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THE CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER THROUGH THE NARRATIVE PROCESS OF THE AFRICAN FOLKTALE: A CASE STUDY OF THE MARAGOLI FOLKTALE By EGARA STANLEY KABAJI Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY in the subject ENGLISH at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA PROMOTER: DR KHOMBE M MANGWANDA JOINT PROMOTER: PROF. FRANCIS IMBUGA NOVEMBER 2005 i I declare that The Construction of Gender Through the Narrative Process of The African Folktale: A Case Study of the Maragoli Folktale, is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. ………………….. …………………. E. S. KABAJI DATE ii Acknowledgements In the process of research and writing of this thesis, I have been favoured with enormous gifts of time, expertise and insights for which I am eager to express my sincere gratitude. I am particularly indebted to my promoters for the support and guidance I have received from them. I must thank Dr Marcel Khombe Mangwanda for his perceptiveness in matters of organisation and theoretical depth. I must say that the study has benefited immensely from his careful reading. It was he who advised me to take time and visit the UNISA library and for one month I took advantage of the immense resources in the library under his guidance. I am also greatly indebted to my second promoter, Prof. Francis Imbuga whose critical comments, honest evaluation, suggestions and practical assistance have been sources of inspiration. Prof. Imbuga’s comments have led to substantial improvement in the quality of this thesis. I also wish to mention Dr Stephen Partington who helped in proofreading this work. I would also like to acknowledge the assistance I have received from Western University College of Science and Technology (WUCST), and specifically Prof. Wangila Barasa who enabled me to travel to South Africa for library research. He has also closely monitored my progress. Many thanks go to my family members for their patience and encouragement. My wife Miriam Kenyani and my children Midika, Kabaji, Kilavuka Kagai and Bahati: all, in their own small ways, fired my imagination. Finally, I must thank my late mother, Loice Kagai, and father, Mzee Kabaji and the many performers throughout Maragoli land who gave me their time, thoughts and ideas as I collected data. iii Abstract The Construction of Gender Through the Narrative Process of the African Folktale: A Case Study of The Maragoli Folktale By Egara Stanley Kabaji The purpose of the study was to identify the gender-related themes from a cultural discourse in order to determine how gender is constructed in African society. The study specifically examines the Maragoli Folktale. The Maragoli people mainly inhabit the western part of Kenya and are a sub-tribe of the larger Luhyia community. The Luhyia community is the second largest community in Kenya. The study attempts to uncover how gender is constructed through the examination of dominant themes, characterization, images, symbols, formulaic patterns and formalities of composition and performance in the Maragoli folktales at the time of performance. Based on an eclectic conceptual framework, the study takes into consideration gender theories, feminist literary perspectives, psychoanalysis and discourse analysis paradigms to critically examine the tales as a semiotic system of signification grounded within an African social cultural milieu. The folktales are analysed as a symbolic and ideological discourse of signs encoded by the performer and decoded by the audience at the time of performance. The study therefore situates the tale firmly at the time of performance, taking into consideration the interaction between the performer and the audience in the dissemination and internalization of gender ideology. While establishing that patriarchal structures and values are transmitted through the tales, the study also reveals the methods and interventions that the mainly female performers advance as active agents in their struggle for space within the culture. Women are, therefore, perceived as active agents of change and the iv folktale as a site from which gender ideology is discussed, contested and subverted. The study is based on a corpus of twenty (20) folktales collected from the Maragoli country in Western Province of Kenya (See maps, Appendix B.) The English versions of the tales appear in appendix A. v Key Terms: African Marriage, Feminist Theories, Folktales, Gender Construction, Ideology, Maragoli, Masculinity, Narrative Process, Oral Performance, Patriarchy, Psychoanalysis, Sex Roles. vi CONTENTS: Declaration………………………..………………………….…………………… (ii) Acknowledgement………………………………..……………………………… (iii) Abstract……………………………………………………………………….…... (iv) Key Terms………………………………………………………………………….