Food, Meals and Cooking Bachelor’S Thesis

Masaryk University

Faculty of Education Department of English Language and Literature

French Loans in English – food, meals and cooking Bachelor’s thesis

Hana Dancingerová

Brno, April 2012 Supervisor: Mgr. Radek Vogel, PhD.

I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently and that I used only sources listed in the bibliogrpahy.

In Brno, April 2012 …………………………………… Hana Dancingerová

I would like to thank Mgr. Radek Vogel, PhD. for his kind supervision and for the professional comments and advice, with which he provided me whilst working on this thesis.

Table of contents 1. Introduction ...... 7 2. Periods of English language from historical point of view ...... 8

2.1. Old English ...... 8 2.2. Middle English ...... 8 2.3. Early Modern English ...... 10 2.4. Modern English ...... 10

3. The language contact ...... 12

3.1. Three types of contact ...... 12 3.2. Borrowing ...... 12 3.3. Loanwords ...... 13

3.3.1. The conditions leading to borrowing loanwords ...... 13 3.3.2. Function of loanwords ...... 14 3.3.3. Transfer and integration ...... 14

4. English and its relationship with French ...... 15

4.1. Influence of foreign languages on English with focus on French ...... 16 4.2. English-French language contact ...... 18

4.2.1. OE French loans ...... 19 4.2.2. ME French loans ...... 19 4.2.3. ModE French loans ...... 20 4.2.4. The phonemic aspect of the French influence ...... 20 4.2.5. Shift of stress in French loanwords ...... 21

5. French loans – food, meals and cooking ...... 21

5.1. Introduction to the practical analytical part ...... 21 5.2. Chronological classification of the items of the corpus ...... 22 5.3. Classification of the items of the corpus into word classes...... 23 5.4. Classification of the French loans according to the semantic groups ...... 24 5.4.1. Cooking ...... 25 5.4.2. Food ...... 33 5.4.3. Fruit and vegetables ...... 40 5.4.4. Meat ...... 46 5.4.5. Dining ...... 50 5.4.6. Herbs and spices ...... 53 5.4.7. Nuts and seeds ...... 56 5.4.8. Drinks ...... 57 5.4.9. Meals ...... 59

6. Conclusion...... 61

Bibliography

List of tables and figures Table 1. Various conditions of language contact during the history of the English language.

Table 2. The importance of the inherited vocabulary in Present Day English.

Table 3. Number of items in each chronological period.

Figure 1. Distribution of French loans in the semantic fields of food, meals and cooking by period of transfer into English.

Table 4: Number of items in each of the three word classes.

Figure 2. Representation of word classes among French loans in the corpus.

Table 5. Number of items in each of nine semantic groups.

Figure 3. Distribution of items of the corpus in each of nine semantic groups.

Abbreviations EModE Early Modern English Gmc Germanic It. Italian ME Middle English ModE Modern English nd not dated OE Old English OED Oxford English Dictionary Scand. Scandinavian SE South East Sp. Spanish sth something

1. Introduction

Among all foreign languages that had an impact on English throughout its linguistic history the French influence was one of the most important. The most intensive French- English language contact took place in the Middle English period beginning with the Norman Conquest. Changes that happened during this period influenced both English grammar and vocabulary (Baugh and Cable 154). The French impact on the English lexis is the subject of interest in this thesis. There are many semantic fields of English language into which French words penetrated. Among governmental and administrative words, ecclesiastical words, vocabulary of law, military, art, fashion and social life the field of cuisine seemed to be the most enticing to explore, especially when this type of survey has not been conducted before. The theoretical part of the thesis is supposed to provide an important insight for understanding the French influence on English and is divided into three chapters. The first chapter briefly describes the key features of linguistic history in the English language. The second chapter deals with the language contact, especially with types of borrowed items with emphasis on loanwords. The conditions leading to transfer of loanwords, their function and integration is looked at in more detail. The last chapter of the theoretical part focuses on French-English language contact and compares it with the contact of English with other foreign languages. It also explains the historical reasons for the penetration of French words into English in each of the historical periods emphasizing the Middle English period as the most influential. The end of this chapter deals with phonemic aspect of the French impact on the English language and also with the shift of stress in French loans. The practical analytical part focuses on the French loanwords in the semantic fields of food, meals and cooking. 228 items from these semantic fields were collected and further divided into more detailed semantic groups: cooking, food, fruit and vegetables, meat, dining, herbs and spices, nuts and seeds, meals and drinks. Each of the loans collected is described by word class, chronological origin and the possible methods of transfer. The corpus is described with the help of descriptive statistics illustrated by charts and graphs.

2. Periods of English language from historical point of view

Defining periods of English has always been problematic as linguistic change is continuous and it is difficult to base it on linguistic criteria. There are always other factors that contribute to the change: cultural and political events, which help to define the periods. Historians usually divide history of English into the following periods: Old English (450/700- 1100), Middle English (1100-1500), Early Modern English (1500-1700) and Modern English (after 1700) (Görlach 21).

2.1. Old English

The Germanic dialects spoken by the first conquerors of Britain were alike those spoken by their relatives in Europe. It was between the sixth and ninth centuries when the major linguistic changes began and gave the origin to Old English (Berndt 32). At this time the tribal dialects were changing into regional dialects thanks to particular insular features. Historians of English usually speak about four main regional dialects of Old English: Old English Northern (Northumbrian), which occurred in the region above the Humber River, Old English Midland between the Humber and Thames Rivers and Old English Southwestern found in the territory south of the Thames and Severn Rivers. These boundaries are only approximate and the changes in dialects did not arise at the same time. For example the traits that characterize Middle English emerged earlier in the North than in the South (Peters 54- 55).

2.2. Middle English

The Norman Conquest brought many linguistic changes and widened the heterogeneity of English even more. While there was a certain standardized form of English in the later Old English period, the Middle English is characterized as the phase of dialects. The number of regional dialects even inflicted problems in communication (Berndt 34). When William the Conqueror became an English King in 1070 there were many political and social changes in England (he did not control Wales and Scotland). The Frenchmen were given not only the highest offices but also positions of traders, soldiers, craftsmen and workmen. French was spoken on every social level. The Anglo-French language replaced English in the royal court, the government, the law courts, the schools and parliament and it stayed official language for 300 years until it was replaced by English. By that time hundreds of words had become part of the English vocabulary. Anglo-French was at first a dialect of 8

Old French and for some time it was undergoing the same linguistic changes as the language on the Continent. However, around 1150 Anglo-French was influenced by English speech habits to such a large extent, that the Continental Old French and Anglo-French differed in their linguistic tendencies (Peters 58; Serjeanston 105). The decline of Anglo-French is justified by Peters as follows:

Various political factors contributed to the decline of Anglo-French in England. They include the loss of direct English control over Normandy (1204- 1265), the growth of English nationalism (1272-1400), the attendant reaction against foreigners, and the Hundred Years‘ War (1337-1453) with France. As Anglo-French became progressively isolated from the Continental French, it no longer shared in the linguistic changes taking place on the Continent, and differed more and more from Continental French. After about two centuries (1066-c.1250), the use of Anglo-French by the upper classes in England slowly began to decrease. Eventually it was reduced in status in parliament and records of lawsuits (Peters 60). As the disuse of Anglo-French was growing the English was coming to resurgence. At the end of the fourteenth century English became the national language of England: it was re- established in law courts, schools and parliament. In the first half of 15 th century a standardized form of written English started to be commonly used for documents (Peters 60). As well as in Old English there are groups of dialects distinguished in Middle English. They were: Middle English Northern, Middle English West Midland, Middle English East Midland, Middle English South western (Southern) and Middle English Southeastern (Kentish). The geographical parts belonging to the dialects were the same as for Old English except for Old English Midland being divided into West and East Midland. The most influential of these dialects was Southeast Midland. Peters mentions that this may be attributed to the fact that this dialect area included Cambridge and Oxford – the university towns, also the city of London and Westminster – the royal government seat, which is geographically in the middle of the other dialect areas (Peters 62). Looking at the stage of the language from a phonological point of view the Old

English diphtongs were monophthonogized /j, ɣ, w/ and vocalized in voiced surroundings, which lead to appearance of new dipthongs: reduction of hl-, hn-, hr- clusters and phonemization of /v, z/. Morphological characters of this period are: fusion of unstressed vowels and leveling of inflexion, which resulted in loss of grammatical gender, strong adjectival inflexion, invariable arcticle, loss of dual forms and of the accusative/dative oppositions in pronouns. The marking of number started to have priority over case and instead of case fixed word order and prepositions started to be applied. Considering lexis the earliest

9 layer of French loanwords integrated into English and more Scandinavian words were recorded in texts (Görlach 21-22).

2.3. Early Modern English

In this period the Southeastern dialect still remained the most common. It was a dialect of the royal court, administration and of people from London and that is why it gained a social prestige. People settling around London were imitating the Southeastern dialect in order to be more socially fashionable (Peters 62). The regional dialects have not disappeared but stayed vivid till the present day and the standard form of English became a social dialect, which distinguished the speech of one social class from another. During the 17 th century Standard English started to be stronger in spoken communication but this development was more distinct in the following centuries (Berndt 39). There are some typical features describing the language of this period. First, the lexis broadend thanks to borrowings and the use fo word-formation patterns. Second, the first phase of the Great Vowel Shift was complete and the inflexion of verbs was restricted to /-s, -st, -þ /. And third, the printing supported the spread of the standard language of London. English was also influenced by the age of Renaissance and the discovery of America (Görlach 22).

