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Energy Technology Research Programmes 1993- 1998

Intermediate report

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TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT CENTRE FINLAND

Technology Programme Report 4/97 Helsinki 1997 Tekes - Your contact for Finnish technology

Takes primary objective is to promote the technological competitiveness in Finnish industry. Activities should lead to an increase and diversification of industrial production and exports and an improvement of well-being in society.

Annually, Tekes grants about one and a half billions Finnish marks for financing applied and industrial R&D in Finland. Tekes offers excellent channels for technological co-ope ­ ration with Finnish companies, universities and research institutes.

Technology programmes - part of the innovation chain

The technology programmes for developing innovative products and processes, are an essential part of the Finnish innovation system. These programmes are characterised by close co-operation of the industry, universities and research institutes.The programmes also form a solid basis for international co-operation. Currently there are about 50 active technology programmes

ISBN 951-53-0756-2 ISSN 1239-1336

Cover: Oddball Graphics Oy Pages layout: DTPage Oy Printers: Paino-Center Oy, 1997 DISCLAIMER

Portions of tins document may be illegible in electronic image products. Images are produced from the best available original document. Contents

Chapter I Energy technology research programmes 1993-1998 ... 7 Chapter 2 BIOENERGY - Bioenergia Research Programme ...... IS 1 Background and objectives ...... 15 1.1 Background ...... 15 1.2 Objectives ...... 16 1.3 Programme financing ...... 17 1.4 Projects in 1995 ...... 18 1.5 Export potential ...... 18 2 Results in main research areas...... 20 2.1 Wood fuel production technology ...... 20 2.2 Peat production ...... 23 2.3 Bioenergy use...... 24 2.4 Biomass conversion ...... 24 2.5 Production of agrobiomass ...... 25 2.6 Dissemination of information, PR and international contacts ...... 25 3 Result effectiveness ...... 26 3.1 Industrial effectiveness ...... 26 3.2 Technological improvements ...... 27 3.3 Implementation of networking ...... 27 3.4 Implementing scientist training ...... 29 4 Essential results of the intermediate assessment...... 29 5 Further planning on the basis of intermediate assessment...... 30 5.1 Feasibility of the research areas...... 30 5.2 National and international division of duties ...... 31 6 Research organization and management groups ...... 31 Chapter 3 EDISON - Electricity distribution automation research programme ...... 33 1 Background and objectives ...... 33 2 Results in major research areas...... 33 2.1 The basic concept of electricity distribution automation...... 33 2.2 New communication technologies ...... 34 2.3 Use and management of the network ...... 34 2.4 Demand side management ...... 35 2.5 Managing the quality of electricity...... 35 2.6 Deregulation of the electricity market...... 35 3 Effectiveness of results...... 36 4 Main results of the interim assessment...... 37 5 Further planning based on the interim assessment...... 37 6 Research organization and Executive Committee ...... 38 Chapter 4 FFUSION - Fusion energy research programme ...... 39 I Background and objectives ...... 39 1.1 International fusion research and the EU fusion programme ...... 39 1.2 Fusion energy research programme FFUSION...... 39

3 1.3 Objectives of the FFUSION research programme ...... 40 2 Results in major research areas...... 41 2.1 Fusion plasma research...... 41 2.2 Fusion reactor materials research...... 43 2.3 Remote-controlled inspection and maintenance systems for fusion reactors ...... 46 3 Effectiveness of results...... 49 3.1 Industrial competence and potential ...... 49 3.2 Scientist training ...... 50 4 Main results of the interim assessment...... 50 5 Further planning based on the interim assessment...... 51 6 Research organization and Executive Committees ...... 52 Chapter 5 SUSTAINABLE PAPER - Energy in paper and board production...... 53 1 Background and objectives ...... 53 2 Results in major research areas...... 54 2.1 Energy savings in the manufacture of mechanical pulp...... 54 2.2 Energy savings in the manufacture of paper and board ...... 56 2.3 Energy savings in mill design and process control ...... 58 3 Effectiveness of results...... 60 4 Main results of the interim assessment...... 61 4.1 Feasible structure of project portfolio ...... 61 4.2 Programme scope ...... 61 5 Further planning based on the interim assessment...... 61 6 Research organization and Executive Committees ...... 62 Chapter 6 LIEKKI 2 - Research programme for combustion and gasification techniques...... 63 1 Background and objectives ...... 63 1.1 Fluidized bed combustion ...... 63 1.2 Pressurized fluidized bed combustion and gasification ...... 64 1.3 Diesel power plants ...... 64 1.4 Combustion and gasification of black liquor ...... 64 1.5 Waste incineration ...... 65 1.6 Conventional combustion ...... 65 2 Programme structure and main results...... 65 2.1 Modelling the furnace process ...... 66 2.2 The chemistry of gaseous emission components ...... 68 2.3 Particle behaviour, ash and aerosols ...... 70 2.4 New combustion and gasification techniques...... 73 2.5 Black liquor ...... 75 2.6 Conventional combustion technology and waste incineration ...... 77 3 Effectiveness of results...... 78 4 Significance to industry - interim assessment by participating companies ...... 80 Chapter 7 MOBILE Energy and the environment in transportation...... 82 1 Background and objectives ...... 82 2 Results in major research areas...... 84 2.1 Motor fuels...... 84 2.2 Engine development ...... 87 2.3 Vehicle technology ...... 88 2.4 The use and duty cycles of vehicles...... 90 2.5 Emission inventories and measurement of emissions, model calculations ...... 90 2.6 Cost assessments and life-cycle analyses...... 90 3 Effectiveness of results...... 90 3.1 Industrial significance ...... 90 3.2 Improvements in technical standards ...... 91 3.3 Networking ...... 92 3.4 Researcher training ...... 93 4 Main results of the interim assessment...... 94 5 Future planning based on the interim assessment...... 95 6 Research organization and Executive Committee ...... 97 Chapter 8 NEMO 2 - Advanced energy systems and technologies ...... 98 1 Background and objectives ...... 98 1.1 Global situation ...... 98 2 Results in major research areas...... 99 2.1 Commercial significance ...... 99 2.2 Principal projects ...... 100 3 Effectiveness of results...... 103 4 Main results of the interim assessment...... 106 5 Further planning based on the interim assessment...... 107 6 Research organization and Executive Committee ...... 108 Chapter 9 RAKET - Energy use research programme for buildings...... 109 1 Background and objectives ...... 109 2 Results in major research areas...... 110 2.1 Low-energy buildings ...... 110 2.2 Building systems...... 112 2.3 Equipment systems...... 115 2.4 Operating technology and building automation ...... 117 2.5 Design technologies and data systems...... 117 3 Effectiveness of results...... 119 3.1 Industrial relevance ...... 119 3.2 Networking and researcher training ...... 121 4 Main results of the interim assessment...... 121 5 Further planning based on the interim assessment...... 123 6 Research organization and Executive Committee ...... 123 Chapter 10 SIHTI 2 - Energy and environmental technology ... 124 1 Background and objectives ...... 124 2 Major results...... 125 2.1 Tools for strategic environmental decision-making ...... 125 2.2 Flue gas emissions from power plants...... 128 2.3 Reducing the environmental load from the forest industry ...... 13 I 2.4 Recycling wastes from power plants and communities ...... 133 2.5 Effluents from peat production and the afteruse of released production sites ...... 134

