Estimated Original Forest Cover Map - A First Attempt Compiled September 1996 by Clare Billington, Valerie Kapos, Mary Edwards, Simon Blyth and Susan Iremonger

This map has been devised as a first attempt to provide a baseline with which to compare the WCMC World Forest Map in order to calculate total forest loss. It is intended to show the distribution of closed forest worldwide prior to the impact of modern man, e.g. roughly pre 1500 in North and South America and pre 1760 in Australia. The approach was to select an existing global map of potential forest cover as a template and then to insert more detailed regional coverages. Original cover of some forest types, especially dry forests and forests occurring in largely unforested regions, is likely to be underestimated (see discussion of regional data sets, below). The intention is to continue refining this map in the light of criticism and expert input and by inserting appropriate national potential forest coverages.

Method Initially, three global maps portraying original vegetation cover in some form were evaluated by comparing them with the WCMC World Forest Map (WFMap). These were: (1) the Holdridge Life Zone Global coverage, which relies on climate data to establish the likely natural vegetation cover of any area (cf. Holdridge, 1967); (2) the Major World Ecosystems Map (Olson and Watts, 1982); and (3) the World Map of Present-day Landscapes (MSU map) compiled by Moscow State University and UNEP, based on climate and soils (Milanova and Kushlin, 1993). For each candidate map, we quantified the amount of currently forested land (according to the WFMap) not originally forested according to the candidate maps.

All three candidates showed some discrepancies with the WFMap, for which explanations include: (a) classification problems in the candidate maps or discrepancies with the classifications incorporated into the WFMap; (b) inaccuracies within the WFMap itself - in many regions the WFMap data are satellite-dervived and are likely to be reasonably accurate in determining the limits of present forest cover, but not all the WFMap's component data are so reliable.

Of the three global candidate maps, the MSU map showed the least discrepancy with the WFMap. For this reason and because it seems to deal well with the boreal and north temperate regions, a substantial part of the world, the MSU map, at a scale of 1:15,000,000 was selected as the basic template for assembling the world original forest cover map (OFC map). The MSU map is based on two maps Geographical Belts and Zonal Types of Landscapes of the World and Land Use Types of the World compiled by Moscow State University in 1988 and 1986 respectively. The categories from the MSU map legend included in the global template are listed in the next section.

Because the criterion used in selecting the global template is likely to lead to an over- estimate of OFC (the surest way to minimise discrepancy with the WFMap is to maximize OFC) and because global coverages are of necessity crude and may lack input from regional expertise, we then sought regional coverages that would be likely to be more accurate than the global one. Each regional map was compared with the WFMap data for the appropriate region on the same basis that the global map had been and if it performed as well or better according to this criterion, was inserted into the global OFC map in place of the MSU mapped data.

Thus, the OFC map comprises the MSU map and the regional maps listed below. For areas where no regional map is listed, the MSU data are those shown on the final OFC map.

Regional Data

A number of regional coverages depicting original/potential forest cover were selected to improve the accuracy of the global OFC map. The following regional coverages were chosen, for:

• Central, South America and the - of Latin America and the Caribbean (Dinnerstein, et al. , 1995) Scale: 1: 15,000,000

• Africa - Vegetation of Africa (White, 1986) Scale: 1:5,000,000

• South and Southeast Asia - Review of the Indomalayan Protected Areas (MacKinnon, 1996) Scale: 1:1,000,000.

• Australia - Australia Natural Vegetation (Carnahan and Australian Surveying and Land Information Group, nd) Scale: 1:5,000,000

• Europe west of the Urals - General Map of Natural Vegetation of Europe (Bohn and Katenina, 1994). Scale : 1:10,000,000

The World Map of Present Day Landscapes was used to depict OFC for the remainder of the World: USA and Canada, Russia (former USSR), East Asia (China, Mongolia, Japan, North and South Korea, Taiwan) and New Zealand.

