Adult Education

Home , Adult education

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT%.-OF THE INTERIOR HAROLDL.ICKES:SECRETÁRY

OFFICE OF EDUCATION :J. W. STUDEBAKER COMMISSIONER

ADULT EDUCATION

BEINGCHAPTER IVOFVOLUME IOF THE

BIENNIAL SURVEY,OF EDUCATION IN THE A UNITED STATES : 1934-36

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BULLETIN,1937, No. 2 . [ADVANCE PAGES] I.

BY MARIS M. PROFFITT EDUCATIONAL CONSULTANT (Assisted bypersonsnamed in the text)

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UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1938

For sale by $he Superintendentof Documents, Washington, D. C.- or d se ale - "Pricp16cents I.

CONTENTS Page , Foreword v Recencx of the adult education movement 1 Determination of needs for adult education , 3 The philosophy of education for adults ..9 6 Continuing ability to learn,. ., 19 Emergency educationprogram 22 Education in the CCCcamps 28 Vocational education for adults 35 Civilian rehabilitation (federally aided) 38 Workers' education . 39 Parent education 43 University extension 56 Prison educatign kilt* 64 Adult civic educationthrouglipublic forums ' 68 Conclusion ... 72

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Lzi FOREWORD Developments inadult educationduring the past fewyearshave attracted generalpublic interest.Reports, lisase4upon.scientific studies, thatabilitytolearn efficientlycontinues'until late inlife, weregiven widespreaddissemination.The significanceof this fact for educationwasreadily comprehended notonly by schoolmenbut by the laypublic.This together withacombination ofconditions arising out of thedepressionwhich emphasizedthe needs foradult education, and at thesametime providedfavorableopportunities for organiAingprogramsto meetthe needs, resultedinastimulation to adult educationheretofore unexperienced. Previously there had beensomesporadic efforts toprovide edAca- tional opportunities to meetthe glaringdeficiencies inpopulation groupssuchasilliterates and aliens.However, there had notde- veloped the realizationthat adulteducation shouldbeanintegral partofoureducationalprogram necessaryto meetneeds thatcan best be provided forduring adulthood. Thissurveyreportreviewsdevelopmeritsin adult education,and fromananalysis of currentpractices and prevailingthought,sum- marizes trends andindicatesadeveloping philosophyunderlying the determination of objectivesandprograms.It is believed thatit will notonly be valuable toworkers in thisspecific field of education,but òwingtothe fact thatit gives consideration to'adult educationas a partofacompleteprogramforaneducated citizenry, itwill be of interest to schooladministrators andprofessionalpersonswhoarein aposition to influenceeducational thought. BESS GOODYKOONTZI Assistant Commissionerof Education. CHAPTERIV ADULTEDUCATION RECENCY OFTHE ADULTEDUCATIONMOVEMENT Adult educationas anorganized movementin the United States is of recentorigin.In fact, the term"adult ed4fation" did notcome into generaluseuntil .about 1924.In thatyearthe Carnegie Cor- poration of NewYork calledthe firstpnferenceonadult education held inAmerica. Thatcorporationcontinued its interestin this field, andas aresult of theconference studieswereundertaken that eventuated inpublicationson:Correspondence schools,lyceums, and Chautauquas,educationalopportunities foryoungworkers; libraries and adulteducatipn;newschools for oldersfudents; and the univer- 41% sity afield.-Anothernational conferenceand several regionalcon- ferenceswereheld, under theauspices of theCarnegie Corporation, withinashort time.These studies andconferences revealed that therewasconsiderable mutual interestamong anumber of educational agencies andeducational fieldsin the promotionof educationalopportunities foradults.By 1926this interest haddeveloped intoa unified effortfor bringingaboutanational organizationfor this purpose.In Marchof thatyearthis effortwasconsummated under the sponsorshipof theCarnegie Corporation,and the American Association forAdult Education waseffected at Chicagoonthe 26th of that month. It is not meant toimply thatprevious to 1924therewere noefforts toprovide educationalopportunities forspecitilgroupsof adults, but to point outthat educationalopportunitiesinaccordance with socialneedsfor adultsas aclass, constitutingadistinctgroupin ourpopulation, had -notbeen regardedas apublic responsibility. Some specialand unrelatedforms ofeducation for adultshave long existed. A fewof themorerecent oneswhichwereimportant factors leading to the presentadult education movement,but which hadtheir origins in practicesstillmoreremote,include the lyceum,the Chautau- AuaTiecturecourses,and universityextension classes.In yetmore recenttimeswehave witnessedthe developmenton alarge scale of public vocationaleducationprograms,óf Federalprogramsfor the vocationalrehaliilitation of World War veterans,and of cooperative programs opthe part ofthe Federal andState Governmentsfor the vocational rehabilitationof disabledcivilians.It is also tobe noted 1 X

2, BIENNIAL SURVEYOF EDUCATION,1934-36

that the WorldWar quickenedthe interest inAmericanizationclasses and in theneed for givingattentiontoprogramsfor theremovalof illiteracy. It isapparent, therefore, thatfor ,.y yearsthere hasbeen develop- ingaconsciousness,on anationalsc-; of the need for adulteducation. Workers in variousfields ofeducation whoheretofore thought,labored, and plannedindependentlyin providingtheir specializedofferings for adults,are nowbeginningto realize that it isanadvantageto studyand plantogether forthe furthereducation ofpersonswho havb passedthe public-schoolage.Workers inthe variousphases of educationof valueto adults realize thatthe psychologyof the adult isto be understoodand that he isto beMadethe.center ofa program to which eachphase makesadefinite andspecific contribu- tion.With thisgrowingconsciousnessof the needsof atilteduca- tion, it isnot surprising that,today educationalactivities foradults arecarriedonbymanydifferent agencies,onvarious educational levels and inagreat variety of subject-matterfields.Inalarge city schoolsystem theymaybe directedas partof the programof several administrativedivisions.Educationalofferings for adultscross- sectionso manyphases andunits ofeducational work flatthey cannot atpresentbe-set within the limitsofaparticularprogram. It isnot strange, therdore,thatnogenerally accepteddefinition for "OulteduCation"yet exists.In fact,there has beennospecific effortto formulateone.Rather theleaders in thismovement have assumed that ifacircumscribingdefinition isnecessaryit willgrow out of the practicesand theprogramsasthey develop inthe future. From theforegoingstatementsitcanbe correctlyconcluded that the adulteducationmovement is inan eraof expansion.In the early beginningseducationalopportunitiesfor adultswerelargely limited to two classes ofpersonsandto two objectives, namely,topersons who inearly lifehadnot had elementaryschooladvantages andwere in need ofeducationaltraining forthe removalof illiteracy,andto foreign-born whowerein needof educationaladvantagestoover- comethe handicapsattendantuponimmigration.At thepresent time thescopeof adulteducationhas beenextended,at least in theory,to include publicrespotsibilityfor providingopportunities foranyclass whosefurther educationwillservesocial needs.This broadening ofthe assunledbase of adulteducation isthe result ofa growing publicopinionthatwehave neglectedtoo longoneof the most direct and effectivemeansfor raisingthe educationalstandards ofourwhole citizenry.Consequently,mumerousschoolsystems, especially in thelarger cities,arebeginningto includeas a partof theirprograms,instruction invarious subjectsthatmeet the interests and needsof adultperriis.These interestsand needsareof such wide varietythat they4demand fortheir satisfactionascomprehen; sivealist ofsubjectsasis found inthe curriculafor adolescents. ADULTEbUCAT ION 3 DETERMINATION OF NEEDS FOR ADULT 4DUCATION 1.0. During thepastfewyears1 ders in the adult educationmovement have giveninuch thou- critical determination andstatement of the needs, both of ety andof the individual, for educationalopportunities for adults.The importance of seeking the objectives for adult education in the shortcomings ofgroupand individual activities carriedonunder %normal living conditions has been emphasized. A surveyof the literature of adult education for thepast 3or4yòars reveals the fact that leaders in this phase of education and educational philosophersareattemptingscientificallytoestablislithe néeds for adult education throughanexaminationt of the fields or human activities. Asummaryof the needs for educational opportunities,for adultsas set forth during the pastfewyearsbiwritersin this field of education would include deficiencies of adults in: (1) Fundamentals of educationnecessaryfor intelligent citizenship. In timepastagreatdeal has been said about thesuccessofademocracy being conditioned byanintelligent citizenry, but it remained for the advocates of adulteducation to pointouttheurgent need for providing educational opportunities for adults deficient in the fundamentals of education.Whilenoobjective standards have been devised for determining theamountand character of minimum educational quill- fications for the efficient discharge of citizenship responsibilities, leaders in the adult, educationalmovement have during the past fewyears indicatedmoreclearly thanwas everdone before theimPortanceof having allpersonseducated to read understandingly the publicpress and historical literature dealing withournational development;to formulate andexpressopinionsonsocial, civic, and economic questions; toporsueefficientlyavocation; andtopossessmathematical aMlities neçessaryfor ordinary business transactions.Adult educationatthe present time is settingagoal for "functional literacy" rather than the "abilityto read andwrite."ak fact,oneof therecentoutstanding contributions of adult educationtoeducational thoughtisthe emphasis that it is placingonthe importance of setting the minirpum qualifications for citizenship abilitiesatamark that will enable the individualtoparticipate in social, civic, and economic affairs that requiregroupactionon alocal, State,ornational basis. The philosophers of the adult educationmovement Rivecalling public attentionto thefact thatour programof education for the maintenance and safeguarding ofourdemocratic form ofgovernment is predicated uponthe assumption that this aim isto herealized through the educational training of the totalgroupof individuals for the efficient discharge of citizenship duties, andnotasinsomecountries, through the training of leaders.Adult education is in the vanguard of the battle for individualcompetency for membership inademocratic society.

4 4 41° 4 BIENNIAL SURVEY OFEDUCATION,1934-36 (2) General culturalabilities: An examination ofrecent literature andprogramsof adult educationrevealsasurprising amount:ofatten- tionto training for generaLcultural values.Adult education practices arebroad enoughtoinclude the basic assumptionthat "man shallnot live by bread alone."Milk education is makingarticulate this philosophy of life in itsattempt to providecoursesinart, literature, music, .the drama,and other subjects that have for theirspecificpur- posethe development of aestheticabilities.The objectives of training in cultural subjectsarefor both appreciatioli andproductionA; ues. On thepart_of the individuals theseobjectivesrepresent : normal tendencyto continue, with maturity,astudy of those th sfrom which they will deriveincreasing aesthetic pleasures. Examples of educationalactivitiesto meet cultural needs of;411ults include directedvisitsto art galleries and loan exhibits for studies in appreciation,groupmeetings conductedas apart ofa programof library activitiesfor instruction inart appreciation, evening classes and othergroupmeetings for developing skill inproduction, and radio broadcasts forart appreciation. An example of the last activity is theweekly broadcast bythe public schools of Cincinnation some ell-known work ofart. Ifacoign picture isto be the subje0 of study foragivenweek, the listenersareadvised that inexpensive prints maybe obtained forafewcents. With these copies in the hands of the radio 'audience thebroadcasterthe director ofart ip the public schoolsgivesalesson in appreciationof the picture. (3) Abilitiesascitizenstocopewith changes in, social-civic conditions .Changes takingplace in social-civic life afteroneleaves the lull-time(adolescent) ichool make itimportant that educational opportunities be Providedthat will aid the adult citizentorevisepat- terns of thopght learned in youth,to meet current conditions andto acquirenewfacts and interpret them in the lightof principles applicable to modern trends.For example: (a) Therearechanges that necessitate the developmentof better relationships withgroupswithinour owncountryand with foreign countries.The development of improvedrelationships, .however, is conditioned byabetter understandingof othergroupsand classes that will result ina moretolerant attitude toward them.Changes arecontinually goingonthat make itnecessarythat selfishness and provincialism inourthinking about problemsthat involve human rela- tionshipsmust givewaytoawider conception of human relatioAs. Improved facilitiesfor the transmission of intelligence,the telegraph, the telephone, theradio, have broken down localbarrierstoan62c- change of communicationsand greatly widened,geographically, the rangefor the transaction of businessand for carryingongovernmental and social activities.Improved transportation facilitiesboth for person'sand for commoditieshave also playedanimportantpartin broadeniniithe basisfor human relations. Asaresult of such develop- ADULT EDUCATION 5 mentsthere is need foranimproved understanding andanattitude of mind that will beabinding force for harmoMous relationsamong classes;groups,and nations. The need for suchabinding force is apparentin questions 15ertaining to the size of localpolitical divisions4 the administration oflocal governments and social services, the basis for publicrevenues,the responsibility for charity and forhuman relief necessitated by disasters and emergenciesopcasioned by natural causes,and the settlement ofdisputesinvolving industrial and 14bor problems.Leaders in theaduli educationmovementarepointir4to the need forproviding educational opportunities to adult citizens that *ill enable them to studythese problems and to act intelligently in the control they exerciseoverthem. (b) Therearecontinualchanges\ that necessitate the revision of at ti- tudes toward, and the development ofabilitiestoparticipate in the control of, human institutionssuchasschools, penal and corrective institutions, hospitals, and homes for ,theaged and unfortunate.No educatimal provisions foradolescentscanqualify for adult functioning in these citizenshipresponsibilities unless supplemented by later study. Adult educational opportunitieseither ofaformalorinformal charac- terareimperative for meetingthis.socialneed. (c) Therearechanges goingonwhich affect human and natural resourcesthat call for the conservationof them to meet individual and groupneeds.The conservation of humanlife through preventive and remedialmeasuresin the field of health, including hygieneand sanitation;and the conservation of naturalresourcessuchasland, for- ests,mineral product's,sourcesof food tupplies, and wildlife,demands studyonthe part bfadutisfor intelligent participation ingroupaction for the direction ofactivitienorconservation in these fields. Adult education is pointing out thatthepress,the radio, and in- cidentil/sources of information alone,arenotadequate to meet the needs ofmanyofouradult citizens for pertinentinformation and its interpretation relative to problems in social-civiclife, and that, therefore, it isaOublic responsibility to furnish-opportunities forstudy and public discussion of such questions that will befair and unprejudiced and free fromanypartisanorcommercialMotive. (4)Vdcationaltraining for job improvement and for adjustment-- Opportunities for vocationaltiaining for adults is needed for (a)up- grading in effiçiencyon apresentjob, (b) promotion toajob in the eline of work, and (c)a newjob in thecasewhereapresentjob mesobsolete.The full-timeadolescentvocationalsch'ool (for s, nonprofessional occupatidns) cannotprepareyouthtoholdajourney- man's position.For thisreasonand for the furtherreasonthat technological conditionsarebringing about changes in jobrecarements, vocational, training for adults isneceAsaryto meetthe three needs stated. .6 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION FOR ADULTS No socialmovementcangain much headway without ayphilosophy that makesanappeal to universal principles upoli which'soit4 life is based. ThePresentadult educationmovement, emergingasit has fran various forms of educational provisions for 'adultsprovided largely formeetingexigencies in educational needsastheyarose-- has developédnoformal statement ofabody of philosophy that points out itsfunctionsas asocial serviceorindicates underlying principles uponwhich its operation is bask'.The following quotations from students of adult education indicate that attention is being givento this question: t In reality, adult education is the only education. We'sendyoungsters to school in their earlyyears, not because that is the best time foraneducation but because at that timewecannot think ofanythingelse to do with them. We find it difficult to tell ourselves whatwe areeducatingourchildren for, thoughweall faithfully repeat the old formula, "Untilyouknow what philosophyyou areeducating by, therecanbenoeducation."Iam sure thatweshall not know whatwe areeducating the youngsters for untilwe have told ourselves what adult education is for.JoHN ERSKINE. In To Return to Creative .Endeavor. Helvewe may aswelVadmit that it is not the education of children that can savethe world from destruction; it is the education of adults; it is the adult who must be released from his provincial mindedness, his animistic prejudices, hisnarrowcustOms, hisobs.oletehabits; it is the adult who must be given the chançe to becpme free inaworld of science, tolerance, hunian sympathy, and intelligent organization.JOSEPH K. HART.In Prologue to Part I, AdultEducation in Action. It (adult education) isapreservative of democracy;a propof stability; ,ahorseuponwhichwevainlypursuethe fleeing boundaries of knowledge;a bridge between the generations;acement, strengtheninggroupspirit and groupthought and action;arestorer of lost arts and handicrafts;aninsurance againstmisspent leisure;a weaponin the economic struggle.Lucr WILcox AAM& In To Enlarge Our Horizons. .; Thesumtotal of humankiwwledgehas becomesogreat in modern times orthereason'thatit is the accumulation ofages.New elements of knowledge areadded to the stock existing atany onetime. Ofcourse somekiowledge is always being lost, but if the elements-thatarelostarefewer than,thenew elements thatareadded, then knowledgegrowsbya processof accumulation....The growth of knowledge is thus becomingoneof the major problems of soeiety.How shall it be met? Theanswer seemsto be adult education.W1LLIAm F. 04313ITRN.In To Keep Abreast,of Knowledge.1 sv** Fromastudy of present educationalinogramsmtoradults and of recent literaturein this field, trendsarediscovered that indicate that the philosophy of education for adults is baseduponthe assumption that: I The above quotationsaretaken from Adult Education in Action, edited by Mary L. Ely. American Association for Adult Education, 00 East 42d St., New York. ADULT EDUCATION 7

(1) EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIESFOR ADULTSCONSTITUTEA NECESSARYPRO- - TEeTIVE DEVICEFOR A DEMOCRATICFORM OFGOVERNMENT Inademocracy suchas ours,sovereignty islodged inthe, people. In order that may protectitself it isnecessarythat adult citizens be educatedfor exercisingintelligenllythe dutiesand responsibilities which devolveuponthem formaintaining andpromoting the general welfare 'andfor securingto each the maximumopportunities for individualdevelopmentconsistentwith the rightsof others.This philosophy implies.that thosewhoareexercisingthe privilegesand rights of citizenshipshould beprovidedopportunitiesthat will co.m- Pensateforany gapsin theirpast education andthat willmeet' needs asthey arise. It isto be noted, in thisconnection, thatwhile in theearly history ofourdemocracy educationalopportunitiesweremuchmorelimited thinat present., the electoratewasalso Muchmorelimited thanit is now. 9 Moreover, duringthe earlyperiod ouicitizenrywas amuch morehomogeneousgroup;Ilan it hasbeen sincethat time.-Since the founding ofourdemocrac slaveryhas beenabolished andthe former bondsmen, withtheir millionsof descendants,arerecognizedby the, supremelaw of thelandascitizens; alsosince theearly daysof the Republicourpopulation hasbeen increasedby millions frómfoteign countries, whointurn have leftasdesceidants millionsmore,maily of whom requiremorethanonegeneration forcompleteadjustinentto American idealsand practices,especially thoseresiding inthe large cities.Furthermore, todaythere isnot the opportunityfor citizens to meet in itiass andto discuss orally civicand socialproblemsas was done in theold New Englandtown meeting.Such educational O experiencesare nowimpossible, ifforutrotlier-reasonthan because of thegreat number of citizens inanylocality.In addition,social life with itsattendantproblems isbecomingmorecomplex. When under theseconditions universalsuffrage,with fewexceptions,together with therightto hold office,becomesalegal rightfor both sexes,the assumptionthat adult educationisnecessaryas aprotective device fordemocracyseems tobe soundphilosophy. 9.\ A"few quotatiofisfrdm studentsofAmericarteducation writingon adoit 'educationtopics millindicate thedevelopment 4f,thoutaloig thisline. I. I The associate sliperin.tendent of schoolsof New YorkCity, William E. Grady,calls atientionin the followinglanguage to thqsignificance NOW ofaphilosophyCAeducation thatwill itress thepreparation of adults for dischargingthe duties ofcititens: v If*Q. citizenshipmust decide difficulteconomic, financial, andpolipcal ....1- . issues tUaugh-the mediumof the ballot . orthrough socialpressureexgrted-.). . uponlegislativeorexecutive bodies,will the educationand traininggiti&Zbd ..: thrbsgh completion of theelementary schoolor eventhe high school suffice/. Willa grammar-school educationinsure thesuccessofourdemocracy in the ' ,_ )' .' . 8 : BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION,1934-36 future?Maturemenand wornen, uneducated to meettheir political and social responsibilities, areanalogous togrown-upswho, despite theirma- turit,dress themselves inswaddling clothes and playon asand ile. Through the vertical extensionof schooling to all who aly, wecanand should develop avigor and maturity of thoughtandrespoisivenets to civic ideals that will insure acitizenship competent to meet thtcompelling and inescapable demands of ademocracy suchas ourforefatheconceived.i A. CaswellEllis, in writingonthe question "Canweafford 'adult education?"emphasizes thesameviewpoint when hesaysthat

. . a theprocessesof civic, social, and economiclife have becomeso complicated that the knowledge,attitudes, and skill needed to handle them cannot beaAequatelymastered in the briefperiod-of childhood and youth.3 George Melcher,superintendent of schools ofKansas City, Mo., addressingaconferenceon,adult education at theUniversity of Missouri, points outthat it is essentialthat adults study current social, economic,and political questionsifpre4nt-dayproblemsare to-besuecessfully handled. With the rapid changes that aregoingoilin the economic, sociaL avi political life ofourpeople'it -has become immenselyimportant thatAdillis continue to learn.A study of the educationallevel of the American people shows that millionsof these people hayehad their only education in the 'elementary schoolswhere they learnedreading and writing and a few simple facts *of geographyand history.Theyaretoday themenand thetwmen whoarehandling theiiffairs of the Nation.If they have not continued to study social problems,econ'omic problems, andpolitiCatproblems theyare lly incapable ofcoping with the situation today. . . . hisprogramofadult educationrunsthe entire gamut fromthe primary' gras esto theuniversityldv'elIt is the biggest jobs beforethe American people in the next quarterofacentury and unlessthis problem is solvedin urban coMmunitiesand in rural communitiesit makesusshudderasto the outcome fordemocracy.The public schoolswerefounded in order to per- . petuate democracyand at the lime of, thp,founding of these schoolsitwas not realizedthat the education oftheillasiesof the people wouldneed to eitrici beyond the teenage.Nowweknow that in addition toeducating the children ofelementary-and high-schoollevels it it nedessaryto ,continue the educationof the entire adultpopulation.This must be done byextend,- action of . ing the functionof the public schoolsand also. the cooperative "4 various adultediicationar organizations,4 .1, 7 .. The importanceof including in 'ourphilosophy of educationthe tenetthat adults mustbe students'ofoiiric .conditioris thata..arein-. . fluenced by fixedpractices of the past,is stiessed byPresideiii-Butler inaqarticle bn adulteducationentitled"To Keep OurMinds Open." Hesays: Mensaythat they wereborn into this political party orthat, into thia. fotm of xeligiousbelieforthat, into thissocial convictionorthat.Are not suchstatembilteit confessiotz that their:minds aredosed; that theyhave 1 I , ..1 Grady,William E.Men and Womena-tSchool: Adult Education. In TheThirty-seventh Anpuel- ,.. I...... , Report of theSuOeiiixtendent of Schools, City of New York. .._...,....,!...,:i

.L. Caswell. Can We Afford Adult Education?In Adult Education in Action, p, 64. 14'', .i3 Ellis, A. .r. .-0-0*-- 4 meleher, George. Adult EducationUrban Centers.Conference on Adult Education.University-of- Missouri Bulletin,vol. 35,no.22, Education aeries 1934,No. 33. , ..... , .1. 4 4;4 1.4". r- . 10 -*---.111AW».... ADVJT EDUCATION 9 shut theihselvesWithinwallsoverwhich they cannotsee,much less climb? Under such circumstances howcanthey participate in responsibility fora democratic society? Howcantheypassjudgmentupon ever newandpress- ing problems?This is neitherapromisingnor asatisfactory outlook for democraticsociety. . . . Ifwe canonly devisewaysandmeansto reach the human bèing who has passed out of the formal period of instrudion and to keep his mindopenand stimulated and guided,lyee'shallbuilda society in which ideas will haveabetter chance to develop than theyhave at present, andonein whichourpeople will be much better ableto beariespon- sibility for public conduct, to shape public policy, and to choose public

o"-, than theynoware.'

