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Home , Dyscalculia, Dyslexia, Numeracy

Meeting the Needs of Students with and

Bradley Witzel Winthrop University Minnie Mize Winthrop University

Understanding dyslexia and dyscalculia is not only important to helping students achieve, it has also been recently legislated in one southeastern state. The purpose of the North Carolina House Bill 149 is to ensure that students identified with disabilities, including dyslexia and dyscalculia, receive the appropriate assessment and intervention services. In this paper, the authors explain learning characteristics of both dyslexia and dyscalculia and highlight four empirically- validated teaching strategies of increasing instructional intensity: (a) Task analysis; (b) Explicit instruction; (c) Multisensory instruction; and (d) Field-dependent approaches.

evon worked hard in school students at or above proficient of 4th- and 8th- and tried to complete his grade students are only 40 and 33%, D homework consistently. In respectively. For 12th grade students, the class discussions, he always contributed with scores are worse, with only 25% performing thoughtful comments and good ideas. at or above proficient. Thus, a majority of However, when it came to , he students are also scoring basic or below basic struggled. His decoding was poor and his in . This troubling amount of low comprehension suffered. Mathematics wasn’t achievement means that despite educators’ much different. He struggled to catch onto best efforts, most students in the United calculation patterns and strategies. States struggle in math and / or reading Even when he felt he was successful throughout their academic years. completing a problem, his would To make matters worse, there has correct him, pointing out minute but been an increase in the of students important errors such as adding instead of identified as having dyslexia or dyscalculia in multiplying or subtracting instead of adding. recent years. According to the University of He thought that he was the dumbest 3rd Michigan (2017), it is estimated that between grader in the school. 70 and 80% of people with concerns Devon is not alone. Many students in have dyslexia, which equates to about 5-10% the U.S. struggle in reading and math. of the population. Dyscalculia, although far According to the most recent data from the less studied and understood, has similar rates National Assessment of Educational Progress of incidence. (NAEP, 2015), percentages of 4th, 8th, and Dyslexia is a specific - 12th grade students whose reading related with difficulties achievement is at or above proficient are ranging from single word decoding to 36%, 34%, and 37%, respectively. These and (Fletcher, 2009; Lyon, scores highlight that a majority (more than Shaywitz, & Shaywitz, 2003) and is often 60%) of students are basic or below basic in characterized by deficits in decoding and reading. Likewise, the report in math shows phonological processing which impede that the percentages of 4th and 8th grade comprehension. Dyslexia is often associated

SRATE Journal Winter 2018/Volume 27(1) 31 with students with average to above average Carolina, it also has implications for all cognitive abilities so and parents are teacher preparatory programs that develop often surprised by the child’s difficulties teachers who may work in North Carolina. reading (Dickman et al., 2002). Similarly, Moreover, every teacher, within or outside of Dyscalculia is an umbrella term for intense North Carolina, should understand the impact difficulty or learning disability in of dyslexia and dyscalculia on learning and mathematics that affects mathematics develop an understanding of instructional computation and numerical processing, strategies that have been shown to help such typically in areas of number sense (Emerson students achieve. & Babtie, 2010). Teachers and parents are typically surprised by a student’s How Dyslexia and Dyscalculia Impact underachievement in mathematics when Learning compared to her or his excellent performance with speaking, reading, or writing (Ribeiro, Dyslexia is one of the common forms Tonoli, Ribeiro, & Santos, 2017). of learning disabilities and is often used as a Having dyslexia or dyscalculia means synonym to “difficulty in reading.” Like that students are resistant to general Devon, who was described in the open evidence-supported practices. There is vignette, students with dyslexia often certainly no cure and interventions must be struggle in decoding and fluency. The targeted and focused specific to their needs. difficulties with decoding and fluency commonly result in poor reading Recent Legal Emphasis comprehension. To decode a word, Devon needs to blend separate sounds to form the Recent legislation has highlighted the whole words: however, students with need for better understanding of dyslexia and dyslexia easily mispronounce unfamiliar dyscalculia and how to teach students with words compared to familiar words (Ellis, such diagnoses. In July 2017, the North 2016). For example, Devon may be correct in Carolina House voted 114-0 and Senate sounding grass but might be struggling in voted 47-0 in favor of North Carolina House pronouncing grash, which is an unfamiliar Bill 149 (HB 149) requiring that North non-word. Proficient decoding skills are Carolina state code include a required to read a connected text fluently. As definition of dyslexia and dyscalculia and the such, when struggling readers, like Devon, Department of Public Instruction provide read a passage, they often mispronounce teacher professional development specific to words, skip the words, and/or replace identification and intervention strategies for unfamiliar words with familiar words. For students with dyslexia and dyscalculia. example, when given a 1-minute passage Further, North Carolina school districts must reading, Devon will read fewer words review diagnostic and assessment tools to correctly and show more incorrectly read more effectively identify students with words (error words) than his peers without dyslexia and dyscalculia. The purpose is to dyslexia. Decoding has a great impact on ensure that all students identified with because it is a learning disabilities, including dyslexia and relatively lower-level reading skill, which is dyscalculia, receive the appropriate a pre-requisite to achieve reading assessment and intervention services. comprehension. While HB 149 (2017) has a direct Dyscalculia is sometimes looked at as impact on public K-12 schools in North a math version of dyslexia. In the open