In all regional cases some discrepancies between OFC and WFMap forest occurrence remained. To acknowledge these discrepancies, to aid review and assist in the future development of the OFC map, we chose to spatially identify these discrepancies by allocating three different categories to the OFC data within the GIS coverages, in the table of statistics and in the plot. The categories comprised the following:

• Category 1: where OFC data match or exceed WFMap forest cover;

• Category 2: where WFMap source data are more detailed than the regional OFCs and where we are certain that forest does and did exist, especially where forest patches occur in unforested regions, e.g. riverine forest and closed forest patches in Brazilian and Venezuelan savanna regions. NB As these regions have often been severely deforested, their OFC is likely to be underestimated even when category 2 is included in the OFC estimate.

• Category 3: where the discrepancy may have arisen because of differences in classification systems between OFC and the WFMap source data and/or where we are not particularly confident in the WFMap source data.

Category 2 and Category 3 represent areas where no 'original forest cover' existed to explain the current forest.

Thus three different OFC statistics are presented (and three categories are shown on the OFC map):

(a) total area of OFC according to regional/global coverage (b) total area of OFC as in (a) plus area of category 2 (c) total area of OFC as in (a) plus area of categories 2 and 3 (maximum possible original forest cover)

Forest loss can be calculated with respect to any of these three OFC estimates.

Forest/ Types Selected from the Global and Regional Coverages

1. Global template

Source: World Map of Present Day Landscapes (Milanova and Kushlin, 1993).

The following categories from the MSU map legend are included to form "original" forest cover of the world: Natural Landscape Zones (plains): Subpolar belts 4. Forest-tundras and open woodlands on Haplic and Leptic Podzols

Temperate Belts (Boreal subbelts) 7. Taiga (boreal forests) on Haplic and Leptic Podzols, Dystric Podzoluvisols and Calcic-Gelic Cambisols, Gelic Gleysols and Albic Luvisols

Temperate Belts (Subboreal subbelts) 8. Mixed deciduous-coniferous forests on Albic Luvisols, Orthic Greyzems and Dystric Cambisols 9. Broadleaved forests on Albic Luvisols, Orthic and Eutric Greyzems and Dystric Cambisols

Subtropical Belts 14. Broadleaved-coniferous evergreen forests on Dystric and Ferallic Cambisols and Nitosols 15. Coniferous-broadleaved semi-evergreen forests on Ferallic Cambisols and Nitosols 16. Broadleaved semi-evergreen forests on Ferallic Cambisols, Nitosols and Chromic Luvisols 18. Mediterranean hardleaved evergreen forests, open woodlands and shrubs on Chromic Cambisols and Haplic Nitosols

Tropical Belts 28. Semi-evergreen and evergreen forests on Acric Ferralsols and Rhodic Nitosols

Subequatorial Belts 29. Evergreen forests on Acric Ferralsols, Rhodic Nitosols and Chromic Xerosols 30. Semi-evergreen forests on Acric Ferralsols, Rhodic and Haplic Nitosols 31. Deciduous forests on Rhodic and Haplic Nitosols and Pellic Vertisols

Equatorial Belt 33. Evergreen rain forests on Xantic and Gleyic Ferralsols 34. Deciduous forests on Acric Ferralsols

Intrazonal Landscapes 35. River valley landscapes - included as forested when falling within an otherwise originally forested region, not considered forested in nonforested landscapes

36. landscapes

Types of Altitudinal Landscape Spectra (medium and high mountains) - only those types involving some kind of forest are included

Temperate Belts (Boreal subbelts) (5) Taiga - tundra (- golets)

Temperate Belts (Subboreal subbelts) (6) Mixed forest coniferous forest - tundra (- golets) (7) Deciduous or mixed forest - coniferous forest - meadow (mixed forest - steppe) (8) Forest-steppe - coniferous forest - tundra (9) Steppe - coniferous forest - tundra (10) Steppe - mixed forest - meadow

