Clanga clanga -- (Pallas, 1811) ANIMALIA -- CHORDATA -- AVES -- ACCIPITRIFORMES -- ACCIPITRIDAE Common names: Greater Spotted Eagle; Aguila Moteada; Aigle criard; Spotted Eagle European Red List Assessment European Red List Status EN -- Endangered, (IUCN version 3.1) Assessment Information Year published: 2015 Date assessed: 2015-03-31 Assessor(s): BirdLife International Reviewer(s): Symes, A. Compiler(s): Ashpole, J., Burfield, I., Ieronymidou, C., Pople, R., Wheatley, H. & Wright, L. Assessment Rationale European regional assessment: Endangered (EN) EU27 regional assessment: Critically Endangered (CR)

This eagle is undergoing very rapid declines within its European range, and it is therefore classified as Endangered (A2abcde+3bcde+4abcde; C1). Within the EU27 the population is extremely small and decreasing, and it is classified as Critically Endangered (C1; D). Occurrence Countries/Territories of Occurrence Native: Albania; Armenia; Austria; Azerbaijan; Belarus; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Bulgaria; Croatia; Estonia; Finland; France; Georgia; Greece; Hungary; Italy; Latvia; Lithuania; Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of; Moldova; Montenegro; Poland; Romania; Russian Federation; Serbia; Slovakia; Slovenia; Turkey; Ukraine Vagrant: Belgium; Cyprus; Denmark; Ireland, Rep. of; Luxembourg; Netherlands; Portugal; Spain; Switzerland; United Kingdom; Gibraltar (to UK) Population The European population is estimated at 770-1,000 pairs, which equates to 1,500-2,100 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 17-33 pairs, which equates to 34-70 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see Supplementary PDF. Trend In Europe the population size is estimated to be decreasing by 50-79% in 49.8 years (three generations) and by at least 20% in 33.2 years (two generations). In the EU27 the population is estimated to be decreasing by 25% or more in 16.6 years (one generation). For details of national estimates, see Supplementary PDF. Habitats and Ecology This species occurs in lowland wet forests near wetlands, away from human settlements (Tucker and Heath 1994). It nests 5–25 m above ground in tall, usually broad leaf, trees inside the forest, a few 100 m from the edge. Both sexes construct a large platform of sticks with a central cup lined with fresh green sprigs or grass. The nest is often used in successive years and may therefore become very large, although many pairs have two or three nests used alternately. Clutch size normally two but second chick rarely survives due to cainism (Meyburg and Kirwan 2013). It feeds on unretrieved quarry, small mammals, waterbirds, frogs and snakes. It hunts over swamps, wet meadows and, in Europe, over extensively managed agricultural land (A. Lõhmus in litt. 1999); birds soar to c.100 m high when hunting.

It is a migratory species, with birds leaving their breeding grounds in October and November to winter in southern Europe, southern Asia and north-east Africa (Meyburg and Kirwan 2013). They generally return in February and March. Birds migrate on a broad front, tending to pass in singles, twos and threes with the occasional larger group (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001). They do not concentrate at bottleneck sites to the extent of many other raptors such as Lesser Spotted Eagle (Clanga pomarina) (Meyburg and Kirwan 2013). Habitats & Altitude Habitat (level 1 - level 2) Importance Occurrence Forest - Subarctic major breeding Forest - Temperate major breeding Shrubland - Temperate suitable non-breeding Wetlands (inland) - Bogs, Marshes, Swamps, Fens, Peatlands major breeding Wetlands (inland) - Bogs, Marshes, Swamps, Fens, Peatlands major non-breeding Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Freshwater Lakes (over ha) major non-breeding Altitude 0-1000 m Occasional altitudinal limits Threats There is strong evidence of hybridisation between this species and C. pomarina (Bergmanis et al. 1997, Lohmus & Vali 2001, Dombrovski 2002, Vali et al. 2010). In some European countries mixed pairs can constitute 50% of pairs of this species (Maciorowski and Mizera 2010) or even more (Vali 2011). It is unclear whether this represents a new phenomenon or a conservation concern, but C. pomarina is far more numerous than C. clanga in the zone of overlap, and the range of C. pomarina appears to be spreading east, further into the range of C. clanga. Other key threats are habitat destruction and disturbance, also poaching and electrocution can be considered important. Suitable habitat mosaics have been lost as a result of afforestation and wetland drainage.

