CARDIFF METROPOLITAN UNIVERSITY Prifysgol Fetropolitan Caerdydd

CARDIFF SCHOOL OF SPORT

DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (HONOURS)

SPORT STUDIES

2015-6

Diving in football, a social performance.

Socio-Cultural

George Richard Hunt

Cardiff Metropolitan University Prifysgol Fetropolitan Caerdydd

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Diving in football, a social performance

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements

Abstract

CHAPTER 1. 1.0 INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 2. 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Symbolic Interactionism 2.2 Performance 2.3 Impression Management 2.4 Interaction order

CHAPTER 3. 3.0 METHODS 3.1 Research Paradigm 3.2 Sampling strategy 3.3 Data Collection 3.4 Ethics 3.5 Data Analysis 3.6 Judgement Criteria

CHAPTER 4. 4.0 DISCUSSION 4.1 Game Theory 4.2 Civil Inattention 4.3 Glance Theory & Face-to-Face behaviours 4.4 Impression Management 4.5 Performance 4.6 Stigma 4.7 Face-to-Face behaviour 4.8 Referees 4.9 Culture 4.10 Hegemonic Masculinity 4.11 Metro sexuality

CHAPTER 5. 5.0 CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

APPENDICES

Acknowledgements

Firstly, I would like to express my appreciation to my tutor Doc David Brown for the support of my Dissertation study, for his knowledge, patience and motivation. His guidance assisted me throughout the process. I could not have imagined having a better advisor and mentor for my dissertation study.

I thank my friends for the ongoing motivation, support and friendship.

Finally, I would like to thank my family: My parents and my brother for supporting me throughout the process.

Abstract

The focal point of this study is to investigate diving in football and draw upon Goffman’s (1959, 1982) symbolic interactionism. Moreover, the study illuminates how football players dive and explore what are the motivations. It is clear that the literature in this topic area is incomplete however, using Goffman’s theories and the existing literature regarding diving, the study is able to piece together the puzzle of diving. The study is motivated by three research questions: (1) How to football players complete an ‘authentic’ dive? (2) What are the motivations to dive? (3) What are the consequences of a dive? In this dissertation, I propose a model of Goffman’s theories including Game theory, Civil inattention, Glance theory, Face-to-Face behaviours, impression management and performance to expose the process of a dive. In addition, stigma and referees will be carefully examined to gain an insight to the repercussions of diving. Finally, masculinity will be explored to identify the relationship with diving. An interpretive method approach was used to obtain the information needed.The results revealed that diving is a complex series of process and there is substantial evidence to report that the diving process is not fully individual; it incorporates referees, who play a vital role in the social interaction. This study advances our understanding of the diving process and offers a unique insight in how it is conducted.

1.0 Introduction

Reily and Williams (2003) state “Football is the world’s most popular form of sport, being played in every nation without exception”. Football, too many is more than simply a game as Kuper (2010) suggests “Soccer is much more than just the most popular game in the world. It is a matter of life and death”. Football is vastly important to our daily lives by and is entertaining however, like all sports, football has elements of cheating/gamesmanship and one of these is diving. The paper explores diving an aims to understand why players dive and how they conduct a dive. The study consults scholars, pundits and current football players to understand the enigma that is diving. Diving in football is worthy of philosophical scrutiny and to investigate further as it can influence the outcome of matches, reproduce negative connotations and resit moral obligations. It is best summarised by FIFA vice president Jim Boyce, who states "It's becoming a cancer within the game”. This language used by many to describe the antics on the pitch, highlight the need to investigate this topic.

Trevor Sinclair and Watson respectively states "A player has a right to go down; football is not this Walt Disney world a lot of people think it is." And "It's not Diego Maradona handballing the ball into the net. It's still the referee's decision at the end of the day; he doesn't have to give a penalty." This paper aims to differentiate the cartoon fiction of diving, and illustrate factual findings. The study reviews symbolic interactionism to gain an understanding of diving. Symbolic interaction was chosen to highlight the interaction between individuals as social actors to explain diving. Fine (1993) states Symbolic interactionism, encourages us to think theoretically to situations and to analyse why individuals act in certain ways. The study will use a documentary analysis to gather the necessary literature and material in order to answer the research question. To conclude the study, the analysis and conclusion will weigh up the information collected and provide an explanation and clearly present how players dive, and get away with it. Whitehead (1998, 58; 2002, 93) sums up why masculinity should be included when discussing tensions within sexuality by suggesting there is confusion over who actually is a hegemonically masculine man—“Is it John Wayne or Leonardo DiCaprio; Mike Tyson or Pele? Or maybe, at different times, all of them?” This shows, and reflects, that both diving and masculinity has elements of ambiguity which is central to the study. To commence this paper, the literature review will be consulted.

2.0 Literature review

Consulting the existing literature, it is clear that symbolic interactionism and masculinity are topics that are frequently used to study sport in society. However, it is evident that the literature regarding social performance of diving is incomplete. As a result, this project will consult media data and historical records in which will be analysed through a conceptual lense. Diving in football deserves sociological scrutiny as it is an under studied phenomenon, which has caused outrage, annoyance by many from the sporting community and also challenges morality. Firstly, this literature review discusses Symbolic interactionalism and its core ideas of ‘performance’ and the ‘interaction order’. Secondly, the literature surrounding masculinity and its applications to and in sport will be examined.

2.1 Symbolic Interactionism

Dewey (1981) states humans are best understood in comparison to their environment. Mead (1934) links “the conservation of gestures” and “the use of significant symbols” to symbolic interactionism. He suggests people respond to gestures and interaction through what it means to them. Symbolic interactionism according to Blumer (1962:180) “refers, of course, to the peculiar and distinctive character of interaction as it takes place between human beings”. He adds that human beings “define” each other’s actions as opposed to reacting to their action. Symbolic interaction identifies that individuals are ‘social actors’ and act in a specific manner or behaviour, which has been influenced by their background, environment and their moral compass. Therefore, Symbolic interactionism is a tool to understand social performance and individual behaviour. This study will primarily use Goffman’s theory of symbolic interactionism and his theory of social performance to address the research question. Goffman (1983) is interested in the “interaction order” and “social order”. Larossa and Reitzes (1993) point out that “symbolic interactionalism focuses on the connection between shared meanings and interactions” (p.135). Furthermore, Denzin (cited in Flick et.al 2004, p.82) states symbolic interactionism is the,

Analysis of the development course of action that occurs when two or more persons (or agents) with agency (reflectivity) join their individual lines of action together into joint action

It portrays that interaction with others become intertwined and individuals respond to interaction of each other. When a dive occurs, the players involved are acting under the constraints of the game, therefore adjust their social interaction accordingly. Blumer (1969) points out “Human beings in interacting with one another have to take account of what each other is doing or is about to do; they are forced to direct their own conduct or handle their situations in terms of what they take into account (p.6). Before, during and after a dive, the interaction between the individuals depends on the motives and reactions of themselves. The individuals adjust their reaction in what they believe the individual intended to achieve. Blumer (1969) states “The actions of others enter to set what one plans to do, may oppose or prevent such plans, may require revision of such plans” (p.6). The interaction between players on the field influence decision making and thought process which could change social interactions verbally, physically and cognitively. Blumer adds “Human groups are seen as consisting of human beings who are engaging in action” (p.6). This shows that football players are not immune to scrutiny of social performance and social actors and are thrusted onto a social theatre stage. Burnley Manger Sean Dyche stated “I think that's sad that players just can't go out and play and get decisions that they should get”. (BBC 2016: p.1). Bloomfield (2014) states “Players know the rules are interpreted slightly differently by referees these days and are a lot cleverer”. He continues “When I am playing and an opponent goes down easily or keeps winning cheap free-kicks, it really frustrates me and there have been times when words have been exchanged”(p.1).These instances are reflective of symbolic interaction in motion in football.

Accordingly, Erving Goffman (1959) likens social life as “dramaturgy” which suggests that individuals in society are analogous with actors on stage. Ritzer (2003: cited in Crabbe and Blackshaw, 2004) stated dramaturgical performances are “like a theatre” (p.78). He adds Dramaturgical performances tend to be embedded in an already existing reality and are selected rather than individual created (p.78). Football player’s behaviour’s takes place in the presence of society and are constantly performing to an audience. Consequently, their actions and behaviours are continually judged and critiqued. Goffman states that a believable performance in society involves more than going through the motions. This gives an insight to how players dive and it also alludes that the players are conscious of their actions, and then consequently are aware that they are diving. It is shown clearly by Garfinkel (1967; cited in Crabbe and Blackshaw, 2004, p79.)

During performances, individuals are not only able to convince others about social identities- through the structure of everyday activities which they ordinarily and routinely produce and maintain but can also disrupt tacitly agreed and taken-for- granted assumptions about everyday life through ‘breaching experiments’.