Subtropical Belts (12) Evergreen hardwoods - coniferous forests - shrub or meadow (13) Mixed forest - meadow (14) Mediterranean woodland or shrub - mixed or coniferous forest - steppe or meadow (15) Steppe or semidesert - mixed or coniferous forest - alpine meadow or steppe. (19) Steppe or semidesert - mixed - alpine meadow or steppe

Tropical Belts (24) Open woodland - deciduous forest - coniferous forest - steppe or meadow (25) Forest - steppe

Subequatorial Belts (26) Evergreen forest - meadow or paramos (27) Mixed forest - meadow (28) Savannah - forest - meadow or steppe

2. Mexico, , South America and the Caribbean

Source: Ecoregions of Latin America and the Caribbean (Dinnerstein et al ., 1995). Latin America and the Caribbean have been divided into 5 major ecosystem types, 11 major habitat types and 191 ecoregions. Ecoregions include 13 mangrove complexes but otherwise excludes marine areas and freshwater habitats. The classification scheme for ecoregions builds on existing work and wherever possible, uses ecoregion boundaries recognised by conservation planners and biogeographers.

The following forest ecoregions have been included to represent OFC.

Mexican and Central American Ecoregions 1. TROPICAL BROADLEAF FORESTS A. Tropical Moist Broadleaf Forests 7. Oaxacan moist forests - Mexico 8. Tehuantepec moist forests - Mexico, Guatemala, Belize 9. Yucatan moist forests - Mexico 10. Sierra Madre moist forests - Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador 11. Central American montane forests - Mexico, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras 12. Belizean swamp forests - Belize 13. Central American Atlantic moist forests - Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama 14. Costa Rican seasonal moist forests - Costa Rica, Nicaragua 15. Isthmian-Pacific moist forests - Costa Rica, Panama 16. Talamancan montane forests - Costa Rica, Panama

B. Tropical Dry Broadleaf Forests 64. Baja California dry forests - Mexico 65. Sinaloan dry forests - Mexico 66. Tamaulipas/Veracruz dry forests - Mexico 67. Jalisco dry forests - Mexico 68. Balsas dry forests - Mexico 69. Oaxacan dry forests - Mexico 70. Veracruz dry forests - Mexico 71. Yucatan dry forests - Mexico 72. Central American Pacific dry forests - El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico 73. Panamanian dry forests - Panama

2. CONIFER/TEMPERATE BROADLEAF FORESTS B. Tropical and Subtropical Coniferous Forests 93. Sierra Juarez pine-oak forests - Mexico, US 94. San Lucan pine-oak forests - Mexico 95. Sierra Madre Occidental pine-oak forests - Mexico 96. Central Mexican pine-oak forests - Mexico 97. Sierra Madre Oriental pine-oak forests - Mexico, US 98. Veracruz pine-oak forests - Mexico 99. Mexican transvolcanic pine-oak forests - Mexico 100. Veracruz montane forests - Mexico 101. Sierra Madre del Sur pine-oak forests - Mexico 102. Central American pine-oak forests - Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua 103. Belizean pine forests - Belize 104. Miskito pine forests - Nicaragua, Honduras