2.4. Modern English

In the 18 th century there was a clear effort to standardize, refine and fix the English language. At first there were questions about whether English was suitable for writings, in which Latin had had a long tradition. It was for the first time attention was paid to grammar. English had no grammar rules and was not standardized – there were many dissimilarities even among educated people (Baugh and Cable 251). The tendencies of 18 th century are summarized by Baugh and Cable like this: “Eighteen-century attempts to codify the English language and to direct its course fall, we may repeat, under three main heads: (1) to reduce the language to rule and set up a standard of correct usage; (2) to refine it – that is, to remove supposed defects and introduce certain improvements; and (3) to fix it permanently in the desired form.” (Baugh and Cable 252). These needs were summarized in one word: ascertainment , which then was used for settling a matter, rendering it certain, free of doubt and establishing a standard (Baugh and Cable 252-253). Grammarians of the 18 th century achieved some considerable results in their work. In their attempts to ascertain the language they managed to set many rules, some of which has been abolished by now. The decisions

10 they made were not always sufficiently supported, but it must be said that many controversial issues were settled and have become established since. One of the weaknesses of the early grammarians was lack of consideration for usage as the crucial element in linguistic matters. Instead of taking into an account the natural development of a language, which includes its capriciousness and irrationality, they chose a logic approach in the belief the challenges can be solved and presented by authoritative decree. It is worth to mention the objection to foreign borrowings. The opinion of the 18 th century was that English was ruined by the invasion of foreign words, especially French, which was then used at almost every court in Europe. French was regularly used among upper classes in England and visiting France for educational purposes was very common (Baugh and Cable 280-283). The influences affecting the language during the 19 th and 20 th century were mainly political and social. Thanks to the British success during the Napoleonic Wars Britain got control over a great deal of world’s trade. It was reorganization of parliament, improvement of the penal code and the poor laws, restricting child labor and industrial innovations that moved English society in a more democratic direction. In 1816 the first cheap newspaper was introduced and in 1840 a cheap postage was established. The railroad, the steamboat and the telegraph made traveling and communication options easier, which resulted in uniting more closely even farther parts of Britain and spreading the standard form of English. The period of world words and the uneasy time that followed influenced both people and the language. Another great deal of influence on the language had England’s larger colonies and their independence and the fast development of the United States, which gave increased significance to the forms of English spoken in these territories. The events mentioned had some impact on the English vocabulary, but much bigger influence in this matter had the great developments in science and industry. A progress was evident in many fields of intellectual activity, which corresponded with increasing number of new words. These two centuries were demonstrating the relation between a civilization and the language, which is not of a small importance (Baugh and Cable 290-291). Görlach highlights some key features of this period: mergers of voweles in pairs (e.g. tal-tail, sole-soul, meat-meet), completion of the phonemic splits of / ʊ/ (e.g. put-but) and /a/ (e.g. cat-what) and of cluster reductions in /kn-, gn-, wr-/. The use of thou, thee, thy regressed and was completely replaced by its and the verb do bacame almost obligatory in questions and negated sentences, which was considered as modern function of do . And there was a tendency of American English to start to drift away from British English (Görlach 22).

3. The language contact

When two languages interact it is marked as a language contact. Two or more languages are used either by one individual or in speech communities. The ways the languages influence each other are transfer and integration. The feature or the item can remain as the idiolect of bilinguals or become a part of the language of the whole community (Görlach 137).

3.1. Three types of contact

Görlach speaks about three paths of borrowing. The result of the first type of contact is integration of the transferred items into the receiving language. It is found in mixed speech communities and on borders of two regions where there are two spoken languages. The change can be restricted to certain domains and often influences daily life. The second type of contact is characterized as distant and is restricted to lexis. It can be for example a result of importing goods and their names which means the transfer happens over long distances, only in written form and it doesn’t require bilinguals. Borrowings from book languages are the third and last type of contact. The integration is based on written forms and is not very strong: later contact in speech can lead to changes, especially in pronunciation (Görlach 138).

3.2. Borrowing

There are several classes into which the borrowed items can be divided. Writing systems and spelling can be demonstrated on the Old English alphabet which was transferred from Latin. There were some changes made by the Norman scribes in items where the indigenous system was inadequate. Individual words were affected where the spelling and pronunciation did not agree with the etymon and subsequently the new spellings became the basis for new pronunciations. Changes in the phonemic system did not appear until Middle English when French determined the pronunciation of the loanwords, for example new phonemes /z/ a /v/ were introduced to English in the loanwords that contained them. Here, the author points out that the medieval French loanwords were ultimately integrated excluding those that were adopted after 1660. Another of borrowed items is morphology . It is possible, but not certain that the –s in verb inflexion was influenced by Scandinavian. In lexicon borrowing elements from open sets (lexemes) was more frequent than from closed sets. Less easily borrowed were also bound morphemes. Calques are borrowed items that include three subtypes: loan translations, loan renderings and loan creations. Next type of borrowing is a 12 existing word which takes over the meaning of the foreign item: this is called a semantic loan . Semantic loan creates polysemy but it can proceed in being replaced or given up again. Also syntax can be borrowed. It is usually a result of an unidiomatic translation or deliberate adoption of a foreign pattern. The last type of borrowing is a loanword , which is described in detail in the following text (Görlach 144-146).

3.3. Loanwords

Loanword is an expression indicating either a foreign word or a lexical item that the recipient language borrows from the donor language. The definition of the loanword by Görlach is:

A foreign lexical item is borrowed at word level or above (loan phrase); both form and content are affected in the process of borrowing and in later integration, namely by adaptation to the formal categories of the receiving language, and by the selection of a meaning (which has to coexist with indigenous equivalents) (Görlach 145). The process of the lexical item becoming a loanword normally starts with occasional use in a native context and the integration progresses when the word appears in the speech community (Görlach 145).

3.3.1. The conditions leading to borrowing loanwords

According to Görlach there are four reasons for borrowing loanwords. First, gaps in the indigenous lexis: the word is transferred with both new content and object, or there is no word for designation of a well-known content, or the existing word is not specific enough for certain nuances. Second, previous weakening of the indigenous lexis : there had been experimenal attempts to find expressions for rendering the content but none of them succeeded, or the found expression had been weakened by homonymy, polysemy, or being part of an obsolescent word-formation, or the existing expression needs to be replaced by one that is more neutral. Third, associative relations : an adoption of one word is followed by borrowing another word of the same family, or the borrowing is supported by a native word of similar form (this was particularly important for adopting from Scandinavian), or an earlier loandword is replaced by a new one. And fourth, special extralinguistic conditions : the borrowed words are needed for purpose of rhymes and metre, or the adoptions happens because of fashion and prestige, or untranslated words need to be replaced. The author points out that there are more classifications for borrowings, most of them motivated not by

13 necessity but fashion and prestige as was mentioned above and therefore are very difficult to define. He also mentions that sometimes borrowing happened without an obvious reason and that loanwords and the native expressions equivalent to them were often used as synonyms (Görlach 149-150).

3.3.2. Function of loanwords

The reasons for borrowing loanwords imply their function in the recipent language. They describe new objects and concepts, which were previously designated by a paraphrase and fill the lexical gaps for those concepts that were not properly named. That helps to avoid ambiguity and get more accurate differentiation. Where there is a need for international communication, for example in terminology in the sciences, loanwords are facilitating the interaction (Görlach 151).

3.3.3. Transfer and integration

Linguistic history is closely linked to cultural history. Thus, the reconstruction of borrowing in pre-literary periods is common. The reconstruction can also happen on regional, social and stylistic level of the donor language. For example there are differences between Vulgar Latin loanwords and loanwords borrowed from books. In case of the French loanwords this can be demonstrated on early loans from (spoken) Anglo-French and late (14 th century) loans from written Central French (Görlach 152). Another interesting phenomenon are double borrowings. These appear as a result of reborrowing words in different periods if they are not found to be identical in form or content. To demonstrate this Görlach gives following examples: Latin unica → Old English inch ; Anglo-French → Middle English ounce or Anglo-French → Middle English catch ; Central French → Middle English chase. The author points out that the reborrowings should be distinguished from adaptations of earlier loanwords which are often found to be more etymologically correct (Görlach 152). Görlach says: “Integration is the gradual accommodation of a foreign word to the structures of the receiving language.“ It often happens that the word first becomes part of the peripheral system and the integration comes later. If the foreign word concerns the foreign culture, it tends to stay unintegrated. These words may retain foreign graphemes and phonemes. It is no exception when a word that is new to the recipient language is accompanied by its translation (Görlach 153).

The cultural history does not always suggest the origin of the borrowed word. In words that have not been fully integrated we can use their form as a clue. Fully accommodated words do not indicate their origin so easily, but also maintain some traces: phonological, morphological, word-formation, meaning and syntactic compatibility. For each of these criteria the conclusions have to be confirmed by philological and cultural evidence (Görlach 153-154).

4. English and its relationship with French

As Berndt points out the language contact between English and French began much earlier than with the Norman Conquest. There were speakers of these two languages influencing each other during the Benedictine reform in the 10 th century. Then in the days of the reign of King Ethelred and Emma, who was sister of Richard II., duke of Normandy (early 11 th century) and in 1042-1066 when their son Edward the Confessor sat on the English throne. We may find that some borrowings from French were adopted during the Late Old English period but the main flood of French loans to English came during the Middle English times (Berndt 57). Serjeanston makes an interesting observation: the first French influence on English happened due to people of the same origin as those who brought Scandinavian words to England. As the Norwegians and Danes were making their way through to England, the Vikings started to settle in the northern area of the Frank’s kingdom and later named it Normandy. They adopted the language and started to speak it with their own characteristics, this way creating a dialect (Norman French) that was in 11 th century brought to England. The result of this French influence was Anglo-Norman, from which many words were transferred to English and later some more words were also adopted both from Northern-French and Central-French and from even more southern French language – Provençal, though these were not so common (Serjeanston 104-105). Each of the three languages – English, Latin and French – played its role in the post 1066 era. French was the language of the military-political leaders, which had the greatest influence in administration, army, law and courtly literature. It was also language of larger religious communities and monastic orders, although the language of the liturgy was Latin. Domains such are historiography, documents and scholarly texts were also written in Latin. It may seem negligible that only about 2 % of the population spoke French but those people were in high social positions and the rest that spoke English were ordinary farmers, craftsmen,

15 peasants and traders. There was no need for the leaders to be bilingual because they were surrounded by only French speakers. Only the local lords and tradesmen had to communicate in both languages (Hladký 324). When King John lost Normandy to Philip II of France in 1204 some changes occured. English was supported as a language of aristocracy and French replaced Latin in the role of language of government records. In 1362 Edward III set English as a language for proceedings in courts but Latin and French were not completely eliminated at that time. It was in 1733 when Latin and French were prohibited in legal records. Sometimes the French influence is called Norman only but there were two phases: the first was the influence of Normans, a Germanic tribe speaking a dialect of French and the second was Central French influence, which began with connection of English and French courts. The differences between these two can be demonstrated on some loanwords: Norman capital vs. Central French chapter ; Norman launch vs. Central French lance and other. This issue is looked at in more detail in chapter 4.2.2. (Hladký 324-325).

4.1. Influence of foreign languages on English with focus on French

There were various conditions of language contact during the history of the English language. The following table by Görlach provides a simplified overview of it. As was mentioned before, the main French influence began in Middle English period and the contact was implemented by political power and culture (Görlach 143).

Celtic Latin Scand. French other

700 -P S +C S - - - OE 1100 +C W -C S - - 1300 (B) +C (via.Fr.) +P S - ME 1400 +C W Dutch, It., Sp. 1500 +C W ∗ (trade, travel)

1600 EModE 1700 1800 +C W +C W ModE 1900 W∗∗

Table 1. Various conditions of language contact during the history of the English language ; S = speech, W = written language of education, B = border contacts; prestige: +higher, - lower than that of English with C = cultural and P = political power (Görlach 143).