Morsi'.Cartwright emphasizes the philosophy of adult education

'democratic safeguard thejollowingstatement: . . as a . For thesuccess or unsuccessofademocracy, utilike that ofadictatorship, depends directlyuponthe degree of intelligence exhibited by the-masses',t, and that degree of intelligence depends squarelykupontheeamount of educational opportunity that has been continuouslyopento thosemasses.Ad- mittedly theprocesstakes time. * * * Those who have closely observed the adult educatiou movement in°thelast 10yearsin America believe that it does constituteasocial phenomenon of significance inournational life.' ' (2) IT IS A PUBLIC RESPONSIBILITY TO pROVIDE EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE STUDY ANDREVISIOAOF THOUGHTRELATIVE TO SOCIAL-ECONOMIC PROBLEMS THAT AREOCCAtONEDBY CHANGING CONDITIONS IN LIFE a *°SITUATIONS e

Social economic lifeisnotstatic;it is highly dynamic.Conse- quently thereareconstantly changing conditions in socittS;which give rise to problems ofasocialJeconomic charactprighatcannot be intelligently considered byaRip VanWinklearoused froma20-yeav mental lethargy.Cartwright in speaking of the results of scientific studies of theadtilt's abilitytolearn,expressesthis thought forcibly in the following words: , ik.;, The futility of attempting, inanygiven period of childoradolescent training, tocramenough into the.i.oungindividual's head to enable him to coaston meremomentum the rest 'oftitsintellectual life 'atoncebecame apparent.TherfOolactive effect, thus, of 'Adult educationuponschoof and college eduatition atonceassumed ik'nportant proportionsaprocesswhich

. . has yet to exert its full forceuponAmerican educational planning.7 Cartwright here gives further, ividence that the philosophy of adult education is evolving, that it is not yet set and determined within irrevocablelrunClariesanct that in its evolution it will affect the philosophy of the whole field of education in this cQuntry. Glenn. Frank in writingonadult education in To Better Our Social Order calls attention to thefutOit,..y:ofaphilosophy,Qf education that .wouldissuine'thatadolescent training is sufficierit4ir.6.ope with social pr9)4eip8 arising out of chfwgedcönditions'iri laérlife, and pointsto s...... , . . . S. 4.. ..."1 , I '1-rr'._. .. , . i . . . 9 . ..,,,. - v., ---- ,,sAutler, NicholasMtirray.Fro. Keep.Oti-Mindsg6edllkIn Adult &ideation In* -Action. °Op. cit. -----340artwright,Morse A. Ten Years ofAsfultEducation. New York, Macmillan Oo., 1935,Pp. 64.

. 7 Cartwright, Morse A.Op. cit.. -74'47 . . 7 w 467 JV- 0. . , ."- t. .4a r 4. a !V..- ' .6 . 'Fr" -- 4 lo BIENNIALSURVEY OFEDUCATION, 1934-36 . the needfora newphilosophy thatwill stress thecontinuance of educationalopportunities to meetthe continuouschanges goingonin social life.Dr. Frank says: AlmoWcontinuouslysince thefounding of ourRepubli,weAmericans have held thebelief that,however faulty ourcommunity in particular or our civilizationin generalmight be, ourchildren wouldremoldoursociety in the light ofintelligenceand justice,ifweonly sent them toschool consistently while they were young.From the beginning wehave pinned ourfaith to education,but educationhas meant to useducation during theschoolyears only Itseemsalmosttreasonable toquestion thetouching optimismof this faith, but thebrutal factis thatthe majority of our young menandwomen comeout of ourschoolsinflexibly-ebrranitted to Americancivilizationasit is, stamped withthe qualitiesof unquestioningdefenders of the status quoinstead the qualitiesof questioningpioneers. In view ofthis fact,itseemsworth while toraise the question:Why does not a morevital education comeout of ourconventionalsChools? Why does not schoolingproduce, in a morenearly automaticand inevitablefashion, uniformly greatand dependablecitizens withfree-minds, curiousspirits, and a'fixeddetermination tomakeForhe creative contributionto thefuture of Americandemocracy?And what can wedo about it? I think thissituation all growsout ofthe faets5ver1ooked by the early enthusiast fordemocracyandeducation--that ourschoolsarecontrolled by adults.These adutts are,in the main,dominated by pointsof view thatcome out of theeducatiA ofanother generationwhen otherproblems confronted American democracy.The intellectuallife of manyof these adultsstopped the day theyreceivedtheir diplomas,and the actionofmanyof them isdictated by selfishinterests ratherthan' by socialintelligence.Where these adultsdo notthemselves gobeyondanuncriticalacquiescence inthe status quo,is it to besuppoied tbat they canInVintorwill tolerateschools thatmake fora contindouslysearchingcriticism andreexaminationof tfieir ideas,their ideals,and theirinstitutions?Wemayset itdownasself-evident, I think, that schoolswill not bemoreNadventurousthan theadults who create, control, andconduct them."By the breath of theschool childrenshall the state be saved," saysthe ancientTalmud. But ifthis ancientaxiom is to be true,in America, I suggestthatwemustdevelopanadult educationthat will give us better adultswho willgiveusbetter schoolsthat will give us abetter education that willgiveuiabetter socialorder. In writingonthe subjectof adulteducationin To OpenaNew Frontier, WilliamFt Russell warnsagainstaneducationalphilosophyt. that acceptswithout criticalconsideration pastpractices to meet presentsocial conditions,and recommends apiiiloso'phy ofeducation thatassumesthe adult'sresponsibility forchangingasocial practice fit a.presentcondition. He says: tomake it better 9 Becausenew processesaredevised and newinventionsmade, because a wholenewlife develops onearth, it doesnot followthat mankindshould for- We have in our everacceptthe kindófsociety thathappens to emerge. I educational systeni a meansby whichtociety mayreshape itself.* * We have the right, naythe duty, toconsider not onlyhowwemay.train man to live inthenewsociety,,but alsohowwe mayinspirehimsothat he can, if need be,change thistiew itkiety into o'ne in whichit will begood to live. Frank, Glenn.ToBetter:Our4ocia1 Order.In Ely, Op. cit. ADULT EDUCATION 11 The latter is the moreimportant obligation, and assuch should commandour constant attention.* JamesE. Russell,writingonthe topic 'of adult educationin To insureSocial Stability,urges aneducational philosophy that will recognize theimportance of encouraginginitiative and freedom from tradition in'aplan .of education formaintaining social security.He says: e. 4 One aim of anyself-respecting nation is the progressiveadvancement of its civilization.This.means that in each oncominggeneration the largest poFsible

. number ofchildren should beencouraged to develop initiative and self-reli- ance,to reachrational concluEionsunhampered by tradition.On theotfier hand, the maintenanceof civil order and social securityisaprerequisite to anyadvance whatever. * * * Icome nowtomysuggestions respecting the scopeand character of adult education inAmerica. When we consider theneed of social control,oneout- standing opportunityis presented in vocationaltraining.Somethingcanbe done to betterinstruction of novices in school,but the greatest opportunity lies in theimprovement ofworkers in service: that is adulteducation.To create inthe worker a lovefor his vocation and to give him theability and the desire to spendhis leisure ina waybefitting his manhood: that is adult education.Perhaps the most significantopportunity of adult educationis the chanceof exalting in thepublic mind the dignity of labor, particularly in those fields in whichmanual skill is atapremium. The great weakness of our public schoolsis their failure to steertheir pupils into fitting vocations.The creation ofpublic sentiment for bettervocational guidance is an outstanding challenge to adulteducation.10 HarryElmer Barnes,writingonadult education with thepurpose To DirectSocial Change,says: This knowledgeof howeveryadvance, greatorsmall, has been feared and resisted in the pastougA to reduce theapprehensiveness of the present genera- tion with respect tocontemporary programsof social and 'political reconstruc- tion. These may nowbe guided bya morecomprehensive-and scientific body of informationthan has previously beenavailable to assist in any important historicaltransitión.11

(3) ADULTSARE ENTITLEDTO EDUCATIO1VAL PROVISIONSFOR MEETING INTER- ESTS, DEVELOPEDDURING OR FURTHERED BY MATURITY,THAT ACCORD WITH GENERAL EDUCATIONOBJECTIVES An adequatephilosophy of adulteducation will includetheassump-- tion that it is,aresponsibility of society toprovide educationalopportunities to meetthe natural anddesirable interests of mature persons for furtherlearning. On thispoinfA. Caswell Ellissaysin reference to e Ithe question,Canweafford adult education? 1 * * very manyimportant interests,aptitudes, and powers o * Man has That do not come tofunctional maturity in his early years; someof them do not fully matureuntil well past middlelife. These interests and powers

I Russell, WilliamF. To OpenaNew Frontier. In Ely, Op.cit. 11 Russell, JamesE. To Insure SocialStability.In Ely, Op. cit. II Barnes, HarryElmer. To Direct Socialchange. In Ely, Op. cit.

32866-38-----2 12 , BIENNIAL SURVEY OFEDUCATION, 1934-36 cannotpemsiblybe developed byeducation given in youth; they musthave stimulation anddirection through educationduring adult life."2 Significant examplesof such interests arefound in the fields of vocational andavocational work,parenthood, and generalcultural improvement.Educational opportunitiesfor increasing efficiency in vocational work,in child cire andwelfare, in budgeting thefamily inconie, infurnishing anddecoraiingthe home, in subjectsvaluable for leisure-tinieactivitie.s, and in the creative artsareall naturally andpeculiarly in, linewitha:aultinterests.With the passing of ,interests in thesimplegamesof childhood andadolescence, in juvenile reading, in themanipulation of tools andmaterials and the operation of mechanical apparatus onthe play andexploratory level character- istic of youth,in excursions ofapicnic characterwhicharethe delight of childhood,in interest inanimals merelyasplaythings, it iskatural that they besupplanted by relatedinterestson anadult maturity , level. The interestsof the child andyouth in the kinds ofactivitie mentiOnedmaybecome theinterests of the adultin thegainesof business and politics, in competitiveleisure-time sports, in reading and evaluatingliterature with thejoy attending thereon,in the pleasurederived fromstudying the masterpiecesof art, in ilke skill of manualdexterity for vocationaland avocationalpurposes,and in field tripsand travel forthepurposeof learningmoreandmore about animaland plant life,the works andprocessesof nature, the works ofman,andmanhimself. It is to beconsidered,however, that while it is natural foradolescent interests to besupplanted by adultinterests, it does notalways follow that suchis thecase.Favorableconditiônsfor the transition maynotobtain and adultlifemaybe left barrenas a consequence. , Definiteeducational experiencesneed to beprovided to insure the developmentand satisfactionof adultinterests.:Owing to the importance, extent,and influence ofsuch adult interestsashave been indicated,leaders in the adulteducation movementaredevelop- ingaphilosophy forthii phase of education thatassumes.that it is a necessaryand advisablefunction of education tofurnish instruction in accordancewith the naturalinterests of adults. Inareport on astu4 of adult interests, Dr:Thomdikesays: . The work of adultlearning is notimadedbyageneral drying upof the wells of interest, norbyadecrease in the interests inobserving, reading, listening,orperforming acts of skill, onwhich learning is especiallydepend- ent. Adultsmay excusethemselves from learningbecause they aretiredor sleepyorin need of entertainmentrather thanimprovement, but not because they cannot, beingold, be sufficientlyinterested.The few individualswho do suffer from agenuine general apathy areexceptions that provethe rule, balanced by the fewwho at 40 to 60 aremuchmorsinterested and andare . zealous than everbefore. * * *

1IIn Ely, Op. oit., p. 04. ADULTEDUCATION 13

Some interests aredeep-rooted inaperson's natureand persist inspite of notable changesin his experienceand education.Soa man maycravethe inner approvalof his deeperself,maywant tothink well ofhimself, through manychanges infortune and status.As student,athlete, lover,_father, productiveworker, neighbor,reformer, and servantof God, he maylime manydifferent interests.But through allhemaypersistently care about being satisfiedwith whathe isorthinks himself tobe.Such interests are a part ofthe perennialnature oftheperson.Some interests arealmost entirely adoptedand abandoned atthe instigationof externalcircumstances."

(4) ADULTSAREENTITLED TOOPPORTUNITIES INVOCATIONAL TRAININGFOR UPGRADINGAND FORINCREASING THEIREFFICIENCY Becauseanindividual haspassed the timein life thathas been fixedasschoolageisno reasonwhy societyshould deny tohim formal educaiional advantages thatwill helphim to increasehis vocational efficiencywith the consequentresults that hewill renderalarger social serviceand improvehisownwell-being andhappiness.It is ashort-sightedphilosophy ofeducation thatwould provide foryouth atpublicexpensepreemploymenttraining inspecific lines ofwork yetfail toprovide trainingfor adultsalready inemployment.Edu- cationalopportunitiesfor up-gradingin givenvocational position and forpromotion toahigherpositionwill constitutesocialresponsi- bilitysolongasmanual skillsand technicalknowledgearedemanded ofalarge percentageofouremployedpopulation for the purposeof rendering services tomeetthe needsof society.For example,it is apublicresponsibility toprovide, inaccordancewith the needsof society,opportunitiesfor increasingthe efficiencyofpersonsengaged in repairingand servicingautomobiles,radios, andplumbing and electricalservices inthe'home, itisanobligation ofsociety to make availableeducationalopportunities inbuildingestimating to car- pinters and masons assuchareneeded for the purposeof preparing them tobecomebuilding contractors.Along with tberesponsibility thatsociety hasfor theup-grading ofartisans, ithasasimilar obligation forsocial welfarethroughprovidinginstruction forincreasing theefficiency ofthoseemployed intheprofessions,asfor example, medicine,education,andsocial welfarework.Withoutsucha philosophysociety wouldfail torecognize theobligation it hasfor maintainingabody ofpractitionerscapable ofrenderingservices in accordancewith changedconditions andnewdiscoveries intheir professionalfields. Furthermore,society hasan'obligation fortraining to compensate workers forloss ofemployment inpositions madeobsolete bytechno:» logical changes.A soundsocialphilosophy must assumethat when amarket formen'svocationalskills andtechnicalknowledge has been destroyed,it isaresponsibilityof society to see toit that they sufferaslittleaspossible fromthe result.Thephilosophy ofadult 1035.. pp. 15, and4344. IsThomdlke, EdwardL.. Adult Interests.New York, TheMacmillan Co., 14 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 education pointsoutthat the natural and logicalmeansof meeting the problems of unemployment dueto technological changes ispro- vision for retraining ina"going" occupation, and that the occupation in which retraining isto be given be selected withaviewto capitaliz- ingonthepast experiences of the workerasfullyaspossible.Beard, writingonadult education in To Prepare for NewOccupations,says: Little is known about the extent and social effects of technologicalunern- ployrnent, but two thingsarecertain; it ismorethananIncident inour economic evolution and it presents problems in adult education.All through ourindustrial structure technology is swiftlyat work closing old occupations and openingnewopportunities.Few who laborareentirely beyond the peril of its revolutionary upheavals.The casual dock laborer, whoonce unloaded 'ships by main strength is ousted fromalivelihood byabeltcon- veyorthat carries goods from holds in endless streams.The skilled artisan iron puddler, glass blower,orpainterinthe middle of things is supplanted bysomemechanical device.The musician, ridingonthe high tide ofpros- perity with the silent-picture industry, is thrown into thestreets almostover night by the advent of the sound film.Insome casesonlyaportion of the workers inagiven brancharedislocated; in others, the entiretrade is destroyed, leaving the possessonikof dearly bought skill helplessin the market place. 14

(5) IT IS INCUMBENT UPON SOCIETY TO PROVIDE EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES THAT WILL HELP ADULTS TO USE THEIR LEISURE TIME WISELY An adequate and sound philosophy of educationcannot ignore that continually increasing portion of the adult's time frequently called leisure time.For thatgreat percentage of the employed workingon astrict schedule of hoursperday and daysperweék,there remainsa large surplus of time above that which isnecessaryfor bodily refresh- ment and sleep.Apersonemployedon a44-hour week and using8 hoursperday for sleep has left for otherpurposesapproximately55 percentmore'firmthan he devotestoactual employment hours.The potentialoutcomes of this leisure timecanbean enormousfactor in the life of the individual.Dependingupontheusemade of it, leisure timemaycontribute greatlytogeneral cultural development,vocational efficiency, social relations, and social and communityservices; ortobad social relations, undesirable social attitudes,antisocial behavior, and indolent habits.A considerable number of thecases docketed in the policecourtsarethe results of offenses committed during the leisure time of the individuals.Adult education is including in itsphilosóphythetenetthat the largeamount ofleisure time nowavailabletoadults, together with the opportunities itpresents for educational training, placesadirect responsibilityuponeducation for providingprogramsfor adults that will contribute inalargeway to the culttiral uplift ofmericn life. Assistant Superint Went Siegel of the New York City schoolssays that:

14 Beard, C -7, oPrepare for New Occupations. In Ely.op.cit.

rl ic; g ;w ADULT EDUCATION 15 From present indications it is safe to assertthat industrialprogresswill continue atanaccelerating rate of speed.Thismeans,ofcourse,greater producticnperman-hour and consequent increase in so-calledleisure time. Whether leisure is to beabaneor abenefit will be determined by the type and extent of publiclysupported adult education program weprovide." In referring toastudy of theleisure-time activities ofpersons enrolled in adult .classes inMinneapolis it is stated in the report ofthe superintendent that: The results of the study reveal thatactivities ofanorganized natureare not practiced by the greatmajority of adults.Rather they spend theirspare time in activities such asundirected reading and aimless search for amuse- ment.The challenge is clear to adulteducation and itmaybe statedas follows: Provide opportunitiesfor the development of leisure-time activities which will bea sourceof joy and worth-while accomplishment tothe individual and which, therefore, will contribute toimprove mental and physical health.' (6) THE OBJECTIVES FORCLASSES!INADULT EDUCATION WILL BE REALIZED IN LARGE MEASURE, T EMOTIVATION OF THE MEMBERS BEING STRONG As participationineucational oppdrtunities for adults ison avolunm, tarybasis, the enrollees constituteaselectedgrouphavingahigh degree of interest.Much has been said in connection with theprin- ciples of educationrelgtive to the motivation of pupilsas a meansof realizing the aims ofinstruction.The activities included inthe curriculum have been arrangedin accordance with the experiencesof the pupils and to meetinterestsasthe occasions for themarise. Educational experiences in socialactivitiescomein the pupil'sprogress through school at the timeinterest in such is developing.In nature study much of the workis outlinedon aseasonal basis.In thispro- kram, "Turtle Day":onthe calendar of therural school should bea movable date to be fixedasthe dayonwhich the pupils will findalong the stream back of theschoolhouse the first turtle of the spring season. Motivation in adult education isevenstrongerthan that whichcan be brought about by attempts toschedule activities in the adolescent school in accordance with developinginterests.'\Adults who select educationalcoursesdosobecause they feelaneed for further education which pey hope thecourseswill meet.This consciousness of need isaniimpelling forcetolearning.Instruction in parenthoo d at the time it is functioning,training in the privileges and dutiesof citizenship during the time theyareexercised, special vocational trainingas newconditions demand, and course's in theappreciation ofartand literatureasaesthetic longings developareexamples of motivation that make adult learninghighly effective. Adult education is stressing theprinciple that it is soundphilosophy toprovide educational opportunities inagiven linetothose whoare

11 Siegel, Morris E.Men and Women at School: Adult Education.The Thirty-seventhAnnual:Report of the Superintendent of Schools, City of NewYork. &tool year 1934-35.p.29. hi The Years of the Depression, 193045.Report of the Superintendent of Schoolsto the Board of 2ducation, 'Minneapolis, Minn., June 1935.p. 128. 16 BIENNIAL SURVEY OFEDUCATION, 1834-36 highly motivated toundertake them.Relevanttothis point, Robert D. Leighsays: Among the far-seeing leaders ofthe movement in theUnited States. adult education is recognized not as asubstitute for inadequateschooling in youth but ratheras aneducational opportunity superior tothat offered in youth, because the learner ismotivated by the honest desire toknow and to enrich his experience and becausehe brings to his study relevantdaily experience, and consequently the newknowledge "takes root'firmly, strikes deep, and feedsonwhat the day's life brings it." 17

(7) ABILITIES ACQUIREDDURING ADULTHOOD FUNCTIONIMMEDIATELY, THUS MAKING FOR A QUICK RETURNON THE INVESTMENT Time andmoneyspenton'educationfor adults bringrewards quickly, both to society and tothe individual.This is apparent for thereasons:(a) Abilities acquiredduring adulthoodmaybe put into use.atonce, asthe adult isamaturefunctioning member ofsociety. For example, if the adultthroughastudy of civic andpolitichl problems is able to exercisemoreintelligently theI ilege of suffrage, society is atoncerewardedonthe investment asmade in his further education.If the adult througbavocationalcourseincreases his efficiencyas aproductive worker, societyi thereby enriched. If the adult througbpropereducational experiences basbis apprecia- .lion of art raised toahigher level, society againreceives immediate benefit byreasonof the fact thatoneof its citiiens hasanenlarged viewpoint of the cultural things oflife.In each instancethe rewards whichcometothe adult from furthereducationfirealsoasimmediate asthose whichcometosociety.(b) There isnodiminution in the efficacy of abilitiesacquired during adulthooddue toaninterim between the time of theiracquisition and the timetheymaybe exercised.Adult education is notpubt into cold storage to suffer deterioration before being used.(c) A period oftestingorseasoning is notso necessaryfor knowledge acquired:luring adulthoodasfor that acquired duringadolescence, thereforeahigh degree of effective- nessismoreimmediate.In thecaseof the adult theexperiences of maturity tire applied toinformationasit is presented, and theresult- * interpretations haveahigh probability of being correct.It is the philosophy of adult educationtbat the final 4prms ofmanyof the abilities needed by adultsaremosteffectively andeconomically acquired during adulthood. John Erskine in speakingof the immediacy ofthe results to be sought from adult educationsays:

...It (adult education) has afunction to dischargeinourprogressive society wherenewknowledgepoursfrom laboratories,studies, and workshops with bewildering rapidity,offeringnew powersand opportunities while altering historic occupations.-Thatfunction is to makecontinuously avail-

nLeigh, Robert D. To Liberalize theCollege Curriculum.In Ely. op. cit. ADULT EDUCATION 17 able to all inquisitiveadultsarealistic knowledge of whatisgoingonin the worldthe kind of knowledge that furnishes ashield 'andasword in the struggle for existence." (8) SUBJECT-MATTERCONTENT AND INSTRUCTIONALPROCEDURES FOR ANY GROUP SHOULD ACCORDWITH THE INTERESTS ANDTHE METHODS OF LEARNING REPRESENTATIVE OF THEGROUP Adultsnolonger dress like children,and they differ justasgreatly from childrenin their attitudes andbehavior patternstoward life situationsasthey do in theirdress.Consequently, it is notpossibleto putfhem again intoa"knee-breeches" school.Inanyclass for adults the content ofinstruction, the activitiesrequired of its members, and the methods ofteaching must all beon -anadult level, else the coursewill have but little meaningand interest for thegroup.Adult education isnowstressingas acardinal principle of itsphilosophy that instruction for adults mustcorrespond to the adult'smethods of learning; that instructionalpractices be in accordwith conditions and situations obtaining inadulthood.To this end leaders.in the field of adult educationareemphasizing the need for thefiather study of the characteristics of adultsinsofarasthey conditionmethods of instruction,waysof learning, andinAtructional situations.Dr. Thorndike saysthat "Those whoarrange coursesof study,orwrite textbooks, for adults should devoteareasonable amOunt ofattention to the facts I available in psychology,sociology, economics, andhistory concerning adult interests andwarits.'9 Dr. Fansler in speaking ofthe qualifications of theteachers of adults a says: Too little is definitely knownconcerning administrativeprocedures and methods of teaching adults topredict the probable contentof such curricula orthe restrictions and prerequisites that maybe imposed uponcandidates for proféssional training.We do know that the brilliant youngA. B. is less likely to be effective with adults thanthe 21der teacherwho has had the mellowing influence ofconsiderable life experiencegained in business and social contacts. nd we know that thejob of teachingadults requiresmore elasticity and ingenuity than is usual inthemoreformalized disciplinesof compulsory education.These two bits of empiricalknowledgemay save adult education from beconiing ontheonehand the "big city" of an army of hopefulyoungaspirants, andonthe other hand theMecca ofsuper- annuated school teachers too spent towithstand the sluitteringblows of daily contact with adolescent spirits.20 (11) lT IS A PUBLIC RESPONSIBILITY TOPROVIDE EDUCATIONALOPPORTUNITIES FOR A LARGE PERCENTAGE OF TIIEPOPULATION THAT ISINTERESTED IN AND CAPABLE OF FURTHER EDUCATIONALTRAININO Leaders in' the adult education movement aretoday stregisingas they haveneverdonepreviotisly that tbe philosophyuponwhich the i Erskine, John, To Return toCreative Endeavor. In Adult Education inAction.Edited by Mary L. Ely. American Association for Adult Education, 1936. 811. . I, Thorndike, Edward L., Adult Interests.New York, The Macmillan Company, 1935.p. le Parolee, Thomas. Training of Leaders and Teachers of Adults. In Ilandb2ok of AdultEducation, 19$6.Dor4thyRowden, Editor. American Association for Adult Education. ., :1 of

; BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 18 41i educationalprogramofademocratic form of government is based shah includeas acardinal principle tbe assumption tbatanylarge groupof the population capable of and interested in further educational training alonganyline of social value, is entitledto such educational privileges and that it isapublic responsibilitytoseeto it that theyareprovided.William M. Proctor pointstothisas a new philosophy of education and indicates tbe need for studying ptoblems\ in broad fields of human activities.Hesays: What this country needs. ,vis the cultivation ofan'ew philesophy of education which hoi.ds-thiiteveryindividual capable of learning anything is worthy ofachance atatype of education which not only will help him to develop whatever skillsortechniques hemayneed in order to becomea productive unit in the economic scheme of things, but will at thesametime supplement that phase of his education with opportunities to develop his ability to apply his mind intelligently to the social, political, esthetic, and spiritual problems which confronteverycitizen ofademocracy." A. Caswell Ellis recognized the size of theprogramn6cersaryto carryoutthis philosophy but qiestions ifwe canafford, notto under- take it.He writes: .t

. . . How large is the job of adult education for the nation?Itseems inevitable that fromnow onadult education must be regarded notas a luxurynor as acharity butas aprime necessity far evbrymanandevery womaln.As thereare70 million adults in the United States, adult education foraflwho need it isarather large order.Filling that order wonldmean takingCareof nearly three timesas manyadult studentsastherearepupils in the public schools. . . . Canweafford it? The real question is,can weafford to delay it.22

(10) THERE SHOULD BE EDUCATIONALPROVISIONSFOR ADULTS CORRESPONDING TO THEIR ABILITY TO LEARN

44, Leaders in the adult-education movementareat present vigorously emphasizingaphilosophy of this phase of education which holds that society hasanobligationtoprovide educationalopportunitit;to match man'sat;ilitytolearnnewthings. This has long been accepted as atenet ofeducation for the adolescent level, but it is only recently that it has been consideredasobtaining for educationonthe adult level.Psychologists, sociologists, and others interested in adult edu- cationare nowpointingoutthat it is logical toassumethat, thecon: tinuing abilitytolearn with which nature has endowedmancalla for adequate andpropereducational opportunities provided byman himself to make use-of this endowment. Thorndike states this philosophy succinctly in thefollowing words: It wouldnowbe unfortunate if learningwererestricted chiefly to childhood and youth, first, because the world is changingsofast that whatonelearns from 5 to 20 is oftep not useful from 35 to 60; second, because men and women chavenow somuch leisure time that they could, if they had the ability,keep 33 Proctor, William Martin, Men and Women at School:Adult Education. The Thirty-Seventh Annual Report of the Superintendent of Schools, City of New York, 193443. ftEllis,A. Caswell. Can We Afford Adult Education? In Ely Op. cit. pp. (we& ADULT EDUCATION 19 O upwith the changing world; third, because the diffusion ofpowerfrom the fesito themanymakes it desirable that themanylearnmorethan they do or canlearn in childhood . . . Well-informed and intelligent students of human affairs willagreeihat trustwortilyknowledge of the possibilities of learning in adultyearsshould replace proverbs and taboos in determining educAtional policy and action." Prof. Edmuicl de S. Brunner of Vachers College,Colunibia Univer- sity,inspeaking with referenceto this question sets forth the proposi- tion that the philosophers of ancient times addressed their teachings toadults, but that in modern times adults have been forgotten in.our educational plans.Hesays: Letno onequestion the validity of adult education. The learning abilities of adults have beenproven as weshall hear.The great teachers of the world have given themselves to adults.Socrates, Confucius, Jesus, anda host of others. We in the United States havesurpassed other nations assert- ing the ;hild's rightto be taught. We have forgottenthe adult.Butwe are awake at last, driven byraPidsocial changestoarecognition of the inevita- . bility of adult education." Morris E. Siegel, Director of Eveningand Continuation Schools, and Director of the Adult Education Project, New YorkCity Public Schools, holds the opinion that the philosophy of educationcannot discriminate against adult education. Hesays,: Onceweconcede that education isalifeprocess, wecannot successfully defend the thesis that formalor eveninformal educatioin stops at 14,at 18, at 24,orat 64.Education isnotaformalizedprocessthatcanbe confined to the four walls ofaschoolroom. There isno morereàsonfor distinguishing between kdult education and nonadulteducation than there isreasonto separate adult living from nonadult living.Inaprogressively advancing civilization,onemust continually make adjustments in hisownlife and in relation to the community if he isnot to be overtaken by the surging forces of material advance.Adult edication isaprime necessity.One disregards it at hisownperil and to the permanent injury of his fellow beings.3 CONTINUING ABILITY TO LEARN Probably thegreatest stimulus to the adult education movement that bas occurred aince the WorldWar has 'Fat\asgiltresult of the pronouncement that the ability to learn efficientlynewthings persists till late in life.Throughout(heagesthe belief that the ibilityto acquire knowledge, skills, habits,and attitudes of mind, in fact all learning involvingthe higher mentalprocesses, waspeculiar to the period from birththrough adolescence has witb few 'exceptions obtainedas aprinciple in theory andPractice.,Forthisreasonchildren spelled words theydidnotIlse,acquired facts about social andeco- nomiclife that borenorelationto theirownactivities, and mastered mathematics that -didnot function in their lives.During thepast uThorndike, Edward L. Adult Interest&tY'ork,The Macmillan Co., 1936. N de 8. Brunner, Edmund. Adult Educatio Rural Community. In ConferenceonAdult Edam- Sion. University of Missouri Bulletin,vol. 35,no. 72. Education Series 1934, no.33. u Siegel, Morris E. Men and Womenat Work: Adult Education. The Thirty-seventh Annual Report of the Superintendent of Schools, City'ofNewYork, schoolyear,193.4-35.p. 28. 411 ,, 4 20 BIENNIAL SURVEYOF EDUCATION,1934-36

74:;r8years,however,psychological studies have beenmade that Pro 2vetbe abilityof,adults tocontinue'learning toanadvancedage. Thorndikesaysthat thesestudies show "that theability to learn increased frome:ly childhood toaboutage25and decreased gradually and slowl'As ereafter, about 1 percent per year.Childhood wits found to beeinphatically not the bestagefor learning in thesenseof theagewhen the greatest returns perunit 'of time spentarereceived. Theagefor learningthat is best in thatsenseis in the twenties, and any sgebelow 45 is betterthanages10 to14." In thesameconnectiv Thorndike furthersaysit is "probable that thedecline in ability to learn fromage45 to 70isnotmuchmore.rapid than this,sothata 'manpf 65mayexpect tolearnatleast halfasmuchperhourashe could at 25 andmorethan he could at 8or10. Theseresults perform the usefulservice of assuringanyadult (using the wordhere and later tomean a person age21 to 70)who is not dementedthat hecan learn most of what heneeds to learn, and withlittleor nogreatertime 9osOthanat age15."26 Thorndike-furthersaysin reference to experiments todeterminedifferences betweenyoungadults and oldasto interests and attitudes,"whatever differencesexistas a consequence of fundamentalandnecessarypsychological changeswithage are verymoderate in amount,and will not prevent theoldergroupfrom doing at 45on asomewhat reduced scalealmost anythingwhich they could have done atthe psychologicalacmeof life at 25." Asaresult of thesestudies education isnowgenerally regardedas a continuousprocessthroughout the life of theindividual.The signifi- cake otthisnewly established truthis of tremendousimport to adult education'. ;of itselfcan nolonger beadeterrent to theindividual's desire to obtainnew oradditional knowledgeofsomesubject in which he becomesinterestedortoacquirenewskills for theper- formance of manualtasks either ofavocationaloravocational character.Man is thus notonly freed from thefetters of inertia occasioned by thebelief that there issignificant loss duringadulthood in the ability tolearnthat have boundhis ambition forself-improvement,but is givenanimpetus togoforward, encouragedby the prediction ofsuccess.Thus the assumptionthat adults do nôt greatly profit fromeducational opportunitieswhichhas long been "the constantsolace ofaninept educationalsystem"has been effectively destroyed. The importancefor educationalpractice of theestablishment of the principle that adults}areabletocontinue learningnewthings is emphasized byastudy of the percentage*of the population,byage groups,that isparticipating in formaleducational opportunitiesand also of the populationabove "school age."The amount oftime spent during the periodof schoolage,in 'a by the great majorityofpersons, *Thorndike, Edward L.,Adult Interests. New York, TheMacmillan Co., 1936. p. & ADULT EDUCATION 21 attendanceuponclass instructionis inadequate forafull preparation in the generally accepted objectives of education.A study of school attendanceasreported in the1930censuswillserveto makeclear the need for providing ina moreample.form thanat present, educational opportunities for adults, including the older youth.Data in table1 show that the maximumpercentage of school attendance forany age is 97.5 atage11.Thispercentage decreases withageandat 20 is only 13.1 percent.After theageof 20 the decrease in thepercentage ofschoöl attendance iscertainly muchgreater than in theyears immediately preceding 20.Consequently itcanbe assumed that in afewyearsbeyond thatagethepercentage of afiyage groupin attendanceuponinstruction isverysmall.The field of adult education is further indicated by the number of adultsoutof sehool.For example, letusagain take theageof 20.At this time in life86.9 percentareoutof school andnot in attendanceupon anykind of instruction.Yet the number ofpersonsabove20yearsofage con- stitutesalarge majority ofourpopulation, theexactnumber,asshown in table 2, being 75,072,033out ofatotal population of122,681,024, or61 percent.

M TABLE 1.-1930CENSUS.'REPORT ONSCHOOL ATTENDANCE Percentin Percent in Age Number attendance Ape Number attendance

e --- 1. _ 2, 505 250 20 013 .2 322, 327 96. 5 6 _____ 2 515 285 64, 314 2, 382, 385 92. 9

7 2 470, 159 89 415 MM. 2 295, 699 84. 7

8 2 604 215 94. 116______AIN 2 367, 315 66. 3 9 2 512 700 95 617 2 295, 822 47. 9

am a» MO a fo _ _ _ _ _ 2 500 648 97. 118__- ---- MD MI 2 357, 834 30. 7

11 2 319 394 97. 519______wir . _ 2 235, 445 19. 8

12______2 408 123 97, 120_- ---- am .1 _ 2 222, 431 13. 1 I Tbe total population of the United States in 1930was122,681,024.

TABLE 2.POPULATIONUNDER AND OVER AGES INDICAVED,19301 Aft Nu mber Percent Age Number Percent

Under 15,__ mo. Gm AO 36, 056 876 29. 3Over 30_ _ 1. 54, 368 047 44. 4

110 dip Over 15_ -... 86, 624 148 70. 7Under 35___ MD MIM ol_77, 433 398 83. 2 Under 20 _ _ 47, 608 991 31. 8Over 35__ _ 45, 247 626 36. 8

Over 20_=, M eODMP M. 75, 072 033 61. 2Under 40__ _.1041. _86, 642 043 70. 6

Ala al Under 25_-__ 58, 479 369 47. 7Over 40__ MM. Oft 36, 038 981 29. 4

Over 25__ _ e IMO 64, 201 655 52. 3Under 45__ .EM OD _94, 632 238 77. 1 Under 30___allay a ___ 68, 312 977 55. 6Over 45----- ..'28, 048 786 22. 9 I Tbe total population of the United States in 1930was 122,681.024. It isto be noted thatthe lack of educational priwisions for adùlts 'results in failureover aking periodofyearstocapitalizeonlearning abilityatanefficient level, --tor example25 tolispyearsofage.The number ofpersons25 po 45,inclusi-ve, is 30,886,342(1930 census)or 30 percent of the total population.For this large number ofpersons capable of efficient learningataperiod when theyart3 active in the :s

BIENi4ALZURVEYOFEDWATION, 1934-36 ;

I exercise óf social and civic obligations and privileges, the public- )chools have provided onlymeagereducational opportunities.Whé.n. 't is considered thatat the present time theaveragenumber ofye,aft ' of education completed by pupils in the elementary and secondafy schools is probably only-alittlemorethan 10in 1930 itwas9.65-9- andthit"t& bik.ianeducation of the adult population is approximately the tompletion of the elementary school (eighth gradeexcept..

, in 7-grade systems), the need for promoting educational opportunities for adults isapparent.During thepastfewyeaisaconsiderable number of Stote and lccal schoolsystemshave inauguratedon a limited scale educationalprogramsin accordance with the best thought of the time, butasyet the amount of such svòrkis still far from that necessaryto meetgenerally accepted needs for it. Asummarystatementasto presenttrends of thought relati-%eto the abilita jf adultsto%aril isset forthin th: owing language of , Dr.. Leigh: . There Is gradually emerging, therefore,.'aconception of educationas a Wongprocessbeginning at birth and ending only with death,a process related at all points to the life experiencits,of the individual,a processfull of meaning and reality to the learner,a processin which the student is active participant rather than passive recipient.One hesitates tosaywhere this wholesome conception will, in theend-,leadus.We professional pedagogues maywell fear that mils traditional skills of writing texts, lecturing, examining, and grading will becomeasobsoleteasthe horsecar.But it is the part of wisdom to attempt to learn thenewertechniques rather than to fight blindly

in defense of the old." Ii2 EMERGENCY EDUCATION PROGRAM During thepast fewyearsthe Federal Government, through the Works Progress Administration, has been spending about 20 to 25 million dollarsa year oneducationalprogramswhich give work tóan I. averageof about 40,000 teachers and niake it possible for approxi-, mately 2,000,000a yeartoenroll in classes for formal instruction. Probablyanadditional,million participate inaninformalwayin 'programs thatareofaneducational chararter.The reports of the WPA show that during thepast 3yearsatleast 4,000,000 ofouradult population have raised themselvestohigher educational levels *rough theprogramsprovided..by that organization. 40 The conceptionandpurposeof this large Federalprogramin editca- tion is explained by Harry L. Hopkins, Works Progress Administrator, - asfollows:" . Educa wasthe first work projeot -undertaken when the Government started Eaffal relief back in- 1933.Wilydid this happen?Primarily,I- think, becauseas aNationwehave awakened to the fact thatunemploy*nt means morethan physical want and phy8ica14idleness. Wesawthatmany 1 .n.....ma-Ar -.P -- -?,..:..._.....ik . i - I.

, rt Leigh,Robertb.,ToLiipeialliethe College Curriculum. In Ely. Op. cit., (p, 42.) , IllFromanaddress delivered at Teachers College, Columbia University, liew York City, May 16, 1937. , t. ADULT EDUCATION 23

. .

- , of the unemployed,weregradually losing their fitness for work. Wewere forced to changeourtraditional cvception of relief and public work.Public worksprogramsin the past haye been chiefly devoted to construction proj- ectsto building up ourphysicalresources.The recent depression taught usthat the conservation anddevelopmentofourhumanresourcesiseven moreimportant. A far greater numbei 'of white-collar and professional workers wereunem- ployed thaneverbefore. . . . Manual laborwasnot theanswer.Com- mon sensetoldusthat itwasnot only inefficient but wasteful to putanartist to work chopping trees or ateacher to digging ditches.We had.(3me 'experiencewitiiaworkprogramfor professionalgroupsin New York StiAe. . . . We decided to organizeasimilarprogram Qn anhtional scale.

We did not want to duplica & r so . the regular school system. We wantedour programtos lement what the public-school teacherswere -doing; to discover what ervices the regularschoolswerenot providing. The job of the school has been considered primarily one of teaching children. It offers educational opportunities to only a part of the many people who need 'educational services. -Yet many adults have nothad the chance for this -elementary schooling.In this country where child labor is stilla common 'condition, countless numbersof mèn andwomenhave been forced pyeco- their living.There nomic necessity to leave school .at an ,early age to earn arenotevenenough schools tocarefor all the childreNof schoolage. We had fooled ourselves into thinking that inthe United State8 elementary educationwasuniversal.But in spite of allwehad done to develop sucha system,welagged far behindourideals.' . . . - Under the WPAwehave tried to makeabeginning in the development of 1 abroadprogramof social education which wouldtheetthe interests and needs of adultsaprogramwhich would aim to make education fit the needsCff ourindustrial democracy, which would take -careof somt of the countless numbers of1)eof3lewhoareeither tooyoung ortoo old to be takencareof by ourpublic schools. We do not clim,byany means,to have establishedan adequate program. Adult education on apublic scaleaslargeasthis had neverbeen tried in the UnitedSiatesbefore. The size'of the scale ongwhich theemergencyeducationprogram is operating is shown by datafrom the Works Progress Administration onenrollments by classifications of the kinds ofinstructiónincluded. , J.. TAMS, 3.WORKSPROGRESS ADMINISTRATIONREPORT *-ON EDUCATION DIVISION FOR MARCH 1937

_ Number of Classification Teachers and other Classes Persons employees enrolled.

3 3 4

'1;Literacy ,6, 004 779 241, 048 2. Workerseducation t. 731 3, 977 69, 436 a Public affairs education 392 2, 200 , 49, 501 4. Parent education 701 4, 067 .66, 267 5. Homemaking education 2, 102 9, 029 107, 141 6. Vocational education 3, 878 15, 667 206, 297 7. Education in avocational andleisure-time activities 4 3, p61 35, 641 I 646, 770 8. College level instruction 597 873 15, 747 9. Correspondence instruction 355. :736 23, 409 10. Other general adUlt education.. ApAs 4.4 -2 I 7, 477 30, 557 394, 628 11. Nursery schools . 4 6, 330 :140st. 52, 050 -1 12. Other assignments 10. 325 3.21.- 4. 016

Total. 1" 42, 363; f$1344 2, WO, $10

411

.1L.%-t! 4. - . 24 BIENNIAL SURVEY 'OF EDUCATION,1934-36 After deductions fornurseryschoolaaremask.the totalsfor adult types of workare:Npmber of teachers,35,923; classes,137,847; number ofpersonsenrolled, 1,968,260:ThtshreeStates havingthe largest enrollments, includingnurseryclasses,are:Pennsylvania withanenrollment of576,483; New York withanenrollmentof 261,370; and California with 143,621.No State 0.6 exception ofNe'vadawithanenrollment of681, has-anenrollment of lessthan 2,000. In addition to the° subjects usually representedin the gradeand high-school curricula; the adult work intheemergencyeducation programis of widerangeincluding such subjectsasmusic,art, creative writing, parliariaentary practice, firstaid, and Braille reading fortheblind.Home-making education isstressedasit is believed that instruction in this field willserveto buttress the home against the attack madeuponit by the depression period.Homemaking, which enrolls 107,141women,includes instruction in foods,cooking, making and remodeling clothing, homemanagement, health and hygiene, and childcare.The general subject-matter *fieldsincluded in the emergencyeducation work carriedonby Statesmaybe illustrated by the offering's of the Californiaprogram,wbicharelistedas:Train- ing in the nativearts and crafts, home nursing, childcareand home' hygiene, recreation leadership training, training for domesticservioe, home económics,agriculture,literacy, vocationalrehabilitation, Oarent education, avocational training, and generalacademic education.-- With referenceto the subject-matter fields included inemergency adult education, Mr. Hopkins said in hisrecent address at. Teachers College, .Columbia University: The most spectacular phase of the WPAprogramhas been its attackon illiteracy.Teachers havegonemilt into rural counties, remote mountain valleys, and city slums, holding xlaases, day .and.!tight, in. public schools, mountain shacks, farm houses, and churches.Illiteratemenandwomen froin16 to 82yearsofagehave enrolled.Fathers andsonsandevengrand- parents and grandchildrenarelearning together in thesameclass.Seven hundred thousand illiterates, most of them American-born,have. learned to I.read and write in WPA classes.Illiteracy is not restrictedtoourforeign born populationortoany onesection of the country.It isanational problem. We have aimect not bnly to teach peopleto read and write.Bare literacy is not enough.People must know how to understandandusewhat they read.Literacy classes have, therefore, includedbadly needed health in-w formation, principles of childcareand food values, instruction in sewing and arithmetic, and understanding of simplecurrent events and government. One class of 13 inasouthern rural county is composed of the members ofone family onlyfather, mother, and 11 childrennotoneof whomwereable to read.orwrite before the WPA organizedaclass for them.Under the WPA illiteracy in the Maid States hasbeen rtduced 16 percent. O

r." -

ito 1

ADULT EDUCATION 25 Closely alliedwith the work inliteracyareclitases in citizenshipand preparation for naturalization.The publicschools have, ofcourse,been concerned forsometime with this phaseof adult education.The admission of approximately 28 millionimmigrants intothiscountry since 1880has dramatized this need.But in spite ofthe effectiveprdgrums ofourpublic night schools andmanyprivate institutions,therearestilloverfour million menandwomenin this country whohavenot become Americancitizens. Approximately 700,000 havebeen taughtto read and writein WPA classes. More than 200,000have been enrolledin these classesat thesametime. The table belowonthe literacy workin the emeigencyedulation programshows the attackbeing madeonthe illiteracy pralem. The laudability of this effortis understoodwhen it isconsideredthat the 1930censuslisted four andone quartermillionadultsasilliterate, which probablymeansthatas manymore are"functionallyilliterate."

TABLE 4.-WPA EDUCATIONPROGRAM REPORTON LITERACYAND NATURALIZATION FORMARCH1937

Number of- Number of- State State TeachersClaisesEnrollees TeachersClassesEnrollees

2 4 2 4

Alabama 186 552 4, 705 New Jersey...... 142 239 2, 861 Arizona 35 61 980 New Mexico 31 106 1, 244 Arkansas 87 783 5, 241 New York 81 227 1, 993 California.... .- 143 2, 198 - 7, 989 North Carolina...._M. 251 1, 070 8, 032 53 161 tolorado 2, 119 North Dakota.___Io 22 78 1, 025

Connecticut.. 21 44 490 Ohio 298 784 13, 034 Florida 118 20# 3, 054 Oklahoma__...... 65 291 4, 588 Georgia 303 684 1 1, 634 Oregon. _ _ _ a S ....._ _ a _ . 40 103 1,1SW Idaho 8 33 194 Pennsyl vania 328 1, 437 17, 609 .Illinois 335 934 14, 052 Rhode Island 35 183 2, 073 Indiana 101 2.38 4, 330 South Carolina...._., OP, 285 2, 413 13, 023 Iowa 47 164 1, 299 South Dakota...._ __ 5 5 73 Kansas 14 35 312 Tennessee_ . _ _ _ _ 132 681 10, 623 Kentucky 180 834 8, 159 Texas 542 1, 269 14 561 Loyisiana 194 946 utah 9, 092 _ OP e ..... e .0. a. 14 36 694 . Maine 35 aa 433 Vermont is 5 87 346 Maryland 21 43 757 Virginia a 270 506 8, 614 Michigan 44 388 4, 884 ' Washi MI_. 57 593 7, 337 Minnesota 24 66 1, 753 West Virginia 88 319 2, 751 Mississippi..... 266 696 13, 437 Wisconsin 39 80 946

Missouri 147 363 6, 113 Wyoming - 44 999 Montana 17 28 595 Nebraska 42 122 1, 525 District of Columbia... 18 59 723 Nevada 1 6 37 New YorkCity...._ . 591 2, 375 17, 999 New Hampshire fr 89 1, 061 Total M. *0 OMe_MEName 6,786re, 779 ULNA

VENI, Arb.