5. A. Mangroves

South American Ecoregions 1. TROPICAL BROADLEAF FORESTS A. Tropical Moist Broadleaf Forests 17. Cordillera La Costa montane forests - 18. Orinoco Delta swamp forests - Venezuela, Guyana 19. Trinidad and Tobago moist forests - Trinidad and Tobago 20. Guianan Highlands moist forests - Venezuela, Brazil, Guyana 21. Pantepui - Venezuela, Brazil, Guyana, Suriname, 22. Napo moist forests - , , Colombia 23. Macarena montane forests - Colombia 24. Japura/Negro moist forests - Colombia, Peru, Venezuela, Brazil 25. Uatama moist forests - Brazil, Venezuela Guyana 26. Amapa moist forests - Brazil, French Guiana 27. Guianan moist forests - Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, Brazil, French Guiana 28. Paramaribo swamp forests - Suriname 29. Ucayali moist forests - Brazil, Peru 30. Western Amazonian swamp forests - Peru, Colombia 31. Southwestern Amazonian moist forests - Brazil, Peru, Bolivia 32. Jurua moist forests - Brazil 33. Varzea forests - Brazil, Peru, Colombia 34. Purus/Madeira moist forests - Brazil 35. Rondonia/Mato Grosso moist forests - Brazil, Bolivia 36. Beni swamp and gallery forests - Bolivia, Brazil 37. Tapajos/Xingu moist forests - Brazil 38. Tocantins moist forests - Brazil 39. Choco/Darien moist forests - Colombia, Panama 40. Eastern Panamanian montane forests - Panama, Colombia 41. Northwestern Andean montane forests - Colombia, Ecuador 42. Western Ecuador moist forests - Ecuador, Colombia 43. Cauca Valley montane forests - Colombia 44. Magdalena Valley montane forests - Colombia 45. Magdalena/Uraba moist forests - Colombia 46. Cordillera Oriental montane forests - Colombia, Venezuela 47. Eastern Cordillera Real montane forests - Ecuador 48. Santa Marta montane forests - Colombia 49. Venezuelan montane forests - Venezuela, Colombia 50. Catatumbo moist forests - Venezuela, Colombia 51. Peruvian Yungas - Peru 52. Bolivian Yungas - Bolivia, Argentina 53. Andean Yungas - Argentina, Bolivia 54. Brazilian Coastal Atlantic forests - Brazil 55. Brazilian Interior Atlantic forests - Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay

B. Tropical Dry Broadleaf Forests 74. Llanos dry forests - Venezuela 75. Trinidad and Tobago dry forests - Trinidad & Tobago 76. Bolivian lowland dry forests - Bolivia, Brazil 77. Cauca Valley dry forests - Colombia 78. Magdalena Valley dry forests - Colombia 79. Patia Valley dry forests - Colombia 80. Sinu Valley dry forests - Colombia 81. Ecuadorian dry forests - Ecuador 82. Tumbes/Piura dry forests - Ecuador, Peru 83. Maranon dry forests - Peru 84. Maracaibo dry forests - Venezuela 85. Lara/Falcon dry forests - Venezuela 86. Bolivian montane dry forests - Bolivia

2. CONIFER/TEMPERATE BROADLEAF FORESTS A. Temperate Forests 87. Chilean winter-rain forests - Chile 88. Valdivian temperate forests - Chile, Argentina 89. Subpolar Nothofagus forests - Chile, Argentina

B. Tropical and Subtropical Coniferous Forests 105. Brazilian Araucaria forests - Brazil, Argentina

5. MANGROVES A. Mangroves

Caribbean Ecoregions 1. TROPICAL BROADLEAF FORESTS A. Tropical Moist Broadleaf Forests 1. Cuban moist forests - Cuba 2. Hispaniolan moist forests - Haiti, Dominican Republic 3. Jamaican moist forests - Jamaica 4. Puerto Rican moist forests - 5. Windward Islands moist forests 6. Leeward Islands moist forests

B. Tropical Dry Broadleaf Forests 56. Cuban dry forests - Cuba 57. Hispaniolan dry forests - Haiti, Dominican Republic 58. Jamaican dry forests - Jamaica 59. Puerto Rican dry forests - Puerto Rico 60. Bahamian dry forests - Bahamas, Turks and Caicos Islands 61. Cayman Islands dry forests - Cayman Islands 62. Windward Islands dry forests 63. Leeward Islands dry forests

2. CONIFER/TEMPERATE BROADLEAF FORESTS B. Tropical and Subtropical Coniferous Forests 90. Cuban pine forests - Cuba 91. Hispaniolan pine forests - Haiti, Dominican Republic 92. Bahamian pine forests - Bahamas, Turks and Caicos Islands

5. MANGROVES A. Mangroves

3. Africa

Source: Vegetation Map of Africa (White, 1986) Scale 1:5,000,000.

