Dyslexia a Practitioner’S Handbook Fourth Edition
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Dyslexia A Practitioner’s Handbook Fourth Edition Dyslexia A Practitioner’s Handbook Fourth Edition Gavin Reid A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication This edition first published 2009 2009, John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Wiley-Blackwell is an imprint of John Wiley & Sons, formed by the merger of Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical, and Medical business with Blackwell Publishing. Registered Office John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK Editorial Offices The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148-5020, USA For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services, and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell. The right of Gavin Reid to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Reid, Gavin, 1950- Dyslexia : a practitioner’s handbook / Gavin Reid.—4th ed. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 978-0-470-76040-6 1. Dyslexic children—Popular works. 2. Dyslexia—Popular works. I. Title. RJ496.A5R45 2009 616.8553—dc22 2009013395 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Typeset in 10/12.5pt Times by Laserwords Private Limited, Chennai, India. Printed in Singapore by Markono Print Media Pte Ltd. 1 2009 Contents About the Author xiii Other Books by Gavin Reid xv Foreword xvii Preface xix Chapter 1 Defining Dyslexia 1 Defining Dyslexia 1 Purpose of Definitions 3 How Should We Define Dyslexia? 4 Definitions 5 Barriers to Implementing Policy 8 Rose Review and Dyslexia 9 Education for Learners with Dyslexia 9 Different Perspectives and Agenda 11 Chapter 2 Explaining Dyslexia: The Range of Research 13 Causal Modelling Framework 14 Genetic Factors 14 Neurobiological Factors 15 Visual and Temporal Processing 15 Magnocellular Visual System 16 Procedural Timing 17 Hemispheric Symmetry 18 Processing Speed 19 Phonological Processing 20 Phonological Awareness and Multisensory Programmes 20 Morphological Processing 21 Glue Ear 22 Cognitive Skills 23 Metacognition 23 Environmental Factors 24 Additional Language Learning 24 Dyslexia in Different Orthographies 25 Self-disclosure in Adults 26 vi CONTENTS Chapter 3 Assessment: Issues and Considerations 29 Points to Consider 29 Discrepancy Criteria 30 Listening Comprehension 31 Componential Model of Reading 31 Curriculum Focus 32 Why an Assessment? 32 How—the Assessment Process 33 Effect of an Assessment 34 Assessment—Points to Consider 34 Some Other Considerations 35 Assessment and Inclusion 37 The Bilingual Learner 38 Chapter 4 Identifying Needs 41 Factors that can Prompt Concern 42 Linking Assessment with the Planning of Intervention 44 Comorbidity 44 Assessing Performances 45 Criteria: Summary 45 Whose Responsibility 48 Early Identification 48 Models of Identification 50 Expert/Intervention—Attainment 50 Barriers to Learning 53 Whole-school Involvement 54 Chapter 5 Assessment: Approaches and Resources 57 The Use of Tests—Points to Ponder 57 Cognitive Measures 58 Assessment of Processing Skills 59 Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing (CTOPP) 60 Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests 61 Gray Oral Reading Tests (Gort-4) 61 Standardised/Psychometric Criteria 61 Standardisation 62 Psychometric 63 Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (WIAT) 63 Comment 64 Phonological Representation and Assessment 64 Screening 66 Curriculum Assessment 67 Miscue Analysis 68 Assessment in Context 69 Metacognitive Assessment 71 CONTENTS vii Multiple Intelligences Approaches 73 A Components Approach 73 Observational Assessment 75 Observational Framework 76 Systematic Observation 79 Summary 80 Chapter 6 Reading—Social, Cultural and Government Perspectives 83 The Social Context for Literacy 83 Literacy and Culture 83 Defining Literacy 84 Critical Literacy 85 Challenging Assumptions 87 Government Initiatives 89 Literacy Standards and International Comparisons 90 Pisa Study 91 Literacy Initiatives 92 Chapter 7 The Acquisition of Literacy 93 What is Reading? 