5 3 Effects of the results and findings ...... 136 3.1 Relevance to industry ...... 136 3.2 Level of technology ...... 136 3.3 Environmentally sound activity ...... 137 3.4 Networking ...... 138 3.5 International cooperation ...... 138 3.6 Postgraduate education ...... 139 4 Major results in interim assessment...... 139 5 Plans for further research...... 140 6 Organization and management of the programme ...... 141 Chapter 11 SULA 2 - Energy in steel and metal production.... 142 1 Background and objectives ...... 142 2 Results in major research areas...... 143 2.1 Iron making in blast furnaces ...... 143 2.2 Ferrochromium and stainless steel production ...... 149 2.3 Pyrometallurgical production of copper andnickel...... 151 2.4 Zinc production ...... 151 2.5 Steel rolling and heat treatment...... 152 3 Impact of results...... 152 3.1 Effect of the applications on specific energy consumption and economy ...... 152 3.2 Minimizing environmental damage ...... 154 3.3 Technology exports ...... 154 3.4 Networking ...... 155 3.5 Training for researchers...... 155 4 Main results of intermediate assessment...... 155 5 Further planning on the basis of the intermediate assessment...... 155 6 Programme organization and management groups ...... 156 Chapter 12 TERMO - District heating ...... 158 1 Background and objectives ...... 158 2 Results in major research areas...... 158 2.1 Heat distribution ...... 159 2.2 Measurement and data transmission ...... 160 2.3 The economics of district heating ...... 162 2.4 System development ...... 163 3 Effectiveness of results...... 164 4 Main results of the interim assessment...... 165 5 Further planning based on the interim assessment...... 165 6 Research organization and Executive Committees ...... 166

Appendix International Energy Agency (IEA) energy technology collaboration ...... 167 Technology Programme Reports ...... 169

6 Chapter I Energy technology research programmes 1993-1998

The Tekes energy technology research pro ­ on to Finnish parties have also been launched since grammes were launched in 1993. The aim is to 1995. produce innovative solutions that are efficient, en­ vironmentally sound and widely - even globally - The energy market has been deregulated through a applicable. number of international and national decisions, Finland being one of the pioneers in this field. Since the liberation of world trade is affecting the energy market too, Finnish research must be able Parties that have enjoyed direct legislative protec ­ to anticipate the needs of the market and outline tion from competition and the companies whose the areas in which Finnish companies have the best clientele has been mainly in thepublic sector have success potential. Finnish energy technology can­ been forced to adapt to the new market situation. not be protected or given priority in any way. The This change has opened up new opportunities for need for international action to reduce environ ­ equipment suppliers that can offer means of en­ mental damage further emphasizes the global as­ hancing their clients ’ operations. On the other pect. hand, the same clients ’ capacity for bearing tech­ nology risks has been reduced, a fact which is Internationalization has proceeded perhaps even evident in that there is now less willingness to more rapidly and intensively than was anticipated invest in technology which is only just being com ­ a few years ago. This has been allowed for in mercialized. energy technology research programmes by focus ­ ing more on the industrial applicability of research As regulations disappear, economic incentives and and on supporting industrial competitiveness. In sanctions have been envisaged as tools for guiding balancing the new challenges, internationalization the energy market towards the desired objectives. - particularly Finnish membership of the EU - has Financial instruments of this kind include taxes and offered scientists opportunities for improving their charges, on the one hand, and various subsidies, on competence through cooperation. theother. Thesehave not been implemented on the scale that was anticipated when the research pro ­ The scientists involved in these research pro ­ grammes were launched. Europe has not reached grammes are taking part in several international consensus on a carbon/energy tax, and Finland has ventures through projects managed by the EU and had to revise its own energy taxation system be­ the IEA, the energy body of the OECD. The fund ­ cause of this. Use of investment subsidies in the ing criteria for these activities are in the main the new energy technology market has been limited by same as for domestic projects. The aim of IEA the government ’s financial problems. Research and cooperation is to bring added value to Finnish development funding has become perhaps the most energy research through technology transfer and significant form of public support for energy tech­ cooperation between scientists. Finland is partici­ nology. pating in 15 IEA programmes through Tekes pro ­ grammes. In the period covered by this report, i.e. 1993 to 1995, Tekes managed a total of 11 energy technol­ Certain projects in the EU Joule II programme have ogy research programmes. Their total funding for links with national programmes. In the Joule-Ther- 1993-1998 is FIM 1.5 billion. About half of this is mie programme, a number of research and demon ­ coming from Tekes, with the companies participat­ stration projects whose results will also be passed ing in the programmes providing a significant por ­

7 tion of the remainder. Tekes is running about 50 countries began looking for ways to conserve en­ technology programmes in all. ergy, and work on the development of new forms of energy expanded. These efforts are still going This interim report on the energy technology re­ on, since they still promise a good return on invest ­ search programme describes how far the pro ­ ment. grammes have succeeded in attaining their objec ­ tives during the first half of their operating life, viz. In the crisis years of the 1970s, few would have 1993-1995, and how they have adapted their con ­ expected Finland to be able to balance a major tent to changes in the operating environment. The portion of its energy imports with energy technol­ final reports on the programmes will be produced ogy exports. This, however, is precisely what is during 1998. happening. Energy prices have come down steadily due to an abundance of supply, and at the same time Finland has developed energy technologies that are in great demand abroad. Technology exports balance energy imports This development encapsulates an essential eco ­ nomic and technical process. The relative eco ­ After the energy crisis in 1973-1974, it seemed that nomic importance of raw materials and natural the insufficiency of the world ’s energy resources resources will decrease, and the importance of could well be the greatest obstacle to economic technological competence and other intangible as­ growth. Economic expansion would inevitably sets will increase. Renewable intangible assets are lead to rising consumption of energy and other a more important resource than natural resources. natural resources, and oil-exporting countries would be in a position to gain a share in the eco ­ The same technical and economic adaptation nomic growth of industrialized countries by raising mechanism will also helpin solving environmental the price of oil. problems. The Tekes technology programmes are developing and renewing the intangible assets that However, when energy became more expensive, a will allow us to meet the challenges posed by number of economic and technological adaptation environmental impact for the energy market of the mechanisms came into play. The industrialized future.

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996

Figure l. Energy technology exports (columns) and energy imports (line) 1980- 1996. Data not available for every year.

8 Table I. Summaries of energy technology research programme objectives.

Programme Research area Main objective

Tekes Energy technology To develop efficient and environmentally sound energy techno­ Energy Programmes logies that are competitive in the international marketplace. BIOENERGIA Bioenergy New cost-efficient methods of producing biomass-based fuels from wood and peat; development of utilization and conversion methods and equipment for biomass; increasing use of wood by 1 Mtoe per annum.

EDISON Electricity Improvement of electric power distribution; creating a technical distribution basis for competition within electric power distribution and use; automation developing competitive products in the electric power industry. FFUSION Fusion energy To provide a high-level Finnish contribution to international fusion research and to promote the participation of Finnish industry and research units in the development and planning of the ITER test reactor.

SUSTAINABLE Energy in paper and To make the specific energy consumption of present PAPER board production manufacturing processes the lowest in the world; to develop new process solutions; to develop paper products requiring a minimal energy input.