Some Statesoperate their regular adult educationprogramandan emergencyprogram.Thedätabelow takenfromThe Emergency ,EdtwationProgram,California StateDepartment of EducationBul- 'letinNo.5, March 1, 1936, showaninteresting comparisonof these t,woprogramsfor that State in1935:

.¡

a 26 I3INNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-38 TABLE 5.NUMBEROF;TEACHERS EMPLOYED IN THE EMERGENCY EDUCATION PROGRAM AND THE REGULAR ADULT EDUCATION PROGRAM, BY FIELD

itto Number of teachers Enrollment WOO employed

I1D Field Regular Regular Emergencyadult edu-Emergencyadult edu- educationcation pro-educationcationpro- program gram program gram

2 3 4 5

Parent education 57 190 3, 226 7, 3s1 Literacy education 227 459 6, S63 14. -Ho Vocational training 405 1, 656 10, 503 58, iks1 General adult education 1, 168 2, 628 43, 016 91, 733

Total 1, 847 4, 933 113v048 172, 40

The effects of the *emergencyeducationprogram uponthe adult education movement have been rathergenerally discussed by leaders in this fieldofeducation.Belowaregiven the conclusions froma meeting representingthe Northwestern States:

45 Advantageous effects of the emergencyadult education program." (1) Theemergencyadult educationprogram,while primarily conceived and inauguratedas areliefmeasure,b6came definitelyaneducationalpro- gramin the Northwest States in spite of .its relief features. (2) Theemergencyadult educationprogramhas offered worth-while educational opportunities tomanythousands of adults and studies made of the enrollees in the.classes indicate that a large percentage arewilling to 4,help support a pelanent program ofadult education through the payment of clam fees. (3) Theemerge! adult educationprogramhas provedastimulus to the training ofa corpsof adult education teachers, thus providinganucleus for the establishment of 'a State programof adult education in each of the Northwest States. (4) On the whole, the emergencyadult educationprogram,through stimulating interest in and appreciationof the values of adult education and through arousing the latent desire of many adults to continuetheir study, has made markedprogressin the direction of the establishment ofa permanent programof State-supported adult education in the Northwest States. Detrimental effects of theemergencyadult educationprogram. (1) Insomefew communities,poorteaching insomeadult classes has resulted inacynical, critical attitude toward adult education in general. (2) The association of adultgducation and relief builtupin the minds of somepeoplemayultimatelyprovedetrimental to the establishment ofa permanentprogramof adult education inaState. (3) Theemergencyadulieducationprogram,if continued through another year ortwo without carefulplanning and direction, willverylikely result in alowering of the present effectiveness of the classes due to thefact thatcur- tailed relief funds, necessitatingtighter relief qualifications for work, will eliminate numbers of the more successfuladult education teachers and the

s First yearbook of the Pacific Northwest Association for AdultEducation. Report of fifth annual meeting, Alaska, Idaho, Montana, Oregon, andWuhington, held at Spokane, Wash., April 740, 1936.

AI)1r ADULtEDUCATI.ON 27 useofa greaterproportionatenumber ofteachers with lessability, thus lowering the general efficiency of the entireadult educationprogram. . The New York AdultEducationCoutIcij arrangedand heldatthe New York School for SocialResearch, NewYork City,onOctober 22, 1935,apanel discussiononthe question:How 'has theexpenditure ofemergencyfunds for adulteducation affectedthe chancesfora stable and growing adulteducationprogram?Excerpts fromthis discussionasreported in theJanuary1936 number of theJournal of Adult Education indicatethe trends ofthe thinkingof that,group relativeto the importance of theemergencyadult educationprogram. Jennie M. Flexner, readers'adviser, New YorkPublic Library:Isee a morespecific result that Iconsider favorable.Hundreds ofthousands of personswhoare eagerformoreeducation couldnot have been persuadedto gointo the formal classroomsof the night highschoolsorcontinuation schools, but they haveflocked into theemergency classes where the instruction has been informal and,being intendedto distract thestudent's mind from his troubles, has beencentered aroundthe things thathewasinterested in and the things thathe could do. Caroline A. Whipple,supervisorof adult education,Neu.York State Department of Education:Iseestill anothergood thing 7prbefore have so manypeople .been workingfull timeonadult educ . In the public -schools and colleges adulteducation has alwaysbeenalcoart-timejob. Among theemergencyteacherswehavemenandwomenwhoarecompletely ab- sorbed in thisonejob, whose breadand butter dependsuponit, and whoare especially sympathetic withthepersonsthey teach becausetheyareall meeting thesame economic difficulties. Philip N. Youtz,director, Brooklynmuseums:I wantto add another good word for theemergency program.I think it hastaken educationsomewhat out of the hands of theeducators, whowere 4 in danger ofbecomingasort of priesthood, and has secullirizeditonce more by transferringsome of the initiative and thecontrol totilepeople whoareto be educated.

Mrs. LucyWilcox Adams,executivesecretary, Californ:el Association for Adult Education.Agood adult-educationprogramhns I,ceit developedwhen and only when,the educationalfeature has been stressed.With trained administrators theprogramhas hadsomechance ofsuccess,but in small communitieswhere adult educationwas newand whereteacherswere .chosen solelyonthe ground oftheir need for jobs,I shouldsaythat the emergency educationprogramhas beenafailure.And wherethat has happened, Icantestify frommypersonal observation,reluctance to give support to adulteducation andeven animosity toward the whole ideahave developed wheretherewasonly indifferencebefore. * * *Inoneplace in Californiawherewehadalarge adult-educationprogramthat offered mainly elementaryand vocationalsubjectswe sawtheprogramdiscontinued withoutprotest fromanybut the people who hadattended the classes,and thatprotestwasunheeded.In another Californiacommunity wherethe night schoolhad been developedas acommunity center withaforum anda variety of classes,though fewer peoplewerereached, th,eir influencein the communitywasimportant enoughto blockaneffort to doawaywith the program.Instead, itwasactually enlarged. .4- 2._ 32866-38----8 .2 -vp

28 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATWN.1934-3()

Jerome II.Bentley,activities secretary, Y. M. C. A.of the city of NewYork. Our people in thiscountry are about 95,orperhaps 99percent persuaded that taxmoneyis properlyspent fur the education ofyoungchildren, and possibly (;() 1.)ercelit of themapproveits expenditure forsecondary education Less than 5 percent,I think,areconvinced that publicmoneyshouldi: spent for adult education.And yet, ifwe aregoingto have adult educntiw on ascale at all counmetkurate withour!well of it,we mustpenoltaxmor:e% lor it, and to do thatwe musthaveamuch hugerpercentage ofour peopli educated to)seethe\\kdoili ofsuch exponolit at's.Theemergency edueatio: program.where itNsheel!::11e(40,4111,I:as advancedus alongwayin t!,a. direction,Ibelieve.Large nunibers nf pcop:owho have known11o',Ilint4 adult education in the pa:.t loveflOW comeit4t1) interestingcontact Nvith it USteachersororganizersorstudents, ahol.thesecontacts have undoubtedi%

done muchto create an adult-educatio.:-I ¡hided .

4 Among important conclusions thatseemevidentas aresult ofex- periences growing. outof theemergencyadult-educationprogram are: 1. Adultswill take advantage of educationalopportunities ifpro- gramand methods of instructionareprovided inaccordance with their needs, interests, and methods of learning.The results indicate verYclearly that adultsare eagerfor additional educationalprivileges. 2. The scientific establishment of the abilityof adultsto learn has been carried beyond the laboratory, andtile fact that adultsdo learn has been demónstratedon alarger scale and inawider range.ofsub- ,jects thanwas everdone before. 3. Persons engaged in various lines of occupationalworkmaybe found whocanteach successfully, especiallyif given shortintensive training in the principles of instruction, claseisof adults enrolled in coursespreparedto meet their specificneeds.' The importance of the adultemergencyeducationprogramis emphasized by L. R. Alderman, Directorof the Education Division of the WPA, inareport made by him March 31,1937: - TtP The educationprogramhas demonstratedthat. adultscanlearn and that they want to learn.Many educationalleadersnow seethatourregular schoolsystems have not provided adequate gervicefor adults.Theyare moving to extend the services of publicschools to includematuremenand women.Butsomeofourneeds for adult editcationare sourgent thatwo. cannot afford,r113 aNation, to await thenecessarily slow developmentof State and local educational services.At suchatime the WPA education programis doing farmorethananyother singleagency to serve the needs of the Nation.Millions ofmenandwomenfeel that theemergency program wasstarted for them, that it is suitedto their needs, and that it should he continued until their needs have beenmet.Nothing haseveroccurredmoro. encouraging to those who realizethat the preservatipn of demScracydepewk uponthe continuous education of itscitizens. 0,

EDUCATION IN THE CCC C.fMPS so On March31, 1933, Eniergenq ConservationWork4.sauthorized by Congress and t dayslaterwasestablished by thePresident. RobertFechner, ofBoston,IMass.,wasappointedasDirector, and

* Prepared by Howard W. Oxley,director of CCCcarT education. 0. ADULT EDUCATION 29 the Secretary of War, theSecretary ofAgriculture, theSecretary of the Interior, and the Secretaryof Laborweredesignatedto appointa representative of eachof theseDppartmentsto actas anadvisory council to the Director. Originally the numberofmen tobe enrolledwasfixedat 250,000. Twenty-five thousandof thesemen were to be veterans and approxi- mately11,000were tobe Indians.Noage ormarital limitationswere imposedonthesegroups.The balance,approximately215,000,were tobemenbetween theagesof 18 and25years,physicallyfit,unemployed, unmarried,'and selectedfrom familieyonrelief rolls. The LaborDepartment became responsibrefor theselection ofthe junior enrolleesand the Veterans'Administrationfor theselection of theveterans. The selection of Indianenrollees andthe administration of theircamps washandled entirelyby the Departmentof the Interior, Bureau ofIndian Affairs.The WarDepartmentwas re- sponsible for theenrollmentof both veteriinsand juniorsand for.the construction andadministration ofthecamps.These administrative duties includedprovidingtransportation,shelter, clothing,food, med- icalcare,compensation,recreational,educational,and religiousac- tivities, andad.option andenforcement ofadisciplinarycode. The Department of Agricultureand the Departmentof the Interiorplan andexecute the work projects of allcamps,exceptingasmall number for which the WarDepartment isresponsible. Accordingto the Second Reportof the Directorof Emergency Conservation Work(April5, 1933, to March31, 1934): Initial educationalactivities in thecorps were ofanextremely informal nature. Generally,a camp would produce at leastasmallgroupofmenwho wereinterested in askingquestions abouttheirownworkorsome.other kind of work.Usually, theArmy officersorthe work-supervisingpersonnel,or all together,would trytoanswer some of the questions ofthe interested group orperhaps makeaRelies of informallectureson many subjects. Inmanyinstances enrolleeswhowereilliterate havebeen "taughttheir letters" by interestedofficersorwork personnel.Insome cases thecorps area conunanders laid out provisionalcoursesof instructionwhichcamp commanderswererequiredto present to enrollee&Insome instances,as many as20courses were prepared and recommended. On December7, 1933,aplan foranamplifiededucationalprogram wasapproved bythe President,which providedthat theOffice of Education wouldact inanadvisory capacityto the War Department in allmatters affecting the,educationalprogram.A director ofCCC campeducationwasappointed by theCommissionerof Education to select and supervisecorps areaandcampeducational advisers, andto reconunendto the Secretary of WartheQut lines of instruction, teachingprocedures, andtypes of teaching nuilerials_forusein the camps. The originalplan alsoprovided for theappointment ofaCforpsarea educational adviserin each ofthe ninecorps areas to act inanad- . 30 BIENNIAL SURVEY OFEDUCATiON.1934-36 visory capacitytothecoms areacommanderoneducationalmatters. An assistantcorps areaadviserwasauthorized and assignedto each of the ninecorps areasinJuly 1935.Until that timecorps area educational adviserswerecalledupontosupervise the educational work of all thecampsin theircorps areas.The authorizationof district educational advisers during thisyearcompleted the chain of organization and provided formoreadequate supervision ofthe work.District commanders, aided by their district advisers,were abletoprovide. better training forcampadvisers and thusto develop moresatisfactoryprograms. Thequotaofcampadvisers varied greatly simethe beginningof the educationalprogram,dueto the fluctuation in the size of the corps, asis shown by the following table: 4 TABLE 6.-QUOTA OF CCC CAMP ADVISERS, FEBRUARY1934 TO JULY 1936

i February I February. July1934 July 1935FebruarY! July 1936 1934 j 1933 198

IMO

3 1'1 5 5 7

esber of companies 1,466 1, 579 1,638 2427Q 2, r58 2, 109

ofa of advisers 1,466 1, OM 1,267 1 2, 000 1, 900 2. 109

ber of advisersonduty 625 1, 079 1,263 1,336 1, 880 , 1, 999

IL A study of the personnel records of 1,321 advisers appointed during the fiscalyear,July 1935toJune 1936, revealail that allarecollege -graduates, 74 percent having bachelor's degrees, 23percent mastér's degrees, and 3 percent doctor's degrees.More than half of them have majored in education and the social sciences during their collegeyears. Approximately 60 percent had previous experience in teaching, and12 percent had administrative school work. About 40 percent had businessorindustrial experience. The duties and responsibilities of 'camp educational advisersmay be classified briefly under sixnAllorheadings: 1. To have general supervision of the educational activities in thecamp. 2. To developaneducationalprogramsuitedto the needs and interests of themenin hiscamp. '44 3. Tosecuresupplementary educational facilities from schools, colleges, and other organizations, for thecamp program. 4. To supervise the work of the assistant leader for education. 5. To recommend to thecompanycommander opportunities for coordinating the educationalprogramwith the work and recreationalprogramsof the enrolledmen. 43. To advise and counsel :with enrolleesontheir educational programand vocational'. development. mew,

ADULT EDUCATION 31 COMMITTEEONEDUCATION. In orderto obtain the active intere4 and cooperationof the militaryrft and technical personnel,commit tees'oneducation havebeen organized inalarge number ofcamps.In severalcorps areasthese committees wereorganized in allcampsby orderof thecorps nreacommAder. The committee consistsof thecompanycommander,project superintendent, educationaladviser, andanoutstandingenrollee.Itspur- poseisto develop the educationalprogramin all itsphases, duringthe work hours and inthe leisure timeof the enrollees.

COUNSELINGANDGUIDANCE. Thesuccessofa campeducationalprogramdepends primarilyupon the effectiveness ofthecampadviser's workin counselingand guidance.The first dutyof the adviserin thisrespect is to interview enrolleesupontheir first arrivalin thecamp.Enrolleeshavingcom- moninterestsarethen organizedintogroupsfor workundercompetent leaders.Those requiringindividualtreatment receivepersonalat- tention fromcompetentpersons.The CCCeducationalprogramis designedto meet the needs and interestsofmorethanamillion anda half enrollees who to have beenmembers of thecorpssince its'inception. - .. EDUCATIONALA-CT/VITIES Two and one-halfyearsof experiencein CCCcampeducation indicates unmistakably the predominantinterests ofenrollees inpreparing for and gettingajob in normalcivilian life.This is shownby the enrollment in thethree majortypes of educational activitiesoffered in thecamps.At thepresent timemorethan64 percent of the enroll- mentis insomeform of occupational training.'The followingtable indicates the trendin this directionover aperiod of9 months: TABLE 7.-ENROLLMENTIN VOCATIONALTRAINING INCCC CAMPS OVER A 9-MONT11PERIOD

October 1933 January 1936 June1936' Sebool level

Enrollment I Percent Enrollment PercentEnrollment I Percent

1 2 3 4 6 7

Academiccourses 902, 815 33 199, 357 26 166, 848 25 Occupational training 3M, 176 57 463, 852 61 430, 962 64 Recreational activities 62, 266 10 96, 529 13 76, 523 11

ACADEMICCOURSES. Educational levelof enrollee&The educationallevel of enrollees varies considerablyin eachcampandcorps area,buton a country- wide basisthere has beenlittleor nochange from monthto month in thepercentage of enrolle'esoneach level.The proportionforea;h school level isgiven in thefollowing table: 32 BIENNIAL SURVWS:OrEDUCATION. 1934-36 4 TABLE S.PROPORTION-OF CCC ENROLLEES 'BY SCHOOLtEVEL

! October January Tune 1936 School level July 1935 1 Oc1t9(3'bser 1934 1 1936

1 3 4 se t s

Illiterstc (I) 2. 5 . 2. 5 2. 5* 2 '- Elementary 26 ; 23. 5' 28.5 4.4: 2-4 High school .511 55. 0 0%1 'I 53 0 .fli.,

I College IS ls. 4 16.2 16. 0 1 Iso .

I No report avai13b1e.

Diminatih ofilliteracy.The above table reveals tha'tapproxi- mately 2 3-.percentof the enrolleesareilliterate.Naturally, elimina- tion of illiteracy has been consideredoneof the primary objective of theprogram.In October1935 the Office of Education issueda publication suggestinganumber of techniques and materialsthat 'had been foundtobe of value in instructing illiterate enrollees. The Ninth Corps Area educational adviser's office publishedatext designed specifically forusein the CCCcamps.Results achieved in this fieldareshown in the following table: TABLE 9.-NUMBER AND PERCENT OF CCC ENROLLEES TAUGHT TO1READ AND WRITE

November July October January June 1934 1935 1935 1936 I 1936

4 4 6 1111111 , Number of illiterates 7, 369 11. 2S3 10, 927 11. slit , (I) f Number learning to read and writt 2.062 6. 521 90 TN 9, 169 1 7. (Ili

Percentage . (') 158 SO 1 b4 1 v2 , I ell I No report available. It is estimated that 40,000 enrolleeshave'béen taughttoread and write since thestartof the CCC. Elementary,high-school, and college courses.Reportsonthe enroll, mentin the various t:ipes ofcourses werenot secured until July015. Thefollówingtable indicates the erwollment in academiccoursesfor 3 selected monthsduring theyear: --TABLE 10. ENROLLMENT IN ACADEMIC COURSES IN CCC CAMPS

October Januiry June 1935, 1938 1936

Elementary subjects 41. 80, 016I 90, 695 77,34' High-school subjects 114,72%3 101, 584 83. 45

ÇoIlege subjects .. 8,071 1 7,078 61020

1 ADur EDuc.vmIN 33 OCCUPATIONAL TRAINING,. s Occupational training inCCCcampsdivides naturally in t%-t) major act4ities: Trainingonthe job and generalvocationhl educa- non. Trainingon.thejub.---Iliereare morethan 60 majortypesof work in which the CivilianConservation Corpsis engaged.These major olassificationsmaybe broken downintomorethan.300jobs for trainingpurp.oses.The number ofenrollees i.ec'eivingsuch planned instruction is shown in thefo115wing table: TABLE 1L MBER OF CCCENROLLEES RECEIVINGJOB TRAINING

I A pril July I October January i 'June 1935 I 11.1.3.") 1935 1936 .4 1936

_No

3 e 1 4 $ 6

Number of enrolleesreceiving job training. *.s, 231 13!), (K3 1lrS. 73 2:44. 706 215, 320 , flo Vocatiwial education.To supplementthe vocational instrue gained throughjob. training,courses%havebeen arrangedinthe camRschools whichcontainmoredetailed andadvanced vocational mati;rial. o lp improve thecontent of these courses:the Office of Education iquedtothecamps15 lesson outlines delding withsuch subjectsasagriculture,autorepair, carlientry,cooking, mechanical drawing, radio'servicing, and planesurveying.A Manual for In- structorswasalso distributedtoall .companies.The enrollment in these vocationalcoursesisasfollows:

TABLE12. MBER OF CCCENROLLEES IN VOCATIONALCOURSES

July October I January April June 19:36 193 I 1936 1936 1936

1 2 3

Enrollment invocat ional courses...,...... I13), 000I 1C2, 393 229, 146 206.962 I 215, 642

I Figure for-4111y 14.035 isestimated.

Agriculturaleducation. It i%-; estimatedthat approximately40 percentof CCeyenrolleesarefromrural communitiesand in. all Probability the lprgerproportion willengagein farmingastheir' life work.Agricultural educationwasstressed(luringthe spring of1936. The interestand cooperation ofthe Departmentof Agriculture's Extension Servicefind of the \vocationalDivision of tl!eOffice of Educationweresecured and suggestionsfor establishingorimproving agriculturalcourses were sent out toallcamps.The formation of practicalprojects in gardening, poultryraising, dairying,and othee agricultural activitieswasencouraged.Asaresult, about50 percent of the companiesnowoffer agriculturalcourses. 34 BIENNIAL SURVEYOF EDUcATION.1934-36 RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES. The impsortauce ofrecreationaland avocationalactivities hasnot been neglectedin the .schemeof CCC"campeducation..The obvious value ofarts and crafts, music, anddramatics lies,ofcourse,in the development of thecapacity of the.menin thecamps toentertain themselves during theirleisure time.These activitiesalso contribute toanimproved moralein thecamps.A secondary valueisthe pössibility ofartenrollee's developingskills inacraftorin musicor dramatics, enablinghimtóearn aliving_ inthese fields.Thusn numberbof talentedenrollees havebeen employedby the Federal Radio Projectasactors and musicians.Likewise,anumber of enrollees havebeen given "try-outsby the majorleague baseballclub and several of themhave beenretainedaspromising rookies.

TAB.I.E13. ENROLLMENT INRECREATIONALAQTIVI TIES INCCC CAMPS

Activity October January I 1935 1938 April 1936 June 1936 ti

Artsand crafts 18,693 29, 355 29,864 29, 5fil Music 31,360 47, 759 30,823 35, ill Drama 12,213 I 19, 415 14,771 11,57S

Total e $2,218 N,P.1 84,458 76, 523

MISCELLANEOUS A s ITIES. In additiontothe acade1nic,vocational, recreational,and agii- cultural activitiesgoingonin thecamps,thereare anumber of equally important activitieswhichcannot be classified underthese heads. Thus; theenrollffient "inbean,first-aid,lifesaving, andsafety coursesaveragedmorethan100,000permonth. Arecentsurvey indicatedo thatmorethan half thecampshave organizeddiscussion, forumgroups, ordebating clubs.More.than1,600camps now publishcamp newspapers, and thesenewspapersform the nucleus foranumber of othereducational activities.Organizedcoursesof instruction inthe dutiesand responsibilitiesof citizensaregiven ina largenumber ofcamps.Approximately75 percent of thecamps haveorganizedtraininggroupsforthe .developinent ofenrollee leaders.Attemptsto inculcate wholesome habitsaremade ina variety of ingeniousways onthe work job,onthe playing field,in the dining. hall, inthe barracks,and invisitsto localtowns.Camp libr'es have beenexpandedto the extent that350,000 booksare cirti- ting monthlytomorethan 150,006 'enrollees.Nitarly10,000 educational filmsdealing withawide varietyof subjectsarebeing shpwnto enrolleesevery .. month.0. .

