Food in Medieval Times Recent Titles in Food Through History
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FOOD IN Food in Medieval Times Recent Titles in Food through History Food in Early Modern Europe Ken Albala Food in Medieval Times Melitta Weiss Adamson Food through History Greenwood Press Westport, Connecticut • London Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Adamson, Melitta Weiss. Food in medieval times / Melitta Weiss Adamson. p. cm.––(Food through history ISSN 1542-8087) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0- 313-32147-7 1. Cookery, Medieval. 2. Cookery––Europe––History. I. Title. II. Series. TX641.A33 2004 641.3´0094´0902––dc22 2004014054 British Library Cataloging in Publication Data is available. Copyright © 2004 by Melitta Weiss Adamson All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be reproduced, by any process or technique, without the express written consent of the publisher. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2004014054 ISBN: 0-313-32147-7 ISSN: 1542-8087 First published in 2004 Greenwood Press, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881 An imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. www.greenwood.com Printed in the United States of America The paper used in this book complies with the Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National Information Standards Organization (Z39.48-1984). 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 CONTENTS Acknowledgments vii Timeline ix Introduction xvii 1. Foodstuffs 1 Grains 1 Legumes 5 Vegetables 6 Herbs 11 Spices 15 Fruits 19 Nuts 24 Condiments 26 Domestic and Wild Animals 30 Fish 39 Dairy Products 45 Beverages 48 2. Food Preparation 55 3. Cuisines by Region 83 Britain 90 France 101 Spain 115 CONTENTS Italy 124 Germany 131 The Low Countries 141 4. Eating Habits and Food Ideas 155 5. Food and Religion 181 6. Concepts of Diet and Nutrition 205 Conclusion 233 Glossary 237 Suggested Further Readings 239 Subject Index 245 Recipe Index 257 vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Any book that covers a topic as broad as this depends on the work of more than just one person. First I must thank the generations of scholars who in endless hours unearthed, catalogued, deciphered, transcribed, edited, translated, and analyzed all the different sources, and brought to light a wealth of information, part of which found its way into the present volume. I must also thank my teachers and col- leagues who over the years have supported me in my research on food and nutrition in the Middle Ages, Helmut Birkhan, Gundolf Keil, Constance Hieatt, Terence Scully, Trude Ehlert, Carole Lambert, Gerhard Jaritz, and many others. They patiently answered my many queries, shared with me published and unpublished material, and gen- erously contributed their time and expertise to various collaborative efforts from which this book benefited greatly. My thanks also go to the University of Western Ontario for foster- ing cross-disciplinary teaching and research, and for granting me a sabbatical in which to finish the book. Thanks too to all the libraries that helped me in my research and allowed me to work with some of their most prized possessions, the original medieval manuscripts. I am especially grateful to the Österreichische Nationalbibliothek in Vienna for permission to use illustrations from its famous manuscript collec- tion in this book. My sincere thanks go to Wendi Schnaufer at Greenwood Press for her enthusiasm, constructive feedback, and especially her patience while the work was in progress. It was a time of unexpected challenges ACKNOWLEDGMENTS in my life, and among those who helped me overcome them were my friends Susan, Cécile, Kathy, Angela, Laurence, Frank, Ina, and Jing. Thank you all. Finally, I wish to thank my family, who put up with me during all those months when my mind was elsewhere. Special thanks go to my husband Alan, whose moral support and computer expertise were as invaluable as ever. viii TIMELINE 541 The Roman-Byzantine world is in the grips of the Great (bubonic) Plague of Justinian that brings farming to a halt and causes famine in Europe, the Middle East, and Asia. It is to last for nearly 70 years. 550–650 A new, lightweight plow equipped with a coulter (knife blade) and pulled by eight oxen is invented by the Slavs. The new agriculture leads to a population explosion in northern and western Europe. 610 A new faith, to be called Islam, is preached secretly by the prophet Muhammad. 629 The sharia, a complex legal system, is recognized by Muslims. Pork, animals of prey, and intoxicating bever- ages are among the foodstuffs Muslims are forbidden to consume. 687 Venice begins its rise to power in the Mediterranean, and elects its first doge (person holding the chief office in the city-state of Venice). 700–800 Oriental spices are introduced by Arab merchants into Mediterranean markets. 