n.6 Index 389

Ne Win, 291 Newton, Isaac, 140, 142, 144, 145, 151, Nehru, Jawaharlal, 286, 288, 289, 359 341 n.8, n.ll n.l Nicaragua, 132, 226, 253-6 passim, Nejd,201 261, 262, 282, 354 n.8, 356 n.7, Nelson, Horatio, 38 357 n.ll, n.14, 358 n.25, 362 n.21 Nepal, 17, 20 Nice, 41 Nerchinsk, Treaty of (1689), 107, 334 Nicholas II, Tsar of Russia, 111, 161, n.9 172, 346 nol, n.2 Netherlands, 14, 21, 22, 29, 30, 32-5, Nietzsche, Friedrich W., 1 46, 48, 57, 59, 138, 186, 269, 272, Niger River, 48, 336 347 n.7, 353 n.8, 358 n.l Nigeria, 51, 230, 235, 237, 360 n.23 America, 116 Nile, Battle of the (1798), 38 colonial expansion, 96 Nile River, 44, 48, 251, 336 n.3 Dutch East India Company, 12,33, Nixon, Richard M., 260, 261, 281, 284, 63,96 298 Dutch East Indies, 34, 79, 187, 213 Nkrumah, Kwame, 228 Dutch West India Company, 33 Nobel, Alfred Bernhard, 159 exploration, 64 Nordic Council, 279 Indonesia, 63, 96, 190, 211, 294 Noriega, Manuel, 261 Japan, 22, 187 North Africa, 44, 210, 212, 273, 277, kingdom of the, 40 321,336 n.2 Korea, 89 North America (see also Canada, Napoleonic wars, 37-40 Mexico, United States), 31, 47, New Guinea, 69, 295 107, 117, 120-35, 251 North America, 120, 121 North American Free Trade population, 35 Agreement (NAFTA), 266, 285 slavery, 48 North Atlantic Treaty Organization South Africa, 63 (NATO), 221, 248, 261, 270, 272, trade, 30, 33 274, 276-9 passim, 283, 299, 304, WWI,156 327 WWII, 209, 351 n.38 North Korea, 3, 221, 222, 239, 299, Neuilly, Treaty of (1919), 345 n.28 303 New Amsterdam (New York), 34 North Sea, 38 New Brunswick, 134 North Vietnam, 224, 281, 292, 293, New Caledonia, 69 294,298 New Economic Policies (NEP), 175 Democratic Republic of, 292, 348 New England, 121 n.13 New France, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124 Northern Ireland, 324, 361 n.4 New Granada, 117 Northern Rhodesia (see also Zambia), New Guinea, 69, 211, 213, 294 228,230 New Hebrides, 69 Norway, 40, 125, 156, 209, 215, 269, New Jersey, 121 277, 279, 346 n.42, 351 n.38, 353 New Mexico, 127, 128 n.8, 358 n.l New Orleans, 121, 122 Nova Scotia, 122, 124, 134 New Spain, 117 Novgorod, 99, 100, 101 New World, 17, 28, 30, 46, 47, 60, 76, nuclear arms, 3, 188, 222-7 passim, 113, 114, 116, 117, 118, 122, 123, 242, 260, 27~ passim, 280, 282, 130,152 283, 298, 299, 301, 303, 309, 313, New York Academy of Sciences, 151 326,327 New Zealand, 64, 67, 69, 74, 163, 186, Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty 211, 312-14, 346 n.42, 353 n.12, (1968), 280, 303 361 n.9 nuclear power, 77, 274 Newcomen, Thomas, 148, 342 n.18 Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (1963), 274, Newfoundland, 120, 122 276,280 390 Index

Nuremberg war crimes trials, 215, Organization of American States 216, 352 n.41, n.44, n.46 (OAS), 259, 260, 261, 262, 328, 357 Nyasaland, 50, 51, 230 n.11, n.12 Nyerere, Julius, 228 Organization of Central American Nystadt, Peace of (1721), 103 States (ODECA), 358 n.25 Organization of Petroleum Exporting OAS (see Organization of American Countries (OPEC), 306, 320, 360 States) n.23 OAU (see Organization of African Oriental Entente (1937), 196 Unity) Orleans, Battle of (1429), 30 Ochakov,94 Ormuz,12 Oda Nobunaga, 21 Ormuz, Strait of,S ODECA (see Organization of Central Ortega, Daniel, 357 n.14 American States) Orwell, George, 362 n.22 Odessa, 104 Osaka, 85 OECD (see Organizati{)n for Oslo Declaration of Principles (1993), Economic Co-operation and 306 Development) Osman I, Emir, 8 Oersted, Hans Christian, 144 Osman, House of, 191 Ogaden,237 Ostpolitik, 273, 281 OGPU (see Unified Government Otto, N.A., 342 n.20 Political Organization) Ottoman Empire (see also Turkey), 8, Ohm, Georg Simon, 144 10, 12, 13, 23, 44, 51, 59, 93-5, oil, 77, 78, 93, 146, 160, 187, 195, 198, 106, 154, 171, 191, 196, 199, 200, 201, 212, 228, 233, 244, 255, 257, 201, 248, 342 n.3 258, 263, 265, 266, 274, 276, 277, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 94, 106 281, 282, 283, 309, 310, 311, 356 Constantinople, 100 n.7, 357 n.16, 360 n.23 Crimean War, 40 oil embargo (1973), 3, 225, 274, 281, Napoleonic wars, 38 306, 312, 