LIEKKI 2 Combustion and To develop energy conversion technology based on combustion gasification and gasification employing technology and placing a minimal load on the environment; applications including fluidized bed combustion, pressurized fluidized bed techniques, diesel power plants, black liquor recovery boilers, black liquor gasification and waste incineration. MOBILE Energy and the The development of low-emission fuels and engines; the environment introduction of low-pollution urban vehicles; improving the in transportation efficiency of existing traffic systems. NEMO 2 Advanced energy To promote the export of advanced energy systems; to increase systems and the use of wind and solar energy on the domestic market. technologies RAKET Energy use To turn energy-saving technology and environmentally sound in buildings building construction solutions into products; to develop new structural and equipment systems. SIHTI 2 Energy and To reduce emissions of harmful substances, to recycle raw environmental materials and to limit the amount of waste and utilize them in technology the energy sector. SULA 2 Energy in steel and The world ’s lowest specific consumption of energy in existing base metal production processes; world leadership in reducing the energy consumption of certain unit operations; new energy-saving processes. TERMO District heating Top-notch district heating know-how by developing new technology.

9 Table 2. Examples of energy technology research programme results.

Programme Research area Examples of commercial applications of research results

BIOENERGIA Bioenergy Terrain chipper, multi-purpose chipping lorry, agricultural tractor-based chopped firewood and chip harvesting technique and logistic calculation model for woodfuel. In peat production: linear ridger and light equipment chain: plastic miller - light weight loader - collecting wagon; peat conveyance method to reduce the amount of residual peat on peatland.

EDISON Electricity Energy management system prototype, energy meter monitoring distribution electricity quality, demand management planning system prototype, data automation transfer solutions to meet the needs of network automation and the deregulated electricity market. FFUSION Fusion energy Several computer programmes for fusion plasma radio frequency applications, used for analyzing test results. Finnish fusion research has been integrated with the EU fusion research programme.

SUSTAINABLE Energy in paper and Recycled pulp production line based on new screening technology and PAPER board production Condebelt-drier developed to demonstration stage. Audits made at industrial plants have established an energy conservation potential worth about FIM 50 million per annum.

LIEK.KI 2 Combustion and Development of pressurized processes and fluidized bed techniques. gasification Combustion process modelling. Diesel engine development. MOBILE Energy and the Reformulated gasoline and diesel fuel, low-emission medium-speed environment diesel engines for ships, heavy-duty automotive gas engine, low- in transportation emission high-speed diesels for off-road applications, oxidation catalyst for diesel engines, LPG-fueled heavy-duty truck.

NEMO 2 Advanced energy Hydrogen technology energy storage, deicing systems and icing sensor systems and for wind power stations, solar cell facade of amorphous silicon for technologies buildings. RAKET Energy use Single-family house with a total energy consumption half that of a in buildings normal building; two prototypes for a ground source heat pump for small houses; fault diagnosis methods for district heating heat exchangers, oil burners and air conditioning systems; air conditioning systems with simplified couplings. SIHTI 2 Energy and Equipment for separating ultrafine particles from flue gases; low- environmental pressure impactor for real-time measurement of ultrafine particles; technology photoacoustic analysis equipment; and development of evaporators for closed water cycles in the process industry. SULA2 Energy in steel and The programme has produced energy savings worth over FIM 30 base metal million per annum. Also, the steel melting capacity of Tornio stainless production steel plant has increased by over 20% and the production capacity of the Finnish blast furnaces has increased by 7.5%. Blast furnace and cooking plant control, automation and expert systems. FeCr converter. Development of strip casting method. TERMO District heating System for predicting district heating load, to optimize power station operation; network thermography method; basic information on district cooling techniques.

10 Table 3. Energy research programme funding.

Programme Research institution projects Company projects Total Tekes Total funding Tekes Total funding Total

BIOENERGY 24,0 42,0 42,6 106,0 148,8 EDISON 8,5 17,4 I) I) 17,4

FFUSION 6,9 16,1 2,6 6,1 22,2 SUSTAINABLE 17,9 26,8 21,6 84,3 1 1 1,1 PAPER

LIEKKI 2 54,8 82,7 28,5 87,1 169,8 MOBILE 7,6 13,7 20,9 45,3 59,0 NEMO 2 20,6 36,5 17,9 45,5 82,0 RAKET 25,1 38,0 22,8 57,4 95,4 SIHTI 2 16,0 25,4 25,8 70,7 96,1 SULA2 8,1 10,3 20,6 49,7 60,1 TERMO 2) 2) 3,8 7,6 7,6

Total 189,5 311,7 206,9 559,7 871,4 Funding not publicized due to the limited number of projects involved. ^ Research institution projects in the programme have been financed through corporate financing. Table 4. Energy technology programmes.

Technology Development Centre Tekes, Finland Street address: Malminkatu 34 Postal address: PO Box 69, FIN-00101 Helsinki Tel.+358 10 52151 Fax +358 9 694 9196 E-mail [email protected] http://www.tekes.fi/ Director, Dr Seppo Hannus

Programme Director Tekes LIEKKI 2 Professor Mikko Hupa Martti Korkiakoski, M.Sc.(Eng.) Combustion and gasification Abo Akademi University Senior Technical Adviser DataCity, Lemminkaisenkatu 14-18 B Tel.+358 10 521 5875 FIN-20520 TURKU Fax+358 10 521 5903 Tel.+358 2 265 4311 E-mail [email protected] Fax +358 2 265 4780 E-mail [email protected] http://rost.abo.fi:80/ccrg/liekki2.html

BIOENERGIA Professor Dan Asplund Tarja-Liisa Perttala, M.Sc.(Eng.) BIOENERGY Jyvaskyla Science Park Ltd Senior Technical Adviser Ylistonmaentie 3 1 Tel.+358 10 521 5876 FIN-40500 JYVASKYLA Fax +358 9 6936 7793 Tel.+358 14 445 1100 [email protected] Fax+358 14 445 1120 E-mail [email protected] http://www.jsp.fi/bioenergy/

NEMO 2 Associate Professor Peter Lund Kari Komulainen, M.Sc.(Eng.) Advanced energy systems Helsinki University of Technology Senior Technical Adviser and technologies Department of Engineering Physics and Tel.+358 10 521 5874 Mathematics Fax+358 10 521 5903 Otakaari 3 E-mail [email protected] FIN-02150 ESPOO Tel. +358 9 451 1 Fax+358 9 451 3195 E-mail [email protected] http://www.hut.fi/HUT/NEMO/

FFUSION Dr Seppo Karttunen Martti Korkiakoski, M.Sc.(Eng.) FUSION ENERGY VTT Energy Senior Technical Adviser PO Box 1606 Tel.+358 10 521 5875 FIN-02044 VTT Fax+358 10 521 5903 Tel. +358 9 4561 E-mail [email protected] Fax +358 9 456 6538 E-mail [email protected]

SIHTI 2 Dr Kari Larjava Raija Pikku-Pyhalto, M.Sc.(Eng.) Energy and environmental VTT Chemical Technology Programme Manager technology PO Box 1403 Tel.+358 10 521 5872 FIN-02044 VTT Fax +358 10 521 5903 Tel.+358 9 4561 E-mail [email protected] Fax +358 9 456 7022 E-mail [email protected]

12 Programme Director Tekes

MOBILE Dr Nils-Olof Nylund Raija Pikku-Pyhalto, M.Sc.(Eng.) Energy and the environ ­ VTT Energy Programme Manager ment in transportation PO Box 1601 Tel.+358 10 521 5872 FIN-02044 VTT Fax+358 10 521 5903 Tel. +358 9 4561 E-mail [email protected] Fax +358 9 460 493 E-mail [email protected]