SRATE Journal Winter 2018/Volume 27(1) 32 vignette, Devon struggled with recognizing Team) and common prefixes and suffixes. the symbols of mathematics and had Based on the knowledge, a strategy difficulties catching onto the patterns of instruction such as DISSECT (Lenz & computation. Difficulties memorizing rules Hughes, 1990) can be applied: Discover the and procedures are typical of students Context - Isolate the prefix (un-fair-ness) - identified with dyscalculia (Ribeiro, Tonoli, Separate the suffix (un-fair-ness) - Say the Ribeiro, & Santos, 2017). As such, students stem - Examine the stem - Check with with dyscalculia memorize small bits of someone - Try the dictionary. As such, once information and inaccurately or erroneously students can separate the prefix (un-) and generalize them to other areas of suffix (-ness), they can break the long words mathematics. For example, Devon may into parts (un-fair-ness). When teaching finally understand that the + symbol means to common prefixes and suffixes, teaching their count on, such that for 5+3 means from five, meanings (un- and -ness mean “not” and “a count six, seven, eight. Excited about this form of noun”) helps them grasp the understanding, a problem is then presented 5- semantics of the words. 3 so he says, “From five, six, seven, eight. When struggling readers, like Devon, That answer is eight.” When corrected that 5- come across familiar words even some 3 is a subtraction problem, Devon feels multisyllabic words (e.g., straw-ber-ry, ham- failure in not only understanding subtraction burg-er), they will have no problem with but believes that he misunderstood addition decoding them as they already have heard as well. Failure to understand the patterns and and read the words a lot. To read fluently, one symbols in a math system will lead to several of the effective strategies for students with difficulties, from place value to computation dyslexia is repeated reading (Chard, Vaughn, to rational (decimals, integers and & Tyler, 2002; Kim, Bryant, Bryant, & Park, fractions). In math, errors early lead to 2016). Repeated reading is simply having difficulties later (Witzel, 2016). For example, students read the same text more than once; Devon’s confusion with computation will some students might get bored with reading impact his understanding and computation of the same text over again so it is recommended fractions which will impact his ability to to provide positive reinforcement (e.g., token factor complex fractions and polynomials. economy) as they read repeatedly. Common Thus, it is important to screen for dyscalculia mistakes with reading fluency include early and implement a focused intervention hesitations, repetitions, misidentifications, plan immediately. self-corrections, and omissions (Coulter, Shavin, & Gichuru, 2009). Where to focus instruction Dyscalculia. A student with dyscalculia likely has difficulty Dyslexia. Struggling readers, like understanding and memorizing processes. As Devon, need support for decoding unknown such, it would be easy to rationalize why words especially multisyllabic words. For quick tricks and truncated strategies may decoding, students must be familiar with work. However, an abundance of different basic rules such as dividing a word by rules, strategies, and tricks that work syllables, and common prefixes as well as situationally may overload cognition leaving suffixes. Helpful tips are to teach the six the student frustrated as to when to apply syllable types (i.e., Closed, Vowel- each one. For example, if Devon was having Consonant-e (VCe), Open, Vowel-r (r- difficulty with dividing fractions, a teacher controlled), Consonant-le (C-le), and Vowel may feel compelled to teach invert and

SRATE Journal Winter 2018/Volume 27(1) 33 multiply, as in figure 1. other mathematics approaches related to the first.