In one of the chapters of his work Berndt deals with the importance of the inherited Germanic lexical material in Present Day English. He claims that many Old English words were lost and replaced in post-Old English times by words of foreign origin including French. The most frequently used items were classified in an analysis called Horn List of 1926. They were grouped into the first most frequent thousand words, second most frequent thousand words, third most frequent thousand words and so on until the tenth thousand. The following chart implies comparison of number of native words versus loanwords in each group of thousand (Berndt 69).

Decile Old English French Latin Scandinavian other languages 1 83 % 12 % 2 % 2.5 % 0.5 % 2 35 48 12 3 2 3 31 48.5 15 2 3.5 4 29.5 47 18.5 1.5 3.5 5 28 48.5 17 2 4.5 6 29.5 44 20.5 2 4 7 25 48 18.5 2.5 6 8 29 43.5 19 3 5.5 9 29 43.5 18.5 2.5 6.5 10 28.5 44.5 19 2 6

Total Old English French Latin other Gmc other languages 31.8 45 16.7 4.2Languages 2.3

Table 2. The importance of the inherited vocabulary in Present Day English (Berndt 69).

The results of the analysis show that 83 % the first most frequent thousand words originate in Old English period. From the second most frequent thousand onwards the share of native words drop to 35 % and lower meanwhile the words of French origin share between 43.5 % to 48.5 %. And the rest is distributed between Latin, Scandinavian and other languages. In total it is 31.8 % native words that are used most frequently, 45 % French loans, 16.7 % Latin loans, 4.2 % loans from other Germanic langugages and 2.3 % other languages.

The importance of the inherited Germanic vocabulary elements that persisted till the present day can be attributed to the fact that most of them are part of the common core of the lexicon and therefore are used very frequently. This basic vocabulary is said to be immune to change and also the least accessible to foreign influence. To some extent, this was also true for English language. Some Old English names, adjectives and verbs have endured into modern English and certainly belong to the group of basic English vocabulary: sunne (sun), heorte (heart), fr ēond (friend), (e)ald (old), hāt (hot), yfel (evil), wacian (wake, be awake), bacan (bake), cl āðian (clothe), etc. (Berndt 70). The analysis shows curious results considering the proportion of native and borrowed words in the first most frequent thousand words. This phenomenon is explained by Berndt as follows:

The inclusion of such high-frequency elements as articles, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs and numerals, or, at least, the majority of them, in the body of inherited lexical items, underlines their centrality in function and explains the completely different proportion of native words to borrowed words in actual language use. As has been shown by vocabulary studies of samples of different kind of ModE texts, the inherited lexical elements outnumber the borrowings if every occurrence of a word in the continuous text is counted (Berndt 70). In case the word is counted every time it appears in the text the numbers change with the style levels and functional varieties. Comparing this with the percentage given in the chart above for the total of 10,000 lexical items we will conclude that the results are reversed in texts like newspaper reports: OE origin 66.4 %, total Germanic 67.5 %, French and Latin 31.5 %. The native words if counted at every appearance in the text represent the largest proportion (82-85 %) of the analysed samples: dialogues, essays and even technical and scientific texts, which usually contain good number of loanwords. The numbers characterizing these samples are: OE origin 51-68 %, total Germanic 53-74 %, French and Latin 25-45 %. If each word that occurred in the text was counted the results would be very different (Berndt 70).

4.2. English-French language contact

It is interesting to observe the connection between French loans and native words. For many words of French origin that penetrated to English a Germanic equivalent had already existed. The words were stylisticlly not the same, though. Example sentences “A lot of work has to be done around here.” and “What is the value of labour in our society?” show the stylistic difference between the Germanic word work and Romance word labour . Both words have the same meaning, but the Romance expression shows a higher level while the Germanic

18 one is a regularly used word. The difference can occur also in a meaning as in ask vs. demand : the Romance word demand has the indication of insistence. There were more types of changes leading to mixing Germanic and Romance elements. Another example is assimilation: similar sound English word was created on the basis of the French expression e.g. English choice was created on the basis of French choix (Hickey). The following text provides more cases of English-French language contact including example loanwords for each chronological period. The end of this chapter deals with the phonemic aspect of the French influence and shift of stress in French loans.

4.2.1. OE French loans Some of the early loans from French are questionable, e.i. pr ūd, pr ūt (proud), which might come from a French form of Vulgar Latin pr ōd-is and sot (foolish), which originates in Vulgart Latin sottus and might have been transffered through French s ōt. Other words that were apparently adopted from French before the Conquest are: capun (capon), tumbere (dancer), gingifer (ginger), bacun (bacon), prisun (prison), arblast (arbalest), serfise (service), servian (serve), castel (castle), tūr (tower) and cancelere (chancellor) (Serjeanston 105).

4.2.2. ME French loans Thousands of French loans – Peters claims it is up to ten thousand – were adopted by English in the Middle English period and 75 % of these are in use up to this day e.g. boulevard, cigarette, champagne, de luxe, etiquette, menu, restaurant, souvenir and other. The number of French loans was escalating until the end of the 14 th century when it reached its peak and after that it declined, but the borrowing continued. The Middle English French loans denote the areas in which English was influenced by French. It is for example government: parlement (parliament), finance: trésor (treasure), titles of nobility: duc (duke), military: serjeaunt (sergeant), law: juge (judge), art: tragedye (tragedy), medicine: surgien (surgeon), meals: diner (dinner) or church: religioun (religion) (Peters 265). The first great influx of French loanwords came with the Conquest and these would be words adopted mainly from the Norman-French dialect. After 1100 France was the leader in all European literary movements, so French literature contributed a great deal to the penetration of French loans to English as well. The second great influx were words from Central French. Comparing the number of borrowings from these two dialects, the Central French loans are more numerous, but the Norman French loans penetrated deeper into the language (Wardale 34). These two dialects differed substantially in pronunciation: Northern

French had k where Central French had ch , and ch where Central French had s. W stayed original from Germanic and Celtic languages in Northern French while it became gu and later g in Central French. And where Northern French had g, Central French changed into j. It was no exception that one French word was often adopted into English twice. The two French words usually had two different forms and more or less different meanings, e.g. Northern French: catch, warden, launch, wage and Central French: chase, guardian, lance, gage (Bradley 87).

4.2.3. ModE French loans

At least until 19 th century French was considered to be an important source of lexical borrowings. Only during the period between 1500 and 1700 its role of donor language was taken over by Latin, but in next two centuries it again became the main source of loanwords in English. The circumstances leading to borrowing during this period were very much different from those during the Middle English period. The number of loanwords penetrating into every day speech was much lower than the number of earlier borrowings, the Modern English loans were rather restricted to certain variety or stylistic level. At that time France had a leading role in social and cultural spheres, therefore the adopted vocabulary reflected its influence in these fields. Here are some example loans reflecting artistic and cultural ties with France: artist, baroque, renaissance, rococo, ballet, burlesque, chanson, vase, memoir(s), essay, précis, cartoon, brochure, envelope, etc. Another group of French borrowings is connected with politics, trade and industry: patriot, republic, regime, aristocrat, democrat, dissident, cabinet, diplomacy, ideology, socialism, communism, etc. Words from French cuisine and fashion is a next group of French loans: cuisine, pastry, muscat, champagne, cutlet, picnic, canteen, tricot, vogue, etc. In 18 th century an interest in mountains (especially the Alps) grew in England, which caused penetration of geological terms into English: glacier, moraine, plateau, debris, avalanche, etc. To have the list complete a mixed group of loanwords can be added: comrade, pilot, trial, entrance, attitude, detail, zero, apartment, bureau, development, garage, chauffeur, fiancée, practicable, invalid, entrap, develop, detach, embarrass and so on (Berndt 62).

4.2.4. The phonemic aspect of the French influence

According to Hladký there were two diphthongs of French origin that completed the existing English diphthongs. The new diphthongs were oi , which we can find in Modern

English words choice, cloister, employ, noise, rejoice and ui , which is spelled oi as in boil, point, joint Another phonemic aspect of the French influence concerned initial and final spirants that were voiceless in Old English and voiced in medial position. “The voiceless spirants (f, s, θ) and the voiced spirants (v, z, ð) were variants of the phonemes f/v, s/z, θ/ð. In Middle English, borrowings from French introduced words like v ēle ‘veal’ and z ēle ‘zeal’, with voiced pronunciations, contrasting with domestic words f ēlen ‘feel’ and s ēl ‘seal as aquatic mammal’. Thus the phonemes f/v, s/z split into two phonemes each, voiceless f and s and voiced v and z.” says Hladký (Hladký 325).

4.2.5. Shift of stress in French loanwords

In French words the stress was originaly placed on the final syllable but over time it shifted to the initial possition, which is more common for English of Germanic origin. This can be demonstrated on words like punish, manner , which were formerly stressed on the second syllable but later the stress moved to the first syllable and that preserved into Modern English. Initial stress in English refers to the first syllable of the word stem thus in words such are conversion, depletion (also originaly French words with final stress) the stress falls on the second syllable (the stem syllable). This means that in some dysyllabic words the stress may remain on the second syllable as in revert, review, conduct, precede . There are verbs and nouns of French origin that are segmetally similar and differentiate only in the placement of stress. Usually the words pronounced with stress on the first syllable are nouns while verbs are stressed on the final syllable (e.g. conduct, con duct, convert, con vert), but it is not a rule - this occurance developed in English independantly. The stress in Romance words in English is rather liberal, the alternatives are usually parallel with British and American variants, e.g. address, address, advertisement, adver tisement, harass, ha rass, in quiry, inquiry . The variants in stress may induce modifications in vowel quality (Hickey).

5. French loans – food, meals and cooking

5.1. Introduction to the practical analytical part

The corpus of 228 items being French loans from the semantic fields food, meals and cooking have been collected with the help of Baugh and Cable’s History of the English Language, Crystal’s The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language and Oxford

Advanced Learner’s Dictionary and its Compass CD-ROM . The collected data was processed through Microsoft Office Excel 2007 with a use of descriptive statistics. Every item of the corpus was described by its current meaning and some features that help us see the process of its borrowing. There are three word classes represented by the items of the corpus: nouns, adjectives and verbs. Every item is also characterized by the chronological period of its transfer: Middle English, Early Modern English and Modern English and by one of nine semantic groups: cooking, food, fruit and vegetables, meat, dining, herbs and spices, nuts and seeds, meals and drinks. The items were grouped according to the most logical fashion. The following part of the thesis provides an adequate summary of the corpus and is illustrated with charts and graphs.

