Introduction 1 the Postcolonial Cultural Industry: Notes on Theory

Notes

Introduction

1. The list could be endless with titles such as Goddess for Hire (Sonia Singh 2004), Imaginary Men (Anjali Banerjee 2005), Bindis and Brides (Nisha Minhas 2005), Bollywood Conﬁdential (Sonia Singh 2005), Trust Me (Rajashree 2006), The Hindi-Bindi Club (Monica Pradhan 2007) and the Zoya Factor (Anuja Chauhan 2008), which connects chick lit with cricket and is deﬁned as the Ladki lit for the new millennium.

1 The Postcolonial Cultural Industry: Notes on Theory and Practice

1. Adorno was associated with the Institute for Social Research at the Frankfurt School, a social science and cultural intellectual hub for promot- ing socialism and overthrowing capitalism. It was responsible for creating the philosophical practice referred to as ‘critical theory’, which takes the stand that oppression is created through politics, economics, culture and materialism, but is maintained most significantly through consciousness. He was among the first philosophers and intellectuals to recognize the potential social, political and economic power of the entertainment industry. 2. Adorno used The Dialectic of Enlightenment to summarize the theory on which he had been working for many years. Adorno had identified the theme of the cultural industry in the 1920s (although he did not use it until later), analysing the use of light music and jazz as commodified forms of music. All these things were written in Europe before Adorno had become famil- iar with the cultural situation in the US. After 1938, Adorno’s experience of US culture only reinforced his conviction. Later on, the cultural industry references not only the industrialization of production but also fields such as radio, film, music hall, fairgrounds, astronomy, newspapers and so on. Adorno now placed the cultural industry in a broader context, presenting it as an important example of the ‘dialectic of enlightenment’, according to which the disenchantment of the world reverts to myth: despite, and indeed precisely because of a man’s liberation from his irrational fear of imposed domination, a new form of domination has emerged (1996: 3–42). Academics have traditionally attributed the ‘Cultural Industry’ chapter of The Dialectic of Enlightenment to Adorno. This is fair as Adorno was the main author, but we should not underestimate the influence of Horkheimer. It started as a manuscript by Adorno and underwent two rounds of revision by both authors.

228 Notes 229

3. ‘Exchange value’ refers to one of four major attributes of a commodity, i.e. an item produced for and sold on the market. Use value is the value/utility of any labour product. 4. For a comprehensive analysis of the literary canon as cultural capital see John Guillory, Cultural Capital: The Problems of Literary Canon Formation (1993). See also John Frow, Cultural Studies and Cultural Value (1995), and Barbara Herrnstein Smith, Contingencies of Value: Alternative Perspectives for Critical Theory (1988). 5. In Forms of Capital, Bourdieu expands the notion of capital beyond its economic conception (which emphasizes material exchanges) to include ‘immaterial’ and ‘non-economic’ forms of capital, speciﬁcally cultural and symbolic capital. He explains how the different types of capital can be acquired, exchanged and converted into other forms. The term ‘capital’ represents the collection of non-economic forces such as family background, social class, varying investment in and commitments to education, and different resources, which inﬂuence academic success. Bourdieu distinguishes three forms of cultural capital:

(1) The embodied state is directly linked and incorporated within the individual and represents what they know and can do. (2) Embodied capital can be increased by investing time in self-improvement in the form of learning. (3) As embodied capital becomes integrated into the individual, it becomes a type of habitus and therefore cannot be transmitted instantaneously.

The objectified state of cultural capital is represented by cultural goods, material objects such as books, paintings, instruments or machines. They can be appropriated both materially, with economic capital, and symbolically, via embodied capital. Finally, cultural capital, in its institutionalized state, provides academic credentials and qualifications that create a ‘certificate of cultural competence which confers on its holder a conventional, constant, legally guaranteed value with respect to power’ (1986: 248). These academic qualifications can then be used as a rate of conversion between cultural and economic capital. Throughout his discussion, Bourdieu favours a nurture rather than a nature argument. He states that the ability of an individual is primarily determined by the time and cultural capital invested in them by their parents. Accord- ing to this model, families of a given cultural capital could only produce offspring with an equal amount of cultural capital. This approach is often criticized as being too inflexible. Bourdieu does not account for individuals who elevate their social status or increase their cultural capital from what they inherited. 6. See the work by the American critic John Guillory which explains Bourdieu’s refusal (1993). 7. Pierre Bourdieu (2012) Picturing Algeria, Franz Schultheis and Christine Frisinghelli (eds.), New York: Columbia University Press. See also An Inter- view with Pierre Bourdieu by Franz Schultheis. College de France, Paris, 26 June 2001. Available online www.cup.columbia.edu/media/7671/ bourdieu-excerpt-picturing.pdf 230 Notes

8. See Stuart Hall, Cultural Studies: Two Paradigms (1980) and Stuart Hall and Tony Jefferson, Resistance Through Ritual (1993). 9. See on this Morag Shiach ‘Cultural Studies and the Work of Pierre Bourdieu’ (1993). 10. In James Procter, Stuart Hall (2004: 59–61). 11. Therefore, as Hesmondhalgh writes in his book,

The term ‘cultural industries’ (in the plural, my emphasis) has tended to be used in a much more restricted way than this, based implicitly on a definition of culture as the signifying system through which necessarily a social order is communicated, reproduced, experienced and explored. (Williams 1981: 13). To put this a little more simply, the cultural industries have unusually been thought of as those institutions (mainly profit-making companies, but also state organizations and non- profit organizations) that are most directly involved in the production of social meanings. Therefore, nearly all definitions of the cultural industries would include television (cable and satellite too), radio, the cinema, newspapers, magazines and book publishing, the music recording and publishing industries, advertising and the performing arts. These are all activities the primary aim of which is to communicate with an audience, to create texts. (Hesmondhalgh 2013: 16) 12. Gilroy’s work concerns what he calls the Black Atlantic, a ‘webbed network’ between the local and the global, comprising elements of African, American, Caribbean and British culture, but without a core essence. Criticizing what he calls ‘a brute pan-Africanism’, Gilroy challenges essentialized and purified conceptions of black culture, refuting identity politics as the contemporary expression of a centuries-long tradition. As he acknowledges, it is a ‘potent idea’ that is ‘frequently wheeled in when it is necessary to appreciate the things that (potentially) connect black people to one another rather than think seriously about the divisions in the imagined communities of the race’ (1993: 24). 13. Cashmore goes on to say that according to this vision black soul could be seen as an artefact of whites: a music forged in the smelter of oppression and exploitation, soul is often seen as the special preserve of blacks, but not always as a compensation for the ‘experiences of unfreedom’ as Gilroy would argue. To this I would add that the very term ‘black soul’, to describe a fusion music that owes much to blues and gospel, is a creation of whites; most probably a racist creation too (1997: 10). 14. On an Adornian adagio there is the issue of Gilroy’s complaint that technology is deskilling music, as the digitalization and commodification is dispossessing current and future generations of the aesthetic resources of black musical virtuosity present in live performance. As he writes towards the end of his book,

I feel obliged to confess that my critical standpoint has been shaped by an acute sense of being bereft of responsible troubadours – a feeling that is a wider generational afﬂiction. I do not wish to capitulate to the pressures which dictate a nostalgic relationship to [a] departed golden age. And yet, at the same time, I can recall the glorious parade of black Atlantic Notes 231

performers that flowed through London’s musical scenes between 1969, when I first started going out to enjoy live music, and the more recent point, when deskilling, aesthetic stagnation, and what can politely be called ‘recycling’ all intervened to make live performances less alive and less pleasurable than they had been before. (Gilroy 2010: 122) 15. Desi Threads is an apparel marketing company known for producing cloth- ing designed to critique structures of racism. 16. The term ‘desi’ originates from the term ‘desh’; in its most precise render- ing, it signifies ‘homeland’ but it has been appropriated by South Asians to describe powerfully resonant forms of solidarity that function as a counter- narrative to the racist identifications of South Asians as a model minority. Desi imagines South Asian diasporic identity as a politically valent rather than descriptive assignation of difference. 17. The Reincarnation of Pink: The CoverGirl Fall 2004 Color Collec- tion. 2004. CoverGirl Cosmetics. Available online at http://www.covergirl. com/whatsnew/2004_pink/index.jhtml?_requestid.3883061, 23 Jan. 2005. 18. Mita Banerjee discusses the origin of the Indo-chic phenomenon by analysing the 1995 video Frozen by American pop icon Madonna, who performed pseudo-Indian dance moves and sported henna-painted hands. Courtesy of Madonna, ‘Indo-Chic’ became a global fashion trend virtually overnight. Banerjee sets out to argue that ‘Indo-Chic’ may curiously encap- sulate the pedagogical paradigm of ‘Fremdverstehen’: through Indo-Chic, the cultural mainstream not only declares that it has finally understood the other, but it pledges allegiance to cultural difference by donning an entire outfit based on what it believes to be Indian tradition. It is this Fremdverstehen which literary narratives such as Meera Syal’s Life Isn’t All Ha-Ha-Hee-Hee and Monica Ali’s Brick Lane describe as being well meant, but completely misguided on an intercultural level. Syal’s and Ali’s novels par- ody the dominant culture in its droll attempt to mimic Indian tradition. Yet, at the same time, Syal and Ali refuse to counter this miscomprehen- sion of ‘Indian’ culture with their own concept of authenticity. Instead, they create a different, alternative kind of Indo-chic: one which drives home the point that culture – and cultural difference, as James Clifford famously argued, is in fact a ‘moving target’. By the same token, Fremdverstehen may suddenly have lost its object, being faced with an alternative kind of Indo-chic, worn by Indian diasporic subjects themselves. Available online: nel-frankfurt.de/ .../Programm%20Beyond%20Other%20Cultures.pdf 19. In Lau and Mendes (2011: 72–87). 20. Ananya Mukherjea (2000), From Indo-Chic to Ethno-Kitsch: An Angsty Review of a Record Review. Available online: http://makezine.enoughenough.org/ ethno.html 21. Bishnupriya Ghosh writes in Postcolonial Bazaar that ‘certainly, much of the contemporary soul-searching by postcolonial intellectuals living and teaching in First World locations has circulated around the question: does the institutionalization of the postcolonial evacuate it as a form of resistance to continuing western imperialism?’ 232 Notes