Strategies

For learning mathematics and reading, a number of empirically-validated practices are available. In increasing intensity, four are presented here: (a) Task However, Devon didn’t learn why the analysis; (b) Explicit instruction; (c) procedure works, and, therefore, might miss Multisensory instruction, and (d) Field- a step in this process or overgeneralize the dependent approaches. strategy to other fractions operations as Task analysis. Task analysis means to shown in figure 2. break a task down into small steps and sequentially prompt each step for students (Browder, Jimenez & Trela, 2011; Witzel & Riccomini, 2007). For a reading comprehension strategy, a task analysis may look like the following: (a) Before reading- Preview the text; (b) During reading- Identify unknown words and their meanings as well as the most important idea; and (c) After Instead, show math strategies that work reading- Review what you learned (Klingner, progressively across a scope and sequence so Vaughn, Argüelles, Hughes, & Ahwee, 2004; that they can generalize appropriately to Klingner, Vaughn, Schumm, 1998). For multiple math areas. In the example in figure mathematics, a task analysis may be breaking 3, the student follows the process of down long division into a series of steps. multiplying fractions to dividing fractions per Students should practice each step one or two numerator and denominator. at a time, rather than as the whole process at once. Practicing a stepwise process incrementally allows a student to succeed with minimal error. Explicit instruction. The cornerstone of explicit instruction is gradual release from teacher knowledge to student knowledge. Typically, explicit instruction begins with an introduction to set the purpose of the lesson followed by teacher modeling with clear Once this approach is understood, think alouds, high amounts of interactivity allow the student to become proficient through guided practice, and an abundance of through practice. Do not try to force multiple independent practice. Explicit instruction has approaches to solve a problem until the first a high effect size for students with disabilities approach has been mastered. It is important and at-risk concerns in both reading (Gersten to provide time for practice with reasoning to et al., 2008) and mathematics (Gersten et al., make sense of the process. Once mastered, 2009). then the student is ready to attempt learning

SRATE Journal Winter 2018/Volume 27(1) 34 Multisensory instruction. Teaching new steps would initially be presented for the content through multiple representations has students in a graphic organizer. long been supported for students with In the example in figure 4, Devon is learning difficulties in reading and presented with a graphic organizer showing a mathematics. From Orton-Gillingham to multiplication array of 25x 34. Slingerland to Wilson Reading, Multisensory Structured Language (MSL) approaches are highly popular when working with students with dyslexia for a . MSL programs incorporate task analysis and explicit instruction but include auditory, visual, and kinesthetic / tactile sensory input to increase engagement and aid memory of different components of literacy, from letter identification to phonological memory and processing (Birsh & Ghassemi, 2010). In mathematics, the equivalent to MSL is the concrete to representational to abstract sequence of instruction (CRA). In CRA, students learn mathematics through multiple Devon places the cards in the array and representations, beginning with concrete explains the process to the teacher. Next, the manipulations followed by pictorial teacher would present all of the steps to the representations of those manipulations and student except one. Devon would arrange the ending with abstract practice (Witzel, 2016). premade steps and identify the missing step In the earlier example of Devon, a lesson requiring him to compute one of the facts in might start with showing subtraction using the array, further developing his independent counter chips. Once Devon showed that he with the task. could perform the steps of subtraction while reasoning aloud each step, he would then have to do the same while drawing pictures of the counter chips. Finally, Devon would then be asked to complete similar subtraction problems using abstract notation with the same verbal reasoning. Similar to MSL, the increased sensory input increases engagement and aids memory. Field-dependent approaches. Field- dependent approaches rely on progressive scaffolding of fully worked examples to help guide a student through a process of understanding. Field-dependent learning relies on a teacher’s task analysis and The faded supports continue until he can guidance of stepwise progressions to show independently complete the work. A benefit how to complete a problem (Browder, for the student is that errors are minimized Jimenez, & Trela, 2012). In mathematics, the and learning occurs incrementally to support memory.