2.2 Performance

Goffman (1959: 240) uses a “dramaturgical approach” to understand the method of presentation by a social actor. He adds “Interaction is viewed as a "performance," shaped by environment and audience, constructed to provide others with "impressions" that are consonant with the desired goals of the actor (p.17). Reviewing the literature, it is clear that performance reveals a ‘dirtiness’ or ‘filthiness’ associated with the deviant acts. To right the wrongs of diving for example, it is “then the search for escape from the ‘cleanliness’ and ‘morality’ associated with the mundane quotidian in sport for a world in which the ‘ugliness’ of’ deviance’ is both championed and celebrated whilst being simultaneously and hypocritically condemned” (Crabbe and Blackshaw 2004: 77). To understand deviance in sport, we must turn to performativity in sport. Goffman (1959) discusses ‘performance teams’ which depend not just on ones abilities however, with other social actors. He suggests that the whole team is delivering the performance therefore, when a player dives, the team have an influence and involved in the performance. Butler (1994: cited in Crabbe and Blackshaw 2004) argues that it is important to distinguish ‘performance’ from performativity’. This is because the conception of performance assumes a ‘solid subject’. Presdee (2000: cited in Crabbe and Blackshaw, 2004) focuses on the expensive nature of the performance of the “carnival of crime” rather than exploiting its performativity. Deviance should be considered because, as Crabbe and Blackshaw (2004) write, “It is through sport that our desires for the deviant other tend more and more to be fulfilled” (p.77). Furthermore, it “Involves the perceived sense of something being done which is morally wrong and the ubiquitous aesthetic thrill that comes at the moment of revelation” (p.77). Many scholars and sporting commentators would suggest diving is associated with deviance by its very nature which is to gain a competitive advantage. Lyotard (cited in Crabbe and Blackshaw 2004:79) suggests “Performativity marks a conspicuous shift in the way in which knowledge claims come to be legitimated”. He continues to state “Performativity comes to represent a kind of neo-capitalist efficiency which is able to bring the ‘pragmatic functions’ of knowledge clearly to light and evaluate all language games to self-knowledge” (Lyotard, 1984:114).

2.3 Impression Management

The performances discussed above, are in conjunction with impression management. Goffman (1959) states impression management is “the control (or lack of control) and communication of information through the performance” (p.208). Goffman (1990, p.4) adds,

People are interested in controlling the impressions they are about to convey to the others, so they could be consciously or unconsciously calculating their actions and behaviours.

He argues that individuals are attentive about their impressions, especially when conducting an act such as diving. The impression is to deceive the audience consequently, the individual is concerned to what impression they portray and if it constitutes as an authentic dive. Impression management is concerned with people attempting to persuade others of your account of the situation. (Antonius. Robben, Jeffrey. Sluka: 2012) state “Impressions are derived from a complex of observations and inferences drawn from what people do as well as what they say both in public… and in private” (p.154). Berger (cited in Brissett and Edgley: 2005) point out that “Here the individual does not try to transform the social structures nor does he detach himself from them. Rather he makes deliberate use of them in ways foreseen by their legitimate guardians, cutting a path through the social jungle in accordance with his own purposes” (p.51).

2.4 Interaction order

Goffman (1983) defines the interaction order as 'a domain of activity'. “To be sure, the interaction order prevailing even in the most public places is not a creation of the apparatus of state” (p.5). The interaction order is invisible or unspoken norms that individuals follow while in a co-presence state (face-to-face situations). He argues that these norms establish interaction therefore, interactions between individuals are not driven by social actors however, invisible situational norms and the impact they have. Goffman (1982) articulated “It is a fact of our human condition that, for most of us, our daily life is spent in the immediate presence of others” (p.2). Goffman (2005) adds “Every person lives in a world of social encounters, involving him either in face- to face or mediated contact with other participants” (p.5). It suggests inevitability for interaction, which affects every aspect of our lives.

Goffman (1982) notes “Social interaction can be identified narrowly as that which uniquely transpires in social situations, that is, environments in which two or more individuals are physically in one another's response presence (p.2). Misztal (2002) adds that in order for the social order to be seen as ‘normal’, it has to be consistency with everyday interaction. Goffman (1982) points out “that the interaction order catches humans in just that angle of their existence that displays considerable overlap with the social life of other species” (p.3). He argues that there are similarities with certain human behaviours and animalistic behaviours in certain environments. This resonates in relation to sport. When a player dives, the individual resists dominant masculine stereotypes and behaviour in a feminine manner. This represents that interaction is diverse and each interaction between individuals is unique. Interactionists such as Shalin (1986), Strauss (1959) and Rose (1962) note that social class could influence an individual’s judgement of an interactive situation. If an individual’s background and social class influences a dive, it portrays a picture that the individual has acknowledged morality and the stereotypical views of each class. These preconceived ideas could limit the chance of the player diving as they inherently acknowledge that the act is wrong in their social domain.

Action and agency are vital components of Interactionist theories. “The reconceptualization of identity as an effect, that is, produced or generated, opens up the possibilities of ‘agency’ that are insidiously foreclosed by positions that take identity categories as foundational or fixed” (Butler, 1990:147 cited in Bael 1997). Flick Et.Al (2004) states that “Action references experiences that are reflexively meaningful to the person” and agency “describes the locus of action, whether in the person, in language, or in some other structure or process”. This raises the question, do persons as agents, create their own experience? It can be argued that they do, if they dive. The goals of our interactions are to create a shared meaning. The theories presented here form the foundations to explain the diving phenomenon. In addition to the theories discussed, Game theory, Civil inattention, Glance theory, Face-to-Face behaviors, impression management and performance will be introduced to specifically explain the diving process using Arjen Robben’s dive at the 2014 world cup against Mexico in the discussion chapter. Furthermore, Face-to-Face behavior will be examined separately to analyse Robben’s press conference apology. Goffman’s ‘stigma’ theory is then applied to the reaction Robben and other players receive after a dive is completed. Finally, Masculinity is examined to further investigate the consequences diving has on the individual and observe the relationship between diving and the association with femininity. Masculinity is discussed through Metro sexuality, Hegemonic Masculinity and culture.

3.0 Methods

3.1 Research Paradigm

Patton (1978: cited in Sparkes, 1992) states “a paradigm is a world view, a general perspective, a way of breaking down the complexity of the real world…paradigms tell us what is important, legitimate and reasonable”(p.12). Schulman (1986: cited in Sparkes, 1992) has suggested that ‘paradigms’ are most frequently employed to describe such research communities, and the conceptions of problem and method they share (p.12) Sparkes (1992) notes that “Paradigms are also normative, telling the practionier what to do without the necessity of long existential or epistemological consideration.”(p.12). Furthermore, they shape our actions and how we think as Sparkes (1992) suggests “the individual must not only learn the content of the field but also a particular way of seeing the world (p.12). Research paradigms include ontology, epistemology and interpretive. Ontology revolves around “questions regarding the nature of existence” (p.12). Burrell and Morgan (1979: cited in Sparkes, 1992) adds that researchers must ask whether the ‘reality’ is to be investigated is segregated from the individual. Sparkes notes epistemology concerns “human nature” and argues any research that includes individuals in a social context comprises of expectations of the relationship between them and their environment. Morgan (1979: cited in Sparkes, 1992)

The interpretive paradigm is informed by a concern to understand the world as it is, to understand the fundamental nature of the social world at the level of subjective experience. It seeks explanation within the realm of individual consciousness and subjectivity, within the frame of reference of the participant as opposed to the observer of action” pp28-31

This portrays that there is more than one approach at understanding the world. The paradigm adopted for the study is the interpretive approach. Sparkes (1992) contributes, “Interpretive researchers do not feel drawn towards the natural science approaches for understanding the social world. Rather, they take the humanities to be a more appropriate starting point” (p.26).

Using an interpretive approach Hunt (2009) identifies the strengths as a coherent Logic structure and orientation towards the generation of practice-relevant findings. He continues to suggest the weaknesses include challenges of applying a lesser known methodology and limited resources for situating the methodology. The interpretive approach is to understand the world from the participant’s point of view without altering it, then catalytic analysis are problematic (Sparkes 1992). This suggests that validity in a critical research not only concerns about trustworthiness however, how the research has affected the participants. Brown (1990: cited in Sparkes)

Participant observation as a data collection strategy “is for the researcher as instrument of data collection to live the “slice of life”. The researcher can also draw upon other methods such as written documents, and non-written sources.