SULA 2 Hakan Hakulin, M.Sc.(Eng.) Mikko Ylhaisi, M.Sc.(Eng.) Energy in steel and base Association of Finnish Steel and Programme Manager metal production Metal Producers Tel.+358 10 521 5877 Etelaranta 10 Fax+358 10 521 5903 FIN-00130 HELSINKI E-mail [email protected] Tel.+358 9 19231 Fax +358 9 624 462

SUSTAINABLE PAPER Jaakko Lahepelto, M.Sc.(Eng.) Mikko Ylhaisi, M.Sc.(Eng.) Energy in paper and board Finnish Pulp and Paper Research Institute Programme Manager production PO Box 70 Tel.+358 10 521 5877 FIN-02151 ESPOO Fax+358 10 521 5903 Tel. +358 9 43711 E-mail [email protected] Fax +358 9 464 305 E-mail [email protected]

RAKET Director of the research programme Heikki Kotila, M.Sc.(Eng.) Energy use in buildings Professor Markku Virtanen Research Manager VTT Building Technology Tel.+358 10 521 5873 PO Box 1804 Fax+358 10 521 5903 FIN-02044 VTT E-mail [email protected] Tel.+358 9 4561 Fax +358 9 455 2408 E-mail [email protected]

EDISON Dr Matti Lehtonen Kari Komulainen, M.Sc.(Eng.) Electricity distribution VTT Energy Senior Technical Adviser automation PO Box 1606 Tel.+358 10 521 5874 FIN-02044VTT Fax+358 10 521 5903 Tel.+358 9 4561 E-mail [email protected] Fax +358 9 455 6538 E-mail [email protected]

TERMO Tero Makela, M.Sc.(Eng.) Heikki Kotila, M.Sc.(Eng.) District heating Finnish District Heating Association Research Manager Valkjarventie 2 Tel.+358 10 521 5873 FIN-02130 ESPOO Fax +358 10 521 5903 Tel.+358 9 455 1866 E-mail [email protected] Fax+358 9 455 1848

13

Chapter 2 BIOENERGY - Bioenergia Research Programme

Dan Asplund and Pirjo Nikku decrease carbon dioxide and sulphur emissions Jyvaskyla Science Park Ltd. above all.

Finland has an abundance of bioenergy resources. The annual volume of peat used is only a fraction I Background and objectives of the resources available, and the growth rate of Finland ’s forests is greater than the volume of I.I Background wood cut down annually. It is estimated that nurs ­ eries and the management of young forests would yield the equivalent of nearly 0.5 million tonnes of The programme is based on the general justifica­ oil (toe) in wood fuel in a year. The production tion for increasing the use of biofuels, the abun ­ potential from first thinnings is also about 0.5 dance of raw materials and the need for more million toe annually. However, the main produc ­ energy, particularly electricity. However, the com ­ tion potential is in the logging residue of final petitiveness of new bioenergy sources that would cuttings, which could easily produce about 1.0 allow increased use is a problem. million toe of wood chips for burning annually. In all, the production potential for wood fuel is about The general justifications for increasing the use of 2.0 million toe; this means an annual volume of biofuels are that by increasing the use of bioenergy over 10 million cu.m of wood biomass, taking • CO2 emissions from energy production can be technical, economical and environmental aspects reduced into account. • economically viable uses for wood from first thinnings can be created through integrated pro ­ The Council of State approved the bioenergy pro ­ duction methods that increase the production motion programme on April 7,1994. The objective potential for both merchantable wood and wood is to increase the use of bioenergy by at least one for energy production quarter from the present level over the next 10 • the degree of self-sufficiency in energy produc ­ years. This would mean an increase of the equiva ­ tion can be improved, and potential for new lent of 1.5 million toe by the year 2005. companies and new employment can be created • technology and equipment exports in the field The present Council of State took a decision in can be enhanced. principle on energy policy on December 21, 1995. This decision states that the Government will con ­ Finland has set targets for reductions in nitrogen tinue to implement the bioenergy promotion pro ­ oxide, sulphur dioxide and carbon dioxide emis­ gramme. The main focus of the programme is on sions in the 1990s. The best results have been increasing the use of wood for energy production. achieved in sulphur emissions: the objective of an The significant status of bioenergy and other re­ 80% reduction from the 1980 level has almost been newable energy sources in publicly funded energy achieved. The objective to reduce nitrogen oxide technology research and commercialization is em­ emissions by 30% by 1998 will probably not be phasized. In order to promote the competitiveness attained. The stabilization of carbon dioxide and of domestic energy sources, demonstration plants other greenhouse gas emissions at the 1990 level and R&D that creates new industry and increases in accordance with the Rio Convention is themost exports are subsidized. Investment and tax subsi­ difficult goal. Increasing the use of biofuels will dies biased in favour of the energy market are being

15 phased out, but separate goals established for ducing wood-based fuel on site will fall to FIM bioenergy use are being taken into account. 45/MWh, which means that annual use of wood- based fuels can be increased by nearly 1 million In 1994, the Commission published an estimate of toe/a. Peat production costs will decline by 20% the present and future use of bioenergy in the EU on the 1992 level (FIM 5-6/MWh). Member States. This estimate shows that the ob ­ jective is to increase the relative significance of Prioritizing the production of bioenergy. The Commission has set a target of wood-derived fuels raising the share of renewable energy sources in total energy production from 4% in 1991 to 8% by BIOENERGIA is concentrating on fields that are the year 2005 (8% is equivalent to 109 million toe). important for Finland ’s energy supply structure, The objective in electricity production is to triple self-sufficiency and overall economy, since inter­ production to 135 TWh (excluding large water national research information is not available on power stations). The objective in transport is that all these aspects of the energy picture. biofuels have a 5% market share by 2005. Accord ­ ing to the Green Paper on renewable energy The principal research areas are: sources, distributed by the EU in November 1996, • development of production technology for the Commission proposes that the objective should wood-derived fuels be for the share of renewable energy sources to be • Peat production 12% in 2010. Bioenergy would account for the • The use of bioenergy largest part of this. The estimates for future use of • Biomass conversion biomass are large compared with Finland, so the export potential for the technology being devel ­ In addition, the programme includes separate pro ­ oped is considerable. jects in which scientists are studying the produc ­ tion of biofuels in open fields and the utilization of solid wastes and sludges in energy production.

1.2 Objectives Production technology for wood fuels

The main objectives of the BIOENERGIA Re­ Development work is being carried out in both the search Programme are: separate production of wood-derived fuels and in • to develop new methods of producing biofuels their integrated production. The viability of the with the aim of making them competitively methods will be tested in pilot-scale demonstra ­ priced compared with imported fuels. The most tions. promising production methods will be demon ­ strated through pilot schemes. Integrated methods in which wood fuel is brought • To develop 3-4 new pieces of equipment or to the power plant from the forest in connection methods connected with the handling and use with roundwood procurement for the wood-proc ­ of bioenergy and bring them at least to the essing industry offer a number of advantages. A demonstration stage. shift from the individual timber grade method to • To produce basic information on conversion undelimbed harvesting can nearly double the techniques and evaluate the quality, usability amount of wood obtained from the same area. The and environmental impacts of the products as benefits of mass-production methods can be ap­ well as the overall economy of the entire pro ­ plied to wood handling, with consequent cost sav­ duction chain and to create 2-3 conversion meth­ ings. ods for follow-up development by industry. The R&D projects are directed at finding better Clear-cut objectives have also been defined for the methods of harvesting undelimbed or partially de- programme ’s research areas (the production of limbed trees, the separation of whole-tree chips to wood and peat, the use of bioenergy and biomass produce fuel and industrial raw material, and the conversion): For large consumers, the costs of pro ­ bundled delimbing and debarking of roundwood.