The following forest major vegetation types and mosaics have been included to represent OFC.

FOREST 1. Lowland rain forest: wetter types (a) Guineo-Congolian (b) Malagasy 2. Guineo-Congolian rain forest: drier types 3. Mosaic of 1a and 2 4. Transitional rain forest 5. Malagasy moist montane forest 6. Zambezian dry evergreen forest 7. Malagasy dry deciduous forest 8. Swamp forest 9. Mosaic of 8 and 1a 10. Mediterranean sclerophyllous forest (s) Quercus suber (i) Quercus ilex (t) Tetraclinis

FOREST TRANSITIONS & MOSAICS 11. Mosaic of lowland rain forest and secondary grassland (a) Guineo-Congolian (b) Malagasy 12. Mosaic of lowland rain forest, Isoberlinia woodland and secondary grassland 13. Mosaic of lowland rain forest, secondary grassland and montane elements 14. Mosaic of lowland rain forest, Zambezian dry evergreen forest and secondary grassland 15. West African coastal mosaic 16. East African coastal mosaic (a) Zanzibar-Inhambane; (b) forest patches; (c) Tongaland-Pondoland 17. Cultivation and secondary grassland replacing upland and montane forest: African 18. Cultivation and secondary grassland replacing upland and montane forest: Malagasy 19. Undifferentiated montane vegetation (a) Afromontane; (b) Sahelomntane; (c) Malagasy J= Juniperus procera forest. M=mixed forest 20. Transition from Afromontane scrub forest to Highveld grassland 22. Mosaic of dry deciduous forest and secondary grassland (b) Malagasy* 23. Mediterranean montane forest and Altimontane shrubland 24. Mosaic of Afromontane scrub forest, Zambezian scrub woodland and secondary grassland

To maintain consistency with forest types mapped on the WFMap, unit 22a ( Mosaic of dry deciduous forest and secondary grassland (a) Zambezian ) has not been included. This is because the issue of mapping woodland mosaics in the WFMap for Africa was not satisfactorily resolved and it is likely that there are dense forest patches within 22a which could have been included, but which were not included in the WFMap. Therefore, current and original forest cover is likely to be an underestimate for the Zambezi region. Also, because of lack of available data, closed dry tropical forest in Africa has not been adequately mapped in the WFMap.

White's category 21 - Mosaic of Zambezian dry evergreen forest and wetter miombo woodland - has also not been included in the OFC. This forest type which has been mapped as an integral part of category 25 on White's map - Wetter Zambezian miombo woodland (dominated by Brachystegia, Julbernardia and Isoberlinia) - has not been included in the WFMap. The woodland formations from White have not be included in the OFC.

4. South and Southeast Asia

Source: Review of the Indomalayan Protected Areas (MacKinnon, unpublished). Scale: 1: 1,000,000

The following original habitats have been included to represent OFC:

Arid sub tropical forest Birch forest Blue pine forest Chirpine forest Dry deciduous forest Fir zone Forest on ultrabasic Hardwood-conifer mixed* Himalyan dry coniferous* Himalayan dry temperate* Heath forest vegetation Himalayan moist temperate* Ironwood forest Lower hardwood forest Limestone* Mixed conifer forest Montane deciduous forest Mangrove Monsoon forest Montane wet temperate Peat swamp* Sub-alpine conifer forest Sub-tropical dry evergreen Semi-evergreen rainforest Sub-montane dry evergreen Sub-tropical pine forest Tropical dry evergreen Temperate dry evergreen Tropical moist deciduous* Tropical montane on limestone* Tropical pine forest Lowland semi-evergreen* Tropical wet evergreen* Upper hardwood forest Upper montane forest Freshwater swamp*

* Also forest types

5. Australia

Source: Australia - Natural Vegetation (Carnahan, J.A. and Australian Surveying and Land Information Group (1989?) . 1:5,000,000.