22. Loomba writes that

we cannot dismiss the critique that postcolonial theory can often be written in a confusing manner, is marked by inﬁghting among the critics who all accuse each other of complicity with colonial structures of thought, and although its declared intentions are to allow the voices of once colonised people and their descendants to be heard, it in fact closes off their voices and their legitimate place from which critics can speak. (Jacoby 1995: 30; In Loomba, 2005: 2) Those who are sympathetic to the aim of postcolonial studies share many of these criticisms. Nonetheless, Loomba writes:

I am routinely irritated when objects, food or clothes (and perhaps ideas) from my part of the world become ‘ethnic’ in Europe or North America; within India ‘ethnic’ applies to the culture and the object of tribal, or rural folk, especially when they are displayed in trendy markets. It is the case that terms like ‘ethnic’ and ‘postcolonial’ have become shorthand for something simultaneously fashionable and marginal? (Loomba 2005: 2)

2 Literary Prizes and the Award Industry

1. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1986/index.html, accessed on 15 September 2013. 2. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1988/index.html, accessed on 15 September 2013. 3. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1991/index.html, accessed on 15 September 2013. 4. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1992/index.html, accessed on 15 September 2013. 5. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/2001/index.html, accessed on 15 September 2013. 6. The India travelogue trilogy deals with Naipauls’s agonized, but also disap- pointing encounter with his country of origin, India, which he visited at regular intervals. They are: An Area of Darkness (London: Deutsch, 1964), India: A Wounded Civilisation (London: Deutsch, 1977), India: A Million Mutinies Now (London: Heinemann, 1990). 7. BBC, Newsnight, 12 October 2001. 8. ‘VS Naipaul wins 2001 Nobel Prize’ Staff and agencies guardian.co.uk, Thursday 11 October 2001. http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2001/oct/11/ nobelprize.awardsandprizes/print, accessed on 15 September 2013. 9. www.amitavghosh.com, accessed on 15 September 2013.

3 Boutique Postcolonialism: Cultural Value and the Canon

1. This title takes inspiration from Stanley Fish, Boutique Multiculturalism, or Why Liberals are Incapable of Thinking about Hate Speech (1997). Fish argues against the superﬁcial respect for other cultures called ‘boutique multiculturalism’, Notes 233

but also underlines the dilemma of tolerating other cultures to their cores, as proposed by strong multiculturalists (he takes the example of Khomeini’s declaration of a death sentence on Rushdie as the limit to tolerance). By making a stand to something whose sole identity is in the name of supracultural universality, strong multiculturalists often end up falling even deeper into the category ‘boutique postcolonialism’. 2. See for example the pioneering work of Howard S. Becker, Art Worlds (1982), which lets go of the old theory of the artist as the individual genius and offers instead an institutional approach. Becker shows how art is a collective process, a cooperative network of suppliers, critics, dealers and consumers that produce the work of art together with the artist. Becker analyses the different aspects implied in the evaluation of art ranging from aesthetics, criticism and censorship to commercial distribution. He does not provide a theory of art in itself, and argues it can only be understood within the complex and extended social system that creates and defines art. 3. See Ruth Towse (2003). 4. See the article by Moshe Adler: ‘Stardom and Talent’ (1985). According to the author, there are many artists that possess stardom-quality talent. What pro- duces superstars is the need on the part of consumers for a common culture, in other words to consume the same art that other consumers do. 5. Robert McCrum of The Observer compiled in 2003, as well as a reaction to the BBC’s list, his own list of the 100 greatest novels of all time. How- ever, even this more scholarly and educated list does not offer substantial differences from the BBC’s Big Read, apart from the fact that McCrum privi- leges a wider spectrum of classics, both British and European, over popular fiction. Don Quixote ends up at no. 1, and Lord of the Rings at no. 64, but the whole list of Austen, Dickens, Thackeray, Bronte, Hardy and other Victorians is reconfirmed. It is a relief to note though that Virginia Woolf (Mrs. Dalloway, no. 46) and Toni Morrison (Song of Solomon, no. 79) are included. However, results on the postcolonial front are very poor. Chinua Achebe’s classic Things Fall Apart enters at no. 71, followed by V.S. Naipaul (A Bend in the River, no. 83), J. M. Coetzee (Waiting for the Barbarians, no. 84), Peter Carey (Oscar and Lucinda, no. 92) and finally Salman Rushdie (Haroun and the Sea of Stories, no. 94). To see his complete list, go to: http://www. theguardian.com/books/2003/oct/12/features.fictionhttp://www.murmurs. com/talk/archive/index.php/t-76688.html 6. For a theory of ideology and the canon see Terry Eagleton, The Ideology of the Aesthetic 1990; Emory Elliott, Louis Freitas Caton and Jeffrey Rhyne (eds.), Aesthetics in a Multicultural Age 2001; Henry Louis Gates, Loose Canons: Notes on the Culture Wars 1992; Charles Bernheimer, Comparative Literature in the Age of Multiculturalism 1995.

4 Advertising the Margins: Translation and Minority Cultures

1. This report provides an overview of the Endangered Languages Research car- ried out by the Netherlands Organisation for Scientiﬁc Research (NWO). The 234 Notes

endangered language programme is part of the NWO Theme on Cultural Heritage. As the programme announces, Endangered languages are languages that are in danger of becoming extinct. It is expected that by the end of the twenty-ﬁrst century no less than 90 per cent of all the languages in the world will be doomed to extinction or will already have become extinct. The study of these languages is of great scientiﬁc importance not only for linguistics, but also for such disciplines as cognitive science, anthropology, history and archaeol- ogy. Research on endangered languages contributes to the maintenance of cultural diversity. It can ensure preservation of knowledge and experience that are characteristic of a culture. It may also encourage governments to develop policy on minority languages and their speakers. 2. See the Caine Prize website: Available on http://www.caineprize.com/ 3. Available on http://africaafrica.org/links/noma-award-publishing-africa 4. For a list of winners in all the language categories, see: Available on http:// society.indianetzone.com/literature/1/sahitya_academy_awards.htm or check: Available on http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahitya_Akademi 5. See for reference the link: Available on http://www.indianetzone.com/19/ sahitya_akademi_awards.htm 6. Thomas Babington Macaulay ‘Minute on Indian Education’ (2nd February 1835). Available on 15 September 2013 from http://www.columbia.edu/itc/ mealac/pritchett/00generallinks/macaulay/txt_minute_education_1835.html

5 The Adaptation Industry: The Cultural Economy of Postcolonial Film Adaptations

1. See Robert Stam ‘Beyond Third Cinema’ and Ella Shohat ‘Post-Thirdist- Worldist Culture: Gender. Nation and the Cinema’ in Anthony Guneratne and Wimal Dissanayake (eds), Rethinking Third Cinema (2003). 2. First Cinema – a genre where there is always a central character who directs the attention of the spectator who, through the process of identification, or other forms of involvement, can experience the conflict of drama of the main protagonist. The emphasis is on the story of a few individuals. In Second Cinema, classic genres are often appropriated by film-auteurs in a personal and special way, paying more attention to social oppression, often filmed in reportage style with a handheld camera and non-professional actors; individual stories are quickly transformed into stories about the condition of humanity. First Cinema is usually more optimistic about the possibility of their characters improving their condition; Second Cinema is usually more pessimistic. Third Cinema is, according to Mike Wayne’s book Political Cinema: The Dialectics of Third Cinema (2001), characterized by four elements: 1 The film follows the process of history according to a Marxist dialectics of change, contradictions and conflict. The historical references are thus of great importance. 2 The film shows a sort of political consciousness in the characters but mostly this process should be brought over to the spectator. Notes 235

3 The film always shows a critical engagement with minorities (or the oppressed) and, unlike Second Cinema, does not attempt to give an objective view of reality by showing different perspectives. 4 The film speaks from a culturally specific situation, with a lot of knowledge and insight into the culture from where it is articulated.

If American cinema was born to entertain and European cinema was born to create art, Third World cinema was born for political activism. The difference between classical political cinema and modern political cinema is that filmmakers cannot represent the people of the masses. Filmmakers become mediators. 3. It is an adaptation of the novel Q&A(2005) by Indian author and diplomat Vikas Swarup, but it is one of the cases in which the success of the film completely overshadows the credits of the original book. The film topped the worldwide box office and won eight Oscars in 2009 including for Best Picture, Best Director and Best Adapted Screenplay. 4. In Salman Rushdie’s ‘A Fine Pickle: Slumdog Millionaire and Film Adaptation’, Rushdie comments about good and bad adaptations which are part of the world we live in, in which transformations and metamorphosis are the rule. He follows the statement that something is lost in translation but that also something can be gained. He argues for a definition of adaptation which is very broad and which includes translation, migration and metamorphosis, all the means by which one thing becomes another. In his critique of the film, Rushdie writes that the problems begin with the work being adapted:

Swarup’s novel is a corny potboiler, with a plot that defies belief: a boy from the slums somehow manages to get on the hit Indian version of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire and answers all his questions correctly because the random accidents of his life have, in a series of outrageous coincidences, given him the information he needs, and are conveniently asked in the order that allows his flashbacks to occur in chronological sequence. This is a patently ridiculous conceit, the kind of fantasy writing that gives fantasy writing a bad name. It is a plot device faithfully pre- served by the film-makers and lies at the heart of their weirdly renamed Slumdog Millionaire. As result the film too beggars belief. (2009)

5. For reference to all newspaper reports of the time, see http://www.arlindo- correia.com/220602.html, Retrieved on 3 March 2011. 6. See on this the elaborate account by Sander Gilman (1985), Sharpley- Whiting (1999) and Rosemarie Buikema (2009). 7. Virginia Woolf has often been adapted, for example the ﬁlms Mrs. Dalloway and Orlando, and indirectly The Hours, based on a novel by Michael Cunningham inspired by Mrs. Dalloway. 8. In Kamilla Elliott, ‘Through the Looking Glass’ in Rethinking the Novel/Film Debate 2003. As Robert Stam writes, ‘Film offends through its inescapable materiality, its incarnated, ﬂeshy, enacted characters, its real locales and palpable props, its carnality and visceral shock to the nervous system’ (2003: 6). 236 Notes

9. Statistics show that 30 percent of the films made today derive from novels. We also know that 80 percent of all bestsellers are turned into movies. They can become blockbusters or just flops. According to Morris Beja (1979), writing about the Oscar which has existed since 1927–1928, three quar- ters of awards for Best Picture are for adaptations, as filmmakers exploit the response excited by the novel. These transpositions are a very complex process not only as far as the medium specificity is concerned but also for the huge financial and commercial aspects involved.

