Imperial Narratives and the United States Occupation of the Dominican Republic, 1916-1924
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“THE LAND OF BULLET HOLES”: IMPERIAL NARRATIVES AND THE UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, 1916-1924 A Dissertation Submitted to the Temple University Graduate Board In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY by Patrice Nicole Laurent May 2019 Examining Committee Members: Dr. Mónica Ricketts, Advisory Chair, Department of History Dr. Richard Immerman, Emeritus Faculty Department of History Dr. Alan McPherson, Department of History Dr. Harvey R. Neptune, Department of History Dr. Hiram Aldarondo, Department of Spanish and Portuguese ABSTRACT This dissertation examines US media representations of Dominicans during the American occupation of the Dominican Republic between 1916 and 1924. It argues that American media images of the Dominican Republic changed to accommodate US government policy. For example, when there was interest in annexing the country in the mid-1800s, those who were in favor of annexation depicted Dominicans as white in order to demonstrate that they could be integrated into the United States. In the early 1900s, however, when the United States wanted to prevent foreign powers from intervening in the Dominican Republic, US media representations of Dominicans were overwhelmingly black to show the need for American oversight of financial matters. Whether depicted as black or white, this dissertation argues that the primary lens the US media employed to represent Dominicans was that of underdevelopment. Subsumed within this imperial narrative of underdevelopment were malleable depictions of race and, by 1916, a new element of humanitarianism that operated under the assumption that the Dominican Republic was underdeveloped and thus in need of American guidance. Lastly, this dissertation examines the shift in the US media in 1920 as American sources began to critique the occupation. ii To Yukiko, my ever-faithful companion. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Without the love and support of friends and family, this dissertation would not have been possible. I will forever owe a debt of gratitude to those who encouraged and inspired me: Dr. Joanne Lucena for her fierce love and eternal guidance, Dr. Giuseppina Russo for her help in reorganizing this in the final hour, Dr. Jason Knirck for always being my advisor and mentor even when not my official advisor, Dr. Monica D’Antonio for her spirit and explanation of the intricacies of the English language over bottles of red wine on a street in Arzua, and all of my colleagues in the History department at Montgomery County Community College who have been my cheering section over the last seven years. Thank you to the members of my committee for your advice and insight as well as the College of Liberal Arts for a travel grant to present this research. I would be remiss not to acknowledge my children who have provided me with emotional support throughout this process: Yuki, Abba, and my dearly departed Reef. Lastly, Dory Chaefsky, the love of my life, thank you for getting me through the “ring of fire” during the final months of this this project, you will forever have my heart. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................ ii DEDICATION ................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................. iv CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION: “THE LAND OF BULLET HOLES” .......................................... 1 2. FROM BLACK TO WHITE: TRANSFORMING DOMINICANS .......................... 36 3. “UNCLE SAM’S PERIODICAL BAD MAN” .......................................................... 70 4. A PRIMITIVE PEOPLE, AN UNDEVELOPED ISLAND ..................................... 100 5. HUMANITARIANISM, “THE MASTER NARRATIVE” ..................................... 130 6. SEEING BEYOND THE HUMANITARIAN NARRATIVE ................................. 163 7. INTERPRETING AMERICAN IMPERIALISM ..................................................... 194 8. CONCLUSION: AN ENDURING LEGACY .......................................................... 227 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................... 248 v CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: “THE LAND OF BULLET HOLES” Advertised in the Marine Corps Gazette in August 1931 as a story about helping “the little sister republic . on the way to an existence of peaceful pursuits without the aid of revolutions,” William Wendell Flewelling’s book Bad Hombre was a tale of love, banditry, and the necessity of American mediation in the Dominican Republic.1 As a former marine stationed on the island during the US occupation, Flewelling utilized his experiences as the basis for a work of fiction that mirrored the dominant American interpretation of the need for foreign intervention in places such as the Caribbean. Set after the American withdrawal in 1924, Flewelling’s account told of a Dominican Republic not quite at the point of stability, but surely on its way with the help of a small contingent of Americans who were working with the Policía Nacional. In Flewelling’s novel a few bandits still ran free in the eastern Seibo province, most notably Ramón Natera who was the “bad hombre” for which the book was entitled. In reality, Natera was a bandit leader during the occupation, but a rival shot him in 1920 before US forces were able to capture him.2 Able to outsmart the “Americanos” during the occupation, Natera was public enemy number one for Captain Philip Kent, an American working with 1 “Bad Hombre,” Marine Corps Gazette 16, issue 2 (August 1931). 2 On Natera see Bruce J. Calder, The Impact of Intervention: The Dominican Republic During the US Occupation of 1916-1924 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1984), esp. 169-180. Alan McPherson added that Natera was one of the few bandits with a nationalist agenda. See Alan McPherson, The Invaded: How Latin Americans and Their Political Allies Fought and Ended US Occupations (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 70-71. 1 the Dominican police. In Bad Hombre, Kent was the hero time and again, not only protecting Dominicans from the wrath of Natera but also ultimately saving the life of a young Spanish woman, Juanita Canelon. Canelon’s love for Kent allegedly drew from a deeper font of admiration for the United States. Canelon viewed the United States as a land of promise. At the beginning of the novel, she saw the Statue of Liberty when her ship sailed past New York on its way to the Dominican Republic. As the image overtook her, she pondered on the “millions of progressive people” living there. Though Canelon admitted that she had never met an American before, her opinions about them were solidly grounded: “I have read so much about them – their work, their aims, and the good they have done in this world; especially for the smaller helpless nations.” Additionally, she stated that her cousin Rafael lived in New York and as a result had been notably altered: “I noticed particularly how splendidly changed he was – so resolute, so democratic, but best of all, so full of fun.”3 Here, Flewelling emphasized the transformative power of the United States and its enlightened attitude. As Canelon made clear, the United States was ultimately a benevolent force, progressive in every way, with the ability to completely alter people and assist the “smaller helpless nations.” Canelon’s song of praise echoed throughout the book as Flewelling described Americans completely dedicated to their altruistic objectives. On approaching Santo Domingo by sea, Canelon saw the wreckage of the USS Memphis, an image that saddened her greatly: “‘It seems so unfortunate,’ she remarked with casual concern, ‘so 3 William Wendell Flewelling, Bad Hombre (Boston: Meador Publishing Company, 1931), 11, 14. 2 unnecessary, that a few of the brave Americano sailors should lose their lives so close to land – and yet, how noble their death sacrificing themselves for others.’” The US Navy sent the Memphis to the Dominican Republic in July 1916 to protect American interests in the wake of revolution. On 29 August, a storm hit the island and numerous tsunami waves hit the Memphis, driving it to the bottom of the harbor and then into nearby cliffs. Forty-three men lost their lives that day. By discussing the wreck of the Memphis, Flewelling appealed to his readers’ sense of patriotism by emphasizing that these were the noble deaths of Americans who were innocently trying to better a foreign republic and paid the ultimate price. Like Christ, they were martyrs, as Flewelling described the wreckage, “the forward fighting top of the warship, looking not unlikes a great cross, securely in place; a fitting monument to its deceased warriors.”4 Novels like Bad Hombre succinctly demonstrated the imperial narrative that was a crucial component of the US occupation of the Dominican Republic. Canelon’s praise for the United States expressed the notion that America had the obligation to transform backwards nations. In fact, all of Flewelling’s descriptions of Dominicans in Bad Hombre pointed to a barbarous people, more animal than human. This reinforced the notion of primitiveness and suggested not only that Dominicans needed the unsavory elements of their population (men like Natera) neutralized but also that the people in general needed paternalistic guidance. The way in which Canelon spoke about the United States