I ; . 4 ADULTEDUCATION\ 35 CCC INSTRUCTORS. Teachersaredrawn fromthe militaiyand technicalpersonnel in thecamps,from theenrollees themselves,andareoften suppliedby the . Federal EmergencyEducation Prpgramorby theStateorlocal . community inwhich thecamps arelocated.Reports indicatethat the number ofpersonsoffering instructioniikreased froin15,922 in April1935to 31,545 in June1936.The increaseis particularly noticeable inthe growinginterest andcooperationof tlftmilitarf and technictilpersonnel.Ona per company basis, the numberof Army officers actingasinstructorsincreased50percent and the 'ft number of technicalpersonnelincreased150percent.The numb.er of instructors ofvarioustypesis indicatedin thefollowing table: 14 TABLE 14. NUMBER OFINSTRUCTORSIN CCCCAMPS

elò

April 1935 Octobt.r JaNuary 193; lt; Juno 1936

2 1 3

Educational advisers Is. 1, . 407 2, (127 . 1, 924 1, S35 1 Assistant educational advisers 1, 2' 1.914; M ilitary staff 1, !r29I 1, S46 2.431 3, 975 i 4. "42 I e , I 4, 3So Technical staff i ! 4,155 fi,gib.' 1 1 Enrnllees lo, 714 11, 935 3,693 . -§, .311 1 - s, n14 , S. OW EEP teachers 1, 1 I 1s4 11,321 ' go762 , 1,Viii Rezular schoolteachers 7112 . Others 413 1,177 3Y8 ' 1, utS 1, 317 1, 3.763 : 1, 185 Total is. rzt 23. 906 , 31, 633 ; .1MAI 31, 516 PLACEM TACTIVITIES. The b sicpurposeof the educatimialprogramisto return enrollees to their home communitiesbetter equippedmentally andmorally for their dutiesascitizens and withabetter knowledgeof theGovern-. meiitunder which theylive and of allthat thatGovernmentmeans. The CCCofficials, therefore,in additionto offering educational opportunitiesto the enrollees whileincamp, aremakingintensive effortsto assistenisolleesto find employmentupontheirreturn home. To assist in thework of satisfactorilyad¡nsting enrolleestocom- munity conditionsand in helpingthem locatework, advisersin severalcorps areashave fosteredthe formationof communityguidance and placementcouncils. The 'efforts ofCCC officialsto help CCCmenbridge thegap betweencamp and employmentareundoubtedlywinningsubstantial. results.Camp authoritiesaredeeply gratifiedover a recent report from DirectorFechner'soffice statingthat145,531menleft the corpsduring theyearof1935 to accept employment. VOCATIONALEDUCATION FORADULTS During thepast fewyearsthere has beenanincreasingemphasis in vocationaleducation placedupontrainingopportunitiesfor adult& This has resultedfromabetter understandingonthepart of employers, 36 BIENNIALSURVIN OF ErWCATIoN. 193430 o the general public,and the warkersthemselves of the importonce of upgfadingpersonsengaged invocational andprofeisional occupations. p\\about dphtthis better understandinghas beenquick'enedby efroct, arising out ofthe depresiion.Competitioiramongworkers for job. has difreded theirattention toself-improvement and occupational assetfin opportunitiesfor employment.; comretition compet.neyas an.. for orders (*)fi the partof manufacturingcompanies has pointed tore- duced production coststhrough better-qualifiedworkmen;competition for practiceamong-professional people has convinced them of firev)drfb of increasedtechnical knowiedgeand skill in selling their service. Occupational trainingfor adultstakesmanyforms and is parriedon by various'agencies.Industrial plantsma'yprovide foremanship eqursesattheiown expenseandon companytime, apprentice training . foryoungworkers, andinstruction for upgradingjourneyme'n work- menin specialoperationsorfor adjusting them to meet the require- mentsofnewpro(:(%-ci hanges in occupational skills.Professional- schools, bothpublic\amprivate,mayprovidecoursesfor keeping. practitioners abreast\ofthe developmentsin their professions.The inicikills , public schoolsmay plwide training intechnical knowledge in part-timeandeven lgclasZs inanyJine of work which theyare equipped to -give that \is re.gardedas aworth-while social service.

Literally, the butcher,titlebaker, the "electric-light maker". aregoing , - . ..i.' toschool. \ _.

. During theyear19364cctitred the greaest expimsion in the part- timeprogramin .vocationkleducation.As highas95 percent ofthe agricultural .-Wirchers insoineStates_ organizedvocational abgriculture 16 fage.In the, field I classes for out-of-schoolfarm youth to 25 years of tradesand industry specialemphasis hasrecen been placedupon providing,trainingopportunities forpersonstemporarilyoutof employ-

part7time classes have belln organized . . ment.For suchpersons many ; in shop and related subjectshaving for theirpurposeinstruction that will 'help the.worker to keepupuithnewdevelopments iit both mate- agiveii occupation. rials of instructionandprocesses asthese pertain to , The Federal ConunitteeonApprentice Training, in the Departmentof Labor, whichwasprovidal with funds tocarry ouits work through the

National YouthAdministration, is promoting the developmentof a agreementsand collectinginformationonwhich to base legislation for the furtherance ofdesirable apprenticeship regulations in tradesand industrY.The work of theCommittee is 4upp1emented by the Office of Education,United States Department of heInterior, in its administration of nationalvocational-education lawit in buildingupadequate apprenticeship-trainingprogramsunder State plans for vocational edimatiQn..Asaputof theproeram for adult lioi4e,makers,consiaer- able emphasis has beenplacedupon,the developinentofspecialcourses

,fot household employees and. for specialgroupsincluding Spanish' Americans, mountain people, andblegroes. \ " .0

k 1 t EDUCATION 37 The enrollment inpublic-school classesoperated underState plans for vocational educationof farmers,trade and indlorial 3 workeN, and homemakers, in evening Classesfor theyearending June30, 1936, totaled 391,168.Thesepersons wereadults takingworktv improve their efficiency indaily vocationalduties.For thesamP year, 334,513youngpeopleemployéd in thesamevoeatli'malfieldsmere enrolled in part-timeclassestosecureinstruction thatwould supple,-, mentwhat theywerelearning inemployment. Belowaregivenenrollments in clilssesorganized underState plans for vocationaleducation fur thetypes of 'instruction in theyear:indi- cakId.The dataaretaken from Digestof AnnualReports ofState Boards for VocationalEducation to.theOffice ofEducation,Division of VocationalEducation forthe Fiscal YearEnded June30, 1036.

. EVENINGINC;CLASSES _..41,- i

1 Agriculture Trade and industry 1 * Year I Hnmeeco- 1 4 numies1 Men omen Men Women

1 2 3 4 . 4 3 6

1032 S3, 802 5,600 144,132 14, 927 152, 444 1934 . 94, 241 I 6,400 121,810 17, 923 .129, 485 1935 6,848 148,556 17, 9(X) 138, 361 1936 102, 620 8,748 117,90 9, 893 153, 996

PART TIME(TRADE EXTENSIQN)

1932 10, 730 62 34, 090 11, 344 38, 818 1'934 * .., 13, 162 111 23, 480 13, SO7 31, 694 1935S___ a 23, 253 679 .51, 225 22, 169 38, 744 1936. 22, 191 210 97, 853 31, 455 37, 080 I.

INomen registered. val "' Belowaregiven dataonreimbursementfrom Federalmoneyfor salaries of teachers in thedifferenttypes of. vocationalcoursesindt cated: . EVENINGCLASSES

Year Agriculture Trade and Borneeco- industry nomies

1 2 4 /3 _ ,e t 1932 $87, 244 $334, 818 1934 $211, 303, 42, 520 234, 577 131, 623 1935 ;78, 806 .8;1,218 1936 167, 640 39, 448 253, o 17e,967-

PART-TIME (TRADEEXTENSION) 4.

1932 . 6, 502 417, 803 4 1934 6,338 332, 700 1935 87,164 ',17, 105 585, 207 .441034 1906 10,258 661, 714 41;399

r! . gym...... if- _ v lbw " - .N--

k ..:CL. or? , BIENNIAL SURVEY OFEDUÇATION, 1934-36 311) CIVILIAN REHABILITATION(FEDERALLY AIDED) The FederalGovernment hasassumed the responsibilityforcooper- ating with Statesin providingopportunities for. therehabilittitionof civilianpersonsphysically handicappedthat willpreparethem for suitable employment.The Governmentald9inthis work through -appropriations made toStatesonthè basis of population.In order toparticipate in this fundaState cannot spendless than theamount furnished by theFederal Government.Forty-fiveStates:the District ofColumbia, the Territory of Hawaii, and theisland of Puerto Rico havenowaccepted the Federalplailandarecarryingoncooperative programs.TheprograminaState isadministered by the State board for vocationaleducation in necordancewithaOw approved by the Office of Education,United StatesDepartment of theInterior, which Office administersthe Federal acts.The impprtanceof sucha programis apparentwhen it is consideredthatapproximately300,000 persons arepermanently disabledby accidentordiseaseyedrly. Many of thesepersons,if providedproperopportunities,canbesuc- cessfully rehabilitatedfor employmentandmaythus become not¿nly self-supporting butcontributors toournational welfare.Many, if lefttotheirownefforts,areunable to makethenecessaryadjustments for enteringvocational eniploymentand frequentlybecomeacharge uponpublicorprivate charity% During theyear1936therewere10,338personsrehabilitated under this cooperativeplan of theFederal Governmentand the States.At the end of that year,44,625disabledpersons wereenrolled in these rehabilitationprograms.The rehabilitationrolls 114everypercepti- bly increasedduring the pastfewyears,which factmaybe largely accounted for byincreased funds madeavailable for thepurposebya grant.of $70,000permonth from theFederalemergencyrelief funds whichwasdiscontinuedonJune 30, 1935-andfrom the supple- mentaryannual appropiiationof $841,000ptovided under the Na- tional Security Act.The total amount of moneyexperidedonthese cooperativeprogramsduring theyearended June 30, 1936,was $2,602,676, ofwhich'suin$1,358,100wasexi)ended from State and

locil funds. de k Belowaregiven the number ofdisabledpersonsvocationallyre- habilitatedonJune 30 of theyearsihdicated and also the amountof moneyexpended. allIMOrms , 'Number rehabilitated ; Expenditure's Year State and Total Men Women Total Federal local

3 4 7 4111111111111111111 $11 191,329 19:32 5, 550 4, 367 1, 183 $2, 189, 140 $997, 811 1, 181 2, 176, 125 999, 469 1, 176, 576 .1933- 5, 613 4, 432 1934_ 8, 062 6, 319 1, 743 2, 079, 905 915, 659 1, 164, 245 1, 2 129 19354__ 9, 422 7, 527 1, 895 2, 247, 047 1, 031, 818 ra 10,838 8, 162 4111.3f- 2, 602, 676 1, 244, 576 1, .tO0 ' .T7 4r ADULT EDUCATION 39 Theci4stribution;accordingtocertain items, of the 10,380persons rehabiieated in1936 is interesting.. Of this total number 8,152were menaud\2,186were women.Their distribution accordingtoage was

.asfollows: Under 21yearsofage,2,617; 21-30yearsofage,3,667; 3140yearsofage,1,884; 41-50yearsofage,1,362; 50 andover888. Of the total number 6,103weresingle ;.3,780weremarried;and 455 werewido*ed, divorced,orseparated.The distribution accordingto dependentswas asfollows; No dependents,5,776;onedependent, 1,407; twodependents, 1,146; three dependents,85S, fouror more dependentsrt1,151.Theamountof education completed by these rehabilitate0persons was:No schooling, 142; completion of grades 1-3, 250; grades 4-6, 1,197; grades 7-9, 3,687; grades 10-120,689; high-school kraduates, 2,226;posthigh school, 1,147. The abovo dataaretaken from A Digest of Annual Reports-of the State Boards jor Vocational Educcition to the Office of Education,Division ofVocational\Education,forthe.'Fiscal Year EndingJune 30, 1936. Vocational \rehabilitationas acomparativelynewservice being rendered byteFederal Governnwnt and States isconfronted byafew problems som4 of which will require specialarrangements for their solution.°Sonof these special problemsarede§cribed in thereport just mentioned The special problems with which State rehabilitationserviecsAare faced in the vocational rehabilitation of the handicappedmaybe classified undertwo major headings: (a) Those connected with thepreparation of suchpersonsfor employment, and (b) those involved in securingemployment for them after their preparation has been completed.Approximately 60pereent of the handiiapped whoareeligible and feasible of rehabilitationare young persons who have hadnovocat:onal experience. * * * Increasing competition for jobs is tending towardanexclusion of larger and largernuMbers of the handicapped.The time is approaching when industryandcommerce will employ only the most highly trained, skillful,and leas seriously disabled. This tendency has been accentuatedin most States through law§ intendedto promote social andeconomic*security. * * * Inorderbthata more successful approachmaybe made to the whole problem of rehabilitatingthe . handicapped, it will henecessaryfor rehabilitation workersto equip them selves with the best possible working knowledgeof all the fields inwlved in the diagnosis, treatment, and placementof the handicapped. Anumber of developments which haveadefinite relation to the rehabilitationprogram have taken place during thepasti'vwyears.New methods of treatingdisease have been developed;newMethods of manufacturing and fitti.ngartificial appliances have been devised; lei' provisions for training tipprenticesin the trades have been adopted; anda newconception of the functions andopera- tions of public employment offices havegrown up.The scientific approach is needed to understand the_ best methodsof utilizing thesenewdevelopments in the rehabilitation of the. handicapped. WORKERS' EDUCATION . 4 Theterm Workers'Educationlinits general connotation-means educational opportunitjesto meetthe needs ofaspecialgroupof adults, namely, industrial workers.Itsprogramis characterizedby 40 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION.1934-36 the attention given tothe problems arising out ofthe daily activiti('b, MItheseworkers and citizens and totheit needs for further general educational and culturaltraining.As such, workers' education isnot neweither in this countryorin Europe.However, its form oforgan- ization and its emphasisaswellasthe extent to which it has existed have varied from time totime, andas amovementhas been greatl.% augmented during the past 15'years.Its early development in America wasmanifested by the establishment ofmechanics' institutes and the organization of evening classeswhichwerelargely effected by worker themselves through trade 11111011S andother agencies interested in promoting the welfare of industrialworkersas a group.By 1901) labor collegeswerecoming into existence andin 1921 the Workers' Education Bureau of Americawasestablished bya groupcomposed of members of trade unionsandoiteachers for thepurposeofserv- ingas aclearing house of informationandas aguide in the developing movement of workers'education.The Bureau has exerciseda large influence in directing theaim of workers' education, in developing appopriate nwthods forinstruction, and in creating suitable instructional materials andasupply of literatureonsubjects of study prepared to meet the needs of thestudent workers. The Workers' Edification movementhas developed various forms of instructional organizationand techniques.Among thesemaybe mentioned: (a) The study classwhich isa groupof union workers holding 10 to 20 weekly, meetings, underthe direction ofaninstructor, for the in'Irpose of systematitstudy of problems ofspecial interestto occupationafwork and,_ employment.While these meetingsarein- formal in character, they representaserious effortonthepartof the workers to improve theirunderstandingofmanyof the problems that affect theirwelfare.The meetingsareusually lwld iii the union ballorinsomepublic building suchas alibraryorschool building. Agroupof such study classes boundtogether under the direction of aboard created byacentral labor union constitutesanonresident trade-union college.In 1936 itwasestimated thatas many as 150,000 workersunder the gui(lanceof 2,500 'teacherswereenrolled for study in theseinformalgroups.(b) A few resident labor college: are nowin existence whichareexclusiveely for thepurposeof providing appropriateinstruction foil workers.Such subjectsaseconomics, the history dflabor, and journalismreceive emphasis.Some colleges operatefor only 3 monthsin theyear;others providecoursesof from 1 to 3 yearsin h'ingth.(e) The summetschool is opilrated ina7111111- her of places inconnection with collegiate institutions,includingsome foromen.1The sessionsrangefrom 6 weeks to 2 months in length. The instructionis devoted largely tosocial and economic problems. Four schools ofthis kindare now(1936) associated and operated as affiliated schools forworkers.(d) A number of labor institutes'have 6een conducted cooperatively br State universities andState federa- ADULT EIWCAT1uN 41 lionsof labor.Each instituteusually lasts from 3 to5days and discusseslabor problems. A few-examples willserve toshow the nature oftheorganization and thekinds ofprogramscarriedonby institutionsconductingpro- gramsin workers'education: Co),fsioNWEALTHCoLLEGE, MENA, ARK. curric- dL nonfactional,nonsectionalresident labor college; 1-year ulum whichincludes labororientation, politicaleconomy,courses in social studies,practical arttechniques, publicspeaking, drama,research,fieldprojects.School operates four quarters peryear. Averageenrollment, 50. BRYN MAWR SUMMER Hoof, FORWOMEN WourdAt. INkm CoNDUCTED IN1935ATMoUNT IVY CAMP,POMONA, N. i. Residmt suminerschool forvomenworkers in industry-.Students representingmanydifferent trades andbackgrounds, recruitedfrom importantindustrial centersin this countryzuld abroad.Students arefrom 20 to 35 yearsofage,withntleast 2 years'experience 11 industry andschool preparationthrough sixthgrade.Thepurpose of the schoolistostudy liberalsubjects and tostimulateanactive and continuedinterestmproblems ofoureconomic order.Subjects include: English,public speaking,literature, generalscience, social history.Enrollment, 100. tnORINSTITUTE, RUTGERSUNIVERsITY, NEWBRUNswIcK, N.J. Three- tofive-(hly laborinstitute conductedby universityinco- operation withNew JerseyFederation of Laborand Workers'Etiuca- tÀon Bureau,held annuallyduringsummer.1.ectures and discussion forumson somegeneral topics suchaslabor andworld economic problems.Registration in 1 935was110.

BROOK%% OODLABORCOLLEGE, KATONAII,N. Y. Nonfactionalprogressivelaborcollege.Six months'resident course.Trains workersformoreeffective activityin labOrmovenient. Preparespamphlets andboòks writtenespecially forworkers. . ScHom.FORWORKERS ININDUSTRY, UNIVERSITY OFWISCONSIN, MADISON,Wis. Purpose # to prepareindustrial workers to meeteconomic issues intelligently andeffectively throughtheirorganizations.Six-weeks' summerschool,on campusand winterprogramOfinstitutes throughout-the Statein cooperationwithlOfllcentral laborbodies. Summer curriculumincludeseconomics, English,and history.Requirements: 20yearsofage,atleasteighth-gradeeducation, and atleast 2 years' experience inindustry.Attendance,summer1935,was4ii;attend- anceat 10winterinstitutes, 6,000. The aboveaccountsarebasedonreportsfound inHandbook of Adult Educationin theUnited States,1936.3' Itowden. Dorothy,editor.Handbook of AdultEducation in theUnited Statm, 1936.New York, American Associationfor AdultEducation, 1936. sati

4o 42 BIENNIAL SURVEYOF EDUCATION,1934-36 Inabriefaccount of the Workers'Educationprogramin operation at the University of CaliforniaMr. Kerchensays: On theouter fringe ofrecent adult educationhistory is thelatest arrival, workers' education.* * *Today workers'education isgenerally accepted because itcannot he ignored.* * *In the Stateof California workers'education isajoint enterprisebetween the CaliforniaState Federationof Labor on onehand em theextension division ofthe Universityof Californiaon the other.The directionis under the controlofajoint committeeonwork- ers' education, composedof nine members,five of whomrepresent labor and the remainder theUniversity of California.Thereasonfor labor controlon this comniitteewasto make the planeligible for affiliationwith the Workers' Education Bureauof America,which is theofficial 'organ ofthe American Federation of Labor. Theexpensesentailed in thepromotion of thisplan imposesnoobligations uponlabor.The salary ofthe director ofWorkers' Educationaswellas his organizationalexpensesis carried bythe extensiondivision ofthe university.The cost ofinstruction, however,is paid by theclass takingthe work,orfrequently bythe union,orsometimes shared byea0.32 Theprogramincludes labor institute'sand classinstruction insuch suu;ects Loybor history,labor economics,labor law,unemployment problems, English,speech making,wagestudies, andmodern literature. Spencer Miller,Jr.,director,Workers' EducationBureau of America,says: The modernworkers' educationmovement compktes in1936 fifteenyears of activity.In thisdecade andahalrit hasevolved froma vague aspira- tion intEatangible movement;it has developedareMonably clearphiloso- phy and ithas brought forthavast body of material;it has madeasubstan- tial contributionto the techniquesof teachingadults; ithas.,even enlisted the cooperationof the FederalGovernmentthrough thedevelopment of the emergency educationalprogram.Today themovement standsas oneof the most vitalparts of the entireadult educationmovement in the United States. t-lt haiwon-asignificant recognitionfrom laborontheonehand and from educationalinstitutionsonthe other.It bidsfair to exercisean increasing influenceonthe direction ofAmericanpublic education." In additionto theprogram mWorkers' Educationconcted by the University ofCalifornia, thepublic schoolsof theStale under the direction andsupervision ofthe CaliforniaState Deartment of Education,areprovidingprogramsin workers'edu ion.The total State enrollmentsin these prograrfisfor the periodfrom October1934, to August1935, ranged from2,888 in the monthof Juneto 7,899 in the monthof February.The numberof teachersengaged inworkers' education forthe periodfanged from97 to 204.These teachers 'weregiven specialpreparation fortheir workbymeansof schools of instructionconducted duringthesummersof1934 and 1935 underthe auspim ofthe: CalifprniaAssociation forAdultEducation, Cali- , *Kerchen, John L.Orants-in-ald for Statesupport of workers'education in California.Workers° Education,14: 10-11, April 1937. Is Miller, Spencer, Jr.,In Handbookof Adult Education,Dorothy Rowden,editor. New York, American Associationfor Adult Education,New York, 1936.p. 1140. A DULT EDUCATION 43 fornia State Federation ofLabor,Extension Division ofthe State University, Bureau of Woikers'Education, and Divisionof Adult Education of the State Department of Edumtion. The need for and theprogramsin workers' educationin the State of Pennsylvainia,asset forthin Bulletin No.78 of the State ilepart- mentof Public Instruction, isafurther illustration ofthe trendto make public provisions for workers' education: 41 Workers' eduration.The need ofeducational ppportuilities foradults is shown furtter by the growing interest andeffortonthe part of organized labor in providingasuitable workers' educationprogram.Formany years laborcolleges and workers' education classeshave been organized andmain- tained, at times againstenormousodds. During recentyears,this expansion of the education:0programbygroups of organized and unorganized workers withinthe Comnlonwealth has been veryapparent.Many unions of the American Federationof Laborare now developing educational work in connection withtheir regular unionmeet ings.Central labor unions thro,ughoutthe Statearcsponsoring workers' 'blasses in the social sciences,in English,, incurrent events, andlikOt.fields. Insomeplaces labor colleges have recently been organized. Some ofourlarger organizations' of workers have appointededucational directors.Organizations of the unemployed havesponsored classesiortheir groups.There has been, within thepast few months,anincrease in the demand from settlements for help in developingclasses for workers, and forums have been established in publicschools, community houses,and union headquarters.Negrogroups arebecoming increasinglyaAareof their prob- lemsasworkers.In this growth in workers' education,the college and university is playing its part, oftith making itsresourcesavailable to workers' groups.Asummerschool for workers has been heldop one campusin Pennsylvania.Another college has developeda summerinstitute incoop- eration with the American Federation of Labor. Workers' education has becomeasignificant part of theemergencyeduca- tionprogramin Pennsylvania.Projects in this field havebeen developed as anexperiment inprogramand method in fourcenters.Approximately 1,200 people attended the classesweekly in these centers, in which the work .has been carriedonlargely through close cooperation betweenorganized labor groupsand educational and community organizations. The Nationale Recovery Actand the development of the adultemergency reliefprogramhave aroused organized labor andwage earnersgenerally to their rights and responsibilities,to which little 'attention had beengiven. previously.Inaperiod of 6 monthsHiemembership of organized labor morethan doubled.Givenafair understanding of the fundamentalprin- ciples of economics through appropriate adulteducation classes will, result inaconcerted effort for thecommongood of inestimable and enduringvalue to the. Nation.The civic and economic awakeningonthe part of these hundreds of thousands of adults demandsaleadership of high order and placesaheavy responsibility not onlyuponemployer and employee, butupon public educationaswell. PARENT EDUCATION 34 Parent education in its professionalaspects had its origin inpro- gramsmade possiblebeygrants of the Laura Spelman Rockefeller is Prepared by Ellen O. Lombard, Associate Specialist in Parent Education. 82866-4: s

b. 44 BIENNIAL SURVEY)1' EDUi 'ATION. 1934-36 . Memorial.Subsequentlymanyof theprograms werecontinued undergrantsof the General Education Board, although insomein- stancesthe respective institutions either assumed whollyorinpart financial responsibility for theprogyamsunderway. Research in child developmentorin family relationshipswas conducted in theseprogramsand professional leadersweretrainedto take administrativeorteaching positions in the field ofparent educa- .tion.Experiments in organizing and conducting parents' study groups werealsoapartof theseprogranls.Considerableprogres wasmade during the period 1930-36 covered by this report, although parenteducation is still in the experimental stage.Leadership ill

this field has been)4fahigh quality.The employment by superintendents of schoosof trained directors ofparenteducation inman.% city schoolsystemsgives evidence of confidence in themovement Universities and colleges in which the grantswereused for graduate studies in child development and parent education and the preparation of professionalleaderswere:The Child Development Institute, Teachers College, Columbia University; the Institute of Child Welfare, University of Minnesota; the Institute ofChild Welfare, University of California; the IowaChild Welfare Research Station, State Univer- sity of Iowa; the Clinic of Child Development, Yale University: Western Reserve University; University of Michigan; University of