5.2. Chronological classification of the items of the corpus

The corpus was originally divided into all four historical periods: Old English, Middle English, Early Modern English and Modern English. There were no French loans found from semantic fields food, meals and cooking that would be transfered during the Old English period, but there are some loanwords that could not be clearly chronologically specified. The final number of the groups for the chronological classification is four: Middle English , Early Modern English , Modern English and unspecified . For the reasons mentioned in chapter 4.2.2. the highest number of transferred items was found in the Middle English period and that is 169 loanwords from total number of 228, which is 74 %. 25 words, which is 11 %, were borrowed during Early Modern English times and 9 % or 21 items were transferred during Modern English period. Table 3 gives a summary of the number of loanwords borrowed during each period and figure 1 shows their percentage representation.

ME 169 EModE 25 ModE 21 unspecified 13 Total 228

Table 3. Number of items in each chronological period.

6% 9%

ME 11% EModE ModE unspecified 74%

Fig. 1. Distribution of French loans in the semantic fields of food, meals and cooking by period of transfer into English.

5.3. Classification of the items of the corpus into word classes

There are three word classes represented by the French loans from semantic fields food, meals and cooking and those are nouns , adjectives and verbs . From the total number of 228 items there are 183 nouns, 3 adjectives and 42 verbs, which is 80 %, 1 % and 19 % respectively. Table 4 and figure 2 are illustrating the results.

Nouns 183 Adjectives 3 Verbs 42 Total 228

Table 4: Number of items in each of the three word classes.

Verbs 19% Adjectives 1% Nouns Adjectives Verbs

Nouns 80%

Fig. 2. Representation of word classes among French loans in the corpus.

5.4. Classification of the French loans according to the semantic groups

The original semantic division: food, meals and cooking was extended from three to nine semantic groups, because of the high total number of items in the corpus. The most numerous group is cooking , perhaps because of its general concept, consisting of 58 loanwords, which is 25 % of the total number. The second largest group is food containing 46 loanwords and representing 20 % of the whole corpus. There are 35 items in the third group - fruit and vegetables – and that is 15 %. Group named meat consists of 31 loanwords, which represents 14 %. 20 loanwords, or 9 %, belong to the group referred to as dining . Herbs and spices are represented by 18 loanwords, which is 8 %. In the group nuts and seeds there are 7 loanwords, as well as in the group referred to as drinks and in the last group - meals - there are 6 loawords, which is approximately 3 %. Table 5 provides and figure 3 provide an arranged representation of the results.

cooking 58 food 46 fruit and vegetables 35 meat 31 dining 20 herbs and spices 18 nuts and seeds 7 drinks 7 meals 6 Total 228

Table 5. Number of items in each of nine semantic groups.

3% 3% 3% 8% 25% cooking food fruit and vegetables 9% meat dining herbs and spices nuts and seeds 14% drinks 20% meals

15%

Fig. 3. Distribution of items of the corpus in each of nine semantic groups.

5.4.1. Cooking

The semantic group cooking contains the highest number of items in the corpus. The percentage representation for group can be compared to the group food . This is probably because both these semantic groups generally have a broader range of vocabulary that can be assigned to them. Looking at the field cooking we can see that many of the 59 loans that belong to this group are verbs describing cooking techniques (blanch, boil, braise, broil,

25 caramelize, clarify, cure, dice, flambé, flavour, fry, grate, grill, mince, parboil, render, roast, sauté, stew, etc.) and vocabulary connected with the cooking process (dice, fillet, garnish, grease, preserve, pare, prepare, season, skim, spice, sugar, trus, etc.) or various types of substances used for cooking ( batter, béchamel, gravy, juice, leaven, marinade, meringue, purée, etc.). Most of the loans from this group are of Middle English origin, but we can find a few from the Modern English and Early Modern English periods as well ( béchamel, purée, truss, braise, cuisine, cutlet, flambé, garnish, grill, marinade, meringue, etc.). The reasons for these words being borrowed are, of course, connected with historical events that led to a French influence in many spheres of life including cooking, or British cuisine in general. Since the French-speaking classes were in higher positions in English society the vocabulary associated with cuisine could not have been left without impact. The French expression haute cuisine, which means “high standard of cooking“, speaks for itself. French cuisine was probably one of the symbols of prestige, which people from higher classes liked to desplay.

No. Loanword Meaning Original form Period of Word origin class 11 batter a mixture of eggs, from Old French ME n milk, flour, etc. used bateure the action of for making cakes beating, from batre to beat

12 béchamel a thick sauce made named after the EModE n with milk, flour and Marquis Louis de butter Béchamel (died 1703), steward to Louis XIV of France, who is said to have invented a similar sauce 15 blanch to prepare food, from Old French ME v especially blanchir , from blanc vegetables, by white, ultimately of putting it into Germanic origin boiling water for a short time

16 boil 1 a period of boiling; from Old French ME n the point at which boillir , from Latin liquid boils bullire to bubble, from bulla bubble

17 boil 2 to heat sth to the from Old French ME v point when it forms boillir , from Latin bubbles bullire to bubble, from bulla bubble

19 braise to cook meat or from French braiser , ModE v vegetables very from braise live coals slowly with a little (in which the liquid in a closed container was container formerly placed) 24 broil to cook meat or fish (also in the sense ME v under direct heat or burn, char): from Old over heat on metal French bruler to burn, bars of unknown origin 25 brush to put sth, for partly from Old ME v example oil, milk or French brosser to egg, on sth using a sweep brush 33 caramelize (of sugar) to turn from French ME v into caramel/to cook caraméliser , from sth, especially fruit, caramel caramel with sugar so that it is covered with caramel 48 clarify to make sth, (in the senses set ME v especially butter, forth clearly and pure by heating it make pure and clean): from Old French clarifier , from late Latin clarificare , from Latin clarus clear 62 cuisine a style of cooking French, literally EModE n kitchen, from Latin coquina , from coquere to cook 63 cure to treat food or rom Old French curer ME v tobacco with smoke, (verb), cure (noun), salt, etc. in order to both from Latin preserve it curare take care of, from cura care. The original noun senses were care, concern,

responsibility, in particular spiritual care. In late Middle English the senses medical care and successful medical treatment arose, and hence remedy 65 cutlet a thick slice of meat, from French côtelette , EModE n especially lamb or earlier costelette , pork, that is cooked diminutive of coste and served with the rib, from Latin costa bone still attached 68 dice to cut meat, from Old French des , ME v vegetables, etc. into plural of de , from small square pieces Latin datum something given or played, neuter past participle of dare 73 escalope a thin slice of meat French ME n with no bones in it, often covered with breadcrumbs and fried 77 fillet a piece of meat or (denoting a band ME n fish that has no worn round the head): bones in it from Old French filet thread, based on Latin filum thread 78 flambé 1 to drench with a French, literally ModE v liquor, such as singed, past participle brandy of flamber , from flambe a flame 79 flambé 2 covered with French, literally ModE a alcohol, especially singed, past participle brandy and allowed of flamber , from to burn for a short flambe a flame time 80 flavour 1 how food or drink from Old French ME n tastes/a particular flaor , perhaps based type of taste on a blend of Latin flatus blowing and foetor stench; the -v- appears to have been introduced in Middle

81 flavour 2 to add sth to food or from Old French ME v drink to give it more flaor , perhaps based flavour or a on a blend of Latin particular flavour flatus blowing and foetor stench; the -v- appears to have been introduced in Middle English by association with savour 86 fry to cook sth in hot fat from Old French ME v or oil; to be cooked frire , from Latin in hot fat or oil frigere 87 garnish 1 a small amount of (in the sense equip, EModE n food that is used to arm): from Old decorate a larger French garnir , dish of food probably of Germanic origin and related to warn. The current sense dates from the late 17th cent. 88 garnish 2 to decorate a dish of (in the sense equip, EModE v food with a small arm): from Old amount of another French garnir , food probably of Germanic origin and related to warn. The current sense dates from the late 17th cent. 92 grate to rub food against a from Old French ME v grater in order to cut grater , of Germanic it into small pieces origin; related to German kratzen to scratch 94 gravy a brown sauce made (denoting a spicy ME n by adding flour to sauce): perhaps from the juices that come a misreading ( as out of meat while it gravé ) of Old French is cooking grané , probably from grain spice, from Latin granum grain 95 grease 1 animal fat that has from Old French ME n been made softer by graisse , based on cooking or heating Latin crassus thick, fat 96 grease 2 to rub grease or fat from Old French ME v on sth graisse , based on Latin crassus thick, fat

97 grill 1 the part of a cooker from French gril EModE n that directs heat (noun), griller (verb), downwards to cook from Old French food that is placed graille grille underneath it 98 grill 2 to cook food under from French gril EModE v or over a very strong (noun), griller (verb), heat from Old French graille grille 102 haute cooking of a very French, literally high nd n cuisine high standard cookery 107 juice 2 to get the juice out via Old French from ME v of fruit or vegetables Latin jus broth, vegetable juice 109 lard 2 to put small pieces (also denoting fat ME v of fat on or into sth bacon or pork): from before cooking it Old French bacon , from Latin lardum, laridum , related to Greek larinos fat 110 leaven a substance, from Old French ME n especially yeast, that levain , based on Latin is added to bread levamen relief before it is cooked to (literally means of make it rise raising), from levare to lift 119 marinade a mixture of oil, from French, from EModE n wine, spices, etc., in Spanish marinada , which meat or fish is via marinar pickle in left before it is brine from marino , cooked in order to from Latin marinus , make it softer or to from mare sea give it a particular flavour 124 meringue a sweet white from French, of ModE n mixture made from unknown origin egg whites and sugar, usually baked until crisp and used to make cakes; a small cake made from this mixture 126 mince 2 to cut food, from Old French ME v especially meat, into mincier , based on very small pieces Latin minutia using a special smallness machine