SRATE Journal Winter 2018/Volume 27(1) 35 Assessment Early assessments are needed to catch potential issues with mathematics Federal law encourages Multi-Tiered System learning. For dyscalculia and other of Supports (MTSS), originally called mathematics difficulties, typical areas of Response to Intervention, be considered to assessment include: accurately identify students with learning • Numeral naming disabilities (Gersten et al., 2008; 2009). In a • Number magnitude comparisons MTSS approach, multiple levels of • Number seriation assessment and interventions are conducted • Arithmetic fact retrieval so that students with academic difficulties are • Problem solving identified quickly and instructional • Visio-spatial processing (Clarke, interventions delivered quickly. A MTSS Gersten, Dimino, & Rolfhus, 2012; approach ensures that students are assessed Price & Ansari, 2013) for specific needs and interventions are Interventions specific to these areas have focused directly on these needs. In some proven to help improve students’ growth in cases, the intervention delivery is enough to not only these areas (Geary, Hoard, Nugent, curb the student’s performance so that special & Bailey, 2013) but may also predict later education identification is avoided. mathematics achievement (Price, Mazzocco, Catching dyslexia and dyscalculia early is & Ansari, 2013). important to addressing areas of academic need and providing an alternative approach to Summation instruction than might already be happening in the classroom. While both dyslexia and Educators must be apprised of the dyscalculia are associated with deficits in needs of students who struggle with literacy and attention, there are and mathematics. Without awareness, specific elements for each domain that should concerns may not lead to targeted be assessed. For dyslexia, typical areas of instructional changes. Accommodations and assessment include: modifications will help improve access, but • employing assessment-informed empirically- • Phonological and language-base validated approaches has the highest memory potential to improve both reading and math • Fluent letter identification achievement. Having legislative support for • Receptive students with dyslexia and dyscalculia is a • Decoding of real and nonsense words good thing. Employing empirically-validated • Oral reading fluency assessments and strategies is even better. • Spelling Teachers and teacher candidates alike must • Writing (The International Dyslexia learn how to assess and instruct students with Association [IDA], 2017, dyslexia and dyscalculia. https://dyslexiaida.org/dyslexia- assessment-what-is-it-and-how-can- it-help/) Based on these areas of literacy needs, focused interventions must be planned to address each component. While MTSS has been implemented frequently in reading, its use has been less pervasive in mathematics.

SRATE Journal Winter 2018/Volume 27(1) 36 References Ellis, A. W. (2016). Reading, writing, and dyslexia: a cognitive analysis Birsh, J. R., & Ghassemi, C. (2010, (Classic edition). London, UK: March). Are multisensory Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. instruction and science Emerson, J., & Babtie, P. (2010). The based reading research (SBRR) in dyscalculia assessment. New York, tune? Presentation at the New York NY: Continuum International. Branch of the International Dyslexia Fletcher, J. M. (2009). Dyslexia: The Association Conference, New York, evolution of a scientific concept. NY. Journal of the International Browder, D. M., Jimenez, B. A., & Trela, K. Neuropsychological Society, 15(4), (2012). Grade-aligned math 501-508. instruction for Geary, D. C., Hoard, M. K., Nugent, L., & secondary students with moderate Bailey, D. H. (2013). Adolescents’ . Education and functional numeracy is predicted Training in Autism and by their school entry number system Developmental Disabilities, 47(3), knowledge. PloS One, 8(1), e54651. 373–388. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0054651 Chard, D., Vaughn, S., & Tyler, B. J. (2002). Gersten, R., Compton, D., Connor, C. M., A synthesis of research on effective Dimino, J., Santoro, L., Linan- interventions for building reading Thompson, S., & Tilly, W. D. (2008). fluency with elementary students Assisting students struggling with with learning disabilities. Journal of reading: Response to Intervention Learning Disabilities, 35, 386–406. and multi-tier intervention for doi:10.1177/0022219402035005010 reading in the primary grades. A 1 practice guide. (NCEE 2009-4045). Clarke, B., Gersten, R., Dimino, J., & Washington, DC: National Center for Rolfhus, E. (2012). Assessing student Education Evaluation and Regional proficiency in early number sense. Assistance, Institute of Education Longmont, CO: Sopris West. Sciences, U.S. Department of Coulter, G., Shavin, K., & Gichuru, M. Education. Retrieved from (2009). Oral reading fluency: http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/ Accuracy of assessing errors publications/practiceguides/. and classification of readers using a 1-min timed reading sample. Preventing School Failure, 54(1), 71–76. Dickman, G. E., Lyon, G. R., Shaywitz, S., Shaywitz, B., Fletcher, J., Ellis, E., & Henry, M. (2002). Definition consensus project. Alexandria, VA: International Dyslexia Association. Retrieved from https://dyslexiaida.org/definition- consensus-project/.