320 North Africa, 53 Okhotsk, Sea of, 107 Ottoman Turks, 10, 12, 23, 52, 57, Okinawa, 87, 214, 215, 222, 353 n.ll 60, 73, 93, 94, 95, 101, 104, 105, Oklahoma, 129 106, 163, 198, 201, 345 n.36, 339 Olney, Richard, 251 n.2 Olympic Games, 161 Palestine, 348 n.16 Oman, 361 n.l0 Persia, 12 Omdurman, Battle of (1898), 51 Russia, 105 Ontario, 133, 134 WWI, 154-7, 344 n.21 OPEC (see Organization of Petroleum Young Turks, 94 Exporting Countries) Ottowa, 284 Open Door Policy, 84, 131 Outer Mongolia, 183, 347 n.2 Opium War (see China) Owen, Wilfred, 167, 345 n.32 Orange Free State, 50 Oyo, 47 Oregon, 113 Oregon Boundary Treaty (1846), 128, Pacific Ocean, 29, 30, 69, 113, 174, 133 185, 212, 214, 241, 253 Organization for Economic Co• Pacific rim, 300, 315 operation and Development Pacific War (1879-1884), 120 (OECD), 272, 276, 277, 278, 328, Pact of Mutual Assistance (1940), 187 360 n.2 Pact of Steel (1939), 207 Organization for Security and Padua, 54, 337 ch.5 n.2 Cooperation in Europe (1995), 327 Pahlavi, Shah Muhammad, 310, 312 Organization of African Unity (OAU), Paine, Thomas, 124 237, 328, 355 n.15 Pakistan, 225, 275, 286, 288, 289, Index 391

290-1,294, 348 n.12, 353 n.12, Passchendaele, Battle of (1917), 162,317 n.13, 362 n.15 Pasteur, Louis, 144 Palestine (see also Israel), 168, 169, Pathans, 324 171, 196-202 passim, 306, 308, 331, Paul III, Pope, 27 334 n.6, 348 n.16, 360 n.20, 361 Pavlov, Ivan, 177 n.l0 Peace Corps, 280 Gaza, 306, 308 Peace of the Pyrenees (1659), 30, 116 Jewish immigration, 196, 199 Pearl Harbor, 131, 185, 187, 208, 211, Palestinians, 199, 200, 281, 305, 306, 349 n.15, 350 n.30 308, 311, 322, 360 n.24 Pedro I, Emperor of Brazil, 118 population, 199, 306 Pedro II, Emperor of Brazil, 118 West Bank, 306, 308 Peel, William Robert Wellesley, 200 Palestine Liberation Organization Peking (see also Beijing), 17, 18, 82, (PLO), 305, 320, 360 n.24, 361 83, 84, 137, 184, 296 n.l0 Peking, Treaty of (186O), 107 Pan-African Nationalist Conference Penjdeh, 110 (1919), 53 Pennsylvania, 121 Pan American conferences and OAS perestroika, 241 meetings Peron, Juan, 262 Bogota (1948), 259 Perry, Matthew c., 85 Buenos Aires (1936), 258 Persia (see also Iran), 8, 9, 10, 12-13, Caracas (1954), 259 14, 59, 87, 92-3, 101, 104, 108, Chapultepec (1945), 259 110, 184, 193-5, 201 Havana (1928), 256 Persian Gulf, 92, 93, 110, 195, 198, Lima (1938), 258 233, 282, 310 Montevideo (1933), 256 Persian Gulf Crisis (see Gulf War) Panama (1939), 258 Persian Revolution (1905), 93 Punta del Este (1961), 357 n.18 Peru, 76, 83, 114-19 passim, 123, 26-7 Rio de Janeiro (1947), 259 passim, 355 ch.18 n.l, 356 n.4, n.6, Washington DC (1889), 254 n.7, n.8, 357 n.ll, 358 n.24, n.26, Pan American Union, 254, 256 n.30 Pan-Arabism (see Arabs) Pescadores Islands, 87 Pan-Slav movement, 106 Peter I, Tsar of Russia, 103, 104, 111 Panama, 113, 118, 132, 226, 253, 254, Petro grad (see also St Petersburg, 260, 261, 262, 264, 282, 283, 356 Leningrad), 172, 173, 174, 346 n.2 n.2, n.7, 357 n.ll petro-dollars, 264 Panama Canal, 131, 253, 261, 282, 357 Philadelphia, 124, 125 n.13 Philip II, King of Spain, 28, 30, 57, Panipat, 13 58, 156 papacy, 24, 27, 41 Philip IV, King of France, 23 papal encyclicals, 178 Philippines, 5, 17, 20, 22, 79, 85, 88, Papua New Guinea, 361 n.9 95, 96, 122, 131, 188, 211, 213, Paraguay, 118, 120, 260, 262, 266, 355 214,294,295,339 n.15, 353 n.12, ch.18 n.l, 356 n.l, n.4, n.8 , 357 361 n.9, n.ll n.l, 358 n.24, n.27, Phnom Penh, 293 Paris, 39, 40, 163, 169, 209, 213 Piedmont, 31, 40, 41 Paris Peace Conference (1919), 164, Pilgrims, 32 193, 254, 256, 345 n.27 Pinochet, Augusto, 261, 357 n.19 Paris, Treaty of (1763 ), 32, 122 Pitt, William 'the Elder', 122 Paris, Treaty of (1783), 125, 128 Pius VII, Pope, 28 Paris, Treaty of (1856), 106 Pizarro, Francisco, 113, 115 Park, Mungo, 336 n.3 Plank, Max, 145 Parson's steam turbine, 150 plantation economy, 47, 76, 98, 116, Pascal, Blaise, 145 117,356 n.l 392 Index plants, diffusion of, 75--6 poverty, 81, 119, 238, 270, 289, 302, Plassey, Battle of (1757), 14, 64 318, 319, 330 platinum (see mining) power politics, 1, 2, 