141 parboil to boil food, from Old French ME v especially parbouillir , from late vegetables, until it is Latin perbullire boil partly cooked thoroughly, from Latin per- through, thoroughly (later confused with part) + bullire to boil 142 pare to remove the thin from Old French ME v outer layer of sth parer adorn , prepare, also peel, trim, from Latin parare prepare 156 poach to cook food, from Old French ME v especially fish, pochier , earlier in the gently in a small sense enclose in a amount of liquid bag, from poche bag, pocket 161 portion 2 portion sth (out) to from Old French ME v divide sth into parts porcion , from Latin or portions portio(n-), from the phrase pro portione in proportion 164 prepare to make sth or sb from French préparer ME v ready to be used or or Latin praeparare , to do sth from prae before + parare make ready 165 preserve to prevent sth, (in the sense keep ME v especially food, from safe from harm): from decaying by treating Old French preserver , it in a particular way from late Latin praeservare , from prae- before, in advance + servare to keep 168 purée food in the form of a French, literally ModE n thick liquid made by purified, feminine crushing fruit or past participle of cooked vegetables in purer a small amount of water 171 render to make fat liquid by from Old French ME v heating it rendre , from an alteration of Latin reddere give back, from re- back + dare give 175 roast to cook food, from Old French ME v especially meat, rostir , of West without liquid in an Germanic origin

oven or over a fire

178 roux a mixture of fat and from French (beurre) nd n flour heated together roux browned (butter) until they form a solid mass, used for making sauces 188 sauté 2 to fry food quickly French, literally ME v in a little hot fat jumped, past participle of sauter 189 sauté 1 (only before noun) French, literally ME a e.g. sauté potatoes jumped, past participle of sauter 193 season to add salt, pepper, from Old French ME v etc. to food in order seson , from Latin to give it more satio(n-) sowing, later flavour time of sowing, from the root of serere to sow 196 skim to remove fat, cream, (in the sense remove ME v etc. from the surface scum from (a liquid)): of a liquid back-formation from skimmer, or from Old French escumer , from escume scum, foam 200 sous to soak sth/sb (as a noun denoting ME v completely in a pickled meat): from liquid Old French sous pickle, of Germanic origin; related to salt 202 spice 2 to add spice to food shortening of Old ME v in order to give it French espice , from more flavour Latin species sort, kind, in late Latin wares 205 stew 2 to cook sth slowly, (in the sense ME v or allow sth to cook cauldron): from Old slowly in liquid in a French estuve (related closed dishthat has a to estuver heat in lid steam), probably based on Greek tuphos smoke, steam 208 sugar 2 to add sugar to sth; from Old French ME v to cover sth in sugar sukere , from Italian zucchero , probably via medieval Latin from Arabic sukkar

212 taste 1 the particular quality (also in the sense ME n that different foods touch): from Old and drinks have that French tast allows you to recognize them when you put them in your mouth 213 taste 2 to have a particular (also in the sense ME v flavour touch): from Old French taster touch, try, taste, perhaps based on a blend of Latin tangere to touch and gustare to taste 219 truss to tie the legs and (in the sense bundle): EModE v wings of a chicken, from Old French etc. before it is trusse (noun), trusser cooked pack up, bind in, based on late Latin tors- twisted, from the verb torquere . This sense dates from the mid 17th cent. 228 zest the outer skin of an from French zeste ME n orange, a lemon, orange or lemon peel, etc., when it is used of unknown origin to give flavour in cooking

(OED)

5.4.2. Food

The semantic field food contains 46 loans. The majority of items in this group have their origin in the Middle English period, but unlike in the group cooking , most of the words are nouns. Within the words transferred later (from EmodE and ModE) we can find baguette, bouillabaisse, caramel, croissant, crepe, eclair,mousse, etc. The character of the vocabulary again reflects the extent, to which the French speakers in England influenced this part of lexis. Several words of the group from food , which contains 49 items, are names of dishes ( bouillabaisse, brawn, casserole, chowder, consommé, fricassée, gratin, gruel, potage, salad, soufflé, stew, etc.) and we can also find a number of desserts ( biscuit, brioche, canapé, caramel,chocolate, confection, crème brûlée, crème caramel, crepe, croissant, eclair, jelly, mousse, tart, etc.). The occurrence of names of dishes and desserts prove that even the number of French speakers in the Middle English period was

33 much smaller than the number of people speaking English, the influence of French was very strong thanks to the high social status of its users. I think that as well as being dressed according to the French trends, eating French food was proof of a certain standard that people wanted to embody or perhaps distinguish themselves from the lower classes.

No. Loanword Meaning Original form Period Word of origin class 8 baguette (also French 'loaf, (in the architectural EModE n French 'stick) a loaf sense): from French, of white bread in the from Italian shape of a long thick bacchetto , stick that is crisp on diminutive of the outside and soft bacchio , from Latin inside baculum staff. Current senses date from the 20th cent. 14 biscuit a small flat dry cake from Old French ME n for one person, bescuit , based on usually sweet, and Latin bis twice + baked until crisp coctus , past participle of coquere to cook (so named because originally biscuits were cooked in a twofold process: first baked and then dried out in a slow oven so that they would keep) 18 bouillabaisse a spicy fish soup from from modern ModE n the south of France Provençal bouiabaisso 20 brawn meat made from the from Old French ME n head of a pig or calf braon fleshy part of that has been boiled the leg, of Germanic and pressed into a origin; related to container, served cold German Braten roast in thin slices meat 22 brie a type of soft French named after Brie in nd n cheese northern France, where it was originally made 23 brioche a type of sweet bread French, from ME n made from flour, eggs Norman French and butter, usually in brier , synonym of the shape of a small broyer , literally split bread roll up into very small

pieces by pressure

30 canapé a small biscuit or French, the current nd n piece of bread with sense is a figurative cheese, meat, fish, extension of the etc. on it, usually sense sofa (as a served with drinks at “couch” on which to a party place toppings) 32 caramel a type of hard sticky from French, from ModE n sweet / candy made Spanish caramelo from butter, sugar and milk; a small piece of this/burnt sugar used for adding colour and flavour to food 36 casserole a hot dish made with from French, ME n meat, vegetables, etc. diminutive of casse that are cooked spoon-like container, slowly in liquid in an from Old Provençal oven casa , from late Latin cattia ladle, pan, from Greek kuathion , diminutive of kuathos cup 38 caviar the eggs of some from Italian caviale ME n types of fish, (earlier caviaro ) or especially the French caviar , sturgeon probably from medieval Greek khaviari 44 chocolate a hard brown sweet (in the sense a drink EModE n food made from made with cocoa beans chocolate): from French chocolat or Spanish chocolate , from Nahuatl chocolatl food made from cacao seeds, influenced by unrelated cacaua-atl drink made from cacao

45 chowder a thick soup made perhaps from French ModE n with fish and chaudière stew pot, vegetables related to Old Northern French caudron , based on Latin caldarium , calidarium cooking- pot, from calidus hot 50 confection a cake or other sweet via Old French from ME n food that looks very Latin confectio(n-), attractive from conficere put together, from con- together + facere make 51 consommé a clear soup made French, past nd n with the juices from participle of meat consommer consume or consummate, from Latin consummare make complete, from con- altogether + summa sum total, feminine of summus highest, supreme 53 cream the thick pale from Old French ME n yellowish-white fatty cresme , from a blend liquid that rises to the of late Latin cramum top of milk, used in (probably of Gaulish cooking or as a type origin) and of sauce to put on ecclesiastical Latin fruit, etc. chrisma , from Greek khrisma anointing, from khriein anoint 54 crème a cold dessert made French, literally nd n brûlée from cream, with burnt cream burnt sugar on top 55 crème a cold dessert made French nd n caramel from milk, eggs and sugar 56 crepe a thin pancake French, from Old ModE n French crespe curled, frizzed, from Latin crispus

58 croissant a small sweet roll French from Old ModE n with a curved shape, French creissant , eaten especially at from Latin crescere breakfast grow. The term had occasionally been recorded earlier as a variant of crescent 59 crudités pieces of raw plural of French nd n vegetables that are crudité rawness, eaten at the beginning crudity, from Latin of a meal crudus raw, rough 71 eclair a long thin cake for from French éclair , ModE n one person, made of literally lightning light pastry, filled with cream and usually with chocolate on top 82 fricassée a hot dish consisting French, feminine ME n of small pieces of past participle of meat and vegetables fricasser cut up and that are cooked and cook in sauce served in a thick (probably a blend of white sauce frire to fry and casser to break) 83 fritter (usually in from Old French ME n compounds) a piece friture , based on of fruit, meat or Latin frigere vegetable that is covered with batter and fried 84 fromage a type of very soft French, literally nd n frais cheese, similar to fresh cheese yogurt 93 gratin a cooked dish which French, from gratter , nd v is covered with a earlier grater to crisp layer of cheese grate or breadcrumbs 99 gruel a simple dish made Old French, of ME n by boiling oats in Germanic origin milk or water, eaten especially in the past by poor people 104 jelly a cold sweet from Old French ME n transparent food gelee frost, jelly, made from gelatin, from Latin gelata sugar and fruit juice, frozen, from gelare that shakes when it is freeze, from gelu moved frost

108 lard 1 a firm white (also denoting fat ME n substance made from bacon or pork): from the melted fat of pigs Old French bacon , that is used in from Latin lardum , cooking laridum , related to Greek larinos fat 121 mayonnaise a thick cold white French, probably nd n sauce made from from the feminine of eggs, oil and vinegar, mahonnais of or used to add flavour to from Port Mahon, sandwiches, salads, the capital of etc. Minorca 127 mousse a cold dessert (= a from French, moss ModE n sweet dish) made or froth with cream and egg whites and flavoured with fruit, chocolate, etc. 135 omelette a hot dish of eggs earlier amelette ME n mixed together and (alteration of fried, often with alumette ), variant of cheese, meat, alumelle , from vegetables, etc. added lemele knife blade, from Latin lamella , diminutive of lamina thin plate. The association with knife blade is probably because of the thin flat shape of an omelette 140 paella a Spanish dish of rice, Catalan, from Old ME n chicken, fish and French paele , from vegetables, cooked Latin patella , and served in a large diminutive of patina shallow pan shallow dish, from Greek patan ē a plate 145 pastry a mixture of flour, fat (as a collective ME n and water or milk that term): from paste, is rolled out flat and influenced by Old baked as a base or French pastaierie covering for pies, etc./a small cake made using pastry 162 potage soup or stew from Old French ME n potage that which is put into a pot

174 rice short, narrow white or from Old French ris , ME n brown grain grown from Italian riso , on wet land in hot from Greek oruza countries as food 177 roll a small loaf of bread from Old French ME n for one person rolle 181 salad a mixture of raw from Old French ME n vegetables such as salade , from lettuce, tomato and Provençal salada , cucumber, usually based on Latin sal served with other salt food as part of a meal 185 sauce a thick liquid that is from Old French, ME n eaten with food to based on Latin add flavour to it salsus salted, past participle of salere to salt, from sal salt 187 sausage a mixture of finely from Old Northern ME n chopped meat, fat, French saussiche , bread, etc. in a long from medieval Latin tube of skin, cooked salsicia , from Latin and eaten whole or salsus salted, past served cold in thin participle of salere slices to salt, from sal salt 198 soufflé a dish made from egg French, literally nd n whites, milk and flour blown, past mixed together to participle of souffler make it light, to blow, from Latin flavoured with sufflare cheese, fruit, etc. and baked until it rises 204 stew 1 a dish of meat and (in the sense ModE n vegetables cooked cauldron): from Old slowly in liquid in a French estuve container (related to estuver heat in steam), probably based on Greek tuphos smoke, steam. The noun sense (mid 18th cent.) is directly from the verb (dating from late Middle English)

207 sugar 1 a sweet substance, from Old French ME n often in the form of sukere , from Italian white or brown zucchero , probably crystals, made from via medieval Latin the juices of various from Arabic sukkar plants, used in cooking or to make tea, coffee, etc. 210 sustenance the food and drink from Old French ME n that people, animals soustenance , from and plants need to the verb soustenir , live and stay healthy from Latin sustinere , from sub- from below + tenere hold 211 tart an open pie filled from Old French ME n with sweet food such tarte or medieval as fruit Latin tarta , of unknown origin 215 toast 1 slices of bread that (as a verb in the ME n have been made sense burn as the sun brown and crisp by does, parch): from heating them on both Old French toster sides in a toaster or roast, from Latin under a grill torrere parch 225 victuals (old -fashioned) food from Old French ME n and drink vitaille , from late Latin victualia , neuter plural of Latin victualis , from victus food; related to vivere to live. The pronunciation still represents the early spelling vittel; later spelling has been influenced by the Latin form

(OED)

5.4.3. Fruit and vegetables

There were 35 items found for the semantic field fruit and vegetables . Both words (fruit,vegetable ) are actually of French origin and therefore part of the corpus as well. This group consists of mostly nouns, which were, with a few exceptions, adopted during the Middle English era.