93 Factors to Consider 93 Reading as a Process 94 Reading Skills 95 Reading Practice 96 Developing Reading Skills 96 Key Factors 96 The Development of Reading 98 Stages of Reading Development 100 Limitations of the Stage Model of Reading 101 Reading and Memory 102 Relationship between Phonology and Orthography 103 Dyslexia and Different Orthographies 104 Chapter 8 Reading Models and Methods 107 Bottom-Up and Top Down Models 107 Connectionist Models 109 Balance Model of Reading 110 Method of Teaching Reading 111 Developing Reading Skills 114 Teaching Reading—the Debate 115 Reading Interventions 118 Methodological Issues in Reading Intervention Research 120 Factors to Consider in Developing and Using Reading Approaches 121 viii CONTENTS The Literacy Experience 123 Framework for Teaching 124 Summary 125 Chapter 9 The Acquisition of Literacy: Spelling 127 Why is Spelling Difficult? 127 Systems Involved in Spelling 128 Spelling Skills 129 Spelling Development 130 Spelling Policy 131 Spelling Strategies 131 Spelling Materials 136 Chapter 10 Expressive Writing 139 The Importance of Writing 139 Relationship between Writing and Spelling 140 Expressive Writing: The Process 140 Cognitive Skills Associated with Writing 141 Writing in the Curriculum 142 Developing Metacognitive Skills through Writing 142 Metacognitive Strategies for Writing 143 Strategies for Writing 145 Motivation and Writing 146 Planning 147 Pre-writing Framework 147 Developing Ideas 149 Handwriting 150 Summary 151 Chapter 11 Teaching Approaches: Points to Consider 153 The Context 154 Assessment and the Curriculum 155 The Learner 155 Programmes and Approaches—Some Considerations 156 Over-learning 159 Principles 160 Issues 161 Chapter 12 Supporting Literacy: Individualised Programmes 165 Criteria for Selection 165 Alpha to Omega 169 Orton–Gillingham 170 Procedure 170 CONTENTS ix The Hickey Multisensory Language Course 171 Bangor Dyslexia Teaching System 173 Tackling Dyslexia 174 Alphabetic Phonics 175 The Slingerland Programme 176 Letterland 178 Reading Recovery 179 Toe By Toe: Multisensory Manual for Teachers and Parents 183 Comment—Issues to Consider 183 Chapter 13 Supporting Literacy: Approaches and Strategies 185 Phonics Instructional Approaches 185 Language Experience 188 Other Support Approaches 189 Phonological Approaches 190 High-interest Books—History 192 Start to Finish Books 192 Differentiated Texts 193 Visual Factors 193 Motor Aspects 196 Assisted Learning 196 Summary 200 Chapter 14 Supporting Learning 203 Effective Learning 203 Key Points About Learning 204 The Learning Process 205 Realising Potential 208 Zone of Proximal Development 208 Developing Learning Skills 209 Learning Strategies 209 Multiple Intelligences 213 Study Skills 216 Set Goals 218 Feedback 218 Memory—Some Strategies 218 The Role of Self-esteem 220 Creativity and the ‘Gifted’ Dyslexic Student 221 Summary 221 Chapter 15 Inclusion: Curriculum Access 223 The Context 223 Responding to the Diverse Needs of Students 225 The Challenges 226 x CONTENTS Meeting Curriculum Objectives 227 Index for Inclusion 227 Tensions and Contradictions 229 Assessment, Need and Accountability 230 Removing Barriers to Achievement 230 Interventions and Inclusion 231 Making the School Inclusive 233 Equity 234 Principles of Inclusion 235 An Inclusive School 237 Healthy Schools 237 Supporting Inclusion 237 Staff Support and Training 238 Student Advocacy 240 Dyslexia and Self-advocacy 241 Staff Support 242 Key Factors 242 Chapter 16 Inclusion in Secondary Education: Accessing the Curriculum 245 Responsibility 246 Features of Secondary Schools 246 Differentiation and Curricular Development 248 Differentiation and Assessment 249 Subject Areas 250 Multiple Intelligences in Secondary Schools 262 Physical Education 262 Staff Development 263 Challenges: Key Areas 264 Chapter 17 Inclusion: Further and Higher Education and the Workplace 267 Further and Higher Education 268 The Workplace 279 Concluding Comment 281 Chapter 18 Issues and Concerns 283 Issue 1. Multilingualism 283 Issue 2. The Use of Computers and Technology 290 Issue 3. Overlap, Continuum and Intervention 291 Issue 4. Alternative Therapies 298 Issue 5. Training and Professional Development 304 Comment on Issues