, , Chicago; Harvard University; and the Merrill-Palmer School. . For supervision ina programofparenteducation developed ill r connection with the Federal Emergency Relief Administration,a grantwaslnade by the General Education Board.To the whole emergency programofnurseryschools and parent education tlibozad granted $128,500.Funds w.ere also provided by the board in 1933 for the preparation of teaching materials by the Bureau of Child Study and Parent Education of the New York State Department of Education.Research provided by funds of the general education board-:islimitedtothe pralems of physicalatidmental growth during the periods of infancy, earlychildhood,and adolescence. i Grants for both fellowships and child study in 1934-35 totaled about $62,000and in the followingyear$59,000. Among the most significant happenings, whichnodoubt influenced greatly the development of the parent education movement,wasthe unparalleled growth in membership of the parent-teacher organization, the National Congress of Parents and Teachers.More than2 million members throughout the Nation have been at work, toagreateror lesser degree,uponparenteducationprograms. Other agencies and organizations, suchasuniversities and colleges, State departments of education, local schoolsysten;s,health and medi-

1 cal organizations, churches and religious organizations ofanational and international character, college women's clubsState and national, ADULT E1)UCAT1(leN 45 National Council ofParent Education, the American Library Asso- ciation, the ProgressiveEducation Association, and the Child Study Association of America, have takenanimportantpartinone way or another inthe parent education movement. Otherforces have cooperated in the interestof effective work. NEEDS IN THIS FIELD OF EDUCATION' During the rapidchanges in social and economic life of the past decade the equilibriumof the familywasupset.Parentswere unpre- paredto meetand solve the serious problems withwhich theywere suddenlyconfronted.Economicinsecurityfrequently weakened their morale and parents often felta senseof relief when organizations outside the home assisted inthecareof their children.The ancient authority of the church and the home sufferedimpairment during this period withoutanadequate substitute being supplied for the stabiliz- ing influence which thatauthority exercisedoverfamily and swill life in general.In view of the need forabetter understanding of their ownproblems, parents have soughthelpupontheirowninitiative, individually and collectively.Parent education is theresponseto their expressed needs. Gruenberg"asaysthat

The significance of parent education a a Nitalpartof adult education lies notsomuch inourdiscovery that parentsareptopleasin the recentgen- eral recognition of the fact that most people are parents.No plan of education for adultscanbe complete that does not take intoconsideration this important aspect of adult life andinterest. Scientific study of childdeVelopment, family behavior, and family relationsltip, has resulted in the accumulationofagreatdeal'of information which has b'een issuedduring the past6yearsin books,pain- phlets and monographs, and otherforms of presentation for theuseof professional workers.Butasyetonlyalittle of this material is written in such terms that itcanbe easily read by theaverageparent. One of the outstandingneeds which leaders and parentsareconstantly pointing out is forscientificallisound-,books-orpanlphiets in which theftictsof mental hygiene,psychology, biology, nutrition, andsoCi- ologyarepresentedosimply that they wed not-be interpreted bya specialist.There is alsoamanifest need f6r library service tothe millions ofpersonsin this country living inareashavingnolibrary facilities.Parent education mustdepend,asdoes all adult education, uponacequatelibrary services.j Thesenee shave been repeatedly emphasized byconferencesandcmmitteesof parents, educator,s,and librarians.They have been thoutstanding deterrents tosuccessin the parent educationmovemen

al 141 Gruenberg, Sidonle Matsner.Child Study limps forParentsIn Adult Education in Action. New York, The American Association for Adult Education.Md.p.W2. 46 BIENNIAL SURVEY OFEDUCATION, 1934-3G There is need forabetter understandingand cooperationbetween the home and theschoolontheonehand andparent education activitiesonthe other.In general,teachersare notpreparedby teacher-training institutionsto participate in the developmentofprac- tical and successfulcooperativeparent-teacherrelations.Tomeet this need, specialinstruction shouldbe providedthrough institutes afid conferencesand units of workboth insummerschools andin regular sessionsof teachers collegesand normalschools.Colleges and universities havebeen slow in recognizingthe potentialitiesin this field.However, several universitieshave' providedsuchcourses. Among those whichmaybe mentionedare:State universitiesof Maryland andFlorida; -Vassar 'College,Institute ofEuthenics; University of Michigan;and the StateUniversity ofIowa.Many teachers colleges conductinstitutes, butteachersareseldom foundin attendance becausenocredit is given'for the work.There isalso need for coordinationof communityorganizations inthis fieldof education. Opportunities for family andindividual counselingare as yetinade- quately developed.There isalack of trainedpersvnel for thisserv- ice.However, .the autlook ishopefulasteacher-training institutions areofferingcoursesfor thispurpose.At the-presenttime such services arebeing undertakenby librarians,nurseryschoolteachers, physi- cians,classroomteachers,and workersinreligious andsocial organizations. SOME TRENDS IN PARENTEDUCATION o A study of thepa:renteducationntyt!ementduring thepast half dozeriyearsrevealssomerather well-definedtrends.Among these maybe mentionedthe following: 1. There isagrowing tendencyto make the results of-research work 'the basis of studiesinparent education.%--A review oftheprogramsof the. -past few *years inparent education showsashift fromdiscussions of apurely empiricalcharactektostudies'basedupónresearch findings in such fieldsasphysical and mental.growth, child guidance,health, nutrition, childcare,and child psychology. The director ofthe National Councilof Parent Educationsays: The subjetmfttter for all these differenttypes of parent educationactivi ty consists of the adviceof professionalworkers who havesomething to tell homemakers and parents,and of material derivedfrom the reportsof research in child development,home economics,education, psychology,mental hygiene, sociology,and gther relateddisciplines.The labors ofresearch workers, have inturn stiinulated educators,welfare workers, andclinicians to observe childrenand family lifemoreobjectively andto offer.more ,sy tematic.guidance.All these differenttypes of study andresearchare sources of parent educationsubject matter today."

is Bridgman, Ralph P.Parent and Family Education.In Handbook of AdultEducation In the United States, 1936.New York. AmericanAssociation for Adult Education,1936.p. 137.

4 ADULT EDUCATION 47

2. Programsof parent education atee The number of organizationsinterested in parent education and thescopeof their programs areboth increasing. a In tite United States today some organized pfogrtunof adult education for family life and parenthood may he found in every city, in many towns, and in about 60 percent of the rural counties, conducted orsponsored generally byone or moreorganizations working together.Subjects discussedvary from Ofil structure of the nervous System to the newest hypotlwsesof psycho- analysis, from sewing baby clotlws to designing clothes to bring out person- ality, from the history of matrimonial institutions to the effects cfamily relationships of contemporary industrial organization. , 3d 3. Llteratureonparentedneation is increasing.It has been estimated that booksdealing with parental problemsareappearingat the rate of MOper year.in additiontomagazines devotedto this special phase of education, thereisanincreasing number of both educational and lay periodicals andafsonewspapersthat find parent . education sufficientlyinterestirigto theirr9iders to warrautpu4s11- ing occasional articlesonthe subject. 4.Increasing attention is bring given to (hi nerds6:fyoungpeople .for training in parent education.'Fiteirnportvce of )roviding opportunities foryoungpeople, and especially forthoseout.of ;school, to study theproblemsof family life and parent education,is retitiving increasing consideration. ,Universityextensionservices, 'associations for young menand foryoung womeninterested in their development and induction into adult-liferesponsibilities, churches, and welfare organizationsare amongthe agenciesnowattempting to meet these specific needs ofyoungpeople. 5.School counseling with parentsis increasing.Not onlyare more opportunities than formerly beingprovided foraparent andteacher tocounsel relative to the problems of thechild, but teacher-training progranisareincluding.instructiononsuch, services by teachers. 6. Thenumber of public schools that haveorganized work in parent .education withadirector of parent education in chargeis increasing. 7. Thereisanincreasing tendency for local organizationsdealing with problems in parent educationand family life to cooperate for .the improvementof parent education services.

THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENTAND PARENT EDUCATION Several departments ,of dieFederal Government hvemadecon- tributions to parenteducation. TheDepirtment of the Interior, through the Officeof Education, has called conferencesof educators, parents,librarians, and leadersi toconsidermeansof developing parenteducation; made studies ofexistingprograms;evaluated books and other literature;prepared readingcoursesfor parents and bibliog- raphies for leaders in parenteducationproj4icts.Publications issued

81 Op oat,p.11$. 41. i Is t. 48 BINNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATIoN. 1934-3G s during theyear1935-36 by the Office of Educationonparent educa- tionorrelated subjects include: Parent EducationOpportunities; Significant Programsof High-School Parint-TeachrrAssociations; Essentials in Home and SchoolCooperation; and Biblio4raphieson Parent Education, Child Derelopment,Education for Family We, nnd. United States Government Publications forParents and LeadcrRof Parents' Groups. The Of peof Education, through its vocationalhome economics program,has :tended its activitiestocoverthe organization ofclasses ofparents and the training of teachers of adultgroups to meet,the growing demand for leadership in child studyprogramsofparents. In 1935 thereweresitt States in which workers inparent education wereemployeiieitherto cooperate with State supervisors in home economicsorto work under supervision in preparing teachersto give service in parent education.

The United States Department of Agriculture,Cooperative txten-6 sion Service, works inparent education through State andcounty programsof home economics extension work. Many Popular bulletins reporting studiesof conditions affecting child lifewereissued anddistributedby the United States Depart- mentof Labor, Children's:'Bureau.These publications constitute-. animportant additiontothe'literature of particularimportanceto parents' studygroups. Theprogramofparenteducation in the FederalEmergency Relief Administration.(nowWPA) opened opportunities for theemployment of unemployed and needy teachers in1933.Additional fundspre- viously nwntioned supplemented Federalfunds toinsure the employment of trained StatesupeAsorsforemergencyparent &education work.Theprogram gaveopportunities for experimentation in methods and materials.Inmanyingtances it brought together in studygroups personsliving inremote ruralareas,-not ordinarily reached byeducationalinfluences,manyof whomwereliving under limited economic thanditions.Theprogramis conducted undjr the supervisiori ofaspecialist 'innurseryschool andparent education witlia special worker in chargeof parent education.Statistics for the y'ear 1936-37 indicate that 672 teacherswereemployed in4;072Classes and that therewere60,372personsunder insfruction in the classes. a ORGANIZATIONS SUPPORT PARENT EDUCATIONPROGRAMS American Association of University Women.TheAmerican Asso- ciation of University Women continued its proglamof service in parenteducationto individual members and togroupsof members. Since 1930 guidance materials forparents' studygroupshave been issuedom'The Infant, Pre-Adolescence, A lescence:Its Problems and Guidanti,A Course for the Preparation oJpEay LeadersofParent Study a . A Drur EDITATIoN .49 o . Groups,The Mental Health of Parents and,Children, andmanyother 19th1ications.It also has carriedon abook service. . Association fur Childhood Education .---nwAssociation for Childhood

A Education has carriedonforyears acontinuousprogramofparent education.The committeeOnparenteducation of this organization in 1932-33conducted, with the cooperation of vlementaryschool teachersin Kalamazoo, Mich.,aninquiryastothe questions and problems parents bring to the teacher.In 1934, the parent education committee undertook the taskof editingaseries of Ik-e1..moksfor parentsOnChildhoocj----The First Eight Years.Study classes and discussiong.roups for consideration of parents' problems with their children and with the schooltireconducted during conventions of this organizaiion.Publications of particular interest to parentshave been issued by the Association for ChildhoodEdlication.Among them l'ire:Broadening Field qf Teacher Actirity, Scienceand the Young Child, Mimic and Me Young Child, Art for Today'sChild, The Practical Value of Early Childhood-Education., and Home and SchoolCooperation in . Aursery School,Kindergarten, Primary. American- Home EconomicsAssociation.The American Home Econom)t,Association' conducteda programof child development andpareieducation, underafoundation grant for 5years,until Augus 34whichwitsdirected byanadvisory committeeonchild dev opment and parenteducation of the Association.A full-time field worker,wasemployed to hold conferenceswith college home economics departments in connection w411 thedevelopment of work in child growth,fiunily relationships, and parent education, but since 1935 the work hasbeen conducted byapart-time worker.Publica- tions issuedwereLiving Together in the familyand Pictures of Family Life, both of which have been usedfor high school, college, and adult studygroups. American Library Association.The American LibraryAssociation hasabeen cooperative formany year,ivegard to the'library needsof parent-teacherassoCiations. and 4 pifents' studygroups.A joint committee of theNational.-Council of Parent Educationand the American Library Association has been at worksince 1934 to discover waysof securing better facilities, to meet thegrowing needs of parents' groups,andtopointoutdefinite studies and experimentswhich might i be made in the future. . American, Social Hygiene Association.Adivision of family relations has carried theprogramtufhe American SocialHygiene Asso- ciation. 'The particular contrition of this organization to parent education hag been throughthiissuance of such pamphletsasYour Daughter's Mother,Education,loriMarriage, ChoosingaHome Parintr, Marriage and Parenthood, Is FamilyCounselingaProfession, and Marriage and Morals.In1934aConferenceonEducation for Marriage and Family Social Relationswasheld under the sponsorship 4 e r'j

BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION.1934-36 50 . 411.. of this association, ColumbiaUniversity, and theAmerkcan Hot Economics Association. Chikl Study 488oeiation ofAmerica.A. continuousprogramof child study andparent educationwasconducted by the. Child Study Association of America.Activitiesat.the *headquarters of.this

organization include studygroups,lectures, conferences,family. guidance and consultation,and library service. . The association has 6eenworkingon astudy inparenteducation broadcasting since early in1936.Cooperation in tits projectis receivedfromthe National Council ofParent Education andthe National Advisory CouncilonRadio in Education.Some of the publications issued by theassociation since1930areCommunity Programs-for Sumner Play Schools,Summer Play Schools,Music and the Child, Radio and Children,andthe magazine ChildStudy. Federal Council ofChurche8-.7.--Since.1930 theprogramof the Fed- eral Council of.Churches infamily%andparenteducation has been under the direction ofacommitteeonmarriage and the home.Its . purposesareto study the._ jiroblems of marriage and divorce andto findmeansof safeguarding marriagesthrough the development ofan

e educational,program and through counseling,to promote Christian

family fife, andtocollect and .0.isseininate denominationalliterature

dealing with marriage andLin orlife.Methodsof procedure have been setupin outline and ad seshave been givenat State and .local meetings,atcolleges and seminaries; and cónfereuceswith inter- denominational and othergroulashave been c,onducted. - International Council of Religious Education.---LA fointCommitteeon parent educationwasformed in1933 by the International Council of Religious Education whichpreparedasbasic materialsacurricu- lum 'guideonChristianeducaiionfor adults.part II of this guide deals with family life and parenthOodin regard t6 situations thatare commonin families and with family problemsand requirements for leadership inpare ' u s.The council issued in1935, jointly with the Federalouncilof urches,abibliogtap.hyonEducation in Family Life, Marriage, Parenthood,and Young People's Relation-

, ships, and in thesame yearthe council issuedaservice bulletinOD Home and Church Sharing in CliiistiimEducation. NationalOcaholicWelfare Conference.At leasttwo departments of tbe National Catholic WelfaieConferencehaw::conducted 'programsof interestto parentsthe family-life section and the National 4 Council of CatholicWomen. Thefamily-life -èctionhas madeprog- resssince 1930 in thepieparatibofindPúblicationof leaflets and pamphlets relatingtothe homeaicitafiiylife. uch pamphletsas the followingwereissued: Christian Márriagb andthe Family, the Family, Christian Education ofYouth, the Integrity of the Home, Concerning Your Children¡SpmeGuiding Thoughts for Parents.In 1933 Abe tonference prepared study outlinescontainingcoursesfor ...., P. ADULT EDUCATION ts t. 51% study clubsonhealth education,parentandchild, andonthe family.., Numerous-other publications have 'fen isued by this section. on- cqnvention of the Catholic Conference Family Lifewasheld A atHoly Cross, Ind., in 1936. *Apart of theprogram wasdevoted to mattersof interesttoteachers givingcoursesin family life andto leaders of studygroups. The National Council of Catholic Women hasfifrnishedpublica- tions for the development of parent-teacher associations in parochial schools, suchasSuggestions for Catholic Parent-Teacher Associa- tions, Developing_ Character in Our eChildren, and has prepareda study outlineonParents and Childrefi, for thenseófparents. Among the: iinportantpublications issued by the council in 1933 weretwoletilktsentitled "Motion Pictures,aProblem of theNatioh" and "The Motion Picture Industry." National Congress oftoloredParents and Teachers.The National Congress of Colpred Parents and VAchers has badasteady growth in membership.In030the number of memberswas11,381 and in 1935, 19,470.- Thecongresshas. been encouraging the organization of classes in par6;nt:educa.tion.In- 1931 the president at the Oglethorp Practice School of'Atlanta Universitymeta groupofyoungmothers and organizeda.pArent-educati-onclass.Thecourseof six c. lessonswas conductedin the respective communities in which the motherslived. A resolution adopted by thecongressin 1935wasto'the effect that parent4eacher associations everywhere place considerable emphasis upoh homemaking and parental education. National Congress of ParentsandTeachers.The parent:education *gram bf the Nationtil Congress of Parents and Teachers has been extendedto meetgrowing demands for service.Eachyearsince 1930aparent-education yearbook has been issued for theuseof studygroups,and, in addition to this,aparent-education guidebook has been prepared find published to aid leadersin the organization. of .stuzlygroups,methods of conductinggroups,andto suggest projects su4ab1e for thesegroups. 'or In 1931 .the )ational Congress of Parentsand Teachers cooperiited with the Offibe of Education inajoint conferenceonparent.eduça- tion, called by the Commissioner ofEducation,in Hot Springs, Ark. Specialists in education and professional leaders in parenteducation toolyparthin the conference ho which themain subjects discussed relatedtochanging backgrounds of homeand family life, parent- eductionprobjerns at different lexels,professional training of leaders inparenteducation, andtoutilizing foKes for parenteducatión. A report of the csoftference`onparenteducationwasissued under the title"E\ducationfor Home and Family Life." Aprogramof parent education isgitining.strength in this organizto tion whose, membership reported in 1937 inall Statesaggregated., - 52 B I ENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION. 1934-36 2,056,777.In thissame year148,450 parents *ere prganized in8,039 studygroups.Guidance publicationsareissued annually by organization.Some of the'morerecentones arelistedasfollows: Home Play inRuralAreas, Young Lives inaModern World, Why Your Child NeedsaHealthExaminatiön,High-School Associations, the Rural Parent-Teacher Association, andnumerousother pamphlets and leaflets.. National Councirof Parent Education, Inc.The National Councilof 'Parent Education,Inc., has depended for themost partfor its financial supportpponthegrantsof the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial and the General Education Board.It has givenanadvisory service, called conferences ofparenteducation workers, developed standards

of procedure, informed parent-education workersasto NNhat is going onin this field, workedtocoordinate community agencies having varent-education projects, has sponsored research projects, and has created materials whichmaybe used to aid in planning activities for 'community organization.A bimonthly service bulletincardParent Education is distributedto members of the council and otherorgan- izations. Protestant Episcopal Church.The National Council, Department of Religious Education of the Protestant Episcopal Church, experimented in 1933 with outlines wbich had been prepared for leaders of paren'ts' discussiongroups onthe subject Helping Parents Solve TheirProb- lems and other pertinent subjects.In., thesame year astudy inparent- church cooperationwasnlade -tinder the auspices ofihechild-study commission of the church. A list .of pamphlets and bookson_child development ande family life andaleaflet containinganoutlineon the Parent-Teacher Relationshipwereissued in1936. United Parents' Associations.Parent education is the majorpur- poseof the United Parents' Association of .New York City, Inc.,a central federation of parent-teacher associations,pi'motIA's clubs, (:Òhnectedwith publicorpiivate schools.In 1934-35 itwasreported that 207 pu.blic and private-school associations weir membersof the federation.Of these, 27werebigi*-schoolgroups;*04.'were_parents' associations, 61wereparent-teacher associations,arid25weremothers' clvbs. PARENT EDUCATION IN STATE DEPARTMENTS OF EDUCATION New York State Department of Educatio:The New York State De- partment of Education isoneof the two State deparuilents in which there isaunit of administration' and service inparent education. For 5yearsthe work of the bureau of child deVelopment and parental education of this departmentwas'financedby grants from the Laura SpelmanRockefellerMemorial.These funds terminated in1933 and coincidentlx-abill authorizingihe bureaw) underpublicsupportwas I passed by)%le legislature.The work of This bureAu is in charge of 41. a .4..a* . .1111r .1r aNia.-aa',yr...ml. ADULT EDUCATIoN 53 director andoneassistant whoareboth trained specialistsin the field of childdevelopment and parenteducation.Services have been given touniversities andcolleges in such activitiesa:kprovidingcourses in parenteducation andfamily relations;organizing facilities forco- operation intraining layanti professional leadersof parents'groups; formulatingand administeringresearch studiesin connectionwith parentsand children. Includ&I in theprogramfor communityserviceserethe following activities: Organizingtvd conducting'studygroupsfor layleaders and parents;providingcoursesin family relationships;developing opportunity foreconsultation service;assisting in theorganization of parent-educationcouncils, conunittees,institutes,confereiwes,and parent-teacherassociations; andother activities, suchasaddressing meetingl arrangingtornewspaperpublicity, and givingradio talks. Annual State conferencesin child developmentand parenteducation wereheld under theauspices of the Statedepartment ofeducation. These broughttogether:lay leaders,professional lenders, and parenteducation workers forjoint discussions.Reports of theseconferences fromyearto yearindicate that specialemphasis 'is placeduponthe need to insure 0-rowthin leaders andin communityparent-education programs. The Bureau ofChild Develownentand ParentEducation haspre- pared and issued inprinted formacircular on-Types ofParent Edu- cation Groups andits reports fromyeartoyearpresentdetailed informationastotheprogressthat is being made. California StateDepartment ofEducation.theCalifornia State Department of Educationalso establishedasuccessful project in Nrent edipention under foundation grants.The projectincluded the active cooperation of State andlocal parent-teacherassociations and theuse of existingorganization&State, county,and local schoolfundswere used in developingtheprogram.When the grantswereterminated in 1931, the bureauof parenteducation beganoperating underappro- priations in the Statebudget foreducation.The department givesan advisory and counselingservice, providessupervision and trainingfor lçadership and guidancein the selN.tionOf subject matter;and preparesguides and other materials. During theyear1935-36a new progrtimfor the direotor of parent educationwasinstituted inoiliertointerpret parent.education topro- fessionalgroups.The direcjor glive mostof the timeauring theyear toservice at institutesand instructionin Stateteachers'.colleges. Some of the materialsissued by theState Department ofEduca- tion for this work since 1930 are:Objectives for ParentEduçation in California, Objectives andProcedures forParent Educatioh,Public Schools and ParentEducjaion, Theemergency Education Program in California, Handbookfor Rural*Parent-TeacherAssociations, California Parent-TeacherItandbookon.Secondary Educittion. J. 54 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUcATION.1934-36 Penn,sylvaniv Stale Departmentof Public Instruction.In 1931 the superintendent of public instructionof Pennstivaniaappointeda subcommittee"to appraisecurrent parent-educationprogramsand activities andto study the needs and objectives ofparent education and to formulatewaysandmeansof promoting, organizing,har- monizing, and continuingparent educatioi)."Iectin2-find conferencesin 1933 resulted in the formationof the Pennsylvania Council for Parental Education.The councilmetin 1934 and organized with representatives of30 organizations and plannedprojects which included the developmentof leadership trainingcentersin conneètion with colleges and universitiesin the State.In 1935 itwasreported that the membership ofp'arentsin studygroupsin Pennsylvania had reached about25,000.The State departmentof public instruction issuedas oneof its Pennsylvaniacurriculum studiesabulletin entitled "Parent Education,"tohelp school people desiringto create a programofparenteducation. State vocational home-economicsprograwsiricludeparent education. Parent-educationprograms Etreconducted in Statedepartments of educationas apail of thehome-economicsprogramsundervoca- tional-education funds in Texas,Oklahoma, Arkansas,andmany other States.In the three States namedthereare manycitiescarty- ingstrong parent-educationprogramsin public-scboolsystems under the guidance of traineddirectors of parént_slucation.Some of the cities havingprograms are:Fort Worth, Dimag,Houston, Lubbock, Tyler, and El Paso, Tex.; LittleRock and Fort Smith,Irk.; and Tulsa% and Oklahoma City, Okla..

or STATE AND CITY COUNCILSFOR PARENT EDUCATION State and city councils forparenteducation havebeen foruiedto coordinate activities andto redueoveilappingand duplicationof work ofgroupshavingprograms. hese councilsseemto be gradually increasing. State councils.Inatleast sixtatesColorado, Iowa,Massa- chusetts, New York,Pennsylvaniaanct 'VermontStatecouncils werefunctioning in.1935.In additionto the coordinating functions of these councils, theysponsorinsomeinstances annualgrperiodical conferences andsomeof them issue printednewsbulletinsor sponsor weekly radio broadcast.They formulate plansand policies for the development of sound methodsand practices inparent education and alsosetupworth-while objectivesforgroupsneeding and desiring suggestions forprogramsin this field of education. .