16 In separate wood fuel production, the wood is from forest sources. Other potential demonstration harvested only for energy use. In this case, use is sites are different-sized heat and power plants that made of stands that are not suitable as industrial bum indigenous fuels. raw material, and of the harvesting residue of stands felled for industrial use. The wood usually Biomass conversion has to be harvested in forests consisting mainly of small-diameter trees, resulting in high harvesting Research into biomass conversion is concentrating costs per unit. on solid biofuels and spent liquors from the forest industry. The objective is to convert these and other The programme is studying the production of wood by-products into gasified, liquefied and solid fuels. fuels from theharvesting residues of final fellings, Their main users are likely to be small-scale power harvesting techniques for small-diameter trees that plants based on steam turbine, diesel and gas tur­ are unsuitable for industrial use, and wood fuel bine technology. production on farms. The programme also addresses the production of Peat production fuels and lubricants for road vehicles from raw materials produced on farms and in the pulp indus ­ The main focus of the research is on finding better try. The main research projects deal with liquid fuel ways of obtaining peat from shallow bogs and production from the by-products of the pulp indus ­ developing production methods and machinery. try (black liquor, lignin, sulphate soap and tall oil) The goal is to lower production costs and to reduce and with the production of liquid fuel from wood emissions from the production process. Production and peat by means of the flash pyrolysis method. costs can be lowered by shortening the preparation time of bogs, by employing covered drains in the It is possible to use set-a-side agricultural land for production fields and by using modem production non-food production. In 1995 the management design and control methods and up-to-date work group of the research programme, together with the and traction machines incorporating a maximum Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, assessed the amount of automatic functions. Other ways of low ­ need to extend the research programme to the study ering total production costs are to utilize shallow of agrobiomass by setting tangible goals for this bogs and post-farming peat areas efficiently and area. It was decided to continue the work on a ensure the integrated use of peat production ma­ project basis, and to produce a separate report at chinery in the production of wood and other the end of 1996 when the present project ends. biomass.

Use of bioenergy

Research into the use of bioenergy is concentrating 1.3 Programme financing on applications in the small size class (under 20 MWth) and on the handling of biofuels in all size The original projected financing framework for the classes. The objective is to eliminate the technical bioenergy research programme comprises FIM obstacles standing in the way of more exclusive 210 million, or FIM 35 million per annum. Con ­ use of wood and peat fuels, and to develop eco ­ tributors include the Ministry of Trade and Industry nomical and environmentally sound energy pro ­ and the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. duction technology for small-scale applications. Total funding granted in 1993-1995 totalled nearly The forest industry offers a natural area for pilot FIM 150 million, which exceeded the plan by demonstrations of the use of biofuels. Not only is nearly 50%. The share of companies and other the industry the largest consumer of energy in financiers in the overall funding continued to in­ Finland, it is also the largest producer of energy crease to nearly 60% in 1995.

17 Table I. Financing for the BIOENERGIA research programme.

Financier Projected Actual support, FIM million financing yearly 1993-98 1993 1994 1995 1996 Tekes/MTI total 16 96 27 20 19,4 - research institution projects 8 8 8 5 - corporate projects 8 7 5,2 2* - demonstration projects 11 5 6,4 *

- EU structural fund 2,4 MAP 7 42 1,5 2,8 2,7 2,5 Companies and other financiers 12 72 22 23 29,4 14,6 Total 35 210 50,5 45,8 51,7 27 *) status on September 13, 1996. Companies and other financiers partly unclear.

1.4 Projects in 1995 other sources, so the actual research financing only went down by FIM 2.04 million. The overall fi­ nancing has remained more or less the same, due The programme contained a total of 66 ongoing to an increase in other funding, mainly EU funding projects at the end of 1995: 32 in universities and obtained for the use and conversion areas. Another research institutions, 19 in companies and 15 dem ­ significant change is the reduction in Tekes funding onstration projects. The number of research pro ­ for peat research by nearly FIM 1.5 million, reduc ­ jects increased considerably. ing overall financing by FIM 2.5 million. About 60% of the funding allocated in 1995 has The share of corporate funding in research institu ­ been used on research into wood fuel. This share tion project funding is already the greatest as a has increased significantly. About 15% of funding, percentage in peat production research. In wood or 5 percentage points less than in 1994, was allo ­ fuel production and biomass conversion, the cor ­ cated to peat production. porate input is about 15%, while bioenergy use projects, which also have EU funding, have only Over 30 companies participated in theprogramme an 11% share of corporate funding. in 1995. In wood fuels, 11 projects were imple­ mented in SMEs in 1995. Several SMEs also con ­ tributed to research institution proj ects. SMEs were also involved primarily in projects managed by the Work Efficiency Association. Two SMEs were in­ 1.5 Export potential volved in bioenergy use with their own projects. Also, several companies participated in research Development work has produced new machinery projects in this area. and equipment for the domestic market, and these products also have considerable export potential. Overall Tekes financing for research institution The following is a study of the wood fuel produc ­ projects has dropped from FIM 8 million to FIM tion equipment market in Europe, based on fibre 5 million due to funding cuts. However, co-ordina ­ wood cutting volumes measured as debarked stem- tion financing for 1996 could be obtained from wood. The assumption is that the potential share

18 of integrated methods in fibre wood cuttings is 15% 5. Feller-forwarder + compressing load space + to 25% in Finland and Sweden and 25% to 50% whole-tree and tree-section lorry transport + elsewhere in Europe, depending on the country. MASSAHAKE processing The yield of wood fuel in the calculation is 40%. According to the study, the greatest potential for According to the calculation, the annual market integrated methods, apart from Finland, is in Swe­ potential for the production chain consisting of a den. Other potential countries for applying the combination of harvester-forwarder, whole-tree methods are Spain, Portugal, Germany and France. and tree-section lorry transport and chain de ­ limbing and debarking equipment in Europe would The following examination of equipment export come to a total of FIM 88 to 151 million. The potential for various machines and equipment and potential for the production chain consisting of plot as machinery chains has been discussed here on chippers and MASSAHAKE equipment would be the basis of the potential for fibre wood cuttings FIM 171 to 292 million. The potential market for and integrated methods. The calculation is based the production chain consisting of feller-forward ­ on the estimated output of the various chains and ers, compressing loaders, whole-tree and tree-sec­ the price information for individual pieces of tion lorry transport and chain delimbing and de ­ equipment. Equipment volumes have been con ­ barking equipment would be FIM 46 to 79 million verted into FIM, and various equipment chains per annum, and for the production chain consisting have been considered. of feller-forwarders, compressing loaders, whole- Chains tree and tree-section lorry transport and MASSA­ HAKE equipment FIM 78 to 133 million per an­ num. 1. Flarvester-forwarder + whole-tree and tree-sec­ tion lorry transport + chain delimbing and de ­ barking equipment The annual domestic market potential will be FIM 2. Terrain chipper + MASSAFIAKE processing 17 to 108 million, depending on the method 3. Harvester-forwarder + whole-tree and tree-sec­ adopted and its degree of use. The market for tion lorry transport + MASSAHAKE process ­ exporting equipment technology to Europe will be ing FIM 29 to 184 million. The greatest potential is in 4. Feller-forwarder + compressing load space + theproduction chain based on the plot chipper and whole-tree and tree-section lorry transport + the MASSAHAKE method. chain delimbing and debarking equipment