It seems that the reason fruit and vegetables were borrowed corresponds with trends for items from semantic fields of food and cooking mentioned above. French cuisine was steadily replacing the English cuisine and the transfer of names of fruit and vegetables was most likely a part of that process. In my assumption, though, apart from that there is the fact that there were probably no words in English lexis for unknown types of fruit and vegetables transported from abroad so the words were transferred with the goods that came to England through France. From the items that could be classified as exotic fruit or vegetables we can name for example aubergine, date, fig, lime, olive, pomegranate, etc.

No. Loanword Meaning Original form Period of Word origin class 6 aubergine a large vegetable from French, from EModE n with shiny dark Catalan alberginia , purple skin and soft from Arabic al- white flesh bāḏinj ān (based on Persian bāding ān, from Sanskrit vāti ṃga ṇa) 28 cabbage a round vegetable from Old French ME n with large green, caboche head, variant purplish-red or of Old French white leaves that caboce, of unknown can be eaten raw or origin cooked 35 carrot a long pointed from French carotte , ME n orange root from Latin carota , vegetable from Greek kar ōton 37 cauliflower a vegetable with from obsolete French ME n green leaves around chou fleuri flowered a large hard white cabbage, probably head of flowers from Italian cavolfiore or modern Latin cauliflora . The original English form colieflorie or cole- flory had its first element influenced by cole, the brassica type of plant, to which it belongs; the second element was influenced by flower during the 17th cent.

39 celery a vegetable with from French céleri , EModE n long crisp light from Italian dialect green stems that are selleri , based on often eaten raw Greek selinon parsley 40 chard a vegetable with from French carde , EModE n thick white stems perhaps influenced and large leaves by chardon thistle 41 cherry a small soft round from Old Northern ME n fruit with shiny red French cherise , from or black skin and a medieval Latin large seed inside ceresia , based on Greek kerasos cherry tree, cherry. The final -s was lost because cherise was interpreted as plural 42 chicory a small pale green from obsolete French ME n plant with bitter cicorée (earlier form leaves that are eaten of chicorée ) endive, raw or cooked as a via Latin from Greek vegetable. The root kikhorion can be dried and used with or instead of coffee 61 cucumber a long vegetable from Old French ME n with dark green skin cocombre , and light green coucombre, from flesh, that is usually Latin cucumis , eaten raw cucumer- 66 dandelion a small wild plant from French dent-de- ME v with a bright yellow lion , translation of flower that becomes medieval Latin dens a soft white ball of leonis lion's tooth seeds called a (because of the dandelion clock jagged shape of the leaves) 67 date a sweet sticky from Old French, via ME n brown fruit that Latin from Greek grows on a tree daktulos finger called a date palm, (because of the common in N finger-like shape of Africa and W Asia its leaves) 72 endive a plant with green (also denoting the ME n curly leaves that are sowthistle plant): via eaten raw as a Old French from vegetable medieval Latin endivia , based on Greek entubon

75 fig a soft sweet fruit from Old French ME n that is full of small figue , from Provençal seeds and often fig(u)a , based on eaten dried Latin ficus 85 fruit the part of a plant from Old French, ME n that consists of one from Latin fructus or more seeds and enjoyment of flesh, can be eaten produce, harvest, as food and usually from frui enjoy, tastes sweet related to fruges fruits of the earth, plural (and most common form) of frux, frug- fruit 91 grape a small green or from Old French, ME n purple fruit that bunch of grapes, grows in bunches probably from graper on a climbing plant gather (grapes), from (called a vine). grap hook (denoting Wine is made from an implement used in grapes harvesting grapes), of Germanic origin 112 lemon a yellow citrus fruit via Old French limon ME n with a lot of sour (in modern French juice. Slices of denoting a lime) from lemon and lemon Arabic līmūn (a juice are used in collective term for cooking and drinks fruits of this kind) 130 mashroom a fungus with a (originally denoting ME n round flat head and any fungus having a short stem. Many fleshy fruiting body): mushrooms can be from Old French eaten mousseron , from late Latin mussirio(n-) 114 lettuce from Old French from Old French ME n letues, laitues, letues, laitues , plural plural of laitue, of laitue , from Latin from Latin lactuca, lactuca , from lac, from lac, lact- milk lact- milk (because of (because of its its milky juice) milky juice) 115 lime a small green fruit, from French, from EModE n like a lemon, with a modern Provençal lot of sour juice, limo , Spanish lima , used in cooking and from Arabic līma in drinks; the juice of this fruit

122 melon a large fruit with ia Old French from ME n hard green, yellow late Latin melo, or orange skin, melon-, contraction sweet flesh and of Latin melopepo , juice and a lot of from Greek seeds mēlopep ōn, from mēlon apple + pep ōn gourd 134 olive a small green or via Old French from ME n black fruit with a Latin oliva , from strong taste, used in Greek elaia , from cooking and for its elaion oil oil 136 onion a round vegetable from Old French ME n with many layers oignon , based on inside each other Latin unio(n-), denoting a kind of onion 137 orange a round citrus fruit from Old French ME n with thick reddish- orenge (in the phrase yellow skin and a pomme d'orenge ), lot of sweet juice based on Arabic nāranj , from Persian nārang 143 parsnip a long pale yellow from Old French ME n root vegetable pasnaie , from Latin pastinaca (related to pastinare dig and trench the ground). The change in the ending was due to association with neep 147 peach a round fruit with from Old French ME n soft red and yellow pesche , from skin, yellow flesh medieval Latin and a large rough persica , from Latin seed inside persicum (malum), literally Persian apple 157 pomegranate a round fruit with from Old French ME n thick smooth skin pome grenate , from and red flesh full of pome apple + grenate large seeds pomegranate (from Latin (malum) granatum (apple) having many seeds, from granum seed)

167 pumpkin a large round alteration of earlier ME n vegetable with thick pumpion, from orange skin. The obsolete French seeds can be dried pompon , via Latin and eaten and the from Greek pep ōn soft flesh can be large melon (from cooked as a pep ōn sikuos ripe vegetable or in gourd) sweet pies 170 raisin a dried grape, used from Old French, ME n in cakes, etc. grape, from an alteration of Latin racemus grape bunch 183 salsify a plant with a long from French salsifis , ME n root that is cooked from obsolete Italian and eaten as a salsefica , of vegetable unknown ultimate origin 190 savoy a type of cabbage from Savoy, an area ME n with leaves that are of SE France not smooth 191 scallion spring onion from Anglo-Norman ME n French scaloun , based on Latin Ascalonia (caepa) (onion) of Ascalon, a port in ancient Palestine 195 shallot a vegetable like a shortening of EModE n small onion with a eschalot, from French very strong taste eschalotte , alteration of Old French eschaloigne (in Anglo-Norman French scaloun , based on Latin Ascalonia (caepa) (onion) of Ascalon, a port in ancient Palestine.) 203 spinach a vegetable with probably from Old ME n large dark green French espinache , via leaves that are Arabic from Persian cooked or eaten in asp ānāḵ salads

217 tomato a soft fruit with a lot from French, EModE n of juice and shiny Spanish, or red skin that is Portuguese tomate , eaten as a vegetable from Nahuatl tomatl either raw or cooked 223 vegetables a plant or part of a (in the sense growing ME n plant that is eaten as as a plant): from Old food French, or from late Latin vegetabilis animating, from Latin vegetare , from vegetus active, from vegere be active. The current sense dates from the late 16th cent.

(OED)

5.4.4. Meat

The semantic field meat contains 31 items, all of them nouns and nearly all of them of Middle English origin (the exception is only pâté , which was adopted during Modern English times). The medieval menu is known to be much more varied than today‘s, and also had a much higher reliance on meat. People at the time consumed types of meat that many today consider inappropriate to eat e.g. birds like partridge , pheasant, ostrich, pigeon, quail . There are actually more types of meat that used to appear on English tables and are not so common anymore, especially fish and sea food: bream, haddock, mackerel, oyster, porpoise, sturgeon and turtle . Even the names of types of meat that are common today originate in the Middle English period: beef, mutton, pork, veal and poultry. As previously mentioned, food was a certain symbol of prestige and table tops covered with various types of meat played undoubtedly large part.

No. Loanword Meaning Original form Period of Word origin class 7 bacon meat from the back from Old French, ME n or sides of a pig that from a Germanic has been cured (= word meaning ham, preserved using salt flitch; related to back or smoke), usually served in thin slices

13 beef meat that comes from Old French ME n from a cow boef , from Latin bos, bov - ox 21 bream a freshwater or sea from Old French ME n fish that is used for bresme , of Germanic food origin; related to German Brachsen, Brassen 57 cricket a small brown from Old French ME n jumping insect that criquet , from criquer makes a loud high to crackle, of sound by rubbing imitative origin its wings together 100 haddock a sea fish like a cod from Anglo-Norman ME n but smaller, with French hadoc , from white flesh that is Old French hadot , of used for food unknown origin 101 haunch a back leg and loin from Old French ME n of an animal that hanche , of Germanic has four legs, eaten origin as food 105 joint a piece of roast from Old French, ME n meat past participle of joindre to join, from Latin jungere to join 117 loin a piece of meat from Old French ME n from the back or loigne , based on sides of an animal, Latin lumbus near the tail 118 mackerel a sea fish with from Old French ME n greenish-blue bands maquerel , of on its body, that is unknown origin used for food 125 mince 1 meat, especially from Old French ME n beef, that has been mincier , based on finely chopped in a Latin minutia special machine smallness 132 mutton meat from a fully from Old French ME n grown sheep moton , from medieval Latin multo(n-), probably of Celtic origin 138 ostrich a very large African from Old French ME n bird with a long ostriche , from Latin neck and long legs, avis bird + late Latin that cannot fly but struthio (from Greek can run very fast strouthi ōn ostrich, from strouthos sparrow or ostrich)