3, 5, 30 Plato, 1, 177 pragmatism, 139, 149 Platt Amendment (1901), 253, 256 precious metals, 17, 18, 20, 21, 37, 42, PLO (see Palestine Liberation 44, 46, 48, 50, 67, 69, 77, 82, 96, Organization) 104, 114, 123, 131, 274, 279, 340 Podgomy, Nicholas, 224, 240 nA, 354 n.l0 Poincare, Henri, 341 n.l0 Presbyterian Church, 27 Poland, 3, 10, 28, 40, 41, 49, 100, 101, Prestes, Luis Carlos, 258 104, 165, 168, 174, 223, 239, 244, Princip, Gavrilo, 153 250, 273, 324, 344 n.26, 345 n.33, printing, 88, 136 349 n.ll, n.14, 352 nA8, 353 n.6, progress, idea of, 7, 55, 60, 50, 92, n.l0 167, 316 Kingdom of, 40 Protagoras, 341 n.5 migration, 73 Protestant Reformation, 7, 54, 61, 316 post-WWIl,219 Protestantism, 25, 27, 28 Solidarity movement, 244 Prussia, 28, 35-36, 37, 42, 63, 74, 85, WWII, 203-218, 351n.38 94, 104, 105, 160, 161, 239, 339 Polish Corridor, 165, 207 ch.8 n.5, 343 n.14 Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Pskov, 100 104 Ptolemy, 138 Polk, James K., 134 Pu Yi, Emperor of China, 84 pollution, 3, 326 Puerto Rico, 117, 131, 253 Poltava, 103 Punjab,288 Pomerania, 324, 352 nA8 Puritans, 121 Pompidou, Georges, 274 Pondicherry, Battle of (1761), 122, 337 Qadhafi, Muammar al-, 228, 237, ch.6 n.3 322 population, 74, 129, 130, 143, 236, Qajar Dynasty, 194 264, 267, 317, 318, 319, 326, 361 Qatar, 312, 360 n.23, 361 n.l0 n.7 Quadruple Alliance, 41, 336 n.17 Port Arthur (Lushun), 87, 88, 108 Quebec, 64, 120, 121, 122, 124, 133, Portsmouth, Treaty of (1905), 88, 108 134,284 Portugal,S, 12, 14, 17, 21, 24, 33, 34, Quebec Act (1774), 123 46, 57, 58, 59, 63, 96, 113, 116-19 Quebec Conference (1864), 133 passim, 122, 221, 269, 272, 277, Quemoi Island, 280 278, 333 ch.l n.5, 336 n.2, 337 Quesnay, Fran"ois, 19, 142 n.7, 347 n.7, 350 n.20, 353 n.8, n.9 quinine (see cinchona) Africa, 46, 50, 52, 53, 63, 230 Brazil, 116, 117, 118 Rabelais, Fran"ois, 54 China trade, 20 Rabin, Yitzhak, 306, 308 East Indian empire, 63 radar, 209, 212, 284 India, 288 radio, 77 Japan, 21 railways, 48, 147, 148, 149, 153, 236, migration, 73, 120 255, 342 n.2, 338 n.ll Napoleonic wars, 38 Ram Allah, 308 southeast Asia, 96 Ramos, Fidel, 295 Timor, 96, 295 Ranke, Leopold von, 1, 5 WWI, 154, 344 n.21 Rapallo, Treaty of (1922), 205 potato (see plants, diffusion of) Rasputin, 346 n.2 Potosi, 114 rationalism (see also reason), 80, 145, Potsdam Conference (1945), 216, 219, 204,316 304 Reagan, Ronald, 227, 261, 282 Index 393 reason, 55, 62, 73, 139, 140, 142, 145, Rosebud, Battle of the (1876), 127 151, 167, 320, 321, 322, 328, 329 Rostov, 100 Reciprocal Trade Agreement Act Rousseau, Jean Jacques, 142 (1934), 257 Royal Society of London, 141, 148 Reconquista, 5, 57 Ruhr,204 Red Sea, 44 Russel, Bertrand, 161 Reformation, 27, 55 Russia (see also Soviet Union), 10, 12, refrigeration, 67, 76, 130, 37, 41, 42, 43, 50, 60, 73, 74, 79, religion, 12, 13, 15, 17, 21, 27, 28, 54, 81, 82, 94, 95, 99-112, 125, 128, 129, 55, 56, 72, 80, 81, 91, 114, 115, 131, 134, 163, 164, 168, 169, 170, 123, 142, 144, 145, 146, 174, 242, 171, 172, 179, 193, 251, 317, 329, 247, 251, 295, 301, 302, 314, 320, 339 ch.8 n.6, n.7, 340 n.15, 344 321, 322, 326, 333 ch.2 n.2, 337 n.26, 346 n.7, 347 n.14, 349 n.ll n.5, 347 n.16, 361 n.4, 362 n.2O army, 335 ch.3 n.13 religious fundamentalism, 145, 152, Balkans, 110 320,321 central Asia, 108-10 Remarque, Erich Maria, 167 China, 20, 82, 83, 84, 87, 183-5 Renaissance, 9, 23, 54, 55, 56, 57, 60, conscription, 159 61, 111, 136, 167, 316, 329, 336 Crimean War, 40 ch.5 n.l democracy, 174 revolutionary socialism, 63, 64 (see Duma, 108, 172, 173, 346 n.l also socialism) East Asia, 107-8 Reza Khan (see Reza Shah Pahlavi) expansion, 107 Reza Shah Pahlavi (Reza Khan) 194, Japan, 87, 88, 89 195 Korea, 89 Rhine River, 213 migration, 73, 107 Rhineland, 165, 206 Napoleonic wars, 38-40, 104 Rhodesia, 3, 51, 331, 354 n.5 Ottoman Empire, 93-191 Riazan, 100 Persia, 13, 92, 93, 105, 110 Ricci, Matteo, 18 population, 100, 103, 112, 339 ch.8 Rights of Man, Declaration of the, 36 n.5 Rio de la Plata, 114, 117, 120 Provisional Government, 172 Rio de Oro, 53 Prussia, 35 Rio Grande, 127 serfdom, 