Quick viewing(Text Mode)

Adult Learning Theories 2011

Adult Learning Theories 2011

TEAL Center Fact Sheet No. 11: Adult Theories 2011

Adult Learning Theories

Inherent in these assumptions are implications for

Adult learning theories provide insight into how practice. Knowles (1984) suggests that adult educa- adults learn, and can help instructors be more effec- tors tive in their practice and more responsive to the needs of the learners they serve. • Set a cooperative climate for learning in the class- room; • Assess the learner’s specific needs and interests; What Are Adult Learning Theories? • Develop learning objectives based on the learn- There is no single theory of learning that can be ap- er’s needs, interests, and skill levels; plied to all adults. Indeed, the literature of the past century has yielded a variety of models, sets of as- • Design sequential activities to achieve the objec- sumptions and principles, theories, and explanations tives; that make up the adult learning knowledge base. The • Work collaboratively with the learner to select me- more that adult educators are familiar with this know- thods, materials, and resources for instruction; ledge base, the more effective their practice can be, and and the more responsive their practice can be to the needs of adult learners. This fact sheet reviews three • Evaluate the quality of the learning experience major theories—, self-directed learning, and make adjustments, as needed, while assess- and transformational learning—and discusses their ing needs for further learning. implications for practice. It also provides a theoretical Because adults need to know why they are learning grounding for the work of the TEAL Center and links something, effective explain their reasons for readers to many TEAL resources, all of which are teaching specific skills. Because adults learn by doing, available at http://teal.ed.gov. effective instruction focuses on tasks that adults can perform, rather than on memorization of content. Be- What Is Andragogy? cause adults are problem-solvers and learn best when In attempting to document differences between the the subject is of immediate use, effective instruction ways adults and children learn, involves the learner in solving real-life problems. (For (1980) popularized the concept of andragogy (“the art additional ideas on ways to actualize these sugges- and science of helping adults learn”), contrasting it tions, refer to the TEAL Fact Sheet No. 6 on Student- with (“the art and science of teaching child- Centered Learning.) ren”). He posited a set of assumptions about adult Andragogy is not without criticism. Brookfield (2003) learners—namely, that the adult learner called the theory "culture blind," stating that the con- • Moves from dependency to increasing self- cept of self-directed learning and the concept of the directedness as he/she matures and can direct student’s establishing a non-threatening relationship his/her own learning; with the as facilitator of learning may neglect races and cultures that value the teacher as the pri- • Draws on his/her accumulated reservoir of life mary source of knowledge and direction. experiences to aid learning; • Is ready to learn when he/she assumes new so- What Is Self-Directed Learning? cial or life roles; Approximately 70 percent of adult learning is self- • Is problem-centered and wants to apply new directed (Cross, 1981), and about 90 percent of all learning immediately; and adults conduct at least one self-directed learning • Is motivated to learn by internal, rather than ex- project a year (Tough, 1971). Self-directed learning ternal, factors. (SDL) is a “process in which individuals take the initia-