Using an interpretive approach, the study will primarily use videos and pictures to convey and understanding of the social world. An interpretive approach relates to “realism”, which is the study if the real world and the study of reality. Qualitative research was chosen as refers to people and works harmoniously with symbolic interactionism. Berg (1989) states all data is qualitative as it refers to essences of people, objects and situations. Atkinson (1992) claims “Qualitative data masks a good deal of complexity, requiring plenty of care and self-awareness on the part of the researcher” (Page 10). He goes further to explain that qualitative research shows “What real life is like”.

3.2 Sampling Strategy

There are several of sampling methods to consider including representative, purposive, snowball and critical case. The snowball approach was used for this study as the research question was created out of an interest and a curiosity to understand how players dive. The curiosity propagated when viewing a football match and observing a player dive, the player in question was Arjen Robben. A fascination of how he dived got away with it and understanding what the consequences are as a result of the dive. Atkinson and Flint (2001) state snowball sampling “consists of identifying respondents who are often used to refer to researchers on to other respondents”(p.1). They continue to state it “violates the principles of sampling… it is a means of accessing vulnerable and more impenetrable social groupings”(p.1). Once the study was established, a documentary analysis was chosen in order to answer the research question.

Throughout this study, literature is collected from a wide range of platforms which include Youtube, media documents and case studies. The study has accumulated 23 pictures which are crucial in assisting the explanation of diving, and the implications that follow. The information collected is analysed and coded for key words or text, which is grouped into themes. The themes include Game theory, Civil Inattention, Glance theory, Face-to-Face behaviours, Impression management, performance, stigma referees and masculinity which are broken down into 3 subheadings, culture, hegemonic masculinity and metro sexuality. The information is clustered to clarify findings and to assemble similar information and findings for a clearer analysis. Henry (et.al 2015) states “cluster analysis can serve as a key component in mixed- methods research” (p.1). This study requires information to be in clustered form as it makes sense of the data and how it relates to the theory chosen (Jackson 2011).

Strauss (1990) states that “qualitative methods of data gathering and analysis have gained in popularity” (p.8). Attride-Stirling (2001) suggests that there is a growth in qualitative research and is useful when researching in the social sciences field. This shows the importance of selecting correct qualitative methods such as case studies, historical instances of diving and media documentary analysis (Cassell and Gillan 1988). There are factors that may limit the scope of the research due to the constriction of time. Firstly, the method of observation YouTube videos of diving can become time consuming and restrict the data gathering. Secondly, searching for the correct literature in this field may become difficult to find and limit the research. Patton (1990) suggests that an effectiveness of an approach is vital and stresses that gathering information and generating findings are only useful if they relate to the research question.

3.3 Data Collection

Data collection methods consists of interpretive data collection technique, ideographic approach and continuous narrative description. The study focuses on interpretive data collection, where a documentary analysis will be implemented. “Documentary analysis is a form of qualitative analysis that requires readers to locate, interpret, analyse and draw conclusions about the evidence presented” (Fitzgerald cited in Briggs and Coleman 2007 p.280). Furthermore, “one of the advantages of documentary research is that documents have been produced and preserved as a record of the past; but documents, in the main, are not produced specifically for the purposes of social research” (p.287). Finding an answer is highly relevant to this and other contentious discussions because we are only able to understand the public and media reaction to diving if we are conscious of the sources of popular knowledge. Documents can consist of virtual documents, newspapers, YouTube and online media reports (Fritzgerald 2006: cited in Briggs and Coleman 2007 p.287).

Documentary research offers researchers opportunities to create and develop their own techniques of data collection and analysis. Furthermore, this research allows sufficient data to be collected from social, economic and political scenarios. Dew (2006) echo’s that analysing documents can be useful when exploring important social and political aspects. Fitzgerald (2006) states that “documents litter the worlds in which we live and provide evidence that narrates the details of our personal and professional lives” (p.278). Scott (1990) cautions researchers to adopt the stance that documents cannot be regarded as objective accounts. The meanings or findings from a document are influenced by particular social and historical understandings. Dew (2006) states there is no “true meaning of a text outside specific historical contexts” (p. 704). Data from documents can be used to highlight a range of perspectives on a particular event, activity, group or individual and a low- cost method. Samuel (1994) points out that these documents refer to a “theatre of memory”. He suggests that documents can support in the re-production of the past and can be interpreted in the present. However, the data collected must coincide within ethical considerations which include anonymity of the documents, ownership and authorship of the research material (Sixsmith and Murray 2001) and (Bowen 2009). Dew (2006) identifies a potential disadvantage with a documentary analysis by suggesting “There are obvious limitations in relation to the range of research questions you can ask that documents will answer” (p.301). According to Fitzgerald (cited in Briggs and Coleman 2007) “whatever the strengths and limitations of documentary research, it can be innovative and illuminating and prompt an enthusiasm for research is infectious” (p.293).

3.4 Ethics

Reproducing someone else’s content is not a substantial ethical issue. However, it is imperative when discussing the findings and individuals, that researchers use the data collected appropriately. Dew (2006) highlights the advantage of a documentary analysis as they “endure” and the materiel does not interfere in people’s lives. However he adds caution must be conducted when interpreting documents and many documents are relatively easy to obtain so ethical approval is not necessary and causes minimal inconvenience. May (1987) stresses the importance of ethical consideration “If we continue to gloss over the potential power of communicating our ethical questions, decisions and actions among ourselves and educating other about our work, we ultimately (will) have acted in ways that gloss over the rights of those we study and our responsibilities to them” (P.32).

3.5 Data analysis

Observation methods are used to analyse the data. Observation methods have strengths and weakness that require consideration (Creswell 2009). Limitations include the researcher could make incorrect judgements of what has been observed and it could only reveal a ‘snap shot’ of the position. Strengths include assisting the design of the study and offer a sense of what is happening. This study will use an evaluative case study of the process of diving by looking at an isolated individual and critique their dive. Also, including case studies forms empirical curiosity and a practical technique to gaining data. Merriam (1988) suggests the importance of case studies as they highlight the cultural context and give detailed information to an isolated case. Data analysis cannot be analysed in one way as Patton (2002) states

Qualitative analysis transforms data into findings. No formula exists for that transformation…direction can and will be offered, but the final destination remains unique for each inquirer, known only when—and if—arrived at (p. 432).

Morrill (2000) notes that text becomes a way to get “behind the numbers” that are recorded in data analysis. He continues that qualitative data analysis is inductive where the research identifies categories and patterns which are then grouped. Qualitative data analysis is a reflexive process that begins as data are being collected rather than after data collection has ceased (Stake 1995). Strauss (1990) suggests that qualitative data offers a methodology, a way of thinking about and studying social reality” (p.4). Patton (1990) concurs by stating “Qualitative inquiry is not a single thing with a singular subject matter” (p.65). Data analysis understands the meaning of the text and how it relates to different concepts. The existing literature enables the study to gain a perception of the academic voice and attitude towards diving. This study will take the form of an inductive research method through the medium of ethnographic work and a phenomenologist approach.

This study will primarily use secondary data which includes existing literature and media documents. Using secondary data allows the researcher to discuss trends and social changes. Disadvantages include acknowledging that the data was intended for a different purpose, which will be falsely representing the data. Rapley (2003) suggests that good qualitative research is about “living in detail” and argues that secondary data is useful if is conducted properly. The analysis of the data collected will commence by organising the information into selected themes. Secondly, as mentioned earlier, the order of the themes will begin with Game theory and the relevant data analysed will be accompanied by a picture. Both the pictures and the data in conjunction, form my analysis of how players dive. Each theme will be analysed with the research questions considered, put forward in the abstract. Furthermore, the representation of the data will be formatted to show the reader the image first, then commence with the literature and analysis. Using this format allows the reader to visualise the incident, then proceed to view the analytical content.

3.6 Judgement Criteria

This study aims to represent and describe reality and interpret the world how we see it. Judgement criteria include Coherence and Insightfulness. Using the correct criteria is imperative, Garratt and Hodkinson highlight the hazards of using inappropriate criteria, such as plausibility and credibility. Plausibility is asking us whether claims stated in the research are plausible, given the existing knowledge. Credibility involves a judgement about its accuracy, which entails a closer examination of the evidence collected. Markula et al., (2001:pp.261-262) states,

Instead we need to judge the meaning of each research project against its philosophical premise…the acknowledgement of multiple research traditions does not translate into an acceptance of poor-quality research but instead requires us to contextualize each study carefully within its paradigm

Even though qualitative research is written within narrow boundaries (Nilges, 1988), Plummer (2001) adds “different goals and different kinds of data require different modes of evaluation” (p.153).

4.0 Discussion

Diving in football is a process of social interaction where many factors are intertwined to influence the result of the dive. Using Goffman’s dramaturgically that social interaction is a theatre and social behaviour as ‘scripted’ with role taking actors, this discussion begins with how the dive commences. Peters (2006) argues that the start of interaction be initiated in a graceful manner involving exchanges of subtle cues before overt interaction commitments are made. This suggests that the engagement of social actors begins with the player leading the opposition into a false sense of security. This raises a question, do players plan to dive? Game theory, civil inattention, Glance theory, impression management, stigma, face-to-face behaviour and referees will be examined in this chapter.