Table 2. Annual market potential for equipment in various method chains.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. (FIM million) (FIM million) (FIM million) (FIM million) (FIM million) Finland 34-57 65-108 47-78 17-28 30-50 Sweden 43-72 83-138 60-100 21-35 38-63 Spain 3-6 5-10 3-6 2-4 2-4 Portugal 2-4 3-6 3-6 2-4 2-4

Germany 3-6 8-16 5-10 2-4 3-6 France 3-6 7-14 5-10 2-4 3-6 Total 88-151 171-292 123-210 46-79 78-133

19 2 Results in main bution technology “from the forest to the cus­ research areas tomer ’’. Wood fuel production in nursery thinnings The speciality of the BIOENERGY research pro ­ gramme is tangible goals and a strong corporate Nursery management instructions have recently input in management group work and research been upgraded to state that thinning should be done institution project assessment. In 1995, the later than previously, i.e., when the trees are 4 to 7 BIOENERGY research programme was the third m high. The trees felled are then large enough to largest of the then current Tekes technology pro ­ produce a cumulative total of 40 to 50 cu.m of grammes. biomass per hectare (at least 100 cu.m of wood chips). Some of the goals in wood fuel and peat production technology have already been attained, well ahead The annual nursery management area needed is of schedule. Demonstration of new technologies about 200,000 ha. It has been cautiously estimated has begun. Many projects have already progressed that nursery management and young forest main­ from research to demos, and new export products tenance could easily yield 2.5 million cu.m (nearly have been created. 0.5 million toe) per annum.

Wood fuel production 2.1 Wood fuel production in commercial thinnings technology The main development focus in wood fuel produc ­ The wood fuel production research area has pro ­ tion from first thinnings has been the integrated duced new information for development work in production of merchantable wood for industry and working methods for final cuttings, the biomass wood fuel. balance and properties of pine and spruce from early thinnings, the basics of chain delimbing and The cost comparison of the use of pine from first debarking, the basics of compressing, the separa­ thinnings as wood fuel shows that integrated meth­ tion properties of wood chips and pneumatic con ­ ods provide a competitive alternative for the acqui­ veyors. A cost calculation model has been prepared sition of wood from first thinnings, on condition for small scale production, and the bases for meas­ that the raw material is of acceptable quality for urements and quality of chopped firewood have the forest industry. The goal of FIM 45 per MWh been established. in wood fuel production costs seems to be attain­ able with the proposed methods. Firewood production The calculation is based on a comparison between Six commercial prototypes have been tested for the single-tree method and the bulk handling forest work in the ‘farmer’ class. This represents a method, where the bulk handling method has re­ significant technological advance from chainsaws duced the cost per cu.m from FIM 276 to FIM 264 to new felling and forest transport technologies. between 1992 and 1996. The price of the energy Also, ‘heat entrepreneurship’ has been developed component is FIM 45 per MWh. In comparing the in wood chip production; this means that the wood new methods, theprice of wood chips for pulp has chip supplier also carries responsibility for heat been kept the same. production, thus avoiding the difficult problem of assessing the energy content of the wood chips The production potential for the whole of Finland delivered. has been estimated at about 0.5 million toe per annum. The stage of development of the production New equipment is being commercially tested for methods shown in the table varies: some could be the machine production of traditional chopped fire­ implemented immediately with existing equip­ wood, applying recyclable processing and distri ­ ment, while others still require product develop-

20 276 FIM/m5 276 FIM/m5 264 FIM/m3

45 FIM/MWh 45 FIM/MWh

36 FIM/MWh

Wood chips Fuel fraction Wood chips Fuel fraction Wood chips Fuel fraction Wood chips Fuel fraction Wood chips Fuel fraction for pulp for pulp for pulp for pulp for pulp 1 ma 0,29 Mwh 1 m3 0,91 Mwh 0,40 Mwh 1 m3 nnsMwih 1 m? 1,15MWh Single-tree handling Drum delimbing and debarking Bulk handling Chain delimbing Terrain chipping + MASSAHAKE

11 Stumpage price 1 Organization, etc. LJ Harvesting QQ Road transport, 80 km ^Processing

Figure I. Wood fuel production costs. Pine from first thinnings.

264 FIM/m2 264 FIM/m2 264 FIM/m2

63 FIM/MWh

31 FIM/MWh FIM'MWh

Wood chips Fuel fraction Wood chips Fuel fraction Wood chips Fuel fraction for pulp for pulp for pulp 1 m3 0,88 Mwh 1 m3 0,88 Mwh 1 m3 0,80 Mwh Chain delimbing and debarking, chipping Combined chain delimbing and Chain delimbing + small drum crushing of fuel fraction

H Stumpage price ■ Organization, etc. □ Harvesting El Road transport, 80 km ■ Processing

Figure 2. Development of methods in the research programme and techno-economical comparison.

2I 1992 1996 63 FIM/MWh

Road transport 100 km

Road transport 100 km

Road transport Road transport 100 km 100 km Roadside chipping chipping +

transport + road transport 100 km

Roadside chipping

Roadside transport chipping chippin + transport

transport

Collecting 8 ! into Collecting Collecting into heaps , Collecting into heaps i into heaps Organization Organization Organization 10 , Organization 10 Organization

Stumpage price Stumpage price Stumpage price Stumpage price " , Stumpage price

Separate Roadside chipping with Whole-tree sKiaoing and Multipurpose harvesting the Evolution chipper the Evolution chipper chipper chipping

Figure 3. Cost comparison of production chains of logging residue chips researched and developed in the research programme.

meat for essential equipment or a demonstration Metsateho in co-operation with Enso Oy. The ma­ of the entire chain. chine is a commercially finished product.

The harvesting of wood from first thinnings and The general technical feasibility of the MASSA- wood fuel production has been examined mainly HAKE method was established in a demonstration with pine. This is justified in that stands withpine plant that was started up in Kankaanpaa in June as the major tree comprise about 80% of all early 1995. The research programme has continued to thinnings. The requirement for early thinnings in develop sub-categories within this method. private forests amounts to at least 6 million cu.m of stemwood per annum. The problem in chain delimbing and debarking is the high proportion of bark in wood chips in winter. The chip harvester developed by Oy Logset Ab has To reduce this, a study of chain delimbing and already reached the commercial stage. Four ma­ debarking with a research device hasbeen started. chines are in operation and four more on order. A pilot installation applying chain delimbing and Exports to Germany are also getting under way. debarking technology combined with small drum debarking was completed at a wood processing The multi-tree harvester for the handling of small terminal in 1995. The demonstration project man­ trees attained a 20% more efficient result per work ­ aged by Hooli Oy has produced a machine combi ­ ing hour in the sites examined than single-tree nation based on chain delimbing and debarking felling. This translates to about FIM 5 to 15 per together with hammer crushing; this product was cu.m in the purchase price. The development work tested in 1995. was undertaken by Outokummun Metalli Oy and