139 oyster a large flat shellfish from Old French ME n oistre , via Latin from Greek ostreon ; related to osteon bone and ostrakon shell or tile 144 partridge a brown bird with a partrich , from Old ME n round body and a French pertriz , short tail, that perdriz , from Latin people hunt for perdix sport or food; the meat of this bird 146 pâté a soft mixture of rom Old French EModE n very finely chopped paste pie of seasoned meat or fish, served meat cold and used for spreading on bread, etc 149 pheasant a large bird with a from Old French ME n long tail, the male fesan , via Latin from of which is brightly Greek phasianos coloured (bird) of Phasis, the name of a river in the Caucasus (a mountainous region in SE Europe), from which the bird is said to have spread westwards 152 pigeon a fat grey and white from Old French ME n bird with short legs. pijon , denoting a Pigeons are young bird, common in cities especially a young and also live in dove, from an woods and fields alteration of late where people shoot Latin pipio(n-), them for sport or young cheeping bird food of imitative origin 158 pork meat from a pig that from Old French ME n has not been cured porc , from Latin porcus pig 159 porpoise a sea animal that from Old French ME n looks like a large porpois , based on fish with a pointed Latin porcus pig + mouth piscis fish, rendering earlier porcus marinus sea hog 163 poultry meat from chickens, from Old French ME n ducks and geese pouletrie , from poulet pullet

166 pullet a young chicken, from Old French ME n especially one that poulet , diminutive of is less than one year poule , from the old feminine of Latin pullus chicken, young animal 169 quail a small brown bird, from Old French ME n whose meat and quaille , from eggs are used for medieval Latin food; the meat of coacula (probably this bird imitative of its call) 176 roast 1 a large piece of from Old French ME n meat that is cooked rostir , of West whole in the oven Germanic origin 182 salmon a large fish with samoun , from Anglo- ME n silver skin and pink Norman French flesh that is used for saumoun , from Latin food. Salmon live in salmo , salmon-. The the sea but swim up spelling with -l- is rivers to lay their influenced by Latin eggs 184 sardine a small young sea from French, or from ME n fish that is either Latin sardina , from eaten fresh or sarda , from Greek, preserved in tins / probably from Sard ō cans Sardinia 192 scallop a shellfish that can shortening of Old ME n be eaten, with two French escalope flat round shells that fit together 206 sturgeon a large sea and from Anglo-Norman ME n freshwater fish that French, of Germanic lives in northern origin; related to regions, used for Dutch steur and food and the eggs German Stör (called caviar) are also eaten 218 tripe the lining of a from Old French, of ME n cow’s or pig’s unknown origin stomach, eaten as food 221 turtle a large reptile with apparently an ME n a hard round shell, alteration of French that lives in the sea tortue , from medieval Latin tortuca, of uncertain origin

222 veal meat from a calf (= from Anglo-Norman ME n a young cow) French ve(e)l , from Latin vitellus , diminutive of vitulus calf. 224 venison meat from a deer from Old French ME n veneso(u)n , from Latin venatio(n-) hunting, from venari to hunt

(OED)

5.4.5. Dining

Dining is a group that contains 20 items, which are represented by all three word classes found within the corpus: nouns, adjectives and verbs. The loans in this semantic field are connected to social events concerning food, table setting and service. This group contains a number of loans that were transferred after the Middle English period. It can likely be attributed to the fact that the trasnfer of loans corresponded with table manners brought over by the French. As examples from the corpus we can name buffet, café, canteen, picnic and restaurant , whereas banquet comes from the earlier period and is sometimes associated with ill-mannered eating habits. Loans such are à la carte, appetite, cruet, cutlery, plate, platter, saucer and serve are connected to table setting and serving and desplay of etiquette, that was part of dining.

No. Loanword Meaning Original form Period Word of origin class 1 à la carte if food in a restaurant French, literally ModE a is à la carte, or if you according to the eat à la carte, you (menu) card choose from a list of dishes that have separate prices, rather than having a complete meal at a fixed price 5 appetite physical desire for from Old French ME n food apetit (modern appétit ), from Latin appetitus desire for, from appetere seek after, from ad- to + petere seek

9 banquet a formal meal for a from French, ME n large number of diminutive of banc people, usually for a bench special occasion, at which speeches are often made 26 buffet 1 a meal at which (denoting a EModE n people serve sideboard): from themselves from a French, from Old table and then stand French bufet stool, of or sit somewhere else unknown origin. to eat 27 buffet 2 a place, for example from Old French ME n in a train or bus buffeter (verb), buffet station, where you (noun), diminutive of can buy food and bufe blow drinks to eat or drink there, or to take away 29 café a place where you can from French café ModE n buy drinks and simple coffee or coffee meals. Alcohol is not house usually served in British or American cafes 31 canteen a place where food (originally denoting a EModE n and drink are served shop selling in a factory, a school, provisions or alcohol etc./a small container in a barracks or used by soldiers, garrison town): from travellers, etc. for French cantine , from carrying water or Italian cantina cellar other liquid 60 cruet a small container, or (originally relating to ME n set of containers, for a container used for salt, pepper, oil, etc. wine or water in the for use on the table at Eucharist at church): meals from Anglo-Norman French, diminutive of Old French crue pot, from Old Saxon kr ūka 64 cutlery knives, forks and from Old French ME n spoons, used for coutellerie , from eating and serving coutelier , from coutel food knife, from Latin cultellus , diminutive of culter knife, ploughshare

69 dine to eat dinner from Old French ME v disner , probably from desjëuner to break fast, from des- (expressing reversal) + jëun fasting (from Latin jejunus ) 74 feast a large or special from Old French feste ME n meal, especially for a (noun), from Latin lot of people and to festa , neuter plural of celebrate sth festus joyous

89 goblet a cup for wine, from Old French ME n usually made of glass gobelet , diminutive or metal, with a stem of gobel cup, of and base but no unknown origin handle 150 picnic to have a picnic (denoting a social EModE v event at which each guest contributes a share of the food): from French pique- nique , of unknown origin 151 picnic 1 an occasion when (denoting a social EModE n people pack a meal event at which each and take it to eat guest contributes a outdoors, especially share of the food): in the countryside/the from French pique- meal, usually nique , of unknown consisting of origin sandwiches, salad and fruit, etc. that you take with you when you go on a picnic 154 plate a flat, usually round, Old French plat ME n dish that you put food platter, large dish, on also dish of meat, noun use of Old French plat flat 155 platter a large plate that is from Anglo-Norman ME n used for serving food French plater , from plat large dish 160 portion 1 an amount of food from Old French ME n that is large enough porcion , from Latin for one person portio(n-), from the phrase pro portione in proportion

173 restaurant a place where you can from French, from ModE n buy and eat a meal restaurer provide food for (literally restore to a former state) 186 saucer a small shallow round from Old French ME n dish that a cup stands saussier(e) sauce on boat, probably suggested by late Latin salsarium 194 serve to give sb food or from Old French ME v drink, for example at servir , from Latin a restaurant or during servire , from servus a meal slave (OED)

5.4.6. Herbs and spices

A considerable part of the corpus consists of items belonging to the semantic field herbs and spices . There are 18 loanwords in this group, all of which are nouns and apart from vinaigrette , which is not dated, all 18 of them were adopted during Middle English times. It would be very peculiar if there were no names of herbs and spices adopted alongside French cuisine. The seasoning and garnishing of food is one of the key preparations that make each national cuisine unique. The original English cuisine - before the influence of French and other foreign cuisines – is known to have been notoriously bland. The most commonly used herbs and spices in original English cuisine were salt, pepper and garlic, which are words that are of Germanic origin. An Old English forms of the words salt, pepper and garlic were sealt, piper and gārl ēac . In the corpus we can also notice that some of the items in the semantic field herbs and spices were transferred via French, but originate in other languages. I can only suggest that these could be cardamom, cinnamon, saffron, etc.

No. Loanword Meaning Original form Period Word of origin class 10 basil a plant with shiny from Old French ME n green leaves that basile , via medieval smell sweet and are Latin from Greek used in cooking as a basilikon , neuter of herb basilikos royal, from basileus king

34 cardamom the dried seeds of a from Old French ME n SE Asian plant, used cardamome or Latin in cooking as a spice cardamomum , from Greek kardam ōmon , from kardamon cress + am ōmon , the name of a kind of spice plant 43 chives the long thin leaves from Old French, ME n of a plant with dialect variant of cive , purple flowers. from Latin cepa onion Chives taste like onions and are used to give flavour to food 47 cinnamon the inner bark of a from Old French ME n SE Asian tree, used cinnamome (from in cooking as a spice, Greek kinnam ōmon ), especially to give and Latin cinnamon flavour to sweet (from Greek foods kinnamon ), both from a Semitic language and perhaps based on Malay 49 clove the dried flower of a from Old French clou ME n tropical tree, used in de girofle , literally nail cooking as a spice, of gillyflower (from its especially to give shape), gillyflower flavour to sweet being originally the foods. Cloves look name of the spice and like small nails later applied to the similarly scented pink 52 coriander a plant whose leaves from Old French ME n are used in cooking coriandre , from Latin as a herb and whose coriandrum , from seeds are used in Greek koriannon cooking as a spice 120 marjoram a plant with leaves from Old French ME n that smell sweet and majorane , from are used in cooking medieval Latin as a herb, often when majorana , of unknown dried ultimate origin 129 muscatel a type of grape used via Old French from ME n in sweet white wines Provençal, diminutive and for drying to of muscat , from musc make raisins musk

131 mustard a thick cold yellow from Old French ME n or brown sauce that moustarde , from Latin tastes hot and spicy mustum must (grape and is usually eaten juice before or during with meat fermentation). Mustard was originally prepared with grape must 133 nutmeg the hard seed of a notemuge , partial ME n tropical tree translation of Old originally from SE French nois muguede , Asia, used in based on Latin nux nut cooking as a spice, + late Latin muscus especially to give musk flavour to cakes and sauces 179 saffron a bright yellow from Old French ME n powder made from safran , based on crocus flowers, used Arabic za‘far ān in cooking to give colour to foo 180 sage a plant with flat, from Old French ME n light green leaves sauge , from Latin that have a strong salvia healing plant, smell and are used in from salvus safe cooking as a herb 197 sorrel a plant with leaves from Old French ME n that taste bitter and sorele , of Germanic are used in cooking origin; related to sour as a herb 201 spice 1 one of the various shortening of Old ME n types of powder or French espice , from seed that come from Latin species sort, plants and are used kind, in late Latin in cooking wares 214 thyme a plant with small from Old French thym , ME n leaves that have a via Latin from Greek sweet smell and are thumon , from thuein used in cooking as a burn, sacrifice herb 220 turmeric a yellow powder (earlier as tarmaret): ME n made from the root perhaps from French of an Asian plant, terre mérite and used in cooking as a modern Latin terra spice, especially in merita , literally curry deserving earth, or perhaps an alteration of an oriental word

226 vinaigrette a mixture of oil, French, diminutive of nd n vinegar and various vinaigre vinegar herbs, etc., used to add flavour to a salad 227 vinegar a liquid with a bitter from Old French vyn ME n taste made from malt egre , based on Latin (= a type of grain) or vinum wine + acer wine, used to add sour flavour to food or to preserve it

(OED)

5.4.7. Nuts and seeds

Only 7 items were classified as nuts and seeds. All loans in this group are nouns, 5 of which were transferred during the Middle English era and 2 were adopted to English later. There are no compounds containing the word nut in this group (walnut, hazelnut, Brazil nut, peanut, groundnut, chestnut, coconut, etc.) as the word nut itself is of Germanic origin. The loanword filbert is a special case as it is a synonym for hazelnut and is more commonly used in American English.