4.1 Game theory

Figure 1.

Figure 2.

Rapoport (1960:cited in Walle 2001) states game theory deals with “how people would behave (1) if they were guided entirely by unambiguous interests…(2) if they were able to utilize all the information available to them…and (3) if the rules governing the range of permissible acts were explicit and fixed” (p.369). He continues, if these requirements are not met, than the theory is incomplete. Firstly, many sporting individuals have a motivation to win, and to win at all costs. As Dewan and Myatt (2015) state, footballers need to win. Game theory is best utilized to players who do not intend to dive and are opportunistic. Salisbury (1968: cited in Walle 2001) argues game theory is able to,

Demonstrate how most rationally to maximise specific magnitudes under various conditions of risk, where differing times spans exist or one decision is contingent on other people’s decisions” (1968:478).

This suggests that one’s interaction to diving is influenced by others on the field. If an individual has planned a pre-mediated dive, then decided that the chances of a complete “authentic” dive is more challenging due to the social interaction, the acting may become more intense or decrease accordingly. Figure 1, shows Robben before contact has been made. He has a cognitive choice whether to stay on his feet or to fall down. He may be influenced by the opposition defenders with an extend leg close to Robben, which is clearly shown in both Figure 1 and Figure 2. Figure 2 evidently shows Robben acknowledging the opponents close proximity and reads the defenders body language, which in turn, presents Robben an ideal opportunity to dive. Furthermore, it could be argued that, in Figure 2, Robben acknowledges that he has attracted three defenders, which obscures the vision of the referee. This could play a key role in determining if he succeeds. Gates and Humes (1997: cited in Walle 2001), state “game theotric modelling constitutes one type of rational choice theory” (p.9). To complete an authentic dive, this stage is crucial to maintain “trustworthiness” between the players. Without this, the opposition may decline the interaction consequently, the dive could be ‘found out’. Goffman, relates human behaviour is to achieve some future goal. However, as depicted in figure 1 and 2, Robben is aware that his stigma could be detrimental in the outcome of this mutual ‘trustworthiness’. As a result, Robben is required to cautiously select an opportunity that is authentic in order to persuade the audience. The motivation for future rewards is a key concept which at this stage of the dive, is considered.

4.2 Civil Inattention

Figure 3.

Figure 4.

Goffman, (1963) defines civil inattention, “in everyday life we allow ourselves to be accessible to all friends and ‘ratified’ strangers” (p.12). Once the mutual understanding is understood, the individual is planning to dive (figure 3 & 4). Once Robben has engaged the opposition, the dive process strengthens. During the interaction of civil inattention, as Porter (2005) puts it "the notion that everything one perceives in the world relates to one's own destiny” (p.17). It suggests that this belief overcomes the individual and starts the process to complete the dive. The individual decides that their personal inattentions are superior to the oppositions. Mellinger (2011) argues “there is a norm of anonymity which governs behaviour in public between strangers. Normally strangers quickly glance at each other and then look away” (p.1). As shown in Figure 3 and 4, Robben wants to engage in interaction with the opponent, which is in contrast to Mellinger. He reveals that in the public domain, individuals are in “auto pilot” mode, referring to are lack of awareness when in an encounter. However, for diving, the players are in need of interaction and demonstrate that we recognise the others presence, in order to portray contact has been made to complete an authentic dive.

4.3 Glance Theory & Face-to-Face behaviour

Figure 5.

Figure 6.

It is at this stage, Davis (1997) states this is where the individual’s secrets are revealed. As shown in figure 5, the opposition considers that Robben may dive. Mortenson (2008) states “the union and interaction of individuals is based upon mutual glances” (p.143). He adds “The interaction of eye and eye dies in the moment which directness of the function is lost” (p.143). Mortenson argues “one gives to another enough visual notice to demonstrate that one appreciates that the other is present (and that one admits openly to having seen him), while at the next moment withdrawing one’s attention from him so as to express that he does not constitute a target of special curiosity or design” (p.138). He adds “individual implies that he has no reason to suspect the intentions of the others present and no reason to fear the others, be hostile to them, or wish to avoid them (p.138). This stage of the dive reveals the individuals true intentions and is too far along the process to back out of the dive, as shown by both figure 5 and 6.

4.4 Impression Management

Figure 7.

Figure 8.

Jung (1953) states it is “a kind of mask, designed on the one hand to make a definite impression upon others, and on the other to conceal the true nature of the individual” (p.190). Goffman (1990) argues individuals engage in activities “to convey an impression to others which it is in their interests to convey" (p. 4). Robben acknowledges that diving can be lucrative and the behaviour he initiates benefits himself and his team. Martinko and Gardener (1988) state that the cognitive, stimuli, motivational and affective processes are associated with impression management where the audience responses are advanced. Individuals are attracted to managing their impressions to convey to others which suggest that consciously or unconsciously handling their behaviours. Goffman (1990), impressions are formed through interpreting two kinds of “sign activity”: the expression given and the expression given off. First the impression is expressed during verbal communication. Secondly, through one’s looks in overall. As depicted in Figure 7 and 8, verbal communication can strengthen a diving claim through screaming and portraying ‘hurt’. Felson (1978) argues “Impression management theory suggests that much of human behaviour is designed to obtain favourable reactions from the audience” (p.205). Figure 7 and 8 emphasises Felson’s statement. It reveals that Robben’s impression is required to be favourable in order to gain the decision he wants. Goffman (1990) suggests individuals accentuate certain aspects of ‘self’, which is reliant to the situation. Goffman suggests individuals are constantly monitoring the self in order to earn the approval of others. Only then, Bourdieu (1992) argues they have “the sense of the game”. King (2000, p.419) adds “a sense of one’s relations with other individuals and what those individuals will regard as tolerable”.

Without contact, the “dive” is instead simulation (attempting to ‘deceive the referee by feigning injury or pretending to have been fouled’ Volz 2014) and suggests that players attempt to dive was not authentic enough to persuade the audience. Figure 8 depicts a scene of deliberation. The officials are not included in this image however, it clearly eposes the moment when the impression management is rejected. Diving is tricky to outline, it’s got to be an authentic performance otherwise it is not a dive, just simulation which will be punished. However, the boundary is unclear and regarded as a grey area (BBC 2006), (Townsend 2001).

Figure 9.

As shown in Figure (9), the player believes or understands that they have cheated, hence the reaction shown. Player’s performances are about conveying the truth they want to convey, instead of the actual truth. Reactions such as this one, is not surprising considering that the player genuinely believes he is truthful, and the refereeing is denning that truth. This shows that the interaction order around diving translates into a theatre, where different individuals implement acting, as a means, to their ends.

4.5 Performance

Figure 10.

Figure 11.

Figure 10 and 11 presents the last impression. Robben acts as the tackle has had a substantial effect on him, which can persuade the referee. Alleyne (2009) states this is reflective of “archers bow”. The tackled player’s behaviour is noticeable and is used to convey the extreme nature of the collision. Performance teams, as Goffman (1963) states “bodily appearance and personal acts, dress, bearing, movement, and position, sound level, physical gestures such as waving or saluting, facial decorations and broad emotion expression,”(p.33). This represents that behaviour has a ritualised idiom attached. Goffman (1973) argues performance does not take place through autonomous acts however, initiating ‘framing’ as a devise through an embedded frame. It suggests that the act of diving is autonomous however, the ritual of portraying ‘hurt’ is a ritual individuals adhere to. A ritual individual’s use includes exaggerating or feigning the injury.

Figure 12.

Individuals are required to act like they felt contact however, to feign prolonged injury is a reinforcement plea to the audience to comply with their acting. As shown in figure 12, it clearly suggests that he is seriously injured. The individual taps into the referee’s consciousness to remind him and the audience that serious injuries do occur in football. Using this method, players can achieve a higher success rate when performing a dive. Goffman (1963, p.43-44) argues that symbols and prestige symbols are components of performance. He argues that for the actor, the practice of verbal or non-verbal symbols affirm or deny a social construct.

Figure 13.

Figure 14.

Figure 15.