711 Arabs and Berbers from North Africa invade the Iberian Peninsula and defeat the Visigoths. New methods in agriculture introduced by them include intensive irriga- tion, the use of animal droppings as fertilizers, im- TIMELINE proved plows, and crop rotation. New foodstuffs intro- duced by the Arabs include rice, sugar, and saffron. 716 A shipment of cinnamon, cloves, and pepper arrives at the monastery of Corbie in Normandy, France. 732 Christian converts in Hesse, Germany, are forbidden by Pope Gregory II to eat horseflesh. 750 Famine is followed by plague on the Iberian Peninsula. 765 Three-field crop rotation system first mentioned in Eu- ropean sources. Instead of the traditional one in two fields lying fallow in a given year, it is now one in three, which means a substantial increase in agricultural pro- duction. 780 Three-field crop rotation is promoted by Charlemagne in his realm. 795 An export ban on grain is imposed by Charlemagne in the Frankish kingdom. 809 Cold weather results in poor harvests and famine in the domain of Charlemagne. 812 Anise, coriander, fennel, flax, fenugreek, and sage are among the plants to be grown on Charlemagne’s farms. 827 North-African Arabs invade Sicily, and introduce the Persian plant spinach and many other foodstuffs to the island. 857 Thousands die in the Rhine Valley from ergotism, a dis- ease caused by the consumption of rye bread made from grain infected with the ergot fungus. Symptoms include diarrhea, seizures, headaches, nausea, vomiting, hallucinations, mania, and psychosis. 915, 919 Crop failure causes a famine on the Iberian Peninsula that is ruled in the south by the Arabs, and in the north by Christian princes. 943 Some 40,000 people die of ergotism in Limoges, France. 961 The Arabs begin the production of the spice saffron on the Iberian Peninsula. 1000–1100 Europe suffers recurring famines while food production is gradually being increased thanks to innovations such x TIMELINE as the iron plow with wheels that replaces the wooden plow in northern Europe. 1066 Among the effects of the Norman Conquest is the in- troduction of French food terminology into English. (Examples: pork, beef, and mutton, from French porc, boeuf, and mouton.) 1071 Two-pronged fork reaches Venice from the east via Byzantium. 1110 Les Halles, until the twentieth century the central food market of Paris, is established by Louis VI of France. 1123 Smithfield meat market, later the site of the famous Saint Bartholomew’s Fair, is established in London. 1148 Sugar is brought back to Europe by crusaders returning from the Holy Land. 1176 Domestic rabbits are introduced to England from con- tinental Europe. 1189 Crusader pub The Trip to Jerusalem is opened in Not- tingham, England. 1191 On the Third Crusade Richard the Lion-Hearted of England defeats the Saracens under Sultan Saladin and is introduced to sorbet (the word derived from Arabic charbet). 1200–1300 The Balkans and Baltic Sea region supply much of Eu- rope with cheap grain. Barley malt from the Baltic leads to a booming brewing industry in northern Germany and the Low Countries. 1204 Members of the Fourth Crusade bring damson plum trees from Damascus back to Europe. Citrus fruits, sugar, rice, and other foodstuffs used in Arab cookery are becoming part of European upper-class cuisine. 1241 The northern European trade organization known as the Hanseatic League is established in Germany. 1243 Famine in Germany, rat infestation across Europe. 1258 Germany and Italy suffer crop failures that lead to wide- spread famine and disease. 1265 Covent Garden Market established in London where monks initially sell surplus fruit and vegetables. xi TIMELINE 1266 Assize of Bread, a law regulating the quality, weight, and price of bread, and forcing bakers to mark their bread, is instituted in England. 1275–92 The Venetian merchant and explorer, Marco Polo, is in the employ of Kublai Khan, ruler of the Mongol Em- pire and future Emperor of China. 1280 Marco Polo arrives in the bustling city of Hangchow, China, whose sophisticated food culture he later records. 1284 Ravioli and other pasta dishes are on the menu of many Romans. Rats continue to plague Europeans by spreading disease and eating their food supplies. 1296 Marco Polo brings oriental foodstuffs and food ideas back to Venice. ca. 1300 The first cookbook manuscripts in England are written in Anglo-Norman. The Hanseatic League, an alliance of trading cities in northern Europe and the Baltic, is well established; its fisheries improve the production of salt herring. The Montpellier, France, professor of medicine and al- chemist Arnald de Villanova experiments with distilla- tion and produces brandy. 1305 The Italian Petrus de Crescentiis writes an extensive book on farming, the first manual of this kind since Roman times. 1314 Wheat prices soar as Europe is in the grip of a famine that lasts several years. 1333 Beginnings of the Black Death in China. 1343 Genoese merchants returning from the Far East are at- tacked by Tartars infected with the plague, and subse- quently introduce the disease to Constantinople, Venice, and other ports in the Mediterranean.