Page 1

TEAL Center Fact Sheet No. 11: Adult Learning Theories 2011 tive, without the help of others” in planning, carrying • Acquire strategies for decision-making and self- out, and evaluating their own learning experiences evaluation of work; (Knowles, 1975). In essence, SDL is an informal process that primarily takes place outside the class- • Develop positive attitudes and independence rela- room. What qualifies learning as “self-directed” is who tive to self-directed learning; and (the learner) makes decisions about content, me- • Reflect on what he/she is learning. thods, resources, and evaluation of the learning. Indi- viduals take responsibility for their own learning The teacher also can process by determining their needs, setting goals, • Encourage and support learners throughout the identifying resources, implementing a plan to meet process, helping them recognize their own grow- their goals, and evaluating the outcomes. ing thought processes and strategies (for sugges- The benefit of SDL is that learning can easily be in- tions on how to do this, refer to the TEAL Center corporated into daily routines and occur both at the Metacognitive Processes Fact Sheet); and learner’s convenience and according to his/her learn- • Offer a variety of options as evidence of success- ing preferences. It can involve the learner in isolated ful learning outcomes (for additional information activities, such as researching information on the In- about this, refer to the TEAL Center Universal De- ternet; it also can involve the learner in communica- sign for Learning Fact Sheet). tion with experts and peers, as in a traditional class- room. What Is Transformational Learning? SDL can be difficult for adults with low-level Transformative learning (TL) is often described as skills who may lack independence, confidence, inter- learning that changes the way individuals think about nal motivation, or resources. Brookfield (1985) sug- themselves and their world, and that involves a shift of gests that not all learners prefer the self-directed op- consciousness. For example, English language learn- tion and that many adults who engage in SDL also ers often report a shift in their view of U.S. culture and engage in more formal educational programs, such as in their view of themselves as they gain confidence teacher-directed courses. Within the adult communicating in a new language (King, 2000). setting, the teacher can augment traditional classroom instruction with a variety of techniques to foster SDL Different theorists look at TL through various lenses. for individuals or for small groups of learners who are Paolo Freire (2000) taught Brazilian workers to read ready and willing to embark on independent, self- by engaging them, through a problem-posing instruc- directed learning experiences. Self-direction is a criti- tional approach, in discussions about working condi- cal component of persistence in , help- tions and poor compensation, thereby helping them ing learners recognize how and when to engage in change their thinking and strive for social change. To self-study when they find they must stop out of formal Freire, transformative learning is emancipating. education. To Mezirow (2000), TL is a rational process. As indi- Following are strategies for facilitating SDL. The viduals reflect on and discuss their assumptions about teacher can help the learner to the world, they often experience a shift in their frame of reference or world view. For this to happen, individ- • Conduct a self-assessment of skill levels and uals engaging in reflective discourse need to chal- needs to determine appropriate learning objec- lenge each others’ assumptions and encourage group tives; members to consider various perspectives. It is es- sential that participants engaging in reflective dis- • Identify the starting point for a learning project; course have complete and accurate information about • Match appropriate resources (books, articles, con- the topic for discussion, be free from bias, and meet in tent experts) and methods (Internet searches, lec- an environment of acceptance, empathy, and trust tures, electronic discussion groups) to the learning (Mezirow, 1997, 2000). A criticism often leveled at goal; Mezirow’s TL theory is that it does not account for the effect of the individual’s race, class, and gender, or • Negotiate a learning contract that sets learning the historical context in which the learning occurs goals, strategies, and evaluation criteria; (Corley, 2003; Sheared & Johnson-Bailey, 2010; Tay- 3

Page 2

TEAL Center Fact Sheet No. 11: Adult Learning Theories 2011 lor, 1998; Cervero & Wilson, 2001). It has also been Bringing Theory Into Practice criticized as hyper-rational, ignoring feelings, relation- The art of teaching adults effectively requires an un- ships, context and culture, and temporal aspects (Sil- derstanding of various principles or theories of how ver-Pacuilla, 2003). adults learn, and requires making an effort to apply Adult educators seeking to foster transformative learn- some of those principles to practice. The three major ing within their classes may wish to consider the fol- theories presented in this fact sheet and the implica- lowing: tions for practice issuing from each are not mutually exclusive. Suggestions for applying these theories to • Create a climate that supports transformative writing instruction for adult learners include the follow- learning. Taylor (2000) suggests that teachers ing: need to be “trusting, empathetic, caring, authentic, • Incorporate more writing in more contexts in the sincere, and demonstrative of high integrity” (p. adult education setting to promote self-reflection 313). They need to provide students with imme- and articulation of learning. Use ungraded, short diate and helpful feedback, employ activities that and timed prompts such as “quick writes,” “en- “promote student autonomy, participation, and col- try/exit slips,” or “yesterday’s news.” Writing is a laboration” (Taylor, 1998, p. 48), and help them to natural means of self-reflection, and sharing per- explore alternative perspectives and engage in sonal writing is a way to bring stories of personal problem-solving and critical reflection (p. 49). challenge, growth, resilience, and dreams into di- • Know your students and the types of learning alogue. activities that most appeal to them. Cranton • Engage adult new writers with online communities (2000) suggests that “thinking types” who enjoy of writers, as contributors, readers, and peers, to logic will appreciate “case studies, debates, criti- foster their self-directed learning, self-study, and cal questioning, and analyses of theoretical pers- persistence. (For information on ways to incorpo- pectives” (2000, p.199). Those who are uncom- rate technology into writing instruction, refer to the fortable with confrontation and having their state- TEAL Center Technology-Supported Writing Fact ments challenged may be more successful when Sheet.) learning occurs in “harmonious groups” in which • participants discuss, but do not debate, alternative Provide feedback that challenges learners’ as- viewpoints. The experiential learner will enjoy field sumptions and deepens their critical thinking. (For trips and simulations, and the intuitive learner will ideas on providing constructive feedback, refer to appreciate brainstorming and games involving im- the TEAL Center Formative Assessment Fact agination. Sheet.) • Develop and use learning activities that ex- References plore and expose different points of view. Brookfield, S. (1985). The continuing educator and Cranton (2002) suggests using films and short self-directed learning in the community. In Brookfield stories. She also suggests having students en- (Ed.), New Directions for , (25), gage in journal writing to engage in self- : Jossey-Bass. reflection. The teacher can ask a learner to write Brookfield, S. D. (2003). Pedagogy and andragogy. In a brief autobiographical essay and then ask other A. DiStefano, K. Rudestam, R. Silverman & S. Taira students to review and reflect on the writer’s as- (Eds.), Encyclopedia of distributed learning. Thousand sumptions. Each student can take a turn at writ- Oaks, CA: Sage. ing his/her autobiographical essay. Another technique is to use critical incidents to engage in Brookfield, S. (2005). The power of critical theory. San reflective discourse, in which learners reflect on Francisco: Jossey-Bass. an experience, either good or bad, and analyze Cervero, R. M., Wilson, A. L. (Eds.). (2001). Power in their assumptions and various perspectives. practice: Adult education and the struggle for know- When the teacher writes and shares as an equal, ledge and power in society. San Francisco: Jossey- an atmosphere of trust and openness is fostered. Bass.