111 Riyadh,201 Socialist Democratic Party, 346 n.3 Robespierre, Maximilien, 36 WWI, 153-171 Roman Catholic Church, 27, 28, 57, Russian Federation, 242, 250, 298, 97, 105, 121, 138, 149, 178, 204, 299, 300, 320, 324, 327, 330, 355 267,341 n.7 n.5, n.6 Romania, 106, 154, 168, 193, 213, 216, Russian Orthodox Church (see also 218, 220, 226, 240, 244, 246, 250, Christianity: Eastern Orthodox 324, 342 n.3, 344 n.21, 349 n.l0, Church), 321 351 n.38, 353 n.l0 Russian Revolution (1905), 88, 108, Romanov Dynasty, 101, 111, 171, 172, 172, 184, 346 n.l 174, 180 Russian Revolution, 1917 Rome, 9, 41, 212, 321, 331 (see Bolshevik Revolution) Rome, Treaty of (1957), 269 Russian-Persian War (1804-13), 92 Rommel, Erwin, 211, 212 Russo-Japanese War (1904-5), 67, 87, Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 170, 187, 89, 108, 125, 156, 187, 343 n.14, 208, 209, 215, 219, 220, 221, 228, 348 n.8 256, 258, 350 n.22, n.30, 352 n.47, Ruthenia, 239 353 n.l Rutherford, Ernest, 341 n.12 Roosevelt, Theodore, 132, 133, 253 Rwanda, 226, 234, 237, 275 Rosas, Juan Manuel de, 119 Ryukyu Islands, 87, 215 394 Index

Saadabad Pact (1937), 194 sea power, 31, 33, 37, 39, 46, 50, 63, Saar, 165, 206 81, 87, 110, 156, 223, 224, 241 Sabah, 291, 295 sea warfare, 29, 31, 34, 64, 87, 94, 116, Sabrah,305 160 Sadat, Anwar al-, 281, 308 SEATO (see South East Asia Treaty Safavid Dynasty, 12, 13 Organization) Safi I, Shah of Persia, 12 secularism, 28, 56, 57, 142, 146 Saigon, 97 Seko, Mobutu Sese, 234 Saigon, Treaty of (1862), 97 self-determination, SO, 168, 181, 196, Saint Dominique, 116 228, 254, 281, 324, 345 n.27, 360 Saint-Just, Louis, 36 n.24, 361 n.5 Sakhalin, 87, 88, 108, 219 self-strengthening movement Salado, 9 (see China) Salazar, Antonio de Oliveira, 353 n.9 Selim II, Ottoman Sultan, 10 Salinas de Gotari, Carlos, 266 Seneca, Lucius Annaeus, 57 Salisbury, Robert Arthur, Marquis of, Senegal, 51, 228, 234 157 Senegal River, 44 SALT (see Strategic Arms Limitation Senghor, Leopold Sedar, 228 Treaty) Serbia (see also Balkans), 94, 95, 106, Samarkand, 108 110, 153, 154, 168, 175, 247, 248, Samoa, 131 250, 324, 340 ch.8 n.9, 342 n.3, Samper, Emesto, 266 350 n.26, 355 n.l0 Samsah Bay, 131 WWI, 154, 156, 158, 162, 171, 344 n.21 samurai, 84, 86, 215 serfdom, 112 San Diego, 116, 187 Seven Years War (1756-1763), 29, 31, San Francisco, 107, 116 35, 104, 122 San Martin, Jose de, 118 Sevres, Treaty of (1920), 171, 191 Sandinistas, 357 n.14 Shah Jahan, Mogul Emperor, 13 Sandino, Augusto, 357 n.14 shahada, 333 ch.2 n.2 Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez de, 119 Shakespeare, William, 54 Sarajevo, 153, 248 Shanghai, 184 Sarawak, 97, 291, 295 Shantung (Shandong) Province, 88, Sardinia, 37 156, 168, 183, 185, 347 n.1, 348 Sardinia-Piedmont, 41 n.7 Saud, King of Saudi Arabia, 312 shari'a, 191, 334 n.2 Saudi Arabia, 78, 200, 201, 283, 309, Sharif, Nawaz, 290 311, 312, 321, 360 n.23, 361 n.l0 Shatila, 305 Savonarola, Girolamo, 24 Shemakha, 92 Savoy, 37, 41 Shi'ism (see Islam) Saw Maug, 291 Shimabara insurrection, 22 Scandinavia, 63, 73, 99 Shimonoseki, Treaty of (1895), 87, 89 Schleswig-Holstein, 165 Shining Path, 266 Schlieffen Plan, 160 Shinto, 21, 301 Schmidt, Helmuth, 273 shipbuilding technology, 16, 46, 67, Sch6nbein, Christian Friedrich, 159 85, 156, 160 Schumann, Robert, 269 Siam (see also Thailand), 20, 95, 97 science, 54, 55, 75, 77, 90, 136-52 Siberia, 73, 101, 107, 112, 128, 174 passim, 192,341 n.1, n.8 Sicily, 31, 38, 41, 212 science and technology, 7, 43, 54, 59, Sierra Leone, 51, 230, 233, 234 75, 77, SO, 83, 136, 150, 316 Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor, 24 scientific instruments, 16, 139 Sikhs, 14, 188, 286, 288, 289, 324 Scientific Revolution, 54, 57, 60, 86, Silesia, 35, 165, 324, 352 nA8 136, 141, 148, 149, 151, 152 Silesian Wars (1740-2, 1744-5, and Scotland, 276, 337 ch.6 n.2 1756-63), 35 Index 395 silk (see trade: textiles) South East Asia Treaty Organization Silk Road, 18 (SEATO), 223, 294, 295, 313, 353 silver (see precious metals) n.12 Simon, John, 350 n.17 South Korea, 303, 315, 221, 222, 239, Sinai, 282 299, 303, 359 