City councils."Council,""conference,"and "committee". are terms thatseemto be used interchangeablyto designate parenteducation units organizedfor coordinatingpurposesin cities where manyagenciesareworking aloneonparent-education .programs.

'Is ADULT EN-CATION 55 City councils have been instituted in Boston, Buffalo, Pittsburgh, Schenectady, Syracuse, St. Louis, and in Toronto, Canada.In Rochester, N. Y., tlwre isaconferenceon parenteducatAn.In Schenectady therewasatfirstaparents' committeewhich developed into the Council for Adult Education.This councilziowconsists of representatives of 35 separate agencies. Some' of the councils 'report that theyactas a centerof information onall phases ofparenteducation and child development;finance lay- leadership classes;encourageinstruction and research in this field; conduct institutes and demonstrations; give publicityioparent- education problems; and discover State find local parent-education needs. . PARENT EDUCATION IN CITY SCHOOL sYSTEMS Many city schoolsystemsin New York State, Texas, Arkansas, 'Oklahoma, and in California have inaugurated parent-education proj- ectsunder public-school funds.These projects have been suqessful in Albany, Amsterdam, Binghamton, Mount Vernon,Roctiester, Schenectady, and Syracuse, N. Y.; in Berkeley, Long Beach, .Los Angeles, Pasadena, and other cities in California; in Fort Smith and Little Rock, Ark.; and in Dallas, El Paso, Fort Worth, Houston, Lubbock, and Tyler, Tex.In Austin there isaparent-education project conducted under the extension division of the University of Texas.Oklahoma City and rulsa, Okla., have directors in charge of parent education.State leadership is furnished in the State home- economicsprogram.Inmostof the cities named above, directors of parenteducationareemployed by the boards of education. Insomecitiespersonsworking inarelated field suchasli9me economicsoradult education give part-time service in parent education andsomesuperintendents of schools rport that they givepart- time servicetothe work. The parent-teacher association isanimportantassetin arousing interest in the developingprogramsof parent education in city school systems.Accordingto reports, parenteducation is generally ini- tiated into the school system inresponsetothe dèmands and interests of parents' organizations. I. Many superintendents ,of schools dependtwontheir directors of parenteducation to keep parents informed of thepurposesof the school'sprogramand particularly of the changes that becomeneces- saryinaprogressive school system. In the Binghamton public schools, for instance, the director of parent education prepared outlines fora coursefor parents' studygroups on newtrends ip education by which parentsweremadeawareof why changesaresnècessary in education, insuljectcontent,and in teaching methods.Anothercourse was preparedonhome-school relationship.

4' 56 BIENNIAL sultvEY OFEDUrATION. 1934-36 UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 1 University extensionwork is of wide variety andcomprehensivet). tothe adult needswhich itserves.It employs fot itspurposesuch techniques of instructionasconferences, demonstrations, lectures, institutes, exhibitions,correspondence study, and variouskinds of classroom practices.Instruction ofacredit and noncredit type inan increasing number of subject-matterfields is offeredonthe cullege level (includinggraduate work), the secondarylevel, and without anyspecific level.In the ia:=tcasethe educationd reference to :op experiencesareprovided witha purposepeculiar to the needs of adult 4°'groupsand their ability to profitby instruction. Bittner,'7 writingonuniversity and college extensionwork in 1936, sa'ys: * * * almosteverysection of the population is at timesbrought into contact with somephase of extension.In the formally organized class and correspondencecouNesthe number of adults whose average ageis about 30 is variously estimated to hpbetween 200,000 and 300,000, the latter estimate including part-time studentsin afternoon and evening classes atthe college seat.In 48 institutions the totalenrollment in 1934-35was285,548; the total number of individuals,18J,49S.Thirty-six of these institutions re- portedanenrollment of 67,114 indistinctly noncredit classes.The informal "general" extension servicesreachmanyhundreds of thousands, and, if agricultural extension isincluded, the totalrunsinto millions. In thesamearticle Bit tner furthersays: During the depression universityand college extension in mostStaty increased itsscope,servingnew groupsin specialways.A notable develop- mentwasthe adaptation by the Stateuniversities of Nebraska,InCliana, Minnesota, followed by others, ofcorrespondencecoursesforusein locally supervised classesgroup studyby mail for students unable to attendcollege. The dataonenrollments in various types ofuniversity-extension -work, presentedonthe followingpages, arefrom the Report of the CommitteeonStatistics *and Research of theNational University Extension Association:38 Bittner, W. S., In handbookof Adult Education, 1936, the AmericanAssociation of Adult Education, New York.

SPBittder, W. S., Indiana University, Bloomington, Intl. 58 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATIoN. 1934-36 r ENROLLMENTS IN VARIOUS TYPES OF Extension 4 Total in cpedit . Total in noncredit CIUSSeS cittsses Institution

En- : In- En- .! In-

' roll- divid- roll- divid- meut uals ment uals

1 2 3 4 5

1 Utiversity of Alabama 2, 492 2.492 0 0 2 University of Arizona 145 116 3 University of Arkansas 536 428 44 44 4 University of California 27, 912 7, 304 13, 062 7, 079 6 University of Chicago 5. 373 3 557 6 University of Colorado 1, 058 630 - 558 232 7 Columbia 1.:niversit3' 15, 376 .I 5, 084 8 University of Denver 249 101 9 University System of Georgia 1, 370 914 10 Harvard University 1. 302 970 11 University of Ilawail 4 252 4 218 415 415 11 University of Idaho

13 University of Illinois 421 1 380 0 14 Indiana University 8, 997 3, 81u 887 S50 15 Iowa State College 298 844 16 State University of Iowa 17 Kansas State College 18 University of Kentucky 1. 717 490 20 20 19 Louisiana State University 4, 720 3, 102 405 4u5 .20 Massachusetts Department of Education 27, 394 21 University of Michigan 3, 812 3, 284 733 563 22 University of Minnesota 8,096 5, 291 2, 588 I 1, 692 23 University of Missouri 632 300 24 University of Nebraska 537 366 841 554 25 University of New Mtxico 179 117 26 University of North Carolina 2 577 870 27 University of North Dakota 125 125 ,28 Ohio University 1, 358 740 -29 University of Oklahoma 179 77 30 Oregon State System of Higher Education 4 197 2 323 31 Pennsylvania State College 4 982 2 237 9, 098 5, 461 32 -University of Pennsylvania 3 787 3 787 62 52 33 University of Pittsburgh 10 725 4 292 . 34 Rutgers University...... 3 2, 431 1 081 3676 I 338 35 University of South Dakota 48 32 38 Syracuse University 3 068 1,644 30 22 37 UnIversity of Tennessee 1 252 750 575 462 38 Texas Technological College 522 458 155 142 39 University of Texas 575 462 .- 40 University of Utah 1 590 1 416 51' 51 41 University of Virginia 2 021 1 394 141 ! 3 141 42 State College of Washington If 190 43 University of Washington 1 611 1 472 878 775 44 Washington University 4 163 3 255 1, 757 1, 382 45 West Virginia University v 40 14 1,, 954 1, 954 48 i College o William and Mary 210 200 47 University of Wisconsin 8 666 6, 248 6, 023 2, 525

' ADULT EDUCATION 59 UNIVERSITY EXTENSION WORK,1935-36

Correspondence or home study Correspondenceorhome study

! Active enroll- College Noncredit High-school Reading New enrollments credit I ; courses courses courses ments for the year

En- I In- En- I In- En- In- En- I In- En- I In- En- In- roll- divid- roll- divid- roll- divid- roll- I divid- roll- divid- roll- divid- ment uals meat uals ment uals ment i uals meat uals ment uals

7 8 le 11 1? 13 14 16 16 17

3, 090 2, 105 3, 090 2, 105 2, 354 1, 603 .1 175 282 282 175...... fai ...... 432 341 2 1, 625 1, 393 1, 494 1, 2Z6 23 20 108 97 1, 055 .0 904 3 3, 422 2, 380 2, 457 1, 638 965 742 2, 939 2,034 4 4, 213 3, 577 3, 852 3, 271 92 1 78 259 3 220 10 2s 2, 1163 1,796 a 2, 728 1, 671 1, 967 1, 249 27 74 48 1 680 1347 1, 763 1, 119 a 3 2, 5003 2, 500 (1) (3) (3) 741 576 7 83 83 Mike 8 2, 255 1, 668 9 10 5 5 5 5 11 687 584 613 539 12 512 476 512 476 463 432 13 1, 994 1, 616 1, 495 1, 518 8 8 91 90 173 153 1, 621 1, 313 14 _ 15 1, 978 1, 838 '1, 978 1, 838...... 820 703 18 1, 006 794 701 552 25 23 247 195 33 24 1, 110 3 820 17 725 630 701 613 3 3 21 14 569 521 18 981 707 978 705 633 445 19 4, 298 20 1, 502 825 1, 415 775 87 50 21 3, 108 2, 513 2, 772 2, 216 99 90 237 207 1, 687 1,443 22 1, 316 3 1, 280 1, 200 1 1, 160 116 3 100 1, 419 1, 234 23 3, 759 2, 296 2, 062 1, 429 3 2 1, 695 871 2, 518 1,503 24 209 165 209 209 165 25 1,032 I 804 993 774 39 30 1, 469 1,077 26 859 700 725 600 db e 411. w 400.006. 1:;4 1004,- 27 719 ...... 991 726 .. 248 28 2, 251 1, 585 1, 176 897 . 1,0605 688 1, 786 1, 170 29 1, 590 1, 251 1, 272 1, 028 75 47 243 176 2, 320 973 771 30 1, 617 1, 140 1, 247 848 300 264 20 18 sto 10 934 670 31 32 33 3 989 446 34 139 I 121 35 t. 36 764 544 750 537 1 1 13 7 50 ----- 87 1, 074 755 1, 03 2 722 42 33 1, 254 893 38 1, 792 1, 434 1, 749 1, 399 7 8 313 29 2, 020 1, 634 39 597 507 566 477 2 2 29 28 ...... 447 372 40 81 73 81 73 232 232 71 63 41 820..... 15 800 42 788 679 761 654 12 11 -15 . 14 43 44 46 46 8, 657 8, 068 49 4, 324 o4,008I 3,744 4, 076 3, 707 47

s a

5 a:

:6"-` 60 l'blENNI.kl. SURVEYOF EDUCATION.1934-36 ENROLLMENTS IN VARIOUSTYPES OF UNI

IMP /10 Correspondence or home st udy a

College credit %1 ! Noncreditcourses Institution course..

Enroll- Individ- Enroll- ; went uals i ment uals

1 ls 19 L 29 21

1, 603 1 University of Alaharna 2 374 2 University of Arizona 432 I 341 3 Universit y of Arkansas . 97'5 S39 15 12 I 4 Universitof Calif9rnia .,210 1, 473 729 561 I ; 36 5 University of Chicago 1, 9:).7 2 1, 645 43 6 University ofCo1nrtilf,... 1. '.:03 630 17 17 (7) j (') C) . Columbia University (') 8 University of Denver 9 iUnixersity Systemtof Georgia ...... 1, 4s2 i 1, 129 1,4%2 1. 2.:9 10 Harvard Universit y . . 11 ; University of Hawaii

12 ! rniversity of 1(10%o 4r4i 432 i. 13 -\ University ofIllinois 5 I 5 14 Indiana tnilersity. 1, 52s 1,22ti

15 ! Iowa StMe College 820 7o3 i 16 ; State UniVersity ofIowa 2 ii 171 Kansas State College 12 2 612' ; 16 553 512 2 2 i 18 I University of Kentucky 19 Louisiana State University 630 443 20 Massachusetts Departmentof Education 21 University of Michirtri 22 University ofN1innesota 1,512 1, 2%z1 1 51 51 23 University of Nfissouri 1,237 1, 01 University of Nebraski 1, 2:43 849 3 2 24 %no 25 University of NewMexico 209 :044 2+1 University of North Carolina 1, 429 1, 039 40 .10-University.of North Dakotl 400 360 OP 28 Ohio University (.) (_) (.) ) 29 University ofOk1ahrAna 719 490 30Oregon State Systemof Higher Eilucation 774 639 I 55 t26 31 Pennsylvania StateCollege 696 500 177 150 32 4 University ofPennsylvania_ 33 University of Piltshurgh ...... 34 Rutgers University 306 175 I 35 1niversity of South Dakota 241 192 3t5 Syracuse University 37 University ofTennessee 1,185 83; 38 I Texas Technological College 39 University of Texas 1, 970 1, 593 S 1 7 40 University of Utah. 430 355 1 1 1 1 41 University of Virginia 71 63 42 StateCollegeof Washinglon 485 .. I , 43 University of Washington 6S5 612 9 9 44 Washington University -1 I 1 a 45 West Virginia University 1 46 College Of WilUarn andMary 6 47 University of Wisconsin 12, 173 1 2,007t 1, 903 6 1, 780 . I 1EmSm., Bole footnotes at eond of table.

4 .11

.s--"

I.!: ADULT EDUCATION 61 VERSITY EXTENSIONWORK,1935-36Continued

Correspondenceor homestudy Shortcourses,institute?,etc.

raw.. 4la

High-school Reading i Shortcourses Institutes Lecture series Fcre mnn courses courses tralining

.111111

: ' i ! En- In- Fn- In- En- In- ; En- . In- En- In- En- In-' I roll- 1 divid- roll- 1 i ' I divid- . roll- divid- roll- i divid- roll- div id- roll-¡ divill- ; 1 i ment : uals I ment uals went uals ; . ment nals ment tials ; ! ; ment uals ; 4. i .

21 24 ' 23 2$ 26 27 2,4 ! 33 11 30 31 32 1

.p a 1 _ . , '2 2 62 ! , 12 _ , . i .. . ti- i . 3 : ! ...... - - _ 2.5.3n5 i.... . _ ...... - , 4 129 11091 7 I 6 ! . t . 192 101 17., I 3,000 . ______. _ . 5 i 68 ! 30 e 475 242 ..i 725()' , 12''...... 6 . i OD ; - 1, 954' I. a ...a . i 3, 606 .. _ S . 9 $ 10 ele)

I 11 . ---I...... _ 12 326 326 : 39 39 13 88 , 90 801 88 120 120 50 50 300i 7 1 !.. 300 ..... ; _ . _ 14 2, 472 ! - - - 15 T3 3, 11 3, 511',...... ,-...- ...... ,16 262 3 1 84 20 2 ; 15 175 175 _ . _ 17 14 , 25 25 i I _ __ ...... 118 O 3 2 _ 1,369 1,369 _ 1 150 150 19 _ 20 1 1.374 1, 358 i 19. 3553 6.130...... 21 , 124 111 782*1 3 635 (10) u116.120I.. . 22 I 182 154 _ ..... 23 1, 229 636 . I. 24 25 ,. .II 1, 350 ; co_ 85 211 67 ._27 ... . _ ...... 28 , 1, 067 680 ._29 i 144 106 . 30 ¡ 11 10 50 1, 693 s85 it1,69; 1,303 1, 303 g,s,5.1 748 748 31 .. 40 32 131, o 1 1, 016 e .33 I 475 _ _ _ _ . 872 672 34 ...... 111 387 35 .1 104 104 36 188 630 2237 69 56 I120 1 3120...... 38 42 34 .1 2 21 136 136 1, 892 1.800 54 39 16 16 4 1, 079 1, 079 40 232 (232 -- 500 :500 200 I 200 . 15 41 ...... V.& 6 42 12 11 236 236 1,103 1,103 258 214 et ...... ______.43 34 34 2, 053. 2,053 e 44 358 358.. .. 45

do OW Mde do Mt.= d .. 270 I 2,045 3451_ 4487

gib 4 44

62 BIENNIALSURVEY OFEDUCATION. 1934-36 ENROLLMENTSINVVIOUS TYPES OF UNIVERSITYEXTENSION ORK, 1935-30--Continued

Short courses, institutes, etc.

Other types Total short courses, Institution etc.

Enroll- IndividEnroll- Individ-41 ment uals ment uals

Alms& SS

$4 35 84 $7

1,405 1, 405 1, 4 0 5 1 University ofAlabama ..... 1,405 2 University ofArizona 3 University ofArkansas 324 324 14 125,395 4 University ofCalifornia - University ofChicago. 17, 047 3, 101 a 250 122 6 University ofColorado 1, 988 2, 632 3, 940 7 Columbia University 2,532 8 University ofDenver 3, 606 9University Systemof Georgra 10 Harvard University 22 1/2 11 University ofHawaii 12 University ofIdaho" 1 50, 000 140, 000 2 50,365 40,365 13 University ofIllinois 410 1 1,431 1 1, 390 1, 901 1, 870 14 Indiana University Iowa State College 2,472 15 12,046 12, 046 15 State Universityof Iowa 8, 535 8, 535 175 175 17 Kansas StateCollege 2.5 25 18 University ofKentucky 832 1, 519 21351 19 Louisiana StateUniversity 20 Massachusetts Departmentof Education University ofMichigan I52,400 ...... 10 72,129 7,488 21 1,161 116, 755 22 University otMinnesota 23 University of Missouri. 24 University ofNebraska 25 University of NewMexico :- 1, 350 26 University of NorthCarolina 27 University of NorthDakota 28 Ohio University 29 University ofOklahoma 30 Oregon State Systemof HigherEducation I15, 070 19, 699 lb, 699 31 Pennsylvania StateCollege 15, 070 32 University ofPennsylvania University ofPittsburgh 1,016 1, 016 33 932 1, 806 34 Rutgers University 260 '659 University ofSouth Dakota 417 804 35 104 144 38 Syracuse University 1. Tennessee 61, 974 62, 814 37 Univers!ty of 120 38 Texas TechnologicalCollege_ University ofTexas 86 1, 922 2 199 3, 943 39 1 254 1, 254 40University ofUtah ct 175 175 I 1, 000 ,1,700 I 1, 700 41 University ofVirginia 1,000 State College ofWashington., 42 1 697 1, 553 43 University ofWashington Washington University 2 087 2, 087 .44 368 35s 45 West Virginia University William andMary. 48 College of 2, 315 47 University ofWisconsin

sv. I Includesenrollments in bothcredit and noncredit courses. I Estimated. sIncluded in activeenrollments. 4 Adulteducation divisionconducts afternoonand evening campusschool.Enrollment, 2,358; indi- tviduals, 792. Special examinationsgiven. IIncludes high-school coursesand reading courses. 7Included in newenrollments forthe year. I W PA adulteducation clams andclasses in workers'education were conductedunder the auspicesof the generalextensiondivision of the OregonState System ofHigher Education; also.tbe W PApro;eCt in began Jan. 8, 1936. . correspondencestudy (No. 628) which I 432 differentlectures. is379 differentlectures. II Estimatedattendance. 11 Includesinstitutes. . 11 Offered only in summersession. 24 Attendance.a Theprogramof theInAiana University ExtensionDivision isillus- trative of theservicesre/Welted byawell-developerplan of extension

p. ADULT EDUCATION 63 work byaState higher educationalinstitution.The division renders twoclasses of services,the extensionteaching' service andthe public welfare service.The former serviceincludescorrespondencecotu-ses, regular classco&ses,and lectures.The correspondencework is organizeNsabureau of the divisiongivingcoursesboth in higb-school and college subjects forcredit and alsocollege cotirseswithout credit. A total of 250courses wasoffered by mail in1935, withatotalcourse enrollment of9,956, and.anindividual studentenrollment of5,283. Half the credits required forthe A. B. degreemaybe earned inexten- sion class and correspondencecoursés.In 1935 therewere1,073 '- individuals and1,342courseenrollments incorrespondence work. .. Class instruction byrne extension$renters is given inmany places in the State.If inanyIndiana communityas many as20 personsorganize for thepurposeof pursuingasubject includedas an extensioncourse,the university willprovideaninsti-uctoron a weekly'orbiweekly basis.In 1935 therewere403 classes in extension work withaclass enrollmentof8,614, andanindividualstudenten- s.. rollment-of4,210. The lecture.bureauof the extension 'divisionrenders serviceon a State-wide basisto communities andgroupsofpersonsdesiringto keep abreast 6f the timesoncurrent questions.The bureau fee fora lecture is$15, andnocharge is madefor travel. Onthis basis, staff members from nearlyeverydepartment of theuniversityareOnus made available for lectdrepurposes. The public 'welfareservice of theextension divisiongives direct s.ervices andcooperates with agencies throughouttheStatethat have for their objectiveservicesto meet community needs of.awelfare nature suchasthose relatedtohealth, Childwelfare, antrciviccon- ditions.The generaltypes of activities carriedonby this service include aidto organizations, clubs, and publicand private agencies efigaged in welfareand educational wo?k;for example, the State Health Council, theIndiana Federationof Music Clubs,and the Indiana Federationof Art Clubs. In addition, thepublic welfare serviqeincludesabureau ofparent- teachers associations,abureau of child Welfare,apublic discussion bureau, andavisual instructienbureau.Included in theservices rendered by theparent-teachers associationbureau isaidto the Indiana Congressof Parents andTeachers "in coordinatingand standardizing thevarious sfudy andreadingcoursesmid in setting up acertificationsystem for these courses.". The bur-eau ofchild welfareworks with agencies andorganizations in ihe State,carrying onchild-welfare activities,rendering advisory services,and supplying informationalmaterial, including motion-picturefilms, exhibits, and paçkage libraries.The public discussionbureau assists local organizations inproviding,programs forthe discussion of educational,civic,

o. 64 BIENNIAL. SURVEY OFEDUCATIÒ.N.1934-36

and socialproglems.rtfurnishesreading and study materialsSflfl(1 gives counsel in. the selection ofcurrentproblems of .public intvest. Theexte%ntof 'this service is indicated by the f6Ilowing data,taken fromareportfor 1934-35 of the IndianaUniversityExtension Divi- sion: Package library loans,5,881; plays lent for inspection, 2,812; .club study package loans, 334.Tile visual instruction bureausup- pliesonloanalarge number of laritern slides, motionpictures, and exhibit materialstoboth schools and community agencies.Com- Munity agen6.es,representing adult education activities,included in' the seiv.ires ofillis.bureau,numbered 209 in theyear1934=35,and the number of?roups'servedapproximated650.

PRIA§ONEDUCATION While the detailedreportsonthe educationprogramsofmanyof the prisons throughout thecountryrevealapathetic situation,-thestudy of theprogramsin the prisonsover aterm ofyearsis encouraging. Contrast, for example, iThat Austin 14. Mac.Cormick said in1931 with what he said in 1936 relativetoprison education.In tbe formeryear he asked the question, "Whatis being done in the fruitfuleducational sfieldivpresented by the hundred thousand inmatesofourPIrisonsand Jeformatories 'formenandwomen,whoarefor themost part wader- educated adults withsomecapacity for education and timeto devote t.tto it?'tandNanffered it in the following words: "Takingthecountry as awhole;w'e aretoleratingatrigic failure.'Of all the fields in which the American penal institution gives evidence of futility,education

xerynearly heads the list. INotasingle complete and well-rounded educationalprogram,ade-quately financed and staffedwasencounfered in, all the prisonOn thecountry.In lessAliga dozen prisons is the work extensive endughoreffective enouglror sufficiently well supèr- visedtorise above the level of mediocrity." " In 1936 Mr. MacCormickwrote: 4° The milleniurn in prison education hasnot yetarrived, but American pri.sons have unquestionably become education-consciousinthAastfewyears.* * * Incurrentnewsnotesonereads suCh itemsasthitanall-time high invo1un-6 tary enrollments for educational work has been refitted at the United State:-. Northeastern Penitentiary; that 71percent of the prisoners received at.the

. Federal Reformatory at Chillicotheduring the pastyearenrolled insomeform of educational work; that the first schoolin the history of the institution has. been started at the Nevada State Penitentiary; that&thenewschool building at the Norfolk (Mass.) Prison Colony has been completed; that in 1936

development of the educational department of the Michigan State Prison A J'acksonwillsurpassits 1935 accomplishments, already subst4ntia1 enough; thatjlie inmates of San Quentin, largest prison in thecountry, continue to 'earn-higher grades than those of free students in the University of California ext&isioncourses. to MacCormick, Austin H. The education of adult prisoners.National society of penal information. '--7-L" 4 a 1931. , 1 4. MacCormick, Austin H.Pris6neas'progress. Journal of adult education, 8. 254-68, June 1936.