• 30 percent of films made today derive from novels. • 80 percent of bestsellers are turned into movies. 3 • /4 of Awards for Best Picture are adaptations. • 85 percent of all Academy Award-winning Best Pictures are adaptations. • 45 percent of all television movies of the week are adaptations, yet 70 percent of all Emmy Award winners come from these films. • 83 percent of all mini-series are adaptations, but 95 percent of Emmy Award winners are drawn from these films.

10. Linda Hutcheon, in A Theory of Adaptation, emphasizes the politics of intertextuality or the dialogic relationships among texts, demystifying hier- archical impulses within adaptation studies and favouring a discourse that analyses adaptations as an act in itself without focusing on any specific genres or media, though announcing that adaptation is far more than the relationship between novel and film and it involves many other realms such as videogames, websites, theme park rides, operas, musicals, ballets, song covers and radio and stage plays (2006: xiv). 11. In his book text Convergence Culture (2006b), Henry Jenkins discusses the fact that new media will not simply replace old media, but will rather learn to interact with them in a complex relationship that he calls ‘convergence culture.’ Convergence culture is currently impacting on the relationship among media audiences, producers and content. According to Jenkins, the notion of convergence culture is not primarily a technological revolution but more a cultural shift, dependent on the active participation of the consumers working in a social dynamic. 12. Just to mention the most recent: Brian McFarlane, Novel to Film: An Introduc- tion to the Theory of Adaptation (1996); Robert Stam and Alessandra Raengo (eds.), Companion to Literature and Film (2004); Literature and Film: A Guide to the Theory and Practice of Film Adaptation (2005), Literature Through Film (2005); Kamilla Elliott, Rethinking the Novel/Film Debate (2003); Millicent Marcus, Filmmaking by the Book: Italian Cinema and Literary Adaptation (1993); James Naremore (ed.) Film Adaptation (2000); Timothy Corrigan, Film and Literature (1999); Deborah Cartmell and Imelda Whelehan (eds.) Adaptations: From Text to Screen, Screen to Text (1999) and also The Cambridge Companion to Literature on Screen (2007); Thomas Leitch, Film Adaptation and Its Discontents (2007); Simone Murray, The Adaptation Industry (2012). 13. See in particular the recent work of Robert Stam, who in his recent three vol- umes on adaptation takes into account novels and films outside the Western sphere including adaptations from outside Europe and the US (in particular Brazil). He is also one of the few critics of adaptation to point out possible postcolonial interpretations of adaptations such as Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Notes 237

Crusoe and related free adaptations such as Cast away (2000) and a popular reality TV show Survivor (2000). There is also the recent development of adaptation studies outside the Western frame such as the volume by Heidi Pauwels, Indian Literature and Popular Cinema (2007), which is about how popular cinema like Bollywood recasts literary classics, or texts of a religious nature. She analyses adaptations of religious texts such as Bharata¯ or Ram¯ ayana¯ , but also adaptations of colonial classics such as Devdas, written by the Bengali Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay in 1917 or Rituparno Ghosh’s Chokker Bali written by Nobel Prize-winner Rabindranah Tagore in 1903. Not analysed in this book but not to be forgotten is the magisterial adaptation of Satyajit Ray’s 1955 film Pather Panchali (The Song of the Little Road), which outshone the 1929 great Bengali classic by Bithutibhushan Bandhopadyahya from which it was adapted. 14. See link: http://www.metacafe.com/watch/86420/maya_memsaab/ 15. For a list of Bollywood adaptations of Hollywood films see here a small selection, taken from the Hollywood/Bollywood film festival held at the Film Museum Amsterdam, 2001. The list is obviously far from exhaustive, but indicative of the traffic between the two production systems.

Hollywood: It Happened One Night, director: Frank Capra (US 1934) Bollywood: Chori Chori, director: Anant Thakur (India 1958) Hollywood: A Star Is Born, director: George Cukor (US 1954) Bollywood: Abhimaan, director: Hrishikesh Mukherjee (India 1973) Hollywood: Seven Brides for Seven Brothers, director: Stanley Donen (US 1954) Bollywood: Satte Pe Satta, director: Raj N. Sippy (India 1982) Hollywood: On the Waterfront, director: Elia Kazan (US 1954) Bollywood: Parinda, director: Vidhu Vinod Chopra (India 1989) Hollywood: West Side Story, director: Robert Wise and Jerome Robbins (US 1961) Bollywood: Josh, director: Mansoor Khan (India 2000) Hollywood: The Godfather, director: Francis Ford Coppola (US, 1972) Bollywood: Nayakan, director: Mani Rathnam (India 1987) Hollywood: Kramer vs. Kramer, director: Robert Benton (US 1979) Bollywood: Akela Hum, Akela Tum, director: Mansoor Khan (US 1995) Hollywood: Cape Fear, director: Martin Scorsese (US 1991) Bollywood: Darr, director: Yash Copra (India 1994) Hollywood: Sense and Sensibility, director: Ang Lee (US 1995) Bollywood: Kandukondein Kandukondein, director: Rajiv Menon (India 2000) Hollywood: Face/Off, director: John Woo (US 1997) Bollywood: AKS, director: Rakesh Omprakash Mehra (India 2001)

Other possible examples are:

Ek haseena thi = Double Jeopardy Ek ajnabee = Man on Fire Kuch to hai = I Know What You Did Last Summer Phir Hera Pheri = Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels Taxi no. 9211 = Changing Lanes 238 Notes

Musaﬁr = U Tur n Kaante = Reservoir Dogs Deewane huye pagal = There’s Something about Mary Aawara pagal deewana = The Whole Nine Yards Murder = Unfaithful Mujshe shaadi karogi = Anger Management Train = Derailed Zeher = Out of Time Killer = Collateral Qayamat = The Rock Dilwale dulhania le jayenge = The Sure Thing Kuch kuch hota hai = Sleepless in Seattle Chak de India = Miracle on ice Jab we met = A Walk in the Clouds Race = Bad Lovers Andaz apna apna = Dirty Rotten Scoundrel Sholay = Magniﬁcent Seven Life in a ...Metro = The Apartment Black = The Miracle Worker Dhoom 2 = Payback Ghajini = Memento

16. The Sure Thing is about a college student who plans a cross-country trip to get laid, but ends up travelling with a young woman. They hate each other, but eventually they fall deeply in love with each other. Though the basic plot is the same as Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge, the cultural connotations and variables are unqualifiedly different. 17. Cardinal functions, or, in Seymour Chatman’s terms, kernels, are narrative moments that give rise to cruxes in the direction taken by events and without which the transposition would lose its core issues to the original. Catalysers (in Chatman’s term, satellites) work instead in ways which are complementary to and supportive of the cardinal functions. Their role is to enrich the texture of cardinal functions. Whereas cardinal functions in adaptations are essential in order not to lose the original sense of the story, catalysers are ancillary and decorative and can undergo transformation in the adaptation process with the story suffering major deviation from the original. 18. On the whole Bride and Prejudice rises to the occasion and delivers what it promises: laughter and entertainment. At the box office, the film should emerge as a success story in Overseas [business in the UK should prove to be the best], while in India, its business will differ from circuit to circuit. In India, while the English version will fare better at metros [mainly mul- tiplexes], the Hindi version will find the going tough, partly because the hype is missing and also because Hindi audiences have seen all this and more before. However, the Hindi version has some scope in the North specifically, thanks to its Punjabi setting. (Adarsh 2004) 19. Mira Nair won the Golden Lion at Venice in 2001 with Monsoon Weddings,a tribute rarely granted to female filmmakers since the inception of the prize in 1934. Notes 239

20. The film was involved in Polanski’s arrest and controversy around his possible sexual implications with an under-aged American girl, and the fact that he seemed to have a romantic liaison with his leading actress, Natasha Kinsky (at the time 17), did not improve his credibility. 21. Production company Head Gear Films (UK), Revolution Films (UK), Film i Väst [se]. 22. Katherine Monk, Postmedia News (19 July 2012). See: http://arts.nationalpost. com/2012/07/19/film-review-trishna-stays-a-beautiful-stranger/ 23. Quoted in Linda Hutcheon (1993: 22). 24. As Stuart Hall has explained, epidermalization literally means ‘The inscrip- tion of race on the skin’. Hall ‘The Afterlife of Frantz Fanon: Why Fanon? Why Now? Why Black Skin, White Masks?’ In Alan Read (ed.), The Fact of Blackness: Frantz Fanon and Visual Representation (1996a). For Fanon ‘If there is an inferiority complex, it is the outcome of a double process: primarily, economic; subsequently, the internalization or, better, the epidermalization of this inferiority’ (1967: 11). 25. The Silver Lion is at times awarded to a number of films as a second prize for those nominated for the Golden Lion. At various times, Silver Lions have also been awarded for debut films, short films and directing. The prestigious Golden Lion is a honour rarely bestowed on a woman director, with the exception of Margarethe von Trotta in 1981 with Marianne and Juliane (Die Bleierne Zeit), Agnes Varda in 1985 with Vagabond (Sans toit ni loi), Mira Nair with Monsoon Wedding in 2001, and more recently Sofia Coppola for Somewhere in 2010. This shows a significant change in the reception of new voices and aesthetics in international cinema. 26. Controversial Dutch politicians such as Ayan Hirsi Ali claim to have been inspired by copying Neshat in her portrait of four oppressed Muslim women, which she scripted for her provocative short film Submission (2004). The film is alleged to have led to the murder of the director Theo Van Gogh in the streets of Amsterdam, because it was seen as an offence to the Muslim faith. Though the film was contested and received as openly provocative, the murder of Van Gogh and the subsequent hiding of Ayaan Hirsi Ali was interpreted as a violation of the freedom of speech in the Western world at the hand of new fundamentalist fanatics. The film shows Muslim women flimsily veiled, and covered in calligraphy which expresses the violation of the woman’s body, openly censured in the Koran. 27. For some critical references on the work of Neshat, see: Hamid Dadashi (2002) and Iftikhar Dadi (2008). 28. Neshat’s recognition became international in 1999, when she won the Inter- national Award at the XLVIII Biennial of Venice with Turbulent and Rapture, a project involving almost 250 extras and produced by the Galerie Jérôme de Noirmont. It met with critical acclaim and public success after its worldwide avant-première at the Art Institute of Chicago in May 1999. With Rapture, Neshat was attempting for the first time to make pure photography with the intention of creating an aesthetic, poetic, and emotional shock. She also made Fervor (2000) two people meeting, religious love/erotic; Passage (2001) a procession of men carrying a body across the desert plain. Burial/girl/fire Music Philip Glass; Soliloquy 1999 architecture, east and west and loneliness in space; Pulse 2001 woman alone in a room. 240 Notes