3

Page 3

TEAL Center Fact Sheet No. 11: Adult Learning Theories 2011

Corley, M. (2003). Poverty, racism, and literacy (ERIC Mezirow, J. (2000). Learning to think like an adult: Digest No. 243). Columbus, OH: ERIC Clearinghouse Core concepts of transformation theory. In Mezirow, J. on Adult, Career, and , Ohio (Ed.), Learning as transformation: Critical perspec- State . tives on a theory in progress. San Francisco: Jossey- Bass Publishers. Cranton, P. (Spring 2002). Teaching for transforma- tion. In Ross-Gordon (Ed.), Contemporary viewpoints Mezirow, J. (1997). Transformative learning: Theory to on teaching adults effectively. New Directions for practice. In P. Cranton (Ed.), Transformative learning Adult and Continuing Education, (93) 63–71. San in action: Insights from practice. New Directions for Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Adult and Continuing Education. no. 74, pp. 5–12. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Cross, K. P. (1981). Adults as learners: Increasing participation and facilitating learning. San Francisco: Sheared, V. & Johnson-Bailey, J. (2010). The hand- Jossey-Bass. book of race and adult education: A resource for di- alogue on racism. San Francisco: & Sons. Freire, P. (2000). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Rev. 30th Anniversary ed. New York: Continuum. Silver-Pacuilla, H. (2003). Transgressing transforma- tion theory. 52nd National Conference Year- King, K. (2000). The adult ESL experience: Facilitating book, pp. 356–368. perspective transformation in the classroom. Adult Basic Education, 10(2), 69–89. Taylor, E. (1998). The theory and practice of trans- formative learning: A critical review. Columbus, OH: Knowles, M. (1980). The modern practice of adult Center on Education and Training for Employment. education: Andragogy versus pedagogy. Rev. and (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. updated ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Cambridge Adult ED423422) Education. Taylor, E. (2000). Analyzing research on transforma- Knowles, M. (1975). Self-directed learning: A guide for tive learning theory. In Mezirow and Associates learners and teachers. : Follett Publishing (Eds.), Learning as transformation: Critical perspec- Company. tives on a theory in progress, pp. 285–328. San Fran- cisco: Jossey-Bass. Knowles, M. and Associates (1984). Andragogy in action: Applying modern principles of adult learning. Tough, A. (1971). The adult’s learning projects. Toron- San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. to: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education.

Authors: TEAL Center staff

Adapted from the CALPRO Fact Sheet No. 5, Adult Learning Theories. Author: Mary Ann Corley

About the TEAL Center: The Teaching Excellence in Adult Literacy (TEAL) Center is a project of the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Vocational and Adult Education (OVAE), designed to improve the quality of teaching in adult education in the content areas.

3

This publication was prepared with funding from the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Vocational and Adult Education, under contract No.ED-VAE-09-O-0060. The opinions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the opinions or policies of the Page 4 U.S. Department of Education. This document is in the public domain and may be reproduced without permission.

Top View