The source map shows the probable state of Australia's vegetation around 1788 when European settlement began. I.e. pre-settlement vegetation. The vegetation cover is defined in terms of its growth form, foliage cover and, in most cases, predominant plant genus.

The following forest groups have been included to represent OFC.

Tall trees > 30 metres >70% foliage cover and >30-70% foliage cover Medium trees 10-30 metres >70% foliage cover and >30-70% foliage cover Low trees <10 metres >70% foliage cover and >30-70% foliage cover

6. Europe

Source: Map of Natural Vegetation (Bohn and Katenina, 1994). Scale 1:10,000,000.

The map comprises main natural plant communities corresponding to actual climatic and edaphic conditions, excluding as far as possible human impact.

The following forest types were included to represent OFC:

C Subarctic boreal, nemoral-montane woodlands and subalpine vegetation C1 Subarctic woodlands ( Betula czerepanovii, Picea obovata, Pinus sylvestris ) C2 West boreal and nemoral-montane birch forests, partly with pine forests ( Betula czerepanovii, B. pubescens, Pinus sylvestris ) C3 Subalpine vegetation (forests, scrub and dwarf shrub communities in combination with grasslands and tall-herb communities) in the nemoral and mediterranean zone

D Mesophytic and hygromesophytic coniferous and broad-leaved-coniferous forests D1 North boreal types D2 Middle boreal types D3 South boreal types East boreal pine-spruce and fir-spruce forests ( Picea obovata, Pinus sibirica, Abies sibirica ), partly with birch ( Betula czerepanovii ), larch ( Larix sibirica ) D4 North boreal types D5 Middle boreal types D6 South boreal types D7 Montane (Ural) types D8 Hemiboreal spruce and fir-spruce forests ( Picea abies, P. obovata, Abies sibirica ) with broad-leaved trees ( Quercus robur, Tilia cordata, Ulmus glabra, Acer platanoides et al. ) a) Lowland-colline to submontane types, b) Montane types (Ural) D9 Montane-altimontane, partly submontane fir and spruce forests ( Abies alba, A. nordamanniana, A. borisii-regis, Picea abies ) D10 North boreal pine forests D11 Middle and south to hemiboreal pine forests D12 Hemiboreal and nemoral pine forests ( Pinus sylvestris, P. peuce, P. heldreichii, P. kochiana ), partly with broad-leaved trees a) Lowland (to submontane types), b) Montane types

E Atlantic dwarf shrub heaths

F Mesophytic deciduous broad-leaved and coniferous-broad-leaved forests F1 Oak and mixed oak forests, poor in species ( Quercus robur, Q. petraea, Q. pyrenaica, Pinus sylvestris, Betula pendula, B. pubescens, B. celtiberica) a) Lowland to submontane types, b) Montane to altimontane types, partly without oak F2 Mixed oak-ash forests ( Fraxinus excelsior, F. angustifolia, Quercus robur, Ulmus glabra, Quercus petraea ) F3 Mixed oak-hornbeam foersts ( Carpinus betulus, Quercus robur, Q. petraea, Tilia cordata, Fraxinus excelsior ) F4 Mixed lime-oak forests ( Quercus robur, Tilia cordata ) a) Lowland and colline types, b) Submontane - montane types F5 Beech and mixed beech forests ( Fagus sylvatica , partly F. moesiaca, Abies alba ) a) Lowland to submontane types, b) Montane and altimontane types, partly with fir and spruce (Abies alba, Picea abies ) F6 Oriental beech and hornbeam-Oriental beech forests ( Fagus orientalis, Carpinus betulus, C. caucasica ) F7 Mixed Caucasian hornbeam-oak forests ( Quercus robur, Q. petraea, Carpinus caucasica et al. )