22 Wood fuel production from final cuttings An integrated harvesting method for fibre stem- wood and energy wood based on whole-tree felling According to the cost comparison performed in the has also been tested in spruce-dominated final cut­ research programme, the goal of FIM 45 per MWh tings; in this method, the harvesting costs for log ­ set for the costs of production methods suitable for ging waste would be as low as FIM 10 per cu.m. the harvesting of logging residue from spruce- This would resolve into less than FIM 45 per MWh dominated final cuttings is attainable. in production costs over an 80 km range, provided that the development of temporary storage arrange ­ The production potential in final cuttings in Fin­ ments can be solved. The method is ready for land is 1.0 million toe per annum. The development demonstration. stage of the production methods outlined in Fig. 3 varies: some methods could be introduced imme­ diately with existing equipment, while in most projects essential equipment needs to be further 2.2 Peat production developed or the entire chain demonstrated. Fig. 3 shows the current status according to the goal of The main obj ects of research in peat production are 100 km transport distance defined in the pro ­ ditching and maintenance technology, drying tech­ gramme. In practice, many of the new methods are nology, machine technology, method technology, already competitive with transport distances under integration of wood harvesting and peat produc ­ 60 to 80 km. tion, and implementing the results of the Optimi- turve research programme in practice. The theo­ The basic method in harvesting logging residue in retical side in peat production research has also final cuttings has at its best, in a demonstration gained importance. Knowledge of the basics of project in the Mikkeli area, gone below FIM 43 per drying in particular forms a foundation for other MWh using commercially available technology. development work and is an important link in the The method costs were assessed at FIM 60 per chain. Research has also produced new informa ­ MWh in 1992. The method has been further devel ­ tion on new materials, underground drainage and oped by Kotimaiset Energiat Pekka Lahti Ky, pro ­ the use of wood chippings as covering for peat ducing a new efficient chipper called Evolution. stockpiles. The new final cutting method based on the Chipset terrain chipper has already reached the commercial The main research results from 1993-1995 are: stage. • A mathematical model has proved that open ditch spacing can be increased from 20 m to 60 A competitive price can be attained using a pro ­ m by using underground drainage. These results duction chain featuring a MOHA-SISU truck fitted are being verified in practice; with a chipper, and transfer containers. MOHA- • A physical model of peat drying has been cre­ SISU enables a new kind of production logistics ated to enable the construction of a peat layer for firewood chips, with advantages over the tradi ­ structure optimal for drying speed and produc ­ tional method and other production chains. The tion; method was introduced for commercial testing in • A compressed peat production principle has 1995. been formulated to enhance drying; the main parts of this process have been tested and are Developing the method on the basis of the Jaakko now ready for technical development; Poyry concept offers further potential. The logging • A peat transfer method, the ‘Tarkkaturve residue would be harvested with the same equip­ method ’, has been developed; it will halve the ment and at the same time as the fibre wood is amount of peat remaining at the bottom of the transported to the roadside. The chipping is man­ bog. The method also includes the prototype of aged with a transfer container fitted with a chipper, a new, fireproof machine chain consisting of a and a three-container module for long distance plastic miller, lightweight loader and collecting transport. wagon. The new peat transfer method was in

23 use on nearly 500 ha of bog in 1995, and it is Development work on two different types of dryer projected that in 1996 the method will be used has been started as corporate projects. One of the on over 1000 ha; dryers is being tested on an installation scale at a • The sod peat spreading wagon method has been small power station in Kuusamo. This bed-mixing developed to reduce the amount of residual peat dryer gets its drying energy from the hot sand of on the peatland. This method is in production the fluidized bed. The dryer increases the district testing; heating output of theplant by about 20 percentage • A method has been developed and introduced points. The method is ready for demonstration at a where wood chips are used to replace plastic as larger power plant. In the second dryer type being covering material for peat stockpiles. Vapo Oy developed, the fuel is dried with flue gases in the used about 0.5 million loose cu.m of wood fuel bed. The final moisture target is 15% to 20%. The for covering peat stockpiles in 1995; method is ready for demonstration. • Development work on a new machine chain for large-scale production of sod peat by the ridge New demands are being placed on fuel handling drying method was begun and a prototype miller technologies in pressurised power stations. Two built; different types of sequence-guided piston feeders • The new scraper-ridger developed in the early are being developed as corporate projects for fuel stages of the programme was in use in most of input. The design of both is intended to cut invest ­ the milled peat production in the 1995 produc ­ ment and operating costs in comparison with the tion season. bin system. The feeders have been tested under near-actual conditions with good results. The de ­ The research results show that the objective of the vices are ready for demonstration. peat production research area is attainable if the partial goals are reached. Increasing the distance Hogfors Lampo Oy has demonstrated an automatic between open ditches from 20 m to 60 m will lower heating system the development work on which production costs by 5%. Increasing the use of solar was begun in the research programme. On the basis energy from 30% to 40% will lower production of experience gained from the prototype boiler costs by 8%. The reduction of the amount of peat (200 kW), a 600 kW boiler was built and, after remaining at the bottom of the peatland from the laboratory testing, installed as the heating system equivalent of 3000 MWh to 1500 MWh will lower at a market garden in 1995. The experience in using production costs by 6%, the development of light this boiler has been very good. The only problems and fireproof machines by 3% and combined wood have been caused by unhomogeneous quality of harvesting by 3%. Achieving these subgoals will the fuel. reduce peat production costs by over 20% alto ­ gether. Catalytic cleaning of flue gases from furnaces has succeeded, but for naturally ventilated fireplaces it seems that it is necessary to build a bypass duct for the ignition stage. Results show that introduction of a catalyst would be possible with present tech­ 2.3 Bioenergy use nology in all fireplaces except storage furnace, which need further development. The application New information in the area of bioenergy use has is ready for product development. been produced on the basics of drying, drying models, basics of fireplace combustion and cata­ lytic cleaning of flue gases. 2.4 Biomass conversion The bioenergy use projects have focused on fuel treatment and drying technologies and on develop ­ In 1995, the research on biomass conversion has ing building-sized heating equipment. In fuel proc ­ concentrated on upgrading by-products of the pulp essing, projects have focused on fuel input in pres­ industry and conversion of solid biomass into liq­ surized power plant processes. uid fuel through flash pyrolysis. Characteristics,

24 combustion properties and basics for use of pyro ­ pressing mills as an extensive non-food produc ­ lysis oil in diesel engines are examples of data tion line; produced by research in this area. • Cultivation experiment for energy plants on peatlands and application of the bioenergy pro ­ Research into tall soap conversion has shown that duced to various ends; it is possible to produce low-cost fuel oil. • Production of biomass in agricultural land and peatlands and its use for energy production; Research on flash pyrolysis has been continued by • Developing separation and sorting technologies determining the characteristics of the fuel, particu­ for various parts of crop plants; larly for use in the diesel fuel and light fuel oil • Upgraded fuel from reed canary grass (interna ­ classes. Flash pyrolysis means fuel decomposition tional project in the EU-FAIR programme). in an oxygen-free environment very rapidly, in less than a second. This method is very well suited to These projects were widely supported by the biofuels. According to a study by Neste Oy, the use agrofibre project financed by the Ministry of Ag ­ of flash pyrolysis oil as a substitute for light fuel riculture and Forestry examining the suitability of oil is most feasible when pyrolysis oil is mixed agrofibres, particularly reed canary grass, for pulp with light fuel oil, but even then the burners need and paper production. The Ministry financed the to be modified. Research on the production and use project with about FIM 3.6 million in 1995. The of flash pyrolysis oil has been continued by acquir­ final reports of the project were published in May ing three laboratory-scale testing apparatuses. The 1996. goal is to develop the ‘ITP concept ’ of the Technical Research Centre of Finland (VTT) to the demon ­ All projects mentioned are still unfinished. stration stage in the next few years. Tests on a 1.5 MW power station engine were begun in early The research carried out has largely covered the 1996 with 60 tonnes of imported wood pyrolysis total chain of agroenergy production from raw oil. The test results were promising, and develop ­ material production to end-use in the boilers of ment work on a stationary power station engine for district heating plants or private homes or as diesel pyrolysis oil will be continued. fuel.