She has also made several video installations such as Turbolent (1998) singer and audience about women not allowed to perform in public. Logos critique; Rapture/Estasi 1999 man enclosed/women at sea. Two screens, opposition black and white. 29. The author Shahrnush Parsipur has written 11 works of fiction and a memoir. Translations of Parsipur’s stories appear in Stories by Iranian Women since the Revolution (1991) and Stories from Iran: A Chicago Anthology (1991). Her career is covered in Michael Hillman’s From Durham to Tehran (1991). English translations of Parsipur’s major writings were in print by 1992, when the author toured the US. A bestseller in Iran, Touba, Women Without Men is, like many of Parsipur’s books, still banned. Imprisoned by the Shah’s security agency and the Islamic Republic in turn, the author now lives in exile. Parsipur was the first recipient of the International Writer’s Project Fellowship from Brown University. She currently lives in California. 30. The New Wave movement within Iranian cinema includes the works of Abbas Kiarostami, Mohsen Makhmalbaf, Samira Makhmalbaf, Jafar Panahi among others. 31. In an interview, Neshat names several directors considered to be her inspirational models, including Eastern European and Russian directors whose sym- bolism and melancholy are major drivers, as in the films of Andrei Tarkovsky. She also mentions the cinema of Ingmar Bergman, Aki Kaurismaki, Jim Jarmush, Roy Anderson, Lars von Trier, Krzysztof Kieslowski,´ all of whom have irony in common but also a more restrained emotional expression, all highly stylized but conveying profound pain. 32. In Neshat’s film, Women Without Men, the images of the garden were not shot in one garden but in several different gardens in order to show that the women have different visions about the garden: it can be dry, green and luscious, or more like a forest. 33. It is this defamiliarization that enables a new creative imagination, that allows unexpected sides to be represented, even though it entails the pain of alienation and dispersion. In her text, Michelle Cliff describes the process of finding a social space to inhabit that will not deny any of the complicated parts of her identity and history. Radically deterritorialized from a Caribbean culture and race by the family conspiracy of silence and denial, she explores the parameters of identity and the limits of privilege. Separated from her home and family by geography, education and experience, Cliff articulates the boundaries between homelessness and origin, between exile and belonging. Cliff’s garden is a piece of land where she can find her identity and rest, not an enclosed space but a fluid terrain. Obviously this is not the only feminist figuration that attempts to break through the restrictive boundaries of gender, ethnicity and exile. However, it is the image of the garden, a kind of tamed and controlled nature, that Kaplan sees as a conscious process of reterritorialization. It is, therefore, the result of many intersections between Self/Other, home/homelessness, nature/chaos, life/art. A fine balance since, as Kaplan further writes,

Cliff’s garden is the space where writing occurs without loss or separation. It is ‘next to’, or juxtaposed, to the other plots of postmodern ﬁction and Notes 241

realities. Feminist writing in this expanded sense of ‘minor’ acts against the romanticization of solitude and the suppression of differences. It points towards a rewriting of the connection between different parts of the self in order to make a world of possibilities out of the experience of displacement. (Kaplan 1987: 197–198) 34. An Essential Filmproduktion (Germany)/Coop99 (Austria)/Parisienne de Prod. (France) production, with the support of Medienboard Berlin- Brandenburg, Filmstiftung Nordrhein-Westfalen, Deutscher Filmfoerderfonds, Filmfoerderungsanstalt, Eurimages Council of Europe, Oesterreichisches Filminstitut, Filmfonds Wien, THECIF, in collaboration with ZDF/Arte, ORF, Cinepostproduction, Shoenheitsfarm Postproduction, Schweizer Brandung Filmproduktion. (International sales: Coproduction Office, Paris.) Produced by Susanne Marian, Martin Gschlacht and Philippe Bober. Executive producers, Barbara Gladstone, Jerome de Noirmont and Oleg Kokhan. Directed by Shirin Neshat, in collaboration with Shoja Azari. Screenplay, Neshat, Azari and Steven Henry Madoff, adapted from the novella by Shahrnush Parsipur. 35. However, it is important to remember that resistance and alternative production are also internal to Iran and not only possible in exile. As Saba Mahmood has written in her insightful article ‘Feminism, Democracy and Empire’, there is a wonderfully rich wave of Iranian cinema which manages to contest the political regime from within its boundaries without having to go unnecessarily underground. Mahmood cautions against the recent international interest in stories of victimhood among Muslim women, often appropriated by Muslim writers embracing the West, and functioning as ‘indigenous women’ capable of providing the ethnographic grist and lend- ing a voice of authenticity to the Western liberal ear, ready to listen to the most horrifying stories of oppression and debasement (2008: 84). Mahmood refers especially to the bestseller status of a new nonfiction genre, such as the autobiographical one, written by Muslim women about their personal suffering at the hands of Islam’s supposedly undeniable misogynist practices. The repetition and reproduction of these pernicious Orientalistic tropes through which Islam has been represented throughout Western history is problematic as it reinforces the right-wing agenda now sweeping Europe and America without improving the condition of women in the countries referred to. On the contrary, these neoconservative interferences, motivated not by liberating women from the claws of Islam, but by other economic and militaristic aims, end up further polarizing and weakening the position of women, tightening the nooses around their necks. Mahmood’s critique is particularly excoriating towards writers such as the Iranian Azar Nafisi and her Reading Lolita in Teheran (New York Times bestseller for over 117 weeks and translated into more than 33 languages) and politicians such as the Somali-Dutch Ayaan Hirsi Ali, both accused of manipulating Western expectations of the Muslim oppression of women for the sake of their own career and reinforcing of right-wing protection and benefit. Saba Mahmood ‘Feminism, Democracy and Empire: Islam and the War on Terror’ (2008). 242 Notes

6 Postcolonial Chick Lit: Postfeminism or Consumerism?

1. For a comprehensive article on the rise of chick lit in Europe and beyond see Rachel Donadio, ‘The Chick Lit Pandemic’. New York Times, 19 March 2006. Available online http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/19/books/review/ 19donadio.html. 2. Chick lit is considered to have started as a British phenomenon, the peak being Bridget Jones’s Diary (1996). But it soon emerged in the US, the coun- terpart being Sex in the City by Candace Bushnell (1997), which took TV and the film world by storm (chick movies Legally Blonde, 2001; Clueless, 1995; The Sweetest Thing, 2002; and chick TV series such as Ally McBeal, Sex and the City and Men in Trees). The chick-lit genre now has many subgenres such as ‘nanny lit’ (Emma McLaughin and Nicola Kraus, The Nanny Diaries, 2007 or the Wayne Wang film Maid in Manhattan, 2002); ‘mommy lit’ or ‘momoir’ (Allison Pearson, I Don’t Know How She Does it, 2002); ‘hen lit’ (for the over-50 reader); ‘sistah lit’ (Terry McMillan, Waiting to Exhale, 1992); ‘chica lit’ (Alisa Valdes-Rodriguez, The Dirty Girls Social Club, 2003); ‘desi lit’ (Swati Kaushal, Piece of Cake, 2004 and Rajeshree, Trust Me, 2006); ‘bride lit’ or ‘Bridezilla novels’ (such as Emily Giffin, Something Borrowed, 2004); ‘lad lit/dick lit’ (Nick Hornby’s About a Boy, 1998, Tony Parsons’ Man and Boy, 2000, a kind of modern version of Kramer vs. Kramer and books like David Nicholls’ One Day 2009). 3. Jane Austen but also mid-Victorian romance such as George Eliot, and later writers such as Dorothy Richardson and Edith Wharton. 4. Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique (1963), argues that women and house- wives need social and political change and not humour. Critics have com- mented that although this humour makes us feel good, it preserves the status quo: because of its dependence on stereotypes and conventional gender roles, it actually reinforces them. By transforming rage into laughter, writers such as Betty McDonald, Shirley Jackson, Jean Kerr, Erma Bombeck and Judith Viorst prevent rage from being funnelled into political involvement and social change (Hewett 2006: 128). 5. We are talking about a Danielle Steele kind of novel. 6. It should be noted however that chick lit writers wanted it both ways. They refer to Jane Austen and other canonical female writers in the public domain to claim a tradition and an embedding into women’s writing, but they never quote or cite each other, or show their heroines reading Bridget Jones’s Diary for example. This competitiveness stands in marked contrast to Austen’s efforts to promote women’s contribution to fiction (Wells 2006: 57). 7. ‘Bainbridge denounces chick-lit as “froth.” ’ The Guardian, Thursday 23 August 2001. Available online http://books.guardian.co.uk/bookerprize 2001/story/0,1090,541335,00.html 8. The most chilling example of the silenced chick heroine can be found in the final scene of the Bridget Jones’s Diary film adaptation. Just as Mark and Bridget are about to come together as a couple, Mark discovers Bridget’s diary and reads the less-than-flattering things Bridget has written about him over the course of their sometimes contentious relationship. He strides out of Bridget’s apartment, leaving Bridget (clad only in a tank top, underwear and a cardigan sweater) to chase after him in the snow, pleading and offering Notes 243