In eastern Europe, agricultural intensification and the abandonment of traditional floodplain management have reduced habitat quality (A. Lõhmus in litt. 1999). Birds are intolerant of permanent human presence in their territories. Forestry operations are a major cause of disturbance. Shooting is a threat in Russia and the Mediterranean (P. D. Round in litt. 1998, P. Mirski in litt. 2012), together with deliberate and accidental poisoning across much of its range. Threats & Impacts Threat (level 1) Threat (level 2) Impact and Stresses Agriculture & Agro-industry Timing Scope Severity Impact aquaculture farming Ongoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant Low Impact Declines Stresses Ecosystem conversion; Ecosystem degradation; Species disturbance Agriculture & Agro-industry Timing Scope Severity Impact aquaculture plantations Ongoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant Low Impact Declines Stresses Ecosystem degradation; Species disturbance Agriculture & Small-holder Timing Scope Severity Impact aquaculture farming Ongoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant Low Impact Declines Stresses Ecosystem conversion; Ecosystem degradation; Species disturbance Biological resource Hunting & trapping Timing Scope Severity Impact use terrestrial animals Ongoing Unknown Unknown Unknown (unintentional effects - species is Stresses not the target) Species mortality; Species disturbance; Reduced reproductive success Biological resource Logging & wood Timing Scope Severity Impact use harvesting Ongoing Majority (50-90%) Slow, Significant Medium Impact (unintentional Declines effects: (large scale) [harvest]) Stresses Ecosystem degradation; Species disturbance Invasive and other American Mink Timing Scope Severity Impact problematic (Neovison vison) Ongoing Minority (<50%) Unknown Unknown species, genes & diseases Stresses Indirect ecosystem effects; Competition Threats & Impacts Threat (level 1) Threat (level 2) Impact and Stresses Invasive and other Unspecified species Timing Scope Severity Impact problematic Ongoing Minority (<50%) Unknown Unknown species, genes & diseases Stresses Hybridisation Natural system Abstraction of Timing Scope Severity Impact modifications surface water Ongoing Majority (50-90%) Slow, Significant Medium Impact (agricultural use) Declines Stresses Ecosystem degradation; Indirect ecosystem effects; Reduced reproductive success Natural system Other ecosystem Timing Scope Severity Impact modifications modifications Ongoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant Low Impact Declines Stresses Ecosystem degradation; Indirect ecosystem effects Residential & Commercial & Timing Scope Severity Impact commercial industrial areas Ongoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant Low Impact development Declines Stresses Ecosystem conversion; Ecosystem degradation Residential & Housing & urban Timing Scope Severity Impact commercial areas Ongoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant Low Impact development Declines Stresses Ecosystem conversion; Ecosystem degradation Conservation Conservation Actions Underway CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix I and II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. It is legally protected in Belarus, Estonia, France, Greece, Latvia, Poland, Romania and Russia. An International Lesser and Greater Spotted Eagle Working Group has been established and a European action plan was published in 2000 (Meyburg et al. 1999). The first national census was conducted in Belarus during 2000-2002. Research into hybridisation and habitat requirements began in Belarus in 2003. National Action Plans for the species have been produced in Belarus (Dombrovski et al. (2002), Estonia and Ukraine (Domashevsky 2000). Site protection measures have been initiated at key Belarusian, Polish and Estonian sites, including restricting forestry activities at nest sites during the breeding season.

Conservation Actions Proposed Survey range and population. Establish long-term monitoring schemes to improve understanding of population trends. Improve understanding of breeding habitat requirements. Protect breeding areas from drainage and rising of infrastructure. Maintain traditional wet meadows. Regulate forestry to minimise disturbance and protect potential nesting trees. Investigate potential threat of hybridisation with C. pomarina. Prevent illegal shooting, poisoning and electrocution. Investigate lead poisoning from feeding on quarry. Raise awareness. Bibliography Bergmanis U, Petriná A, Strazds M, Krams I. 1997. Possible case of hybridization of the Lesser Spotted eagle and the Greater Spotted eagle in Eastern Latvia. Putni Daba 3: 2-6. Domashevsky S.V. 2000. National Action Plan for the conservation of the Great Spotted Eagle (Aquila clanga) and Lesser Spotted Eagle (A. pomarina) in Ukraine. In: O. Mykytyuk (ed.), National Action Plans on conservation of globally threatened bird species. pp. 122-132 [in Ukrainian]. SoftART, Kyiv. Dombrovski, V. C. 2002. Hybridization of Lesser and Greater Spotted Eagles - (Aquila pomarina et A. clanga) in Belarus: rules or exception? Subbuteo 5(1): 23-31. Dombrovski, V., Ch.; Tishechkin, A. K.; Ivanovski, V. V. 2002. Belarus' National Action Plan for Greater Spotted Eagle (Aquila clanga). Ferguson-Lees, J.; Christie, D. A. 2001. Raptors of the world. Christopher Helm, London. Bibliography Lõhmus A, Väli Ãœ. 2001. Interbreeding of the Greater Aquila clanga and Lesser Spotted Eagle A. pomarina. Acta Ornithoecologica 4: 377-384. Maciorowski G., Mizera T. 2010. Conservations and studies on Greater Spotted Eagle in Poland - LIFE project. Studia i materiały CEPL w Rogowie. 25: 181-190 (in Polish with English summary). Meyburg, B.U. & Kirwan, G.M. (2013). Greater Spotted Eagle (Clanga clanga). In: del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A., Sargatal, J., Christie, D.A. & de Juana, E. (eds.) (2013). Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. (retrieved from http://www.hbw.com/node/53155 on 16 January 2015). Meyburg, B.-U.; Haraszthy, L.; Strazds, M.; Schäffer, N. 1999. European species action plan for Greater Spotted Eagle (Aquila clanga). Tucker, G.M. & Heath, M.F. (1994) Birds in Europe: their conservation status. Cambridge, UK: BirdLife International (BirdLife Conservation Series no. 3). Väli Ãœ. 2011. Numbers and hybrydization of spotted eagles in Estonia as revealed by country-wide field observations and genetic analysis. Estonian Journal of Ecology 60: 143-154. Väli Ãœ., Dombrovski V., Treinys R., Bergmanis U., Daróczi S., Dravecky M., Ivanovsky V., Lontkowski J., Maciorowski G., Meyburg B.U., Mizera T., Zeitz R., Ellegren H. 2010. Wide-spread hybridization between the Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga and the Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina (Aves: Accipitriformes) in Europe. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 100: 725-736. Lohmus, A. 1998. Numbers of the Greater Spotted Eagle and the Lesser Spotted Eagle in Estonia. Hirundo 11: 24-34. Map (see overleaf)