(vi) Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………(vii) Chapter 1: The Problem, Research Goals and Conceptual Foundation……………………………………………………..…..1 Chapter 2. The Gendered Social, Historical and Cultural Context of the Maragoli Folktales…… …………………………..…... 29 2.0 Introduction……………………………………………………… 29 2.1 The Construction of Maragoli and the Abaluhyia Identity…... 29 2.2 Forms of Worship and Totems of Fertility……………………. 33 2.3 Initiation into Manhood………………………………………… 38 2.4 Marriage and Family…………………………………………… 41 2.5 Sex and Its Uses……………………………………………….. 46 2.6 Sleeping on a Word……………………………………………. 47 2.7 The Gendered Roles in Household Economy……….……… 49 2.8 Gendered Taboos………………………………...………….... 50 2.9 The Survival of the Folktale Tradition Over the Years. ...… 51 2.10 Conclusion……………………………………… ……………... 55 Chapter 3: The Gendered Frames of Coercion and Subversion on Marital Relationships……………………………….……… 57 3.0 Introduction…………………………………………………… 57 3.1 The Centrality of Marriage…………………….…………….. 59 3.2 Domains of Gendered Operation…………………………… 61 3.3 Polygamy and Polygamous Families ……………………... 76 3.4 Courtship, Deceit and Pride…………………………………. 83 3.5 The Combatant Hero and his Magical Stick ……………… 86 3.6 Bitter Fruits of Disobedience, Defiance and the Perversion of Beauty. ………………………………………… 87 3.7 Incestuous Relationships. ……………………….………….. 89 3.8 The Curse of Infertility (Barrenness) ………………………. 92 3.9 Vulnerability and Hopelessness of Changing the Status Quo …………………………………………………….. 93 3.10 Voices of Transgression. ……………………………………. 94 3.11 Conclusion……………………………………………………. 98 vii Chapter 4: Gendered Sex Images, Roles and Socio-Cultural Expectations……………………………………………………102 4.0 Introduction……………………………………………….……..102 4.1 General Status of the Masculine and Feminine……..………103 4.2 The Ogre: Symbol of Masculine Hegemony………………… 108 4.3 The Trickster as a Masculine Figure of Wisdom and His Dupe ……………………...…………………………… 112 4.4 The Role and Place of Girls and Wives………………….….. 116 4.5 The Nature and Role of Boys and Men……………….….….. 124 4.6 Birds as Symbols of Masculinity………………………..…….. 128 4.7 The Matriarch: The Old Woman………………………...……. 130 4.8 Signifying Physical Features……………………………..…… 131 4.9 Conclusion……………………………………………..….……. 132 Chapter 5: Composition, Performance and Internalisation of the Gender Ideology ……………………………………… 134 5.0 Introduction………………………………………………..…… 134 5.1 In-built Subversive Elements of Composition…….…..……. 137 5.2 The Power of the Subversive Stage.………………………… 143 5.3 Formulae of Sublimation……………………………………… 144 5.4 Strategic Repetition of Gendered Images…………..………. 148 5.5 Contrasting Polarities………………………………………….. 152 5.6 Patterning of Images………………………………………..…. 154 5.7 The Gendered Language of the Tales………………………. 158 5.8 Conclusion……………………………………………….…….. 160 Chapter 6: Conclusion………………………………………………..…… 161 Works Cited………………………………………………………………...……. 170 Appendix A…………………………………………………………………..……184 Maragoli tales in English……………………………………… 184 Appendix B Maps……..…………………………………………………… 246 viii Chapter One The Problem, Research Goals and Conceptual Foundation Writing about aspects of women’s voices from Northern Nigeria, Margaret Hausa Kassam (1996) has pointed out that the word ‘gender’ signifies, first and foremost, differences in the biological make-up of human beings in general, in terms of the sex of the species as either male, female, or neuter; and in a more recent, but problematic application of the term, ‘transsexual’ or ‘transvestite’. It is, however, notable that a number of scholars including Lise Ostergaard (1992:6) define gender in terms of relations of power. She writes: Gender relations are constructed in terms of the relations of power and dominance that structure the life chances of women and men. In other words, gender divisions are not fixed in biology, but constitute an aspect of the wider social divisions of labour, which in turn are rooted in the conditions of production and reproduction and reinforced by the cultural, religious and ideological systems prevailing in a society. In essence, the social construction of gender in terms of ‘maleness’ or ‘femaleness,’ ‘masculinity’ and ‘femininity’, sublimates the biological construct in the sense that the production and consumption of culture seems to be dependent upon the effective control of one social class over another or one sex over another; in this case the biological male controls the female in power relations. It is therefore apparent that in this respect, the interpretation of the gender classifications ‘masculinity’ and ‘femininity’ seems to have more to do with the socialisation process of the individual rather than the biological endowment of nature. Many feminist scholars share this view. It was Simone de Beauvoir
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