apologies. When Bridget finally catches up with him, her words disavow not only what she wrote about Mark (she didn’t really mean it) but also the significance of women’s writing itself. ‘It’s only a diary’, she pleads, beg- ging his forgiveness. ‘Everyone knows diaries are just full of crap.’ This scene does not, however, stop at having the woman reject her own voice. Mark replies that he knows she didn’t mean what she wrote, and that he was just buying her a new diary for ‘a new start’. All is forgiven, and Bridget is wrapped in Mark’s strong arms and warm winter coat. It is a happy romantic ending, accompanied by snow, warm lightning and the chick-flick staple ‘Someone like you’ on the soundtrack. But it can be achieved only when the woman submits her story and her voice to masculine control. (Mabry 2006: 204–205). 9. Sex and the City, which has carefully developed its female community over six seasons, ends on a note that threatens to overturn any of its more feminist messages. By the show’s final season, both Charlotte and Miranda (the show’s most vocal feminist) have entered into marriage and (impending) motherhood, Carrie has a happy, although somewhat open-ended reunion with Mr. Big (another powerful white male) and even Samantha has given up her promiscuous ways for a monogamous relationship (though Samantha’s boyfriend is younger and socially and financially less powerful than she is). In and of themselves these storylines are not necessarily problematic. After all, the women still have their careers and their relationships with each other. What is important is the fact that these pretty conservative endings happen in the series’ finale. For six seasons, this show has supposedly been about the lives and the relationships of these four strong, independent women, but the finale tells us that the real point of the show has been to place these sexu- ally powerful, economically independent women in traditional heterosexual relationships. (Mabry 2006: 204) 10. See Ahmed ‘Feminist Killjoys (And Other Willful Subjects).’ Available online: http://sfonline.barnard.edu/polyphonic/ahmed_01.htm. Also as Chapter 2 ‘Feminist Killjoys’ in her book The Promise of Happiness (2010). 11. See also Margaret Rowntree, Nicole Moulding & Lia Bryant, ‘Feminine Sexualities in Chick Lit’ (2012). 12. Alisa Valdes-Rodriguez’s The Dirty Girls Social Club (2003), the first Latina chick-lit novel, describes at length the outfit worn on a vacation with her boyfriend in Italy. 13. ‘The Death of Chick Lit’, The Economist, 6 March 2012. Available online http://www.economist.com/blogs/prospero/2012/03/contemporary-fiction 14. Available online (http://chicklitisnotdead.com) 15. Available online http://www.thebookseller.com/news/womens-brands-hard- hit-downturn.html 16. Available online http://www.thebookseller.com/news/womens-brands-hard- hit-downturn.html 17. Available online http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2011/sep/15/novelist- ditches-publisher-book-launch 18. Available online http://www.economist.com/blogs/prospero/2012/03/ contemporary-fiction 19. Hullabaloo in the Guava Orchard (1998) was her first novel. It received many accolades and compliments from major writers such as Salman Rushdie. 244 Notes

20. Among her publications are ten novels with Penguin India (Socialite Evenings, 1989; Starry Nights, 1989; Sisters, 1992; Sultry Days, 1994; Strange Obsession, 1992; Snapshots, 1995; and Second Thoughts 1996) along with two books of non-ﬁction (Surviving Men, 1998 and Speedpost: Letters to My Children, 1999) and an autobiography (Selective Memory: Stories from My Life, 1998) which have all been phenomenal bestsellers. 21. Available online (http://www.litlive.in/?p=102). 22. Some insights into the changing scenario of South Asian lit can be found in Ruth Maxey (Press 2011). 23. To catch the chick-lit wave, many publishers have created separate imprints devoted to this genre.

• Avon Trade (www.avontrade.com): The publisher of such popular chick- lit writers as Meg Cabot and Valerie Frankel also features several African American authors (Nina Foxx, Kayla Perrin). • BET Books (www.bet.com/books): The Arabesque imprint focuses on mass-market African American romance, the Sepia line features contemporary stories. • Downtown Press (www.simonsays.com): Simon & Schuster’s foray into chick lit includes anthologies such as American Girls about Town, which features stories by Jennifer Weiner and Lauren Weisberger, among others. • 5 Spot: Aiming to be ‘the hip entertainment destination for women,’ Warner Book’s chick-lit imprint debuts this fall with a mix of fiction and non-fiction titles, including Lisa Palmer’s first novel, Conversations with the Fat Girl (Sept.). • Red Dress Ink (www.reddressink.com): The titles of this prolific Harlequin imprint vary widely in quality, but some earlier books, from authors such as Lynda Curnyn and Melissa Senate, are gems. The line is now showing more diversity with ethnic titles. • Strapless (www.kensingtonbooks.com): The Kensington imprint leans towards the racy and features many British authors. • Steeple Hill Café (www.eharlequin.com): Another Harlequin imprint, it offers inspirational fiction for the ‘hip, modern woman of faith’.

For more information on this list provided see Rebecca Vnuk, ‘ “Chick Lit”: Hip Lit for Hip Chicks/Collection Development, May 2005’. Library Journal Archive Content, 15 July 2005. Available online http://reviews.libraryjournal. com/2005/07/collection-development/chick-lit-hip-lit-for-hip-chicks- collection-development-may-2005/ 24. Available online http://articles.timesoﬁndia.indiatimes.com/2008-07-27/ special-report/27908351_1_chick-advaita-kala-print 25. For more information, see Rajashree’s own website: Available online http:// rajashree.in/trust-me/ 26. Available online http://articles.timesoﬁndia.indiatimes.com/2008-07-27/ special-report/27908351_1_chick-advaita-kala-print 27. Available online http://www.telegraphindia.com/1080615/jsp/graphiti/story_ 9406530.jsp 28. See Available online http://rajashree.in/media-coverage/excerpts-from-write- ups-about-trust-me/ Notes 245

29. Sunaina Kumar ‘The Rise of Ladki-Lit’, The Indian Express, 7 October, 2006. Available online http://www.indianexpress.com/news/the-rise-of-ladkilit/ 14234/ 30. Available online http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-07-27/ special-report/27908351_1_chick-advaita-kala-print 31. Vijay Mishra examines the desire to return to a homeland, to India: ‘The fantasy of a homeland is then linked, in the case of the diaspora, to that recollected moment when diasporic subjects feel they were wrenched from their mother (father)land’ (1996: 423). Mishra finds that diasporic subjects experience a trauma when they leave the homeland. Furthermore, he asserts that ‘diasporic discourse of the homeland is thus a kind of return of the repressed for the nation-state itself, its pre-symbolic (imaginary) narrative, in which one sees a more primitive theorization of the nation itself’ (1996: 425). 32. The phenomenon has also been the centre of many recent films made by diasporic filmmakers coming home and depicting India from new angles, trying to come to terms both with their supposed heritage and with the fast- paced, changing society. See Dev Benegal, Split Wide Open (2000); Nagesh Kukunoor, Hyderabad Blues (1998); Kaizad Gustad, Bombay Boys (1998) among others. 33. See Amulya Malladi’s homepage: Available online http://amulyamalladi. com/mango/mango.htm 34. Anita Jain, ‘Is Arranged Marriage Really Any Worse than Craigslist?’ New York, News and Features (2005). Available online http://nymag.com/nymetro/ news/culture/features/11621/ 35. Lori Gottlieb, “The Arrangement”, New York Times, 29 August 2008. Available online http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/31/books/review/Gottlieb-t.html 36. Deepti Kaul, Marrying Anita. Hindustan Times. New Delhi, 22 October 2008. Available online http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/Fiction/ Review-Marrying-Anita/Article1-346437.aspx 37. Joanna Kavenna, ‘Another Country by Anjali Joseph’. The Guardian, Friday 6 July 2012. Available online http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2012/jul/06/ another-country-anjali-joseph-review 38. Freya McClelland, ‘Another Country, By Anjali Joseph’. The Independent, Sat- urday, 30 June 2012. Available online http://www.independent.co.uk/arts- entertainment/books/reviews/another-country-by-anjali-joseph-7899517. html 39. Nisha Lilia Diu, ‘Another Country by Anjali Joseph: Review’. The Telegraph, 31 May 2012. Available online http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/ fictionreviews/9288043/Another-Country-by-Anjali-Joseph-review.html Selected Bibliography

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Note: Locators with letter ‘n’ refer to notes.

Abouela, Leila, 101 traditionalism, 170 academia, 112 Western, 38 Achebe, Chinua, 49, 63–4, 75, 94, 104, aesthetics, 125–9 233n 5 Africa adaptation apartheid regime, 52 Bollywood, 117–18, 129, 131–6, Caine Prize, 50, 91, 101 138, 140 Commonwealth Writers’ Prize, of classics, 126–7 67, 104 empire, 125–6, 135, 138 creative writing and publishing, 100 faithful, 123, 126, 130, 136, emotionalism, 54 146, 148 endangered languages, 100 film adaptation, 5–6, 110, 121, fringe benefit to writers, 108 131, 225 home grown literary prizes, 102 Hollywood, 62, 111, 115, 118, 121, language death, 99 127, 129–31, 134, 143 literary prizes, 98 industry, 120–5 MacMillan Literary Prize, 50 literature and film, 88, 122 New Macmillan Writer’s Prize, 100 of postcolonial texts, 3, 5–6, 125–9, Nobel Prize, 53 140, 146, 153 non-colonial national languages, 99 studies, 110, 120–2, 124–5 non-European languages, 94 superficial, 148 notion of African writer, 102 theory, 121, 125–6, 133 oral literary traditions, 98 transnational, 128 African American, 29–30, 51, 172–3 transposition, 126, 133, 136, African Book Collective, 102 139–40, 144 African literary prizes, 100–5 of Western classics, 5 African Books Collective, 102 Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi, 68 anthropological notions of Adorno, Theodor, 2, 11, 14, exoticism, 104 28, 71 Caine Prize, 100–1 The Cultural Industry (as essay), 11 guidelines for submission, 101 Dialectic of Enlightenment, 11–12, Macmillan prize, 100 228n 2 Neustadt Prize, 104 and Horkheimer, 10–19, 24–6 Noma Award, 103–4 mass deception, 12–13 value judgements system, 104 advertising The Age of Mechanical Reproduction, 14 brand-authors, 76 Algeria, 20, 22–3, 64, 111 chick lit, 188 Ali, Ayaan Hirsi, 239n 25, 241n 35 Indian image, 43 Ali, Monica, 39, 88, 206 racism, 39 allegory, 81 Reincarnation of Pink, 39 Almost Single, 6, 193, 199–201