n.15, 361 n.9 Singapore, 97, 185, 190, 291, 295, 361 South Vietnam, 281, 292, 293, 298 n.9, n.11 Republic of Vietnam, 292 Sino-Japanese War (1894-5), 43, 89 South West Africa People's Sinope, massacre of (1853), 105 Organization (SW APO), 231 Sioux, 127 Southern Rhodesia (see also Siraj-ud-Daulah, 64 Zimbabwe), 230 Sitting Bull, Chief of the Dakota, 127 Soviet Union (see also Russia), 182, Slave Coast, 46 184, 187, 191, 192, 194, 201, 219, slave trade (see slavery) 224, 226, 239-50 passim, 259, 260, slavery, 44, 46-8, 58, 90, 100, 116, 117, 264, 272, 273, 274, 276, 280-4 119, 123, 178, 338 n.12 passim, 288, 289, 292, 293, 296, abolition, 48, 129 297, 298, 303, 309, 310, 311, 317, Slavs, 74, 94, 99, 106, 110, 175, 204, 320, 321, 324, 327, 344 n.18, n.19, 205,210 345 n.33, 347 n.2, 349 n.ll, n.13, Slovak Republic 246 352 n.48, n.49, 353 n.2, n.3, n.5, Slovakia, 349 n.l0 n.l0, n.11, n.13, 355 n.5, 362 n.17 Slovenia, 168, 247, 248, 345 n.34 Afghanistan, 195, 242, 273, 311, 312 Smith, Adam, 142, 143, 147, 328 Arab-Israeli war (1956), 228 Smollett, Tobias George, 337 ch.5 n.4 balance of terror, 219-27 Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act (1930), 186, cold war, 221-3, 227 257 Cuban missile crisis, 223-4 Smuts, Jan Christian, 198 dissolution, 242 Smyrna, 163 Great Civil War (1918-21), 174, 175, Sobrero, Ascanio, 159 181 socialism, 80, 171, 174, 179, 205, 224, India, 288 241, 258, 275, 289, 356 n.l industrialization, 296 Society of Jesus, 18, 19, 21, 22, 27, 28, interwar years, 203, 204, 205, 207 334 n.9, 335 ch.2 n.11 Middle East, 201 Solidarity movement (see Poland) Persia, 193 Solomon Islands, 69, 212, 213 population, 210 Somalia, 49, 52, 226, 230, 234, 237, post-Stalin era, 223 283, 331, 361 n.l0 post-WWII,219-21 Somaliland, 50, 51, 52 Red Army, 175, 182, 218, 240, 242, Sombart, Werner, 337 n.5 250, 297, 350 n.31 Somme, battles of the (1916), 161, 317 Turkey, 193 Song Dynasty, 15 WWI, 344 n.21 Songhai, 44, 336 ch.4 n.l WWII, 218, 351 n.38 soul force, 3 Soviets, 173 South Africa, 3, 50, 51, 63, 74, 125, space exploration, 3, 77, 150, 240, 276, 188, 225, 234, 235, 251, 276, 331, 280 354 n.l0 Spain,S, 7, 9, 17, 22, 23, 24, 28, 29-30, apartheid, 232, 354 n.9 41, 56, 57-8, 59, 63, 96, 104, 113, arms embargo, 232 116-22 passim, 125, 137, 222, 228, Republic of, 231-3 272, 277, 278, 324, 336 n.2, 337 Union of, 50 n.5, 343 n.14, 346 n.42, 349 n.l0, South African War (see Boer War) 350n.20, 353 n.8 South America, 39, 57, 76, 79, 113-23, Africa, 53, 230 251-68,338 n.ll, 358 n.20 America, 30 South China, Republic of, 347 n.3 Armada, 30 396 Index

Spain - continued Stephenson, George, 148 Civil War (1936-9), 186, 207 Stolypin, Peter, 112 inflation, 123 Straits Convention (1841), 94, 105 Inquisition, 34 Strassmann, Fritz, 341 n.12 Jews, 337 n.5 Strategic Arms limitation Treaty Latin America, 251 (SALT) migration, 120 (1972), 241, 281 Moors, 9 (1979), 282 Napoleonic wars, 37-9 Stresa, 206 Netherlands, 32-33 Strong, Josiah, 132 population, 30, 32, 335 ch.2 n.12, Suarez, Adolf, 278 339 ch.8 n.5 submarine, 77, 160, 164, 165, 209, 212, Spaniards, 21 214, 276, 324 Spanish fleet, 10 Sudan, 44, 47, 50, 51, 226, 234, 235, WWI,156 237, 312, 321, 322, 361 n.l0 Spanish American War (1898), 129, Sudan People's liberation Army 343 n.14 (SPLA),237 Spanish influenza (1918-19), 170 Suez Canal, 51, 212, 228 Spanish Sahara, 230 Suez crisis (1956), 298 Speke, John, 336 n.3 sugar (see trade) Spengler, Oswald, 167 Suharto, Raden, 295, 359 n.15 Spice Islands, 95 Sukarno, Achmad, 294, 359 n.9 spice trade (see trade) Suleiman I, Ottoman Sultan, 10 spinning technology (see industrial Sulu Islands, 339 n.15 technology) Sumatra, 96 Spratly Islands, 299 Sun Vat-sen, 84, 183, 184, 347 n.3 Sputnik, 240 Sunnism (see Islam) Sri Lanka (see also Ceylon), 78, 286, Surinam, 34, 78, 262, 357 n.ll 324,361 n.4 Sweden, 38, 40, 48, 100, 101, 104, lOS, St Germain, Treaty of (1919), 345 n.28 156, 269, 279, 350 n.2O, 358 n.l St Helena, 39, 40 Swedish-Danish War (1657-61), 34 St Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla, 358 n.28 Switzerland, 24, 125, 156, 172, 209, St