Figure 13 shows Rivaldo covering is face, when the ball made contact with his leg (figure 14). The use of symbols, such as using his hands to illustrate where he was ‘injured’ persuades the referee that the challenge was at a more sensitive part of the body. Therefore, the ‘injury’ obtained is more serious. Figures 13, 14 and 15 represent individual’s fraudulently influencing the referee, which is key to the diving process. Baumann (1992) suggests an audience of spectators is part of the performance ritual. Rai and Johnson (2014) argues the audience outside of the space that ceremony is preformed is assumed to be witnessing the performance as much those who are present. Social actors have a common understanding of meanings attached to behaviour. ‘Region of behaviour’ refers to the discrepancy between one’s behaviour when with different kinds of audience” (Tseelon: 1992, p.1). Mortenson (1988) states “given the pain of being stared at, it is understandable that staring itself is widely used as a means of negative sanction” (p.140). This works as a deterrent to diving, which players aim to avoid as their masculinity could be compromised.

4.6 Stigma

Goffman’s stigma theory is used to understand and to explain a dive. Goffman (1963: cited in Davis, 2013) states that the Greeks referred to stigma as a “bodily signs designed to expose something unusual and about the moral status of the signifier” (p.203). Goffman adds states stigma “now it’s applied more to the disgrace itself than to the bodily evidence of it (p.203). Byrne (2000) states stigma is “defined as a sign of disgrace or discredit, which sets a person apart from others”. (p.65). It is clear that stigma revolves around negative connotations and immoral behaviour (Flowerdew, 2008). Phelan (2001) implies that research on stigma has elucidated how people build cognitive categories and relate them to their beliefs. He continues to state the stigmatised process affects numerous domains of people’s lives. For many, diving in football fits into this definition and is clearly represented with players such as Arjen Robben. He has a history of “simulation” and as a consequence, he is stigmatized as a regular offender. As a result of repeated diving offenders, stigmas occur.

Figure 16.

Figure 17.

Figure 18.

Misztal (2002) uses Goffman’s theory of normality and suggests that “the notion of trust as a protective mechanism that prevents chaos and disorder by providing us with feeling of safety, certainty, and familiarity”. This theory suggests that in football, players assume that the opposition will not try to cheat unless they have warning from players such as Robben. To argue that everyday interaction is normal, Goffman argues trust is in the background of each interaction. Trust can be broken when a player dives. Goffman also notes that stigmatised individuals may feel superior or inferior in their behaviour. Coleman (1986: cited in Trevino 2003 need page numbers from this text) argues;

Each stigmatized or non-stigmatized individual can choose to feel superior or inferior, and each individual can make choices about social control and about fear…each individual can choose to ignore social norms regarding stigma. Personal beliefs …often differ from norms, but people usually follow the social norms anyway, fearing to step beyond conformity to exercise their own personal beliefs about stigma.

This is depicted in figure 16 and 17; Robben wants control over the situation in order to persuade the referee and the audience that his dive is authentic. When other players such as—intervene and plead their case, Robben clearly is contemplating a potential dilemma. From the moment Robben falls to the floor, the interaction becomes intensified as the opposition player feels betrayed by Robben’s apparent cynical manipulation of the rules and unwritten social interaction. A dive underpins the trustworthiness that Goffman (1963) states when discussing leading to his being stigmatised for his repeated actions in a social interaction. This suggests that as a consequence to Robben’s behaviour and others like him, their reputation becomes under threat and their chances of association with that behaviour, increases. Goffman (1963: cited in Davis 2013) states an individual who “possess a stigma, an undesired differentness from what we had anticipated” (p.205). On this assumption, we naturally initiate discrimination. Moreover, “we believe the person with the stigma is not human” Goffman (1963: cited in Davis 2013, p205). The perception could incorporate ‘animalistic’ traits. However he continues “also it seems possible for an individual to fail to live up to what we effectively demand of him, and yet be relatively untouched by this failure… he feels that he is a full-fledged normal human being, and that we are the ones who are not quite human.” This suggests that ‘real men’ footballers don’t dive. For footballers, the stigma is referring to an individual not about being human, it is about being a man.

Goffman (1963) refers to repeat offenders of a stigmatised behaviour have ‘blemishes’ on their character. However, Goffman (1963) points out that minor blemishes can lead to reparation of character, behaviour such as acknowledging incorrect behaviour can repair a damaged character. The repeated actions of some footballers who dive constantly cannot repair and get stigmatised. However, does this matter to them? This mattered for Robben as he apologised after committing a dive. Goffman (1963) commented that the difference between a normal and a stigmatised person was a question of perspective, not reality. Townsend (1979), Philo (1996), Byrne (1997) suggest stigma is in the eye of the beholder. It represents that stigmas are initiated after. Goffman (1963: cited in Davis 2013) adds that “society establishes the means of categorizing persons and the complement of attributes felt to be ordinary and natural for members of each of these categorizing”(p203). Furthermore, Jones (2002) suggests that decisions made by officials may be influenced by prior knowledge. This suggests that previous behaviour by players is noted and may influence the referee’s role in the social interaction of the dive. If the dive is unclear, the referee may award the decisions as simulation, due to the reputation and behaviour of individuals such as Robben and Young. Aristotle (cited in Grey and Bender (2005) states “we are what we repeatedly do”, he argues that are repeated actions formulate our character and personality which can consequence to a stigma.

4.7 Face-to-Face behaviour

Goffman (1967) defines face-to-face behaviour as “the positive social value a person effectively claims for himself by the line of others assumes he has taken during a particular contact” (p.5). He continues to state “every person lives in a world of social encounters, involving him either in face-to-face or mediated contact with other participants” (p.5). Face-to-Face behaviour is best witnessed once the dive has concluded where the interaction amongst individuals intensify. Furthermore, Robben’s apology in the post-match interview is a cauldron of social interaction and Face-to-Face behaviour.

Figure 19.

Firstly, it is a rarity in itself that a football player has admitted to diving and displaying a degree of moral obligation. Robben has a stigma of diving, however it is important to note that he is consciously aware that he has “wronged” and felt compelled to make an apology. However, some argue that the fact that he has dived numerously, asks the question, why didn’t he feel guilty or feel compelled to give an apology then? The interview (figure 19) clearly suggests that Robben is using this interaction to correct his moral compass. Secondly, Robben is apologising for diving, not for deceiving the referee and other players which consequently, knocked Mexico out of the world cup. Thirdly, it clearly shows that Robben is speaking honestly and it is evident that he truly regrets his decision to dive. It also reveals that he had a choice to dive, instead of an instinctive act. Goffman (1967) states face to face behaviour “expresses his view of the situation and through this his evaluation of the participants, especially himself” (p.5). He reflects on his decision to dive and it is clear that numerous of body language and mannerisms are at work. Goffman (1956) states “an individual may recognise extreme embarrassment in others and even in himself by the objective signs of emotional disturbance” these include blushing, stuttering and hesitating” (p.264).

Figure 20.

Figure (20) presents Robben shrugging his shoulders and becoming increasingly flustered as the interview progresses. From the start of the interview (0.04-0.011 seconds), Robben hesitates and stutters when referring to his honesty for apologises. This represents that he may not be sincere. Walle (2001) adds “people typically do not act in a purely “rational way” and, according to the premises of depth psychology, they may actually be unaware of their true motives” (p.167). His stuttering continues (0.18-0.24) when describing the dive. Again, clearly displays unease and is embarrassed reminiscing about the incident.

Figure 21.

Figure 22.

Both figure (21) and (22), show Robben fidgeting and restless. Parrot and Smith (1991) state that embarrassment is linked to dramaturgic difficulties. This challenges the ideology that players require dramaturgic behaviours, and are often not embarrassed. However, due to Robben’s stigma and behaviour, many would argue that he has mastered the art of diving, as he is a controversial figure.

Figure 23.

Figure 24.

Figure 25.

Figure 26.

Figure 27.

Figure (23-27) reveals frequent hand gestures and waving of the arms. Kendon (1983; cited in Kraus et.al (1996) states hand movements that accompany speech as arranged on a continuum of lexicalization- the extent to which they are “world like” (p.4). This suggests that the movements are conveying additional information to the audience. Kraus (1996) suggests interpersonal behaviours which are conveyed to others, irrespective if they are deliberate such as Facial emblem. Kraut (1979: cited in Kraus, 1996) “found that the attention of others greatly potentiates smiling in situations that can be expected to induce a positive internal state” (p.4). Tomkins & McCarter (1964; cited in Kraus et. al 1996) suggest that facial expressions “convey information about the expressor's emotional state” (p.3). They argue that “nonverbal behaviours are to some extent under the individual’s control, and can be produced voluntarily” (p.3). This coincides with the personalities displayed in individuals who dive.

