CONTENTS

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND LIST OF TABLES ix

PREFACE Xl

ABBREVIATIONS XV

PART A INTRODUCTION I Feminist Awakening 3 The Historic Connection of Class and Sex in Germany 4 The Women's Movement of Social Democracy: Historiographical Issues 14 II "Work Horse, Baby Machine, Cultural Drudge" 18 The Social Bases of the Women's Movement 19 Women's Position in the Society of Imperial Germany 22 Economics and Emancipation: Women in the German Labor Force 27

PART Β SOCIALIST FEMINISM IN GERMAN SOCIAL DEMOCRACY: PERSONALITIES AND PERSPECTIVES 53 III Eight Socialist Feminists: Diversity within Unity 55 Tentative Beginnings and Divergent Paths: Emma Ihrer and Ottilie Baader, and the Younger Trade Unionists, Helene Grunberg and Gertrud Hanna 56 Radical Formulations: Clara Zetkin and Luise Zietz 65 Political Challenges. Lily Braun and Marie Juchacz 76 IV The New Woman: A Socialist Vision 84 Political Mobilization as an Expression of Feminist Concerns 85 Restructuring Women's Lives The Socialist Feminist Platform 90 Work, Marriage, and Motherhood. A Response to Edmund Fischer, 1905 100 V Class versus Sex Identity: Clara Zetkin and Lily Braun 107 Braun Questions the Marxist Concept of Class Struggle 107 Continuing Controversy in the Women's Movement over Braun's Revisionist Feminism, 1897-1901 113 An Assessment of the Zetkin-Braun Clash 127 PART c FEMINIST TACTICS IN GERMAN SOCIAL DEMOCRACY 137 VI Party Politics: Institutional Autonomy and Division of Labor 139 Erecting the Women's Organization Prior to 1908 140 Incorporation into the SPD: Feminist Losses 146 The Extent of Women's Equality in German Social Democracy 153 VII Party and Unions: Compatible and Conflicting Loyalties 161 Collaborative Efforts to Reach Working-Class Women by Party and Union Members 162 Friction over Feminist Tactics 174 Social Democracy's Performance in the Unionization of Female Workers, 1897-1914 184 VIII The Unsolved Problem of Women's Socialist Education 189 Women's Education Prior to 1908 190 The Leseabende A Case Study of Greater Berlin, 1904-1914 193 Socialist versus Traditionalist Views: Shortcomings of the Educational Goal 200

PART D THE END OF AN ERA IX Wartime Divisions: From Socialist to Social Feminism 209 Socialist Feminists Respond to the Hardships of War 210 Disintegration of the Women's Movement in 1917: An Evaluation of the Split 214 Marie Juchacz and the Second-Generation Female Leadership 220 X Conclusion 228 APPENDIX 242 NOTES 247 BIBLIOGRAPHY 289 INDEX 303