Lawrence, 121, 125, 133 269,272,279,346 n.42, 350 n.20 St Lucia, 122, 335 n.14, 358 n.28 Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916), 163 St Luke, 177 Syria, 168, 171, 196, 197, 199, 200, 201, St Paul, 180 305, 306, 308, 309, 311, 312, 320, St Petersburg (see also Leningrad and 322, 324, 327, 361 n.l0 Petrograd), 103 St Pierre and Miquelon, 122 Tabriz,12 St Thomas More, 177 Tacitus, 2, 349 n.5 St Vincent, 358 n.28 Taft, William Howard, 133, 134, 253 Stalin (Iosif Vissarionovich Tahiti, 69 Dzhugashvili), 99, 172-5 passim, Tahmasp I, Shah of Persia, 12 181, 182, 203, 207, 216, 218, 219, Taiping Rebellion, 83 220, 223, 239, 240, 241, 247, 296, Taiwan (see also Formosa), 83, 223, 298,344 n.18, 346 n.6, 353 n.4 280, 296, 298, 299, 300, 313, 359 Stalingrad (Volgograd), 212 n.15, 361 n.9 Stamp Act (1765), 124 Taj Mahal, 13 Standard Oil of California, 201, 311 Tajikistan, 324, 355 n.4, 362 n.15 Stanley, Henry, 336 n.3 Taliban, 311 steam power, 48, 76, 146, 147, 148, Tamils, 288, 289, 324 150, 160 Tanegashima, 20 steamship, 77 Tanganyika, 228, 354 n.4 steel, 76, 150, 156, 160, 169, 236 Tannenberg, Battle of (1914), 162 Index 397

Taoism, 15, 56,61, 95, 337 n.12 Toledo, 137 Taraki, Noor Mohammed, 311 tomato (see food crops, diffusion of) Tarik ibn Ziyad, 8 Tonkin, 97, 292 Tasmania, 64, 67 Tordesillas, Treaty of (1494), 5, 113, Tass News Agency, 182 117, 333 ch.l n.5 Tatars, 99, 100, 101, 103, 339 n.2 Toronto, 124 tea (see trade) Touraine, 97 technology, 9, 16, 56, 76, 77, 136, 146, Toure, Ahmed Sekou, 228 147, 149, 152, 236, 263, 314, 341 Toynbee, Arnold, 342 n.14 n.13 Toyotomi Hideyoshi, 21, 22, 87 Teheran, 310 trade, 12, 16, 34, 47, 96, 99, 101, 104, Teheran conference (1943), 213, 216, 127, 130, 147, 156-9 passim, 187, 219 194, 198, 225, 241, 254, 266, 269, telegraph, 77 270, 277, 279, 280, 283, 284, 293, telephone, 77 301, 302, 313, 315, 316, 318, 320, television, 77, 150 342 n.6, n.19, 349 n.7, 362 n.13, Telford, Thomas, 148 338 n.3 (see also slavery, East Temujin (Genghiz Khan), 14, 334 nA India companies) Tennyson, Alfred, 150 Africa, 44, 46, 233 Tenochtitlan, 114, 116 business organization, 59 terrorism, I, 79, 237, 277, 305, 326 China, 18, 20, 82, 87 Texas, 116, 127, 128 fibres, 47, 67, 75, 78, 82, 116, 263, textiles (see trade) 342 n.17 Thailand (see also Siam), 97, 98, 187, free trade, 149 190, 293, 294, 295, 300, 315, 353 India, 14 n.l, 360 n.27, 361 n.9, n.ll international drug trade, 4, 261 Thatcher, Margaret, 274, 276 international trade, 78, 169, 186, theology of liberation, 267 361 n.8 third world, 225, 274, 288, 317, 318, Japan, 20, 21 319, 320, 354 n.15 Latin America, 254, 255, 257 Thirty Years War (1618-48), 35, 56 Netherlands, 33 Thomson, Joseph John, 341 n.12 opium, 82, 339 ch.7 n.3 Thucydides, 1 primary produce, 47, 67, 78, 117, Tiananmen Square massacre, 298 120, 130, 235, 254, 255, 263, 358 Tibet, 17, 20, 83, 95, 183, 288, 297, n.23 324,347 n.2 spice trade, 58, 59, 96 Tientsin, 296 sugar, 47, 58, 78, 116, 120, 122, 124, Tientsin, treaties of (1858), 82 195, 356 n.7, 357 n.12 Tilak, Bal Gangadhar, 91 textiles, 16, 20, 21, 47, 76, 82, 91, Timbuktu, 47 96, 115, 147, 148, 156, 169, 170, time, 55 195,338 n.2 Timisoara, 246 trade embargo, 260, 357 n.12 Timor, 63, 96 triangular trade, 47 Timur, 334 nA Trafalgar, Battle of (1805), 38, 64, 156 tin (see mining) Trans-Caspian Railway, 110 Tito, Josip Broz, 220, 247, 350 n.29 Trans-Jordan (see also Jordan), 197, tobacco (see plants, diffusion of) 201, 202, 360 n.20 Tobago (see Trinidad and Tobago) Trans-Persian Railway, 195 Togo, 237 Trans-Siberian Railway, 107 Togoland, 49, 230, 354 n.3 transport and communications, 48, Tokugawa leyasu, 22 67, 75, 77, 90, 115, 119, 134, 147, Tokugawa Shogunate, 85, 339 ch.7 152, 173, 192, 316, 338 n.9 n.8 Transvaal, 50 Tokyo trials, 215, 302, 352 nA4, nA6 Transylvania, 324 398 Index treaty (see name of treaty) UI Ha' q, Zia, 290 Treaty of Commerce and Navigation UIm, Battle of (1805), 38 (1911), 186 UIyanov (see Lenin) Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance unemployment, 170, 206, 267, 270, (1947), 259 277,281 Treitschke, Heinrich