261 262 Index alterity, 2, 31, 33, 77, 114 bestseller, 81, 99, 174, 196, 198, Amazon, 193 240n 9, 241n 35, 244n 20 Andrews, Naveen, 142 feminist bestseller, 6, 225 Another Country, 6, 194, 222–5, Bhabha, Homi, 133 245n 37 Binoche, Juliette, 142 apparatus, 16, 110, 112–13 Bitter Sweet, 6, 194, 205–6 appreciation, 4, 6, 47, 74, 80, 90, 93, Black Atlantic, 28, 30, 230n 12 110, 161, 165 Black Venus, 118–20 art-house, 128, 130 blockbuster, 112, 127, 129, 236n 9 Asian cool, 2, 31–2 Bollywood audience convention, 133, 135 American, 39, 122 formula, 118, 132, 136 apolitical metropolitan, 46 friction, 33–44 Bollywood, 118, 133 industry, 131, 138 cosmopolitan, 55, 76 masala, 135 economic restrictions, 89 spectacle, 132 female, 7, 156, 226 geographical complexities, 102 book cover, 158 global, 64 Booker prize, 58–63 Hollywood, 118 controversial selections, 61 multiple and differentiated, 47 ethnic controversies, 62 Nobel Prize principles, 53 influential for the postcolonial transnational, 134, 146 field, 59 Western, 78, 93–4, 116, 131, 135–6, limitations of, 61 145, 147 postcolonial perspective, 58 white, 29 resistance, 63 women’s fiction, 157 success, 63 aura, 14–15, 108 border cinema, 115 see also Benjamin, Walter Bourdieu, Pierre, 19, 23 Austen, Jane, 122, 126, 129–31, Brabon, Benjamin 158–60, 168, 199, 222 Genz and, 7, 171–2, 226 authenticity, 14, 29, 32, 71, 74, 135 Brick Lane, 39, 206 cultural, 55 Bride and Prejudice, 5, 37, 126, Indian culture, 231n 18 129–36, 142 politics of, 28 Brouillette, Sara, 2, 37, 45–6 projection of, 10 Bushnell, Candance, 162, 191, 242n 1 rhetoric of, 54 business of sources, 88 female sexuality, 162 award industry, 4, 49–70 music, 29 Butler, Judith, 166 Balibar, Etienne, 9 Butler, Pamela, 156, 189 Bandit Queen, 127 Barthes, Roland, 80, 124 Bartman, Saartje, 119–20 Caché (Hidden), 111, 115–19 beauty, 137–8, 140, 150, 163, 171, 199 The Caine Prize, 5 The Beauty Myth, 163, 171 Canada, 38, 67–8, 80, 142, 179, 182, Benjamin, Walter, 14–16 185–6 see also aura Cannibalize, 6, 47, 201 Index 263 canon/canonization, 4, 8, 70, 82, second, 114–15 86–7, 92, 94, 103 third, 114–15 long-term, 80, 89 transnational cinema, 115, 128, 130 short-term, 88–9 world cinema, 115 capital/capitalism, 8–10, 19, 46, 162, circuit 165, 189 academic, 200 advanced capitalism, 77 aesthetic, 87 destruction of culture, 71 commercial, 129 global capitalism, 31, 98 of legitimization, 92 localized version of capitalism, 175 citizenship, 30, 52, 166, 190, 208 career class advancement, 168 black women, 173 artistic, 82, 146–7 British system, 132 conscientious, 186 of capitalist elites, 216 dance, 138 distinction and, 21 juggling, 173, 179 hardcore theorists, 22 profession, 66, 157, 218–19, 222 inequities, 43 urban, 173 middle, 79, 172, 221, 223–4 Casablanca, 153 race and migration, 24 catwalk, 191 tensions, 131 celebrity, 49, 70 upper, 131–2, 150, 172 censorship, 127, 146, 154, 233n 2 urban, 35 Chadha, Gurinder, 5, 126, 129, women, 149, 172 131, 134 Coetzee, J.M., 74, 81, 126 Chatman, Seymour, 124 colonialism, 1, 9, 22, 119 chickerati, 7, 131, 157, 161, 226 commercialization, 4–5, 38, 79, chick-lit 92, 171 bridezilla, 242n 2 commodity chica-lit, 172, 242n 2 art as a commodity, 12, 91 desi lit, 177–82, 209–25 black culture, 27, 31 ethnic chick lit, 156, 172–9, 190, capitalist commodity, 16 209, 226–7 cultural, 18, 94 hen-lit, 242n 2 exchange commodity, 8, 10 ladki lit, 177, 225, 228n 1 exchange value, 229n 3 lad-lit or dick-lit, 242n 2 exotic, 97 nanny-lit, 242n 2 immigrant writers, 79 sistah lit, 172–3, 242n 2 literary, 76 women’s romance, 158–61 transformation of culture, 13 see also Harlequin’s novels; romance Western-style, 176 cinema/postcolonial cinema, 111–18 Commonwealth Prize, 67–8, 70, 104 accented cinema, 115 communist, 150, 174–6 border cinema, 115 comparative, 81, 96 cinema of empire, 112 confessional, 157, 159–60, 175, diaspora, 115 197, 224 first, 115 conjuncture, 9 fourth, 119 consecration, 74, 92, 108 imperial film, 115 contestation, 1, 3, 11–19, 38, 107, intercultural cinema, 115, 121 190, 227 minor, 115 convergence culture, 125, 236n 10 264 Index cool, 37–8, 42–3 diaspora, 6–7, 23, 28, 34, 177 corporation, 3, 31, 27, 31, 127, 130 as the ‘King of Bollywood’ 40 Cosmopolitan Girls, 172 cinema, 115 cosmopolitanism, 3, 35, 72, 74, 140, desi lit, 213–25 154, 223 Indian, 179, 211–13 Couto, Mia, 101 mother tongue, 98 critical theory, 18, 25, 228n 1 NRI, 134 critics, see individual entries reversed, 194 cultural analysis, 12, 137 South Asian, 38 cultural diversity, 99 theme of, 227 cultural economy, 36, 109 US, 187 cultural industry Dickens, Charles, 122 black cultural industry, 3–4, 27–32 digital brown cultural industry, 33–44 camera, 128 postcolonial cultural industry, 44–8 optimism, 17 post-cultural industry, 12, 44–8 technology, 227 cultural studies video, 111, 116 and beyond, 24–6 Dilwale Dulhania Le Jahenge, 129, 135 Birmingham School of, 24–5 disjunction, 55 disciplinary approaches, 124 distinction, 1, 4, 16, 24, 45, 74, 83, 92, hybridity turn of, 32 158, 161 postcolonial, 2, 31 high-low, 18 rise of, 21 social, 19, 21 cultural value, 71–90 class notion and, 21 Culture and Imperialism, 126, 139 cosmopolitan, 23 curriculum, 8, 45, 67 see also Bourdieu, Pierre distribution Daswani, Kavita, 6, 190–3, 210–13 capital, 73 Dé, Shobha, 7, 181–2, 226 censorship, 233n 2 Deleuze, Gille, 115, 149, 152 channels of, 6 Delhi, 182, 185, 194, 199–201, 217, chick-lit, 201 219–20 cultural, 72 Desai, Anita, 59, 75, 80, 105, cultural capital, 100 180–1, 185 levels, 4 Desai, Jigna, 37–8, 156, 189 location, 91 Desai, Kiran, 59, 73–5, 179–80 modes of, 115 Deshpande, Sashi, 75, 105, 181 postcolonial, 47, 49 desire strategies of, 128 creative, 160 tormented, 153 individualized, 129 transnational cinema, 128 multiple, 171 via Amazon, 193 narrative pleasure and, 165 Divakaruni, Chitra Banerjee, 179, 181 sexual, 190–1 diversity, 18, 53, 97, 103 sexuality and, 157, 226 cultural, 21, 99 Western consumer, 41 linguistic, 99, 106 The Devil Wears Prada, 163, 203 localization and, 107 Dialectic of Enlightenment, 11–12, policy, 55 228n 2 realism and, 181 see also Adorno and Horkheimer resistance, 108 Index 265