G Thermophilous mixed deciduous oak forests G1 Subcontinental mixed oak and maple-oak forests ( Quercus robur, Q. petraea, Q. pedunculiflora, Q. pubescens, Q. virgiliana, Q. cerris, Acer tataricum, A. campestre ) G2 Subcontinental-submediterranean and supramediterranean mixed sessile oak, bitter oak and Balkan oak forests ( Quercus petraea, Q. dalechampii, Q. polycarpa, Q. cerris, Q. frainetto ) G3 Submediterranean and supramediterranean mixed oak forests ( Quercus pubescens, Q. faginea, Q. broteroi, Q. canariensis, Q. pyrenaica, Q. brachyphylla, Fraxinus ornus, Ostrya carpinifolia, Carpinus orientalis, Castanea sativa )

H Hygro-thermophilous mixed deciduous forests

J Mediterranean sclerophyllous forests and scrub Meso- and supramediterranean and relictic sclerophyllous forests J1 Quercus rotundifolia forests a) Mesomediterranean types, b) Supramediterranean and relictic types J2 Holm oak forests ( Quercus ilex ) a) Mesomediterranean types, b) Supramediterranean and relictic types J3 Cork oak forests ( Quercus suber ) J4 Kermes oak forests and scrub ( Quercus coccifera ) Thermomediterranean sclerophyllous forests and xerophytic scrub J5 Thermomediterranean cork oak forests ( Quercus suber ) J6 Thermomediterranean Quercus rotundifolia forests J7 Wild olive-locust tree forests ( Ceratonia siliqua, Olea europaea ) J8 Thermomediterranean xerophytic scrub ( Periploca angustifolia, Ziziphus lotus, Maytenus europaeus )

K Xerophytic coniferous forests and scrub K1 Nemoral, sub- and oromediterranean pine forests ( Pinus sylvestris, P. nigra, P. heldreichii ) K2 Meso- to thermomediterranean pine forests ( Pinus pinea, P. halepensis, P. brutia, P. pityusa ) K3 Meso- and supramediterranean fir forests ( Abies pinsapo, A. cephalonica ) K4 Juniper and cypress forests and scrub ( Juniperus thurifera, J. excelsa, J. foetidissima, J. polycarpos, Cupressus sempervirens )

Results statistics to be supplied via email. References Bohn, U. and Katenina, G.D. (1994). Map of Natural Vegetation . Scale 1:2,500,000. Komarov Botanical Institute, St Petersburg.

Carnahan, J.A. (1989?). Australia - Natural Vegetation . Australian Surveying and Land Information Group, Department of Administrative Services. 1:5 million scale.

Dinerstein, E., Olson, D.M., Graham, D.J., Webster, A.L., Primm, S.A., Bookbinder, M.P. and Ledec, G. (1995). A Conservation Assessment of the Terrestrial Ecoregions of Latin America and the Caribbean . Published in association with The World Wildlife Fund. The World Bank, Washington, DC.

Holdridge, L.R. (1967). Life Zone Ecology . Tropical Science Center, San Jose, Costa Rica. 206 pp.

Olson, J.S., Watts, J.A. (1982). Major World Ecosystem Complexes . Prepared for the Carbon Dioxide Research Division of the Department of Energy and the Ecosystem Studies Program of the National Science Foundation, by Environmental Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Oak Ridge, Tennessee, USA.

MacKinnon, J. (unpublished)(1996). Review of the Indomalayan Protected Areas Asia Bureau for Conservation, UK.

Milanova, E.V. and Kushlin, A.V. (eds)(1993). World Map of Present-Day Landscapes. An Explanatory Note . Prepared by Moscow State University and the United Nations Environment Programme.

White, F. (1983). The vegetation of Africa . UNESCO, Paris.