Baldwin (1902: 212) notes that bowing of the head and putting hands behind their back is a sign of embarrassment and the individual uncomfortable in the situation. Robben is clearly embarrassed however, there is a notion of self-predation that he is apologizing, almost ignoring the embarrassing interaction because he has the mind- set that what he is doing is morally correct. Goffman (1967) argues “he who frequently becomes embarrassed in the presence of others is regarded as suffering from a foolish unjustified fear of inferiority and in need of therapy” (p.242). There also appears to be behaviour relevant to the flustering syndrome. Goffman recalls (1967) “First, the individual may become flustered while engaged in a task of no particular value to him in itself, except that his long range interests require him to perform it with safety , competence, or dispatch and he fears he is inadequate to the task”(p.234). This highlights that Robben may be apologizing because he acknowledges the benefit to his future, if he tries to decrease his stigma. Goffman adds (1967) “It occurs whenever an individual is felt to have projected incompatible definition of him before those present”(242). These projections do not occur at random or for psychological reasons but at certain places in a social establishment where incompatible principles of social organization prevail.

However, Ashley young continuation to pursue his behaviour which includes diving, stigmatises him with a negative affirmation. Orne (2013) states different people manage stigma and identity management is different ways. Asked if he realised he has attracted a diving reputation, Young states “Of course I understand and everyone is going to have their say on it, but I’ve spoken to the previous manager…the referees are giving decisions and that is here I think it lies” (Jackson 2013). Young directs his behaviour to the referees and clearly fails to understand that his actions challenge the referee and force him in to decision making. Webb (2015) states “referees are coming under fire because it becomes their fault if a player cheats and they don’t see it”. Webb sums up Young’s attitude towards the referees and diving in general.

4.8 Referees

Figure 28

The theories discussed give an explanation of a dive and the influence consequently. However referees play a fundamental role in assisting with the performance by adjudicating their behaviour. Referees play a critical role in determining the outcome of a dive, as they decide if the dive coincides with the rules of the game. If the referees decide the “Dive” is illegitimate then they will award a free kick or a penalty. Bloomfield (2015) argues “Referees have such a hard job to do, and as players continue to get fitter and quicker, the job for officials increases in difficulty” referencing that refereeing role has become progressively difficult. However, Vrij (2008) notes that the psychological attributes we have are enough to make a rational decision. He claims that referees are cable of acknowledging diving, considering increases in pace and speed that players play at.

Matsumoto et al. (2007), Frank and Gilovich (1988), Greenlees et al. (2005) and Jones et al. (2002) adds that reputation or stigma, can influence the referee where this pre-conceived judgement influences the referees decisions. Dohmen (2008), Lucey and Power (2004) and Holmstr¨om, (1999) explain that in Germany , referees are more likely to award free kicks and penalties to the home side, confirming this pre conceived notion of already deciding before the incident has happened.

Symbolic violence can occur here if the player is deemed deceitful, when, they could be innocent. Morris and Lewis (2010) suggest that it has become “controversy” agreeing, this issue is not clear. It could be argued that referees have too much protection in regard to their decisions on the pitch and if they make a wrong one, their consequence or punishment is minimal or non-existent as individuals widely accept the difficulty in being a referee.

It suggests, that whatever decision the referee makes, it will be incorrect to some members of the audience. When one discusses the referees decisions in the public domain, the comments are restricted and censored. There is a clear paradox here, as shown by John Hartson and Jose Mourinho criticisms of referees when they make a mistake are censored. How will the issue of diving resolve, if we can’t discuss it? Furthermore, referees do not escape the masculinity crisis and are just as critiqued as the players. Dan Jones (Evening standard) write the headline in reaction to his refereeing “He tried to be diving’s Judge Dredd but came across as Judge Judy”. This represents that the performance of referees are critiqued in accordance to the heterosexual norms. Also, it suggests that Clatennburg is obsessed with control of a masculine moral order, which sorts the men from the boys. It depicts that you are required to be a ‘real man’.

Masculinity is a key component in analysing the consequences of a dive and a representation of the reaction individuals receive. Highlighting culture, Hegemonic Masculinity and metro sexuality focusing on David Beckham, this chapter discuses and examines the impact a dive can have on ones masculinity and sexuality.

4.9 Culture

Hargreaves (1994), Messner (1992) and Pronger (1990) state that sport has often been described as a cultural institution that compelled men to adhere to socially acceptable notions of masculinity. However, it is not isolated to sport; Diane Abbot observes a rise in “Viagra and Jack Daniels culture". Pronger (1990) goes further to suggest that “televised sports spectacles are a deeply disguised form of homoerotic pornography” (p.182). This suggests that both societal and sport culture currently, emphasise on the player’s sexuality and contributing to a “masculinity crisis”. Staudohar (1986) points out that the manner in which sport and society view football players contribute to this ‘masculinity crisis’ by stating “only sports business are allowed to depreciate their human assets” (p.18). Pronger (1990) and Staudohar (1986) accounts of masculinity gives and insight of the current relationship masculinity has with sport. Guttman (1996) explains this by highlighting Mexican men’s “machismo”. This display of masculinity is intertwined with the public masculine identity. Anderson (2008) notes “young athletes have been socialized into a rapidly changing culture: one that fosters emotional intimacy between men and the expression of feelings, including fear and pain”. However, as Sinclair notes, sport has not embraced homosexuality the same as society has.

Trevor Sinclair (2015) insists that he believes no player plans to dive but argues that hitting the deck is sometimes the only option. His states "But if you're an offensive player and a defender comes flying in at 100 miles per hour and that causes you to lose momentum, then I think players are entitled to go down”. He adds “People are naïve if they think players are going to stay on their feet. A player has a right to go down, football is not this Walt Disney world a lot of people think it is." It suggests the behaviour towards diving reflects the culture which differs between leagues and countries and this attitude to diving is a conservative approach to physical injury. A question can be raised to ask if it is physical prowess that’s evolved the game or diving? Kevin Kilbane (2015) believes that diving is natural with some players than others, “It's definitely instinctive. It's ingrained more in some players than others and that's why it happens more with some than others.” Some may argue that diving is not cheating at all up to a point. If an individual lunges in to a tackle, you’re entitled to go down. This is shown evidently by former player Gordan Watson “You are looking to win a game and that may sound cut-throat but it's winning at all costs”. (BBC Sport, 2015) It is a culture perspective, and a scope for interpretation for referees, players, managers and the supporters. Thus concludes that the modern era of society and sport, has embraced femininity considerably since sport was created.

Many countries have different culture boundaries of diving in football. The premier leagues view diving as a breach of etiquette, where fellow players, pundits and managers criticise involved immediately after the incident. Ewen (2013) suggests that the nostalgic attitude in football in England has no place for diving, and suggests that a celebrity style of football is contributing to the issue. These scholars concur by suggesting that the premier league has an issue with diving and it is becoming worse (Morgan 2007). There appears to be a culture shift in Italy, where the culture is significantly more relaxed about the diving issue then their European counter parts.

King (1997) adds with the rapid transformation in the consumption of football with all seater stadiums in the post-modern era, has created a type of masculine fan which adds to the masculine dominated football skyline. He adds that this particular masculine mouth piece supersedes the theories of resistance and hegemony. This statement states that the culture of football is complex towards homosexuals and that football culture could be argued as a breeding ground for rhetorical gender stereotypes. Boyle and Haynes (2009: 136–7) introduces “new laddism” which displays the homosexual fears of traditional male working-class culture. This changing culture of fandom can be seen with the challenge to an environment where the concept of hegemonic masculinity has been regularly applied (Connell 1987, 1990, 1995). Hargreaves (1994) and Messner (1992) state team contact sports have maintained the forms of heterosexual masculinity in Western cultures. This clearly shows a Culture Vs Rules skirmish which entertains the idea that the culture of football where winning is everything.

4.10 Hegemony

Masculine hegemony is a key component in understanding the culture of sport and gives an insight to why players dive in football. Hegemony, according to Connell (1977) suggests that it attempts to comprehend the stabilisation of the social classes. Eisenstein (1979) adds that hegemony relates to the issue regarding gender relations. The relationship between the social classes (Hunt 1980), represents a similarity between gender relations and points out that there is a gulf between women and masculine hegemony in society. Both scholars also suggest that hegemony can be reduced to a simple model of cultural control in society. Messerschmidt and Connell (2005), Meuser and Behnke (1998) note that hegemonic masculinity does not necessarily mean social reproduction therefore; it is open for change and reform. Whannel (cited in Messerschmidt, Connell 2005) adds that masculinity “has never been especially stable or fixed”. This creates ambiguity when understanding social interaction. Wetherell and Edley (1999) add that there is trouble considering exactly what hegemonic masculinity is. Kimmel (2004) writes ‘while different groups of men may disagree about other traits and their significance in gender definitions, the anti-femininity component of masculinity is perhaps the single dominant and universal characteristic’ (p.97). Messner (2007) suggests “sport was a male-created homosocial cultural sphere that provided men with psychological separation from the perceived ‘feminization’ of society” (p.3). Messner explains that the type of masculinity reproduced in football is not a masculinity which can be dismissed. However, it summarizes many of the values and behaviours that make up modern masculinity. Hall (2014) states “hegemonic masculinity, as such, is seen as normative masculinity, which is currently the most prized way of being a man in a given context, even though most men do not enact it”. Connell (1995 p.77) adds that there is not a “single mode of masculine behaviour, but rather as a variety of masculine identities amassed around expectations of what masculinity is presumed to be”. It is clear from media representation and normative behaviour in society, that expressing masculinity for a man is accepted. Connell and Messerschmidt (2005) adds that the media plays a vital role in constructing a masculine image, “hegemonic masculine attributes are not then upheld by force, rather they achieve dominance by means of persuasion”. Connell (2005, 1995) recognises that in order to remain dominant, other masculinities and femininity must be kept subordinate.