Djebar, Assia, 49, 53, 64, 104, 114 Nazism, 12 double entanglement, 166, prejudices about African cultural 172, 227 heritage, 53 Dubai, 203–4 publishing houses, 104 evaluation economy of prestige, 4, 69, 72–8 aesthetic, 70, 82 Eisenstein, 121–2 alternative system, 96 empire cultural, 91 cinema of empire, 135 gatekeeping, 108 imperial films, 78 shortcomings, 103 empowerment systematic, 72 feminist, 7, 156–7, 225 exile, 12, 65–6, 94, 146–8, 152–4 form of, 174 exotic/exoticism girl power, 164 anthropological notions, 104 endangerment, 98–100 commercialization of, 79 cultural diversity, 99 construction of a star personality, 78 gender role, 98 neo-exoticism, 36 language documentation, 99 postcolonial, 78, 140 language loss, 99 radical causes, 140 linguistic diversity, 99 self-exoticism, 35 English, James, 92–3 spell of, 94 English language strategic exoticism, 45–6 imperial language, 78, 95 tale of, 78 lingua franca, 94 The English Patient, 5, 59, 62–3, 84, faithfulness, 110, 213 113, 127, 130, 141–5 entertainment Fanon, Frantz, 75, 141 black culture, 31 fans, 7, 17, 40, 117, 131, 136, 157, 226 form of, 165 Farah, Nuruddin, 4, 49, 64–5, 101, 104 magazine, 211 Farooki, Roopa, 6, 194, 205 old form of, 123 fascism, 12 privileging of, 158 fashion, fashionista, 162 erasure, 95, 97, 108 feminism essentialism, 30 afterlife of, 166–7 ethnic-chic, 21, 74 amputations of, 167 ethnocentric, 39–40, 79, 107 aspects of, 177 Eurocentric, 32, 51, 53–4 backlash on, 170, 172 Europe blind spots of, 177 academic readership, 98 chick-lit, 161, 164–5 chick lit publication, 174 emerging issues of, 131 cultural tradition, 12 forms of, 189 diasporic writers, 73 Indian context, 176 language primacy, 102 legacies of, 164 languages, 50 patterns of, 7 literary legacies, 55 political activism, 161 metaphysics of blackness, 29 postfeminism, 161–72 migrants, 204 raunch culture, 171 modern poetry, 53 second-wave, 161 multiracial exclusions, 31 third wave, 7, 50, 226 266 Index feminism – continued glamour, 70, 83, 118, 133, 135, 139, transnational, 189–90 197–8, 210, 212 Western-style, 153, 176 glitz and glamour, 7, 181, 187, wider implications, 164 196, 226 festival, 6, 42, 65, 110, 115, 134, The God of Small Things, 36, 59, 73, 77, 237n 15 84, 182 fetish/hegemony, 10, 15, 32–3, 79 Golden Globe, 39–41 fiction, 58, 131, 135, 178, 184, A Good Indian Wife, 6, 193, 190, 222 209–10 adult fiction, 100 Green Revolution, 154 black fiction, 173 Grewal, Inderpal, 91–2 Booker prize, 58–63, 81 Griffith, D.W., 121–2 Commonwealth Writers’ Prize, 67 crime fiction, 89 Guerrero, Lisa, 173 entertainment, 161 Gupta, Sunetra, 105 genre of, 198 James Tait Black Memorial Prize, 80 light-hearted approach, 160 habitus, 19, 22–4, 35 Man Booker Prize, 58, 63 postcolonial habitus, 24 Orange Prize, 68 see also Bourdieu, Pierre postcolonial, 78 Hall, Stuart, 24, 112 Pulitzer Prize, 61 Hamam, 150–1 romantic, 188 Hanneke, Michel, 111 science fiction, 93 Harare, 100 women’s, 157, 159, 161, 172, 178 Hardy, Thomas, 126, 136 fidelity, 123–4 Harlequin’s novels, 158, 188 Fielding, Helen, 6, 130, 225 Hollywood Fiennes, Ralph, 142 ethnocentric, 39 figuration, 141, 149, 151–2, 240n 33 film/filmmakers/actors, see individual first cinema, 115 entries Jewish, 12 For Matrimonial Purposes, 190–1 monoscopic movie, 145 Friday Night Chica, 173 postcolonial politics, 5 Western cultural industry, gaze, 111, 114, 116, 119–20, 141, 127, 130 147, 216 Holocaust, 116 gender, 118–20 Home, 7, 182, 185–6 emancipation, 156, 179 Horkheimer, Max gendered colonial exploitation, 119 Adorno and, 10–19, 24–6 racial discrimination, 120 Hottentot Venus, 119 sexual domination, 120 Huggan, Graham, 2, 31, 44, 93 Genette, Gérard, 124 Hulme, Keri, 49, 60–2, 94 Genz, Stephanie and Brabon, 7, 171–2 Hutcheon, Linda, 125 George, Cherian, 6, 193 hybrid, 2, 31, 117, 129, 136, 180, Ghosh, Amitav, 4, 49, 59, 69–70, 105, 212–13, 216 232n 9 hype, 47, 73, 77, 84, 187, 238n 18 Ghosh, Bishnupriya, 2, 34, 231n 21 hypertext, 125 Gilroy, Paul, 2, 28–31, 38, 116–17 hypervisibility, 41 Index 267 icon Indo-chic, 2, 4, 23, 27, 33–9, 41–4, 216 Bollywood, 117 Indofrenzy, 34 feminist, 131 industry Hollywood, 121 adaptation, 120–5 Indian, 77 award, 49–70 of new commodified personality, 78 black cultural industry, 3–4, 27–33 pop icon (Madonna), 18n 231 brown cultural industry, 31, 33–44 women writers, 181 chick-lit, 33–44 identity cultural industry, 11–19 allegories of, 114 exotic, 34 Asian, 202 music, 10, 16 Black Atlantic, 30 otherness, 7–8, 21 black national identity, 54 postcolonial cultural industry, 44–8 British, 132 intercultural, 4, 43, 115, 121, 209 colonial abolition, 58 interdisciplinary, 96 cosmopolitan, 35 intermediality, 5 European, 30 International Book Fair, 100, 103 female identity, 170 international podium, 93 kinship and, 39 internet, 19, 49, 127–8, 159 multiple subjective, 17 intersectionality, 22 nationalism and, 144 Islam/Muslim/Islamophobia, 37, ontologically referential, 115 57–8, 81, 146–7, 151 politics of mistaken identity, 41 reappropriation of, 36 US, 212 Jaikumar, Priya, 131–2 The Immigrant, 7, 23, 182, 185–6 Jain, Anita , 6, 194, 217, 245n 34 imperialism, 9, 57, 115, 177 James, Henry, 50 inauthenticity, racial, 60 Joseph, Anjali, 6, 194, 222, 224, India 245n 37 caste system, 132 chick-lit, 179–82, 187–213 Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham, 135 colonial divide, 134 Kaplan, Caren, 91–2, 152, 163, 165 desi lit, 177, 213–25 Kapur, Manju, 7, 75, 182–7 English literature, 74 Kapur, Shekhar, 127 ethnic artefacts, 36 Kaushal, Swati, 6, 182, 191, 193–5 global discovery, 42 Kechiche, Abdellatif, 119–20 growth, 35 Khan, Shah Rukh, 37, 39, 41, 127, 196 image, 43 Kinsella, Sophie, 162 literary tradition, 75–6, 177 knowledge/knowledge mainstream film, 128 production, 115 modernization, 140 non-fiction work, 84 Orientalist representation, 35, 41 late capitalism, 8, 10, 32 parallel cinema, 135 Lau, Lisa, 10, 33 The Sahitya Akademi Award, 105–7 laureate, 4, 49–52, 55–6 transformation, 133 Legally Blond, 157, 163 urban elite, 35–6 legend/legendary, 42, 64, 127 vernacular languages, 98, 106 Levy, Andrea, 49, 68, 88 women writers, 181 Levy, Ariel, 171 268 Index lifestyle global marketplace, 1–3, 8, 69, 74, common, 20 131, 136 fab, 179 market forces, 2, 4, 31, 88, 94, 96 hedonistic, 219 Marks, Laura, 121 superficial, 159 marriage, arranged marriage, 7, 131, Westernized, 175 135, 179, 181–6, 193, 198, 204, women’s, 200 207–9, 213–15, 217, 219, 221, Lion (Venice Film Festival), 145, 238n 225–6 19, 239n 25 Marrying Anita, 6, 194, 217–21, 223 literary agents, 49 masala, 131, 135 literary award, 4, 21, 58, 64, 74, 84–5, masculinity, 29, 220 87–9, 92–8 mass deception, 11–12 exponential development, 92 see also Adorno and Horkheimer neo-imperial lingua franca, 94 material, 8, 38, 45, 71, 76, 111–12, particularism–universalism 124, 149, 175, 198 debate, 97 McMillan, Terry, 172 translation and multilingualism, 95 McRobbie, Angela, 164–8, 172, 176, literary pantheon, 49, 89, 182 188, 227 literary prizes, 3–5, 49, 53, 66, 70, 74, mediation, 26, 35, 63, 76 83–4, 87, 91–4, 96, 98, 100–8 Mehta, Deepa, 6, 36, 128 Booker prize, 58–63, 81 melodrama, 127, 169, 206, 207 Caine Prize, 100–1 memory, 56, 113, 116, 119, 121, 141 Commonwealth Prize, 67–8, 70, 104 Mendes, Ana, 33, 37 James Tait Black Memorial Prize, 80 merit, 13, 57, 67, 69, 73–4, 77, 80–90, 180, 160 MacMillan Literary Prize, 50 Midnight’s Children, 53, 59–60, 72, Man Booker Prize, 58, 70, 73, 75–7, 80, 83, 128, 140 101, 180 migration, 22–4, 178, 180, 182, 204, Man Booker International, 63–4 207, 235n 4 Neustadt Prize, 3, 63–6, 80, 104 Minghella, Anthony, 5–6, 62, 142–5 Nobel Prize, 50–8 Mishra, Pankaj, 181 Noma Prize, 100, 102 modernity, 30–1, 59, 132, 140, 187, Orange Prize, 68, 101, 181 189, 202, 224 Pulitzer Prize, 61, 94, 128, 180 money, 11, 62, 126, 132, 138, 162, Sahitya Akademi Award, 105–7 171, 198, 205, 207 local/global, 48 Monsoon Wedding, 131, 135, 188 luxury, 30, 97, 139, 200, 205 Mukherjee, Bharati, 179 multiculturalism, 60, 144 Madame Bovary, 5, 84, 127 Mumbai, 40, 111, 117–18, 136, 138, magic realism, 145–55 140, 198, 204 Malladi, Amulya, 6, 194, 214, 216, Munnir and Sahni, 43–4 233, 245n 33 music Man Booker Prize, 58, 63–4, 70, 73, Asian, 32 101, 180 bhangra, 79 The Mango Season, 6, 194, 214, 216 black music, 27, 29–30 margins, 91–107 blues, 30 market classical, 15 branding, 72–8 fusion, 10, 230n 12 economy, 86, 174 hip hop, 30 Index 269