No. Loanword Meaning Original form Period of Word origin class 3 almond the flat pale sweet from Old French ME n nut of the almond alemande , from tree used in cooking medieval Latin and to make almond amandula , from oil Greek amugdal ē 76 filbert hazelnut fylberd , from Anglo- ME n Norman French philbert , dialect French noix de filbert (so named because it is ripe about 20 August, the feast day of St Philibert) 90 grain the small hard seeds (originally in the ME n of food plants such sense seed, grain of as wheat, rice, etc.; a corn): from Old single seed of such a French grain , from plant Latin granum

111 legume any plant that has (denoting the edible EModE n seeds in long pods. portion of the plant): Peas and beans are from French légume , legumes from Latin legumen , from legere to pick (because the fruit may be picked by hand) 113 lentil a small green, orange from Old French ME n or brown seed that is lentille , from Latin usually dried and lenticula , diminutive used in cooking, for of lens, lent- lentil example in soup or stew 148 pecan the nut of the from French pacane , ModE n American pecan tree from Illinois (an with a smooth American Indian pinkish-brown shell language) 153 pistachio the small green nut pistace , from Old ME n of an Asian tree French, superseded in the 16th cent. by forms from Italian pistaccio , via Latin from Greek pistakion , from Old Persian

(OED; Crystal 137)

5.4.8. Drinks

The semantic field drinks consist of 7 items, 4 of which are beverage names ( cider, juice, liqueur, muscat ), 2 of them are expressions used for special occasion, which featured the celebratory consumption of beverages (aperitif, toast ) and the last one ( abstinence ) expresses the practice of not drinking (to abstian from drinking). It is interesting to observe that the loans aperitif and toast did not originate in the Middle English period, but were adopted during Early Modern English and Modern English periods. This might indicate that more attention was paid to dining etiquette at that time. A very broad semantic field connected to drinks is semantic field of wine. The vocabulary of wine is not included in this corpus, due to the fact that it overreaches the aim of the thesis, but it would be very interesting to explore as its expressions are largely figurative and overlap between different semantic fields (terms commonly associated with music, textiles, colour, etc. are used for describing wine) (Crystal 157).

No. Loanword Meaning Original form Period of Word origin class 2 abstinence the practice of not from Old French, ME n allowing yourself from Latin sth, especially food, abstinentia , from the alcoholic drinks or verb abstinere , from sex, for moral, ab- from + tenere religious or health hold reasons 4 aperitif a drink, usually one from French apéritif , ModE n containing alcohol, from medieval Latin that people aperitivus , based on sometimes have just Latin aperire to open before a meal 46 cider an alcoholic drink from Old French ME n made from the juice sidre , via of apples ecclesiastical Latin from ecclesiastical Greek sikera , from Hebrew šēḵār strong drink 106 juice 1 the liquid that comes via Old French from ME n from fruit or Latin jus broth, vegetables; a drink vegetable juice made from this 116 liqueur a strong sweet from French, liquor ModE n alcoholic drink, sometimes flavoured with fruit. It is usually drunk in very small glasses after a meal 128 muscat a type of wine, French, from EmodE n especially a strong Provençal, from musc sweet white wine/a musk type of grape which can be eaten or used to make wine or raisins

216 toast 2 to lift a glass of the practice of EModE v wine, etc. in the air drinking a toast goes and drink it at the back to the late 17th same time as other cent., and originated people in order to in naming a lady wish sb/sth success, whose health the happiness, etc. company was requested to drink, the idea being that the lady's name flavoured the drink like the pieces of spiced toast that were formerly placed in drinks such as wine

(OED, Crystal 137)

5.4.9. Meals

The last and smallest of the semantic fields included in the corpus is group meals . There are 6 items in this field, all of which are nouns, 4 originated in the Middle English period and 2 in the Modern English period. The terms that indicate different types of meals are dinner and supper. To complete the list of names of meals we need to mention breakfast and lunch . The origin of these two words is not so clear. Breakfast is compounded from break and fast and is probably of Germanic origin, while lunch was modified from luncheon , which is of Spanish origin. The two terms included in the corpus originating in the Modern English era are hors d’oeuvre and menu and are connected with restaurant dining, which is a French loan adopted during the same chronological period. Repast belongs to this group, because it is a synonym of the word meal (which is of Germanic origin) and soup is a certain type of hors d’oeuvre.

No. Loanword Meaning Original form Period Word of origin class 70 dinner the main meal of the from Old French ME n day disner (infinitive used as a noun), probably from desjëuner to break fast, from des- (expressing reversal) + jëun fasting

103 hors a small amount of French ModE n d’oeuvre food, usually cold, served before the main part of a meal 123 menu a list of the food that from French, detailed ModE n is available at a list (noun use of menu restaurant or to be small, detailed), from served at a meal Latin minutus very small 172 repast a meal from Old French, ME n based on late Latin repascere , from re- (expressing intensive force) + pascere to feed 199 soup a liquid food made from Old French ME n by boiling meat, soupe sop, broth vegetables, etc. in (poured on slices of water, often eaten as bread), from late Latin the first course of a suppa , of Germanic meal origin 209 supper the last meal of the from Old French ME n day, either a main super to sup (used as meal, usually smaller a noun), of Germanic and less formal than origin dinner, or a snack eaten before you go to bed

(OED)

6. Conclusion

This thesis was written with the intention of exploring the English lexis in the semantic fields food, meals and cooking in order to find out to what extent the vocabulary of these fields has been effected by French. Even thought there are more areas that could have been mentioned in connection with the French impact, the aspect of French influence in this thesis was from the beginning limited to only loanwords. In chapters 2, 3 and 4 we can follow the historical events that correspond with the linguistic changes of the language. Chapter 2 provides a brief summary of all four historical periods significant to the linguistic history of English (Old English, Middle English, Early Modern English and Modern English period) and outlined the changes that occurred in the English language during each of the four eras making possible connections with loanwords transferred during this time. The historical events that occurred at the beginning of 11 th century were undoubtedly the most significant ones for English-French language contact. From 1070, when William the Conqueror became the English King, French started to be spoken on every social level and remained the official language for another 300 years (Peters 58). The fact that the largest number of French loans were borrowed during this period of time can be proved even by the results of our corpus of 228 words - which is in comparison with the total number of French loans (around ten thousand) – a very low number (Peters 265). 74 % of the items in the corpus come from this era (Middle English period). In chapter 3 there are descriptions of three possible types of language contact described. We can observe that two of these types were found within our corpus. The first is transfer of vocabulary in mixed speech communities, which is exactly the case for England during the Middle English period. And the second one is the distant type, which happens in written form e.g. names of imported goods. Chapter 3 also suggests possible reasons for borrowing. As Görlach says: defining reasons for borrowing is usually very difficult (Görlach 149). Looking at our corpus we can only assume, that within the vocabulary of exotic food - probably fruit, vegetables, herbs, spices, nuts and seeds – we will find items that were transeferred to fill gaps in the indigenous lexis. Some items were probably borrowed thanks to associative relations – more words of the same family were integrated. Perhaps the group of meat could be a good example of this phenomena: beef, pork, mutton, veal . I believe that most of the French loans were borrowed because of fashion and prestige. Baugh and Cable’s words actually confirm my assumptions: the authors said that the upper classes had set the standard in lifestyle trends and fashion, which is reflected by the number of French loans belonging to

61 these semantic fields and the situation is very similar with food, meals and cooking. “The French-speaking classes, it would seem, must also be credited with a considerable adornment of the English table. Not only are the words dinner and supper French, but also the words feast, repast, appetite, …” say Baugh and Cable (Baugh and Cable 167). More words from the corpus can be given as an example: taste, victuals, banquet, cutlery, mutton, olives, pullet, pomegranate, mustard, vinegar, etc. There are more specific features about French-English language contact explained in chapter 4 and examples of loanwords are given for each period of linguistic development. It is interesting to observe the phonemic aspect of the French influence for instance, a good example is splitting the variants of one phoneme f/v into two ( f and v) as in French vēle that turned into English veal (Hladký 325). Another aspect worth mentioning is the semantic change. Due to the fact that the language, from which the loans were trasferred was language of upper classes, the French loans were placed above the level of common every day English vocabulary (Hickey).This was mentioned and described on example of words work and labour in chapter 4.2. and I can give one more example from within the corpus: nourish and feed . The practical analytical element of the thesis gives a summary of the items in the corpus and their characteristics. Even though there were no loans included in the corpus classified as being transferred during the Old English period, we cannot say with absolute certainty that there are none in existence. As Crystal mentions, the year 1066 marks the beginning of a new linguistic era, but it cannot be taken as a strictly as a boundary between Old and Middle English. It took many years for Old English to recede and become completely replaced by Anglo-French (Crystal 30). The chronological origin of some words can therefore be questionable e.g. ginger or bacon, which are in some sources classified as words from the Old English period and in others as of Middle English origin. The practical part focuses more heavily on the semantic fields that were further divided into nine groups: cooking, food, fruit and vegetables, meat, dining, herbs and spices, nuts and seeds, meals and drinks. In all of the groups we can observe how French loans reflect the historical events and also the lifestyle of bilingual communites that were found among the higher classes of English society in the Middle Englsih era. Because of the vast quantity of items adorning the English table the number of lexical borrowings in the semantic fields mentioned above is high. The changes that English cusine underwent were so extensive that we can perhaps consider it a partial replacement by French cusine, but we must bear in mind that other foreign cuisines played their part in modifying the English cuisine and therefore also the language used to describe it.

There is no doubt that French language largely influenced English lexis in the semantic fields of food, meals and cooking. I believe that Baugh and Cable’s sentence nicely concludes this topic: “It is melancholy to think what the English dinner table would have been like had there been no Norman conquest.” (Baugh and Cable 168).

Bibliography

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