Sinclair (2013) suggests football plays a vital role in supporting an aggressive version of masculinity. One that arguably, can be damaging to the individual. Nelson (1994) states “We need to take sports seriously – not the scores or the statistics, but the process. Not to focus on who wins, but on whose losing”. This becomes more apparent when researching the culture of football. Melnick and Yiannakis (2001) state “the hegemonic masculinity reproduced in televised sports like football has serious costs for both men and women. Clearly, these televised sports marginalize, subordinate, and symbolically annihilate women” P.234). Sinclair continues to elude that by watching and playing football, boys learn what it means to be man and understand which behaviours are ‘manly’. Furthermore, he claims that they are taught “be strong” and be “tough”, hyper masculine traits. Hall (2014) “the media present images of representing hegemonic masculinity provide a benchmark against which men position their own masculinity”. Vincent (et al. 2002) states journalists have provided less coverage of men’s sports that do not represent the characteristics of orthodox masculinity. This highlights that sport conserves masculine traits and forbids femininity.

The constant remarks to display masculine is spearhead again by media and television with programmes such as Match of Day. Remarks such as “dominating” and “controlling” evoke nothing but hegemonic masculinity and encourage the audience to become this superficial man. Akinson (2010) points out that although men as a group tend to be dominant, men as individuals are often not, and indeed dominance is often context specific. It suggests that men are forced to establish new identities due to this hegemonic masculinity. Wetherall and Edley (1999, p.337) questions the “appropriateness of a definition of dominant masculinity which no man may actually ever embody”. Kessler (et.al 1982) points out that hegemonic masculinity explains power relationships between different men; it embodies Goffman’s symbolic interactionism theory by individuals socially interact with other males. Messerschmidt (1993) adds that if we preserve the concept of ‘hegemonic masculinity’ as a marker for men to construct their own masculinity, we can analyse how men such as metrosexuals manage their non-normative gender activities. Given that ‘hegemonic masculinity’ (Connell 1995) centres on dominance, and the submission of women and homosexual men, previous research (Messner, 1992; Sargent, 2000) indicates that men exert more dominant masculine traits in typically feminised environments as opposed to traditional male environments, which assists when explaining diving.

4.11 Metro sexual

An important component to answering the research question is considering metro sexuality and addressing the influence it has on football players. “Metro sexuality is a social construct created and maintained within a patriarchal society, largely attributable to the forging and sanitizing powers of the mass media” (Connell 1987 2005, p.136). Parker et. Al (2008) points out that metro sexuality and its numerous derivatives are labels attached by the media to various states of masculine identity. OED (2012: cited in Hall, 2014) points out, metrosexual activities and behaviours are associated with those of ‘women or homosexual’. It is these comparisons that are problematic for the traditional hyper masculine sport institution to accept. Metro sexuality conveys suspicions regarding their sexuality which is problematic for sport. It is clear from the literature that the media have a major influence on metro sexuality and what it constitutes to be a metrosexual man. Clayton & Harris (2007: p.137) argues,

Part of the problem here is that scholars have maintained, and been satisfied with, the explanation that metro sexuality, and its successors, are terms imposed upon the social world by a mass media in the service of a market in flux

It portrays a clear message that behaviour that does not coincide with the traditional masculine behaviour, is unaccepted within the sporting arena in the wider community. It is this crossing of the gender boundaries and an increasing trend that male athletes are behaving more feminine which contradicts the essence of sport. Whannel (2002: cited in Harris and Parker 2009) “argues that the media have a history in recognising for its role in shaping and maintaining cultural norms and values for its influence on the culture of sport”. He notes that the media initiate a ‘punishment’ and redemption treatment for athletes. This suggests that “Beckham’s gender role ‘cataclysms’ are set against his thoroughly masculine contributions to sporting successes at national level”. Harris and Parker (2009) suggest “media sport, then, is implicated in the cultural substance of heteronormative gender identities. Yet the media, in all its forms, appears increasingly to be embracing the metrosexual athlete to such an extent that men’s sport too is in danger of becoming a fight for the survival of the prettiest” (p.141). Reviewing the literature, it seems that the media are a contributing factor in suppressing feminine behaviour and in favour for male athletes to perform ‘hyper masculine’ characteristics.

Coad (2005: cited in Harris and Parker 2009) refers to Beckham as “England’s reining metrosexual” and “Britain’s principal metrosexual” (p.50). It suggests that skill or talent for the game can be over looked because the individual represents more feminine attributes. Harris and Clayton (2007) note that Beckham has “continued to resist the traditional values of male team sports and their retrospective sub cultures, which, when coupled with media exploitation of this transcendence”. They continue to add “Beckham as attracted media and academic interest as a sports star who manages simultaneously to conform to and resist orthodox sporting masculinities (p.138). Beckham’s talent has been the “cornerstone” of the sports media’s construction of his macho image. It appears that metro sexuality can threaten an individual’s representation and can detract from their footballing ability. Harris and Clayton (2007) note that “The image of footballers is thrusted in to the media and their every move is critiqued on and of the pitch. Players such as Beckham a legend, still have to defend any suspicious regarding their sexuality.” The literature and scholars are in agreement that individuals need to defend their heterosexuality which is the norm in society and sport. This is clear by Beckham’s statement in the Sun (29 April 2002) “I’m an animal in bed’. This statement echoes Harris & Clayton (2007) by suggesting sport has celebrated male physical prowess and it has “Lionized” its male participants. This mention refers to sustaining a sexual and heteronormative image as it is the norm and any other orientation is not tolerated or accepted. A German tabloid bild zeitung asked is Beckham turning into a woman? (Reported in the mirror, 12 July 2002).

The literature reveals that athletes such as Cristiano Ronaldo, Gavin Henson and David Beckham are acknowledge their perceived ‘feminine behaviour’ and embracing it. It reveals then, why are the media concerned about metro sexuality? Coad (2008) states that “dubbing an athlete a metrosexual can be judged as questioning status as a jock and as a hyper masculine heterosexual” (p.50). Tomlinson et.al (2005) noticed that men were/are taking part in adrenaline sports, in an effort to claw back some masculine identity. He alludes to the fact that male athletes are consciously aware to portray a heteronormative narrative. Coad (2005: cited in Harris & Parker 2009) noted

Fashion able football players and the subsequent discussions about gender and sexual identity are the most visible manifestation of metro sexuality, a far cry from the working class values of times gone by (p.135).

According to Harris and Clayton (2007), metro sexuality has transformed the male footballing identity and traditional masculine dominance and appeal, has decreased and diminished. However, Coad (2005: cited in Harris & Parker 2009) states “there is evidence to account for the reluctance of some athletes to claim status as metrosexuals”. This highlights the attitudes of society and the media that men, regardless of what sexual orientation, have a duty to express masculinity. The importance of culture is immense as it’s the only available means for interacting within the sporting sphere, and the identities it creates (Harris and Clayton 2007).

5.0 Conclusion

In conclusion, this study demonstrates how complex the diving process is and how difficult it is to master for many. Using Goffman’s symbolic interactionism as a foundation to analyse themes regarding diving, it has given the study a structure to formulate the findings. Masculinity influences of diving reveals that diving is paradoxical, as when players dive, they act feminine. The study revealed the lengths players would compromise their masculinity, for gains on the pitch. The study reveals the ‘professional’ divers secrets and exploits their tactics. Furthermore, the study reveals that in order for players to complete the deception, the dive has to be authentic. This study would be beneficial for referees as the study highlights traits, behaviours and social performance that players would practice in order to complete a dive. With referees criticised for decisions daily, this study can act as a bastion of social progress and reform the values that individuals withhold who dive, in a bid to reduce diving. Individuals who play the ‘diving game’ deliberately or not, are good at it, which is at the epicentre of the issue. It is clear from the literature and offenders of diving, that it is against social justice and moral compass. Evidently, the diving phenomenon is morally corrupt, so what is being done to combat diving? Ideas of video referees and extra officials have surfaced however, this study argues that the referees are cable of managing the issue and stresses their role is undervalued (Kinder 2013) and Glendenning (2013).Roosevelt states “the credit is with the man who is actually in the arena, whose face is marred by dust and sweat, who strives valiantly”.