Hollywood, 131 occident/occidentals, 33, 35 jazz, 15, 27, 30, 228n 2 Okri, Ben, 59, 74, 94, 101, 104 mass music, 15 Ondaatje, Michael, 4–, 49, 59, 62–3, rap, 29 74, 84, 94, 127, 130, 141 relation with cultural industry, 27 100 Shades of White, 6, 194, 206 rock, 140 oral traditions, 98 soul, 30 The Orange Prize, 68, 101, 181 myth, 64, 171, 181 Orientalism, 10, 23, 33–4, 36, 150, 216 Orientalism (book by Said), 151 Naficy, Hamid, 114–15, 121, 128 Oscar Nair, Mira, 6, 36, 118, 126, 128, 131, Golden Globe, 39–41 135, 139, 180 nomination, 62, 81, 131 Nair, Preeta, 6, 194 prize, 111 winner, 111, 117, 235n 3 narrative form, 113 winning, 5, 82, 127 nationalism, 7, 9, 37, 42, 54, 75, 49, otherness, 1, 7–8, 21, 33, 93, 144, 154 114–15, 227 nationhood, 3 neo-colonial/neo-colonialism, 1, 3–4, packaging, 73, 158, 161, 178, 217 33, 45, 48, 55, 70, 89, 102, 111, paradigm, 1, 56, 74, 89, 108, 111–13, 115, 118, 151 115, 124–5, 169 neo-imperialism, 136 Parsipur, Shahrnush, 128, 130, 146–7 neo-orientalism, 10, 32–3, 39 participation, 2, 16, 97 Neshat, Shirin, 128, 130, 145, 148, 151 cultural participation, 25, 41 network, 9, 68, 73, 185, 199, 204, 226 Third Cinema, 114 Neustadt Prize, 3, 63–6, 80, 104 patriarchy/patriarchal, 51, 78, 124, New Age, 10 126, 134, 136, 149, 151, 156, orientalism, 38 161–2, 169, 171, 184, 204, new media, 107, 111, 125 209, 223 New York, 84, 153, 172, 186, 217, 221 periphery, 9, 112 Ngugi Wa Thiong’o, 75 Piece of Cake, 6, 182, 191, 193–6, Nobel Prize, 50–8, 63–4, 66, 74, 84, 87, 201, 220 94, 101, 104 Pinto, Frieda, 137 compensate for shortcomings, 51 popular culture, 3, 17–18, 29, 161–4, exclusion process, 50 170–2, 177, 188, 180 gender gap, 51 Chinese revolution, 174 history of, 50 pervasive role, 25 inclusion process, 50 role of, 166 limited linguistic competence, 50 postcolonial principles of, 53 adaptation, 3, 5–6, 125–9, 140, Third World writer, 51 146, 153 The Noma Prize, 100, 102 cinema, 111–18 nomination, 39, 61, 81, 83, 110 consciousness, 58, 112 nostalgia, 14, 34, 43, 59, 62, 77, 84, critique, 2, 44, 58, 85, 111, 113, 94, 216 120, 144 colonial, 94 exoticism, 140 imperial, 77, 84 fiction, 78 Raj, 62 film, 109–55 NRI, 129, 134, 198–9, 201, 210, 216 habitus, 24 270 Index postcolonial – continued problematic, 146 literature, 4–5, 32, 49, 67, 69, 72–8, Third World Literature, 79 93–4, 97 religion, 28, 65, 147, 149, 180, 183, novel, 63, 83–4, 127–8, 130, 143 215, 222 resistance, 48, 78, 145 remake, 129–30 studies, 2, 31 remediation, 125 turn, 2, 31 re-Orientalism, 10, 33, 36–7, postfeminism, 161–72 39–41 postmodernism, 18, 45, 92 representation post-thirdist culture, 114 of Africanness, 107 Pride and Prejudice, 126, 129–30, 132, of Algerian women, 114 158, 168–9, 199 of Black Venus, 119 prize-winners, 3, 110 of marginal voices, 93 publishing houses, 49, 77, 94, 98, 104, of others, 10 107, 193 shortcomings and pitfalls, 117 Pulitzer Prize, 61, 94, 128, 180 three dimensional space, 66 Puwar, Nirmal, 22–3 resistance of Booker winner, 63 race/racism/racist, 1–2, 9, 22, 24, 28–9, canonical literature, 89 31–2, 37–9, 42–4, 60, 66, 84, 97, conspiracy of, 154 114, 120–1, 135, 142, 163–4, 166, cultural commodification, 19 172, 181, 189–90, 204, 209, differentiated forms, 7, 107 215, 225 element, 97 Radhakrishnan, Rajagopalan, 9, 95 form of, 151 Radway, Janice, 159 locations of, 47 Rai, Aishwarya, 131–4 masked form, 108 Rai, Bali, 6, 194, 208 material conditions of, 8 Rajashree, 6, 193, 196–9 neo-colonial, 48 raunch culture, 171 paradigm of, 54 reader postcolonial, 48, 78, 145 African, 103, 107–8 relation with power, 113 American, 79 strategy of, 107 cosmopolitan, 46 theory, 25 female, 156 romance feminist, 165 chick lit, 158, 197 global, 45–6 classic, 188 Indian, 200 conservative genre of, 165 non-Indian, 201 convention-bound, 159 Western, 88 family romance, 135 reception ill-fated, 143 academic, 87 link with women’s fiction, 159 aesthetic, 4, 86 old-fashioned, 169 contrasting, 45 patriarchal narrative of, 156 critical, 110 postlapsarian moment, 193 global patterns, 110 stronghold of, 188 importance for, 93 Roy, Arundhati, 4, 36, 59, 73–5, 77, non-academic, 188 83, 88, 94, 182 politics of, 89 Rushdie, Salman, 4, 36, 49, 59, 67, 74, postcolonial products, 155 81, 88, 94, 118, 151 Index 271

Sahgal, Nayantara, 75, 105, 181 subaltern, 1, 78–9, 96, 119, 127, Sahitya Akademi Award, 5, 91, 105–7 139, 151 Said, Edward, 39, 117, 126, 139, 150–1 submission, 16, 97, 101–2, 147 Saris and the City, 6, 194, 202 supremacy, 95, 101 selection, 42, 61, 83, 87–9, 94, surveillance, 40–1, 183, 188, 204, 212 103, 194 semiotic, 32, 124, 129, 148, 154 talent, 51, 59 Senghor, Léopold Sédar, 53–4, 104 literary, 67, 88 Seth, Roshan, 138 new, 89, 101 Sex and the City, 157, 162–4, 169, 172, Nobel Prize, 74 175, 199, 243n 9 sexuality, 7, 97, 146, 149–50, 153, 157, postcolonial, 68 159, 162–3, 166, 168, randomness of competition, 82 171, 226 stardom-quality, 233 shaadi.com, 217, 219 taste, 10, 21, 24, 35, 53, 71, 76, 82–3, Shanghai Baby, 174–6 85–6, 103 Shohat, Ella, 113–15 technologies Shopaholic Trilogy, 162 communication, 9, 160 short-listed, 68 digital, 227 short-story, 5, 101 new, 15, 19, 107, 111, 166 singleton, 157 visual, 30 slavery, 29, 120 Teheran, 147–9, 152–3 Slumdog Millionaire, 5, 37, 39, 41, 111, terrorism, 9/11, 57, 65–6, 151 115, 117–18, 127, 137, 139 The Terrorist (Santosh Sivan), 133 Smith, Zadie, 4, 49, 67–8, 84, 88 Tess of the d’Urbervilles, 126, 136 socialist, 114 Thomas, Kristin Scott, 142 South Asia tokenism, 1, 4, 56, 89, 108 chick-lit, 189–90 Toor, Saadia, 2, 33–7, 42–3, 79, 216 language, 94 transcoding, 125 Orientalism, 36 transformation, 5, 9, 12, 26, 89, 94, second-generation, 38 129, 140, 153, 164, transnational diaspora, 38 174, 226 Soyinka, Wole, 4, 49, 51, 64, 74, transposition, 3, 5, 26, 47, 126, 133, 101, 104 136, 139–40, 144 spectacle, 39, 132, 171 trauma, 61, 180, 186, 245n 31 Spivak, Gayatri, 10, 96, 126 Trishna, 126, 129, 136–41 sponsorship, 76 Trust Me, 6, 193, 196–9, 201 Stam, Robert, 113–15, 121, 133 star, 70, 72, 77–8, 131, 197 stardom, 42, 233n 4 UK (United Kingdom) stereotypes, 120, 132–3, 139, 173, Booker Prize for Fiction, 58–63 242n 4 chick-lit productions, 198, 201 struggle racialization, 204 anti-colonial, 8, 54, 75 South Asian writers, 6, 193 diasporic, 180 women’s novelist, 178 feminist, 176 (Un)arranged Marriage, 6, 193, 208 for freedom of speech in Nigera, 52 uneven development, 9, 92 with racism, 142 university stories, 205 women struggle, 161, 187 urbanization, 137, 176, 213 272 Index

US/USA/United States audience exotic thirst, 78 chick lit in, 190 audiences’ reluctance, 145 cultural inauthenticity, 60 capitalist elites, 34 desi lit, 209–13 chick lit, 176, 179, 187, 194, 225 Indian chick lit in, 193 commodity culture, 176 inter-ethnic relationships, 215 consumerism, 201 language-maintenance program, 99 feminism, 153, 176 multiculturalism, 60 hegemony, 36, 45 neo-imperial economy, 131, 133 Indo-chic imaginary, 216 transnational life, 6, 38 literary tradition, 94 market strategies, 108 Valds-Rodriguez, Alisa, 173 paradigms of literariness, 74 value perception about Indian actors, 41 aesthetic, 93 realism, 132 canonical, 87 reception and evaluation, 124 cultural, 71–2 representation strategies, 58 economic, 43, 73 tourist taste, 53 symbolic, 35, 76, 141 Winterbottom, Michael, 126, 136–7 The Village Bride of Beverly Hills, 6, 189, Wolf, Naomi, 163, 171 193, 210, 212 Women Without Men, 128, 130, violence 145–55 feminine body, 147 Woolf, Virginia, 50, 121, 160 gratuitous, 118 world history of, 116 cinema, 10, 151, 131, 175 racial, 32 fashion, 2, 16, 162, 175 food, 10, 21 Waheed, Rekha, 6, 194, 202 literature, 51, 55, 61, 76, 93, 201 Waiting to Exhale, 172–3 music, 21 Wallerstein, Immanuel, 9 worldliness, 4 war on terror, 241n 35 writers, see individual entries weight, 116, 157, 161, 163, 171, 198, 206, 220 xenophobia, 2, 31 Western adoption of postcolonial youth novels, 130 cosmopolitan, 34 advertising, 38 urban, 44