von, 72, 338 n.6 Unified Government Political Trent, Council of, 27 Organization (OGPU), 346 n.9 Trevithick, Richard, 148, 149 United Arab Emirates, 360 n.23, Trianon, Treaty of (1920), 345 n.28 361n.l0 Trinidad and Tobago, 335 n.14, 357 United Arab Republic, 305 n.ll, 358 n.28 United Empire Loyalists, 124 Triple Alliance (1882), 43, 154, 156 United Kingdom (UK) see also Britain, Triple Entente (1907), 154, 158 164,337 ch.6 n.2, 353 n.8, n.12, Tripoli, 53, 198, 336 n.2 n.13, 358 n.t, 362 n.14 Trotsky, Leon (Leib Davydovich United Nations, 2, 3, 218, 220, 222, Bronstein), 108, 172, 173, 175, 225, 231, 232, 234, 259, 272, 273, 181,346 nA 276, 278, 279, 280, 283, 284, 288, Truman Doctrine (1947), 221, 224, 293, 297, 298, 302, 305, 306, 309, 226,304 310,319,322,324,329,331,352 Truman, Harry, 214, 218, 219, 221, nA6, 353 n.l, n.ll, 354 n.5, n.8, 259, 280, 351 n.36, 353 n.3 360 ch.20 n.22, n.24, ch.21 n.l Tsushima Straits, 87 United States, 35, 47, 75, 107, 120-31, Tudors, 25 133, 169, 175, 186, 187, 279--83, Tunis, 336 n.2 292, 293, 298, 315, 317, 320, 321, Tunisia, 43, 51, 52, 228, 361 n.l0 327,340 ch.9 n.l0, n.15, 343 n.14, Turkey (see also Ottoman Empire), 10, 344 n.24, n.25, 347 n.7, 348 n.8, 82, 87, 94, 104, 105, 106, 154, 163, 349 n.7, n.15, 350 n.18, n.21, n.30, 168, 171, 184, 191-3, 194, 197, 352 n.50, 353 n.5, n.8, n.ll, n.12, 201, 216, 220, 224, 272, 279, 280, 354 n.l0, n.13, 356 n.2, n.5, n.6, 303, 304, 314, 322, 324, 333 ch.l n.7, 357 n.ll, n.12, n.13, n.14, n.6, 345 n.28, 350 n.20, 353 n.8, n.17, 358 n.20, n.21, 360 ch.20 n.13, 360 n.20, 362 n.15 n.22, n.24, ch.21 n.2, 362 n.14, Afghanistan, 195 n.21, 361 n.8, n.9 education, 192 Africa, 4~ 133, 231, 237 migration, 73 Alliance for Progress, 264 population, 303 Australasia, 312, 313 Republic, 171, 191 balance of terror, 219-27 westernization, 191 Balkans, 248, 273 women suffrage, 192 Britain, 276 Turkish Straits (see Dardanelles) Cambodia, 293 Turkistan, 108, 297 Canada, 133-4, 283 Turkmanchai, Treaty of (1828), 92 China, 82, 84, 131,281,296,298-301 Turkmen,12 cold war, 221-3, 227 Turkmenistan, 324, 355 nA, 362 n.15 Cuba, 260 Tutsi,216 Cuban missile crisis, 223-4 Tutuila, 69, 131 debt, 226, 282, 320 Tver, 100 France, 274 Tzu Hsi, Dowager Empress of China, Great Depression, 169, 186 83 Greece, 278 illegal immigrants, 268 Uganda, 50, 52, 226, 230, 234, 354 nA immigration, 360 n.28 UK (see United Kingdom, also Britain) India, 288 Ukraine, 103, 212, 174, 175, 181, 212, industry, 150 244, 324, 344 n.26, 355 nA interwar years, 204, 208 Index 399

Iran, 310 Versailles, 42 Iran hostage crisis, 281, 282, 310 Versailles, Treaty of (1919), 86, 135, Japan, 85, 88, 185, 186, 187, 301 164, 165, 168, 170, 183, 201, 203, Korea, 89, 90, 302 206,207,348 n.3 Latin America, 118-120, 132, 251-68 Vesalius, Andreas, 139 manifest destiny, 127 Vespucci, Amerigo, 113 Marshall Plan, 269 Victor Emmanuel II, King of Middle East, 196, 228, 305, 306, 309, Sardinia-Piedmont, 41 311,312 Victor Emmanuel Ill, King of Italy, Nicaragua, 261 204 Pacific Ocean, 69 Victoria, Queen of England, 154 Pakistan, 290 Vienna, 10, 23, 60, 170, 280 Philippines, 131, 295 Vienna, Congress of (1814-15), 40, 41, population, 315 105,158 post-WWlI, 219, 221, 225 Vietcong, 292, 293 slavery, 47 Vietminh, 292, 348 n.13 Soviet Union, 223, 242 Vietnam (see also South Vietnam, Spain, 222, 277 North Vietnam), 3, 14, 17, 20, 83, Treaty of Versailles, 170 95, 97, 190, 221, 223, 226, 227, Turkey, 304 240, 281, 292--3, 294, 299, 300, Vietnam, 292--293 313, 327, 348 n.13, 361 n.11, 362 Vietnam War, 224 n.17 WWI, 154, 164, 168-71, 344 n.21 Geneva conference, 292 WWIl, 187, 208, 209, 213-18, 351 Vietnam War (1964-73), 224, 225, 226, n.38 241, 280, 281, 283, 284, 292, 313, United States Quota Acts (1920,1921), 360 n.2 199 Vikings, 23, 99 Urals, 101, 174 Virginia, 121 uranium (see mining) Vittoria, Battle of (1813), 39 Uruguay, 118, 119, 120, 255, 256, 258, Vladimir, 60 259, 262, 263, 266, 355 ch.18 n.l, Vladivostok, 82, 107, 175 357 n.11, n.12, 356 nA, n.6, 358 Volga River, 101, 103, 174 n.24, n.27 Volgograd (see Stalingrad) US (see United