I 110 401.

v ADULTEDUCATD a 65 5 . Between thetwo periods reportedbyIr. MacCormickprozress-in prison educationwasreported in1933 in eHandbookof.11ncricaN Prisonsasfollows: "

. * * * The fieldof academiceducat1shiiw-sa gcneralupwaI trend. Old-fashionedgrade-sclloolcurricula and merhodsaregivingway, to the moresuited to the needsand interestsof.adults.hidi\ iduhlizedinstruction, -throughcorrespondencecyurses,Lindin theclassroom, is thepredominating note in thereorganization ofthe educationalwork inaJargenumber of. institutions.VocationaleducOion haspot entirely kuptpacewith academic. Niapyinstitutions stillpreservetilefiction of"trade training,"while other-, realizing that it isonly fictions, hAvegiven itup without ha\ itut anythingto substitute in its place.In viéy oftIde relativeltsmall numberofprisi)ner; whopossessthe qualificationsof skillednwchanies,thenwager opporttuip for teachinganythingInorethan the rudinientsofatrade underintittitional conditioN, andthe difficultyofan;an'sfindingemployment ina I occupation afterhis release,itecms 'evident that vocationaltraining in penal institutionswi lave to emphasizegeneral industrialcompetence rather thantechnical 4i1ls the majorityof _prisoners.Just howthe work will be organizedon atraini vel isnot yet clear and,unfortunately,any advances alongthis linemust await thesolution of theprison laborproblem. Reforms in prisoneducationwereinitiated .11'ythe Federal Gov6rn- ment in 1930 throughprovisions fortrainededlicational staffsfor its prisons and reTormatories.This forwafdstepwasfollowed by improved practicesin instructionand thebroadening ofthe ,curriculuni to indltide 6ultural subjects.The Stateof New Yorkfollowed the 'exam.ple s'etby the FederlaGovernment. \Majorfactors in* thestriking changesof the last5yearsin New York institutionswerethesurveysand reportsof the so-called"LewisohnCommis- sion, the appointmentof:Walter M.Wallack,atrained educator,asdirector ofeducarionin the ElmiraReformatory, histransfer laterto the newly created position of directóiof education inthe Stiitedepartment ofcorrec- tion, and the appoint-Merit_hy.QovernorLehman ofacommissiononprison education, which includedsome of the leadingeducational and penalexperts in the State.Thiscommission hasbeenpersisientand active;its work hasnowbeen consolidatedhy the inclusionin thecurrent State budget of substantialsumsfornew educationalpettonnellequipment, and suppliein e all State institutions.Thewayin which Elmira,the grandfatherof educi--: . tional reformatories,has bell completelyreorganized andrevivified isa story in itself * * *. But it isat Wallkill * **thatademon- . . stration of Nation-widesignificance is beingcarriedon. ° In1934, bymeansofagrant fromafoundation,therewereseured for Wallkill: Two well-trainedmen,Howard L. Briggs,vocational specialist,and Glenn M. Kendall,curriculum specialist.Theywerecharged particularlywith establishinga program of social. education:With selectingthe contentand method of bothacademic andvocational education.The curriculumlabor- atory of Teachers eolleger.ColumbiaUpiversity, preparedspecial teaching _ . . material with thatend in mind * * *.

41 Handbookof AmamiPrisons and Reformatories.NewVork.TbOsborne.Associatión,Inc., 1933. I

4s.

s. . ...pm A

..._ 66 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION.1934-36 Classesareheldduiing both the day and evening hours.In the evening alsciWc....organized dramatic, musical,journalistic,and public-speakiniz groupsmeet.An avocational shop is available forthose who wish tou.(. theirleisure time in pursuinghobbies.Prisoners have freeaccessto the library andcanstend theirsparetime in its attractive reading rooms. None of the educational work at Wallkill iscNmpulsory,with theexcep- tion of that forafew illiterates.Yet 56 percent of the prisonersareenrolled on avoluntary basis;.lastyearthe figurearasonly 21 percent.Eighty-two percenfule the library.42 With reference to the Wallkillprogram,Howard L. Briggs, speakinr before themeetin.g of the Adult Education Associationin1936, said: Much research is necessary to determine the effectiveness of the work, and that effectiveness will probably always depend, toalarge extent,upon.the

treatment of the prisoners during their periodof parole. , Ourjòbwithin the prisons is basicallyoneof the reformation of attitudes and the ptocting of skills that will enableourinmates to adjust themselves happily and effectively toafree society when theyarerestored to it. . No ac.count, however brief, reviewingprogressin 'prison education Fould be complete withoutastatementcòncerning the &ogre= in the United States Industrial Reformatory atChilico"the,Ohio.This is oneof thenewerFederal penal institutions,establisiiedin1926. While the institution receives first offenders whoare mowthan 17 yeirs *ofage,90 percentarenotover35yearsofagewhile most of themare notmorethan 25yearsold.The dominant objective is "socialized education," adapted to the conditions. ofpenal life and the needs of

the inmates:N.. Both general and vocationálcourses areilicluded in thepro.gram.

, , The day school of this institution, inwhich attendance is-compulsory% is conductedon ahalfklay basis and is devojed to teaching thetool'

. subjects toWiteratesitandnearilliterates through the fifth-graxle level asdeterihined by thenewStanford achievement test.In the evening School. work in the elementary %gradesis_ continued and selective

. courses ari;3provided in such subjectsasscience, health, occupations, citizenship, and government,asthese apply to everyday life.Inddi- A ,,tiotl,,instruction is givenin such school subjectsasarithmetic, English, and history.Voc4tional work thit icarriedonin the class- roomsincludes -the theory oféleictricity,irdrafting,typing, and short- hand.Voctitionalqrainhig in4c6iytruction and maintenance is given bymeansof work about thebitildingsand grounds. The practices followediinstruction,. the seleCtion ofcurriculyin subjects, andithe examinationtsiiidtesting of theirimatesfor thepurposeof classifying them Lindproviding suitableprogramsfor their rehabilitation,all.give evidence ofcareful experimental and research. work in prison-educationalproblems. Anoutstanding piece of work s °I Austin H. MaeCornalek, Prisoners' progress.Journal of adult education, 8: 264-4 June:1936.

. tis

Nfr -v. Sip* Vs 40011.,..40,41/4. ,

- _ e ADULT EDUCATION .67

isareearch studyinvestiga ting reading materialfor adult illiterates andnear-illiterates.Q With referenge to testand other personal dataand informationon inmates, AllenL. Shank, supervisor of education,says: Educators in penal institutions,whoareconfronted with developingtech- niques in planningof trainingprogramstor.inmates in their respectiveinsti- tutionS, willfind that the problem embodiesthepropertesting, diagnosis, and appraisalof factual informatiop ccincerningthe inmateas abasis for definite functioning programsof guidance and training. ...The educational department keeps afolderoneachman as acumulative filé in which appears the initialStanfordachievemelittest,aninterview record sheet, a copyof 1 of the man's schoolwork. de admission summary,school records, and samples On the interyiewsheet isaphotograph and otheridentification information, record of schoolingclaimed, educational age,Stanford achievement test grade, psychological rating,length of time spent inschool, kind of school attended, and other generalinformation thatcanbe secured about theman's wellas iaiscel- . schoolcareerand work experience.All of these data,as other laneousinfoimation,arekept in this cumulative file. The United StatesNortheastern Penitentiary,which is another oneof thenewerFederal institutes, openedin 1932,emphasizes the importanceof studying andrecording dataonthe inmates' capacities andhistory. Eachindividual is given theStamford achievement test,following which he is privatelyinterviewed forinformation relative to the man'sinterests, aptitudes,aspirations, andintentiöns uponrelease.Baseduponthis information,atentativeeducational programis outlined. A recent reportof the institutiononits educational programstates that: 4

1 At the beginning of eachfiscalyearthe director eduthflon is allotted a budget, againstwhicharecharged allexpensesincwred by hisdepartment for

ND textbooks, equipment, and schoolsupplies....The paidor"civilian" personnel consists ofthe director It education,thé assistant director, two supervising instructors,andastenographer-clerk.. Except foracertain -amount ofdemonstration teachingdoneeby supervisors,all direct teaching is done by inmates. Courseson ahigh-school levelaremade available tothose whocan profit by theinstruction; correspondence orcell study isprovided for;) "those for whom it is feasible;vgscational trainingis giveli toselected individfials, about 10 percentqualifying .for thi,-work. About 50. percentof the inmatesare onthe roll forinstrudtion in somecourse. The necessityfor suitable andadequateeducationalprogramshi penal instituaons is apparentwhen theincreasing prisonpopulation is

considered. .According tocompilations madefrom dataco*kined in the Handbook'of AmericanYrisons andReformatories, 1933, 1924 to 1933.In the PI pfison populationapproximatelydoubledfrom lattèryeartherewere morethat 12,000in Federalcivil prisons and e 41 For further details seeProgramProjects andStudies in CurriculumMaking.Mutational Depart- ment, Vaned StatesIndustrial Reformatory,Chillicothe, Oblo. , 68, BIENNIALSURVEY OFEDUCATIoN.1934-36 reformatories andabout146,000 in Stateprisonsand reformatories. The follow inLrdata froma recent report show theextent of educational programsin Federalinstitution:

QT'ARTERtXREPetRT OFEDUCATIONALDEPARTMENTSOF FED- FPLATIPENALINSTITUTIONS,JANUARY,FEBRUARY,MARCH, 1n7 [The (!ataare averages for the period] AM r , Total enrollment - - in Nun-. herNumt.er Total Tot al riven nfenun Institution popu-school standardselinz ;try: keviernic I Outside enrn11- 'and Voca- Inside ed;ica- Ince lation , guid corr".- corre- 1 ruent tional f tional .; inter- general groupsprindence,spondenee'tests -gLisse ; VieAb courses I courses 1

2 i 3 I 4 5 IF 7 s I Mo. Penitentiaries

A leatraz t I 277 45 45 . 45 A tLolta .111 2.962 1,174 877 ! 38 93 235 392 . 1.)61 Fort Leav enworth 1397 344 159 63 : 1n3 HAI Leavenworth._.. 2.945 917 50i '27 69 620 113 I 400 Lewisburg 1,377 540 I 415 105 I 2.5 21)6 McNeil Island 2S6 lul 4 1,006 722 8.54 70 4 27 64 21u Reformatories

Alderson 529 367 311 257 1 21 21 Chillicothe t 1,246 566 25 343 6 232 304 El Reno_ 846 364 384 19 26 ' 152 76 Jails I. 0. La Tuna._ 503 127 146 M ilan M 485 128 127 L 18 73 New Origins, _ 326 66 64 .. 6 Camps Dupont 1661 40 47 32 1 4 43 Montgomery 206. 37 25 Petersburg 10 3 681 170 168 1 137 17

. Hospital Springfield 581 17 12 2 3 18

Total. 15,503 1 6,684, t.428 U2 233 1, 302 1, US 1* 828

01' ADULT CIVICEDUCATIONTHROUGHPUBLIC FORUMS Outstandingamongthenewer typesof agenciesfor adult educa- tionifnot new at leasta verymdk,11 modifiedform ofanoldtype of agencyis thepublic forumfor thediscussion #ofpublic affairs.The developmmt, ofthistype of Adult educationagencyisa conseqtience of the increasinginterest that thegreat bulk ofourpoPulationis mani- festing insocial-civicconditionsencountered ineverydayexperiences, and the visiotofafew. educatioptleaders whosaw tinopportunity for using educaiionfacilities andtecbniques inprovidinga meansfor capitalizinguponthis interest,to'theend that publicthought in regard fe to public. questionsmight beimproved.Withreference-to thisgrow- ing intereitontiepart of themasses,J. W.Studebaker in Officeof Education Bulletin,1936, No.6, AdultCivicEduotion.says: 01. I

s , . ADULT ED1TATION . 69

1 These peoplecanbe tied intoaneducationalprocess,ifoureducational systemissoorganizedasto permit the masses to gointo the sel:oolhouAcs t %. and other convenient meetingplaces in all the Communities of theNation, and there, with the helpof capable forum leaders, carry forward afree and many-sided discussion ofpublic affairs. . . The forum method, properlymanazed, is basically educational andflind-a- mentally democratic.It develops the willingness to giveand take, to ex- infurination;Ntu respeci the rights uf ()then, it, the 'to chanwe opinicns and share expression of honest beliefs.The forum ttehnique, whenwidely practiced, isanantitoxin against the disease germs of anauthoritarian dogmatism. Me basic assumption of thepublic forum is that truth is notthe monopoly A -Itqlny individual, class,or group,shut rather the rcsult ofacooperative se7;trch-4441acontinuousprocessof public sharing. The Ilandbook of AdultEductioD in the United StateI 936,!_rives abriefveoluntofmorethana scoreof forums conductod invarious partof -the United States.An-1 na1:sis4 their administrotive or,rrtni- zation, their support, and theirprogramsc:liow\VIdvariations.Some othese foriimsareorganized and administered jointly bythe public schools and local civic and sccial'organizations,someby social and civic organizations alone,someby school,: alone.someby universities,some by public libraries,andafew by religious organizations.Theirsup- portincludes eitberone or somecombination of the followingmeans: Subscriptions, admission fees, educational foundations, anticontribu- tions by supporting friends.Their sessionsmaybe Iwldon anyday iof the week includingSunday.Meetingsareusually held we.ekly. . Theirprogramsdeal with topics related to such subjectsaspublic welfare, social and civicproblems,racerelation, national andinter- national affairs,literature' andart,sociology, drama, laborunions, social security,curi.enteconomic and politicalphilosophies, municipal government,-.)revention of busines;depressions, parentalproblèms, travel, cultural andsocial developments in EurOpe,international relations, birth control,social credit, andpeace.' In 1935 and 1936,the Office of Educationwasallotted from the Federat Einèrgency ReliefAppropriationsumsinexcessof $600,006 forapublic forumpróject.This project eigliblisheddemonstration centerswith community-wideprogramssimilarto*theonewhich has been operated in DesMoi4§,Iowa, in recentyears.In theiropera- tion the demonstration centersemploy, in addition to highlytrained specialized forum leaders,unernpktyedteacherslibrarians;and clerical4 assistants.The fifst forumprograms wereopened in three ldcalitiesin 40 Febrnary 1936.Since that time forum centershave been established a in the following 19 States:California, Colorado, Minnesota,New Hampshire, -West Virginia,Tennessee, New York, Kans.as,Arkarisas, Orepn, Conneeticut, Georgia,North Carolina, Ohio,Pennsylvania, Texas,Washingiim,Wisconsin, and Utah. . . The forum demonstration centers wereselected afteraconferencé called by Commissioner ofEducation, J. W. Studebaker,of outstand- . 70 BIENNIAL SURVEY OFEDUcATION. 1934-36

e ingpersonsinterested in educationand social andpublic welfare problems.Thecenters operate under the auspices of the localboards of education and in eachcenter the public-school superintendentis named'asthe administrator ofthe local project.Thepurposeof this Federal project, administeredby the Commissionerof Education, is to demonstrate the techniques and the Value§of this kind ofanadult educationprogram.The basic principleslaid down for organk'ing and conducting the forumcenters emphasize: (a) Local responsibility and control.Each project is organizedand manted bythe local educational authorities underthe policies prescribedby school boards and suggested by advisory committees.(b) Selection offorum leaders by the localagencyof public education.(c) Subjects for discussionto be determined by the localmanagement with the aid of local advisory committees.(d) Not fewer than10 forum meetingsareto be held in eachneigliborhoodin the community.(e) The meetingsareto be free to the public.(f) Each demonstration istocontributeareportonthe s. experiences and research work. The forumcenters..were located in districts that differ widely both in size and generalcharacteristics.For eiample, PulaskiCounty, Ark., agriculturallyacotton community, with Little Rockasthe Maincen- ter; Sedgwick County, Kans., with -Wichita, lyingin the wheat arid oil fields; the cityandcounty ofSchenectady,N. Y.; Minneapolis, Minn.; Orange County, Calif.; Hamilton County,Tenn., with .Chat- tanoogaasits maincenter and the TVA notfar:distant. From thescoresof subjects discussed inthe different forumqnter& the following examplesshow the widerangeof social civic questions considéredat these public meetings: Where willourgood neighbor policy lead us?Capitalism and religion inthe mod- go- ernworld.Democracy,past and present.Consumers'cooperation in Sweden. The Supreme Court,guardianor gagof the Constitution.Fapcismordemoc- racy.Social significance of the TennesseeValley Authority. Newaspects of the Monroe Doctrine.Good localgovernment.Solving the unemploymentprob- km,.Whoarethewarmakers? Canwemake private enterpriseself-regulat- ing?Life begins with finearta.Prime prevention.America's role in world affairs.Economic nationalismfactorpolicy?Growth and significanceof consumers' cooperatives. The size of theprogramsin 17 differentcentersin operation titthe samé time isshown by the following data taken from there.p.ortforone month: Neighborhood 'meetingsbeld,1,274, withanatlendanceof 101,072; luncheon meetings,35, withanattendance of 2,028;small discussion meetings,51, withanattendance of1,561; city, county-wide meetings,5, withanattendance of53,854; number of different leaders, 118; library books checkedout at meetings, 199; pamphlets.soldat me s,1,381; pamphlets distributedatmeetings,15,828;applieca- ion r-librftry cards,16; radioprograms,242 Each of the forum demonstrationcenters is toprepare aAnalreport " containing informationonthe organizationand operation of itspron

e e- a- ADULT,' EDUCATION 71 gramsand othermaterial that will be useful for the further developmentof public forumsfor the discussion of public affairs.An idea of thevalue of suchareportmaybe had from analysis of the content of thefinal report of theColorado Springs forum in operation from March 16, 1936, toMay 31, 1937.Tbis report containsmorethan 500mimeographedpages vkithanabundance of illustratPd material suchas mapsof the regions served, postermaterials, and printedpro- grams.The report dealswith the following topic: Measuring the results of theprogramsdealing with practical results of theprograms, their effect uponthe community,and reactions received relativeto the programs;problems .of administration;administrative organizations;librar3,' service;promotional work, cooperation withhigh schools and theColorado College; questionsof procedure; plans formulated for thecontinuation of theforum progfam in communities. J. NV.Studebaker in The AmericanWay "saysin referencetothe need forpublic forums: Ifwe areto have thattrained civic intelligence, that criticalopen-dninded- ness uponwhich the practical operation of a democracy mustrest,wemust soontake steps to establishthroughout the Nationanimpartial, comprehen- sive,systematic, coordinated, andcompetently managed system of public forums, publiclysupportediand publicly administered. In thesamepublication the authordridicates thevaluestobe derived frompublic forumsasfollow: Public forums.make certain definite contributions toeffective citizenship. They make available toall citizens impartial Analyses of national andinter- national problemswhich could otherwise be obtainedonly by extensive reading. They place at theservice of the adults of the communitytxperts whoare trained fn the artof impartial analysis of complicatedissues.. They continuethrough adult life the habit, oflearning. Weoncethought 9 that only the youngcould learn;now weknow that adult experience makes learningmoreeffective. Theyencourageadults to consultmpreintelligently the information available to them inprinted form.Through reading lists Kepared in'cooperation with publiclibraries and presented and frequently referred to by foiumlead- ers,adultsareencouraged to read morewidely and effectively. They create a newteaching profession, the professionof forumlea4dersliip, with bothschorarlytraining and theabilityto apply the bestavailable knowledge to.thesolution of the practicalproblems of national life. Thty develop amongadults the technique andhabit of discussion.Not only do forumsbecome stimulating arenasin which opinionsareexchanged, but the forumhabit carriesoverbeyondthe "forum hour."

* * 4`.,the publicforum provides anopportunity to discusspublic issues.it helps to make clearerthe close connection betweenthese issues and the personalproblems of the youngergeneration.By suchmeansit helps to break down youth'sindifference to the problemsof government.By drawing yigorous youngminds, fresh from thework of school,lnto evenniore Big- *ant and practicallearning situations,the public forumcanmakearich iontribution toa morecreative public opinion.

41 Studebaker, J.W. The AmericanWay. New Tork,McOraw-Hill.BodCO.,1936.

. 72 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION.1934-36

In brief, the essentials ofapublic forumare(1)anasserriblage ofpeople, ,(2)acapable leader, and (3)animportant subjectof current interestfor discussion. The general objectivesare(1) exchange ofinfórmationand point ofview; (2) development of toleranceand open-mindedness, baseduponpractice ina kind of critical thinking whichestablishes habits of cautionin accepting conclusions.This type of thinking and analyzingcreatesadesire to search formoredefinite evidence beforeatentative conclugion becomesaconviction.

CONCLUSION b. Thepastfewyearshaveseenthecourseof adult educationgreatly strengthened in public) thought.In theory,at least,there is general ifnot universal recognition of the need for providingeducation ta opporMntities for adults that will resultin better publicpractices and conditions that affect the socialgroup as awhole and in' increased individual efficiency andhappiness andanimproved socialviewpoint. In practice there isacontinuing increase inthe number andkinds of educational subject-matterareasincluding for adults,the number I °oftadults participating in these educationalexperiences,- and thedif- ferent kinds ql agencies renderingeducational servicesto adults. More-over, there is slowly developingabody of principlesthat is serving-to give direction tothe adult-edwalionmovement end which offers prbmise ofaneventuating philosophy foradult educa- tionsosound in its doctrine that it willstand the proof ofanytouch- stone forsocial serviceorpublic responsibility. A hopeful indication for the future.development ofa programof education for adults is the.interestmanifested in it bydielay public, aninterest that isnot merely receptive but active and articulate not only in the creation of favorable public opinion, butin the forinu- lation of objectives, the determination olpractices, and theadminis- tration of theprograms..As-aconsequence,the adult-educationmovement isnowfairly free from public criticismand has escapedthe charge made againstmany neweducationalmovements, namely, that they arefad§ and frills.Contributingto the developinent of this desirable situation is the fact that adult echicationisa programfor adults under the control of adults, that,inmost instances, the results cifa program inalocal communityareobjective and easily checkedfor the realiza- tion of the aims for which theprogram wasinaugurated, and that the values accruing aie immediateand, therefore, convincingto the offi- cials who provided theprogram. The present favorablestatus of . adult education is wellsummarized by Wyer inthe followingstate- wilt: 45 Educators whoafewyears ago sawnothing toattract them in the field of adultA education,are nówasserting with emphasis that in4it liethe greatest educational problems andth'e.greatept educational opportunitiesof the immediate future.Changing political,economic, and eveti philosophical

di Malcolpi Q. Wyatt. The GreatestOooperator. Journal of AdultEducation, 7: 28-40, January1935 . a

9 41- ADULT EDUCATION 73 thought,newinventions andnew means of transportationarebringing ina period of readjustmentand development similarto that of the Renaissance. In this New Worldthe adult isasmuch concernedandasmuch constrailiedto ; acquirenewknowledge andunderstandingasis.the collegestudent. et Z * . George IS. Strayer, writingonthe question ofBroadening Adult t Relponsibilitiesin the Pub11cSchools in theJune1936 number of the , Journal of Adult Education;says:

e .4 The issue of the ability ofthe communityto finance adulteducation has been frequently raised.There isahistory of fees chargedand ofan attempt to reimburse the local school authorities,at least partially, forthe cost of instruction.This tendency will probablynot continue, but rather,ashas been true in otherareasof education, the fullcost of theprogramwill be provided for in the local educationalbudget. - We shall doubtless haveto developa moreadequate system ofStatesup- port.We already havethe example of California hi-clrmakesa percapita allowance to localities for each adultenrolled.In the longrunthe development of the adult-educationprogramthrwighoutthe United StatesNill dependupon grantsfrom the Federal Government. The administration oftheprogramwill needto be placed in the hands of menandwomenwho have speeializvdin adult education.Tlw best housing of the classes1jllbe provided-forhy the public-schoolbuildings, themore modern of whichareequipped with lihrarins, Irtstudios, musicrooms, auditoriums, shops,science laboratories, andall other facilitiesthat make awidely variedprofflampossible. Itseems not tooloptimistic to visualize for the futureasystem of public education foreveryone,from the youngest childto the oldest adult. who wishes to learn. j

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