SRATE Journal Winter 2018/Volume 27(1) 37 Gersten, R., Beckmann, S., Clarke, B., Lyon, G. R., Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. Foegen, A., Marsh, L., Star, J. R., & A. (2003). A Definition of Dyslexia. Witzel, B. (2009). Assisting students Annals of Dyslexia, 53, 1–14. struggling with mathematics: National Assessment of Educational Response to Intervention (RtI) for Progress. (2015). Reading and elementary and middle schools mathematics assessments. Retrieved (NCEE 2009-4060). Washington, from DC: National Center for Education https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/re Evaluation and Regional Assistance, ading_math_2015/#?grade=4. Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Price, G. R. & Ansari, D. (2013) Dyscalculia: Department of Education. Retrieved Characteristics, causes, and from treatments. Numeracy, 6(1), Article 2. http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/publicatio Retrieved from: ns/practiceguides/. http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/nume House Bill 149, SL 2017-127. H149v4. § racy/vol6/iss1/art2. 127.01-127.05 (2017). Retrieved Price, G. R., Mazzocco, M. M. & Ansari, D. from (2013). Why mental arithmetic https://www.ncleg.net/Sessions/2017 counts: brain activation during single /Bills/House/PDF/H149v4.pdf. digit arithmetic predicts high-school Kim, M., Bryant, D. P., Bryant, B. R., & math scores. The Journal of Park, Y. (2017). A synthesis of Neuroscience, 33(1), 156 –163. interventions for improving oral Ribeiro, F. S., Tonoli, M. C., Ribeiro, D. P. reading fluency of elementary d. S. A., & Santos, F. H. D. (2017). students with learning disabilities. Numeracy deficits scrutinized: Preventing School Failure, 61(2), Evidences of primary developmental 116–125. dyscalculia. Psychology & Klingner, J. K., Vaughn, S., Argüelles, M. E., Neuroscience, 10(2), 189-200. Hughes, M. T., & Ahwee, S. (2004). The International Dyslexia Association Collaborative strategic reading: [IDA] (2017). Dyslexia assessment: “Real world” lessons from classroom What is it and how can it help? teachers. Remedial and Special Retrieved from Education, 25, 291–302. https://dyslexiaida.org/dyslexia- doi:10.1177/0741932504025005030 assessment-what-is-it-and-how-can- 1 it-help/ Klingner, J. K., Vaughn, S., Schumm, J. University of Michigan. (2017). Dyslexia (1998). Collaborative strategic help starts here. Frequently asked reading during social studies in questions. Retrieved from heterogeneous fourth-grade http://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/answer classrooms. Elementary School s/faq. Journal, 99, 3–22. Witzel, B. S. (2016). Bridging the arithmetic doi:10.1086/461914 to algebra gap. Alexandria, VA: Lenz, B. K., & Hughes, C. (1990). A word Council for Exceptional Children. identification strategy for adolescents with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 23(3), 149– 158.

SRATE Journal Winter 2018/Volume 27(1) 38 Witzel, B., & Riccomini, P. J. (2007). OPTIMIZE your math curriculum to meet the learning needs of students. Preventing School Failure, 52(1), 13–18.

Brad Witzel is a professor and program director of the M.Ed. in Intervention and researches instruction and interventions for students who struggle in P-

12 mathematics.

Minnie Mize is an assistant professor in Special Education and researches interventions for struggling readers.

SRATE Journal Winter 2018/Volume 27(1) 39