Recommendations for this study includes contacting interviews to question players and supporters on their views regarding diving. As Foot (2007) states, there are “strong elements which link religious belief with football fandom” with this consideration, there appears to be a lazier fare approach to solve the diving conundrum however, this study lays the foundations for social reform to combat the issue.

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Appendices

Figure 1.

Mokbel, S. (2014) Arjen robben diving. Available at: https://www.google.co.uk/search?q=arjen+robben+diving&sa=X&espv=2&biw=1920 &bih=979&tbm=isch&imgil=-z- 1XUdCykPCYM%253A%253BIVgQMkLnMmxA4M%253Bhttp%25253A%25252F%2 5252Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%25252Fsport%25252Ffootball%25252Fworld- cup%25252F10935074%25252FArjen-Robben-joins-list-of-top-9-football-divers-of- all-time-but-where-does-he-rank-compared-to-the-others.html&source=iu&pf=m&fir=- z- 1XUdCykPCYM%253A%252CIVgQMkLnMmxA4M%252C_&usg=__LMdKtWh9VdC 2shidiQwSAx8o- sI%3D&ved=0ahUKEwjeiqSxxpbLAhVC1hQKHaOyANoQyjcIJQ&ei=S9vQVp65D8K sU6PlgtAN#imgrc=zf3p6Y-rc9jZZM%3A (Accessed: 26 February 2016). Inline Citations: (Mokbel, 2014)

Figure 2.

White, J. (2014) Arjen Robben says sorry for diving but insists he was fouled for Holland’s winning penalty against Mexico. Available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/world-cup/10934608/Arjen-Robben-says- sorry-for-diving-but-insists-he-was-fouled-for-Hollands-winning-penalty-against- Mexico.html (Accessed: 7 March 2016). Inline Citations: (White, 2014)

Figure 3. Stahl, J. (2014) Dive of the day: Robben makes the ultimate sacrifice for the Netherlands. Available at: http://www.slate.com/blogs/the_spot/2014/06/29/arjen_robben_dive_against_mexico _the_winger_makes_the_ultimate_world_cup.html (Accessed: 7 March 2016). Inline Citations: (Stahl, 2014)

Figure 4.

Posted, K.W. and Reporter, G. (2014) FIFA world cup 2014: Robben dives into ‘penalty’ row. Available at: https://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&ved=0ah UKEwjxrI27ta_LAhWJnBoKHRRxByYQjhwIBQ&url=http%3A%2F%2Fkannadigaworl d.com%2Fnews%2Fsports%2F90079.html&psig=AFQjCNEbyeD2KDkOxOeCyzXGf wMBNAJqWQ&ust=1457468979670513&cad=rja (Accessed: 7 March 2016).

Figure 5

Pickup, O. (2014) Arjen Robben joins list of top 9 football divers of all time, but where does he rank compared to the others?. Available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/world-cup/10935074/Arjen-Robben-joins- list-of-top-9-football-divers-of-all-time-but-where-does-he-rank-compared-to-the- others.html

Figure 6 Times, T.T. (2016) WORLD CUP: Robben sorry for dive, stands by penalty. Available at: http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/sport/archives/2014/07/01/2003594074 (Accessed: 7 March 2016). Inline Citations: (Times, 2016)

Figure 7

Ram, B. (2014) FIFA should bring technology to punish blatant diving after .. Available at: https://www.google.co.uk/imgres?imgurl=http://www.scaryfootball.com/wp- content/uploads/2014/06/Arjen-Robben-diving-with-Rafa-Marquez-on-Netherlands- vs-Mexico-World-Cup-2014-Round-of- 16.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.scaryfootball.com/2014/07/fifa-should-bring-technology- to-punish-blatant-diving-after-robbens- admission/&h=338&w=600&tbnid=vKiqoy88nNKk5M:&docid=7zMejsF7saaAYM&ei= suTdVpXAMoakUe6csfAB&tbm=isch&ved=0ahUKEwiV4aaXta_LAhUGUhQKHW5O DB4QMwgjKAYwBg (Accessed: 7 March 2016). Inline Citations: (Ram, 2014)

Figure 8

Limited, R. (2014) World cup talking point: Did Robben dive or was he fouled by Marquez?. Available at: http://www.rediff.com/sports/slide-show/slide-show-1- football-world-cup-talking-point-did-robben-dive-or-was-he-fouled-by-marquez- netherlands/20140630.htm (Accessed: 7 March 2016). Inline Citations: (Limited, 2014)

Figure 9

BBC (2014) World cup 2014: Arjen Robben diving worries Costa Rica coach. Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/28172466 (Accessed: 7 March 2016). Inline Citations: (BBC, 2014)

Figure 10

Sheets, C.A., Miere, J.L. and Poladian, C. (2014) Arjen Robben admits diving in Netherlands’ win over Mexico [VIDEO]. Available at: http://www.ibtimes.com/arjen- robben-admits-diving-netherlands-win-over-mexico-video-1615830 (Accessed: 7 March 2016). Inline Citations: (Sheets, Miere, and Poladian, 2014)

Figure 11

Jefferson, B. (2014) Robben admits to diving but not to win the decisive penalty. Available at: http://www.irishtimes.com/sport/soccer/international/robben-admits-to- diving-but-not-to-win-the-decisive-penalty-1.1850268 (Accessed: 26 February 2016).

Figure 12

BBC (2014) #BBCtrending: Robben’s ‘dive’... And other #WorldCup trends. Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-28098603 (Accessed: 7 March 2016). Inline Citations: (BBC, 2014)

Mokbel, S. (2014) Robben is a diving cheat - he’ll never be welcome in premier league. Available at: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sport/worldcup2014/article- 2675374/Arjen-Robben-cheat-thats-former-Chelsea-winger-never-return-Premier- League.html (Accessed: 7 March 2016). Inline Citations: (Mokbel, 2014)

Archer, B. (2015) Manchester united dealt blow as arsenal join race for £25m Atletico Madrid star. Available at: http://www.express.co.uk/sport/football/564660/Alexis-Sanchez-Arsenal-Monaco- two-fingers. Figure, 1,2,3

Anorak, A. (2015) Manchester United’s Wayne Rooney teaches dumb foreigners Angel Di maria and Adnan Januzaj the great British dive. Available at: http://www.anorak.co.uk/415573/sports/manchester-united/manchester-uniteds- wayne-rooney-teaches-dumb-foreigners-angel-di-maria-and-adnan-januzaj-the- great-british-dive.html/

Aliveforfootball, nikhildeshpande (2015) ‘Tactical analysis of Manchester United’s win over Aston villa’, Featured Column, 4 April. Available at: http://aliveforfootball.net/blog/diving-realities-overreacting/

Cross, J. (2014) Assistant said Cesc Fabregas DIDN’T dive - but was ignored by Anthony Taylor. Available at: http://www.mirror.co.uk/sport/football/news/assistant- referee-said-chelseas-cesc-4890932. Jefferson, B. (2014) Robben admits to diving but not to win the decisive penalty. Available at: http://www.irishtimes.com/sport/soccer/international/robben-admits-to- diving-but-not-to-win-the-decisive-penalty-1.1850268 (Accessed: 26 February 2016).

Kelly, D. (2012) Des Kelly: Cheats like Drogba and young are diving into the abyss. Available at: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sport/article-2132888/Des-Kelly-Cheats-like- Drogba-Young-diving-abyss.html (Accessed: 8 March 2016). Inline Citations: (Kelly, 2012)

BUSQUETS

Levante player Fgure 11 Mackay, H. (2014) Levante forward David Barral shows off scars from defeat to Espanyol. Available at: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sport/football/article- 2854390/Levante-forward-David-Barral-accused-faking-injury-byt-referee-photo- shows-raked-stud-marks-leg.html (Accessed: 8 March 2016). Inline Citations: (Mackay, 2014)

BBC (2014) World cup 2014: 100 great world cup moments - 83 days to go. Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/26252834 (Accessed: 8 March 2016). Inline Citations: (BBC, 2014)

Rivaldo face

Rivaldo leg James, A. (2013) What a load of bulls! New York star Juninho sent off after Neilsen dives like Rivaldo. Available at: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sport/football/article- 2311109/Juninho-sent-keeper-feigns-injury-Brazilian-kicks-ball-ARM.html (Accessed: 8 March 2016). Inline Citations: (James, 2013)

Figure 19-27

Robben dive video FootballSupremo (2014) Ajern Robben admits to diving against Mexico!. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YDqG3qop8ys (Accessed: 9 March 2016). Inline Citations: (FootballSupremo, 2014)

14-22 figure YouTube