States) Voltaire (see Arouet, Fran"ois Marie) USSR (see Soviet Union) Voyvodina, 247, 345 n.34 Utrecht, Treaty of (1713), 30, 122 Uzbekistan, 12, 108, 324, 355 nA, 362 Wafd,168 n.15 Wake Island, 131 Wales, 276 Vancouver, 134,285 Waresa, Lech, 244 Varangians, 99 Walloons (see also Belgium), 324 Vargas, Getulio, 262 Wandewash, Battle of (1760), 337 ch.6 Vasili Ill, grand prince of Moscow, n.3 101 war (see also name of war), 2, 34, 36, Vatican, 38 159, 324, 329, 330, 343 n.14, 362 Velazquez, Diego, 61 n.18, n.25 Venezuela, 114, 118, 119, 120, 251, War of 1812, 129 255, 257, 259, 260, 263, 265, 267, War of American Independence 355 ch.18 n.l, 356 n.7, 357 n.11, (1775-83), 124, 133 358 n.24, 360 n.23 War of Jenkins' Ear (1739-1740), 30 Venice, 10, 31, 37, 59 War of the Austrian Succession Vera Cruz, 30, 253 (1740-48), 29, 35 Verdun, Battle of (1916), 162, 317 War of the Spanish Succession Verrazzano, Giovanni da, 120 (1701-14), 29, 30, 34, 121 400 Index war reparations, 164, 169, 218, 360 257, 279, 316, 338 nA, 342 n.1-346 n.22 nA2, 347 n.l, 348 n.13, n.16, 349 Warsaw Pact, 221, 223, 241, 242,250, n.ll, n.14, 354 nA 272,327 Afghanistan, 195 Warsaw, 175, 213 Africa, 228 Washington, George, 124, 162 Arabs, 196, 199 Washington Naval Conference Canada, 135 (1921-2), 185, 256 deaths, 161, 162, 344 n.21 Washington, Treaty of (1871), 134 Japan, 86, 88 water power (see inanimate energy) World War II (1939-45), 182, 185, Waterloo, Battle of (1815), 39, 40, 64, 195,202,203-18,225,228, 246, 105, 337 ch.6 nA 247, 248, 257, 258, 263, 269, 273, Watt, James, 148, 342 n.18 279, 283, 286, 297, 302, 303, 308, weaponry, 17, 21, 47, 51, 56, 58, 59, 310, 311, 312, 331, 348 n.1-350 74, 75, 77, 81, 83, 101, 115, 127, n.50 160, 162, 163, 188, 190, 202, 208, Afghanistan, 196, 310 212, 225, 226, 227, 236, 260, 276, D-Day, 351 n.34 280, 282, 283, 294, 299, 301, 303, deaths, 214, 351 n.38 310, 313, 316, 318, 320, 326, 327, Middle East, 200 343 n.16, 344 n.19, 361 n.3, n.6, work ethic, 87, 131, 149 339 ch.7 n.8 Wycliffe, John, 24, 25 Weber, Max, 179, 337 n.5 Weihaiwei, 108 Xavier, St Francis, 21 Weimar Republic, 204, 205 Wellington, First Duke of, 39, 162 Yalta conference (1945), 216, 219, 220, West Indies, 30, 37, 48, 116,275 324, 352 nA8 West Prussia, 352 nA8 Yalu River, 17, 'lX2, 298 Westphalia, Treaty of (1648), 33, 35 Yangtze River, 60, 107 wheat (see food crops) Yaroslavl, 100 White Australia Policy (see Australia: Yellow River, 60, 337 n.9 Immigration Restriction Policy) Yellow Sea, 334 n.6 Wilhelm I, Emperor of Germany, 42 Yeltsin, Boris, 244, 248 Wilhelm II, Emperor of Germany, Yemen, 200, 201, 311, 312, 361 n.l0 110, 156, 160, 164 People's Democratic Republic of, Wilkinson, John, 148 309, 361 n.l0 Wilson, Thomas Woodrow, 133, 164, Yemen Arab Republic, 309 165, 168, 196, 198, 253, 254, 281, Yi Dynasty, 88 345 n.27, n.28, n.33, n.37 Yorktown, Battle of (1781), 32, 124, Wittenberg, 25 129 Witwatersrand, 50 Ypres, battles of, 317 Wolfe, James, 64, 122 Yuan Dynasty, 14, 15 wool (see trade: fibres, textiles) Yuan Shikai, 84 women's suffrage, 170, 189, 346 nA2 Yucatan Peninsula, 114 World Bank, 235, 236, 265, 280, 318, YugoslaVia (see also Balkans), 193, 328, 358 n.29 210, 216, 220, 226, 239, 247, 248, World Economic Conference (1933), 250, 272, 345 n.34, 349 n.ll, 350 170 n.26 world economy, 3, 8, 48, 73, 78, 117, Socialist Federal Republic, 350 n.29 123, 170, 226, 269, 281, 289, 300, WWII, 211, 351 n.38 302, 306, 315, 317 Yung Chen, Emperor of China, 19 World Trade Organization, 299, 328 World War I (1914-18), 53, 67, 80, 93, Zacatecas, 114 95, 112, 149, 153-71, 180, 188, Zahir, Shah of Afghanistan, 196, 311 190, 191, 199, 203, 208, 251, 255, Zaire (see also Congo), 226, 228, 230, Index 401

234, 235, 355 n.13 Zimbabwe (see also Southern Zambezi River, 48, 336 n.3 Rhodesia), 44, '130 Zambia, '137 Zimmerman note, 344 n.25 Zand Dynasty, 13 zinc (see mining) Zanzibar, 48, 51, 52 Zionism (see also Judaism), 169, 198, Zapata, Emiliano, 253 199, 200, 305, 345 n.37 Zeppelin, 153 Zulu Revolt (1906), 51 Zhivkov, Todor, 246 Zulu War (1879), 51 Zia ud-Din, 193 Zyuganov,Gennady,244