2.5 Production of agrobiomass 2.6 Dissemination of information, PR and international contacts The bioenergy research programme has not in­ cluded a separate area for agrobioenergy, although The research programme has organised an annual one was planned. However, several projects in this seminar, with over 200 participants at each. In area were started, mainly financed by theMinistry 1995, a seminar was organised for the wood proc ­ of Agriculture and Forestry. As part of the bioen ­ essing industry together with the SUSTAINABLE ergy research programme, they were also funded PAPER, LIEKKI 2 and SIHTI 2 programmes. through Tekes. The level of financing has been About 130 energy and forestry professionals from increasing slightly. About FIM 3 million of public the wood processing industry participated in the money altogether was used for the major research seminar. institution projects. At the moment, agrobiomass projects are research-oriented. New data have been The three-volume yearbook of the research pro ­ gained on the properties of reed canary grass, and gramme, and state-of-the-art and preliminary re­ on the diesel oil properties and fractionation of ports on integrated wood fuel methods were pub­ rapeseed. lished in the research programme publication se­ ries in 1995. Furthermore, results from the research Major projects in 1995 were: projects have been published in the publication • Demonstration of rapeseed and reed canary series of the Finnish Forest Research Institute grass cultivation for processing into fuel oil, (METLA), Work Efficiency Association, VTT and paper fibre and flash pyrolysis oil at existing Metsateho.

25 Two to three issues of the research programme The research programme has a WWW site with newsletter have been published each year. This comprehensive coverage of the programme in both newsletter contains practical information on pro ­ Finnish and English. A special feature is the Intra­ ject results and reports published. The newsletter net feature through which project personnel can has had a circulation of 1000 copies. The results report their progress to co-ordinating personnel of the research programme have been presented at and programme management. several exhibitions and conferences: at the Forest Week of the Finnish Forestry Association in The programme home page presents the main March; at the international forest conference of the points of the programme in summary, with infor ­ IUFRO in Tampere and the 2nd American Biomass mation on contacts, main research areas and or ­ Conference in August; and at the wood and forest ganization. The presentation page contains more fair in Jyvaskyla in September. Nearly 10,000 cop ­ detailed information on the main research areas, ies of bulletins with information on project results budgeting and programme content. The site also were distributed during 1995. The machines devel ­ contains project lists, publication lists with avail ­ oped in five projects were also demonstrated at the able publications and reports, a bulletin board and forest machinery exhibition at the wood and forest links to partners. The programme newsletters are fair. also available in electronic form. Theresearch pro ­ gramme also has Intranet pages that are used for Publicity has followed the publicity plan drafted in progress and finance reporting within the pro ­ 1994, providing for a variety of means: seminars, gramme. bulletins, exhibitions and continuous contact with trade journals. The director of the research pro ­ gramme has also kept the managers of interest groups informed. To present tangible results 3 Result effectiveness achieved in the programme, a seminar was organ ­ ized in Otaniemi on November 30, 1996 demon ­ 3.1 Industrial effectiveness strating these results for the media and for experts in the field. The results of several wood projects When the programme was launched, the amount were also presented at seminars in the ALTENER programme, particularly those of the Central Fin­ of interest displayed and financing provided by land Forest Energy project. VTT Energy has pub­ industry for programme projects was a pleasant lished information on the BIOENERGY research surprise for the management group. Apparently programme and its results through the European there was a need for this sort of programme. There Energy Network (EnR) and AFB-NETT projects were existing ideas and even demonstration pro ­ in the ALTENER programme. jects just waiting for money. Interest has remained high even though themarket situation, particularly Finland has participated in IEA work through the for companies manufacturing forest machines, has Bioenergy Agreement, originally a forest energy improved considerably. research programme. The IEA focuses on informa ­ tion dissemination and does not finance research. However, the forest industry and to some extent The programme has been linked in joint research energy companies did show a certain scepticism projects concerning integrated production methods towards the objectives of the programme. This was and separate firewood harvesting, with an official evident in that they were slow to warm to the representative of the Finnish Forest Research In­ programme. The situation has improved, though, stitute (METLA) participating in the work. The and faith in the potential of wood as a major-scale BIOENERGY research programme has contrib ­ affordable fuel has increased. uted towards the costs of maintaining this contact. The benefit of the programme to companies is The programme management group presented the particularly clear in the company projects managed programme and its results to the EU in March 1995. by SMEs. These companies have brought their During 1996, the first EU projects in the pro ­ most important development projects into the pro ­ gramme were launched. grammes. Since their own product development

26 cannot reach critical mass, so to speak, the pro ­ If the research programme objectives are achieved, gramme framework provides considerable added the first three years having proved that this is pos ­ value to the companies through research institution sible, the objective for biofuel competitiveness will expertise and networking. These companies em­ also be achieved. Competitive biofuels can then phasise the benefits of the programme and consider achieve the objective set by the Council of State projects in the programme extremely important for for their increased use. Domestic biofuels will be their business. able to partially replace imports.

Over 30 companies participated in the programme The volume of 1 million toe in wood fuel corre ­ in 1995. In 1995, eleven company and demo pro ­ sponds to FIM 165 million in terms of the situation jects were implemented in SMEs in the wood fuel in Finland in 1992. In the fuel production business, area. Several SMEs also participated as co-finan ­ 1 million toe would amount to FIM 500 million ciers in research institution projects. Co-operation per annum. If all of this capacity were produced by involving SMEs was also practised mainly in Work the terrain chipping method, for example, this Efficiency Association projects. Two SMEs were would create a FIM 440 million market for drip ­ involved in the bioenergy use area with their own pers. projects, and several companies were involved in research projects in this area. The first commercial installation developed using the MASSAHAKE method and the company run ­ Since large companies have their own development ning it, Pohjois-Satakunnan Massahake Oy, are organisation and other ways of linking with re­ examples of a completely new kind of business. search institutions, they have not considered the Biowatti Oy has expanded considerably and is now projects and structure of theprogramme as impor ­ applying several devices and methods developed tant as SMEs do. However, they do consider them in the programme. Vapo Oy has started wood fuel to be quite important. production, with a production volume of 0.5 mil­ lion loose m3 in 1995. A special feature in the BIOENERGY research programme is the participation of a completely new group, contractors. The innovative input of con ­ tractors particularly in wood fuel production is 3.2 Technological improvements significant. Table 3 shows the technological improvements The BIOENERGY research programme contained achieved in each area. The results have also been a total of nineteen company projects and fifteen grouped as ‘knowledge ’, ‘technology ’, ‘small demo projects in 1995; this means that the com ­ equipment ’ and ‘methods ’. The progress of each mercialization of research results is proceeding as project (development, demo, commercial) has also planned. been shown. Otherwise, the technological results have been presented above in section 2.3. The objective of the peat production research area is to achieve a 20% reduction in production costs. In the light of present results, this objective can be achieved if the sub-objectives are achieved. With 3.3 Implementation of the present rate of production, a reduction of 20% networking in production costs would mean a saving of FIM 57 million per annum. Several production models The programme has promoted networking between of machinery and equipment developed in the pro ­ research clusters and between these and industry. gramme have been built, and they have been in The management group considers it particularly production use. The employment effect of peat significant that it has proved possible to harmonise production for energy in 1994 was about 3000 the rather different research practices of the re- man-years.

27 Table 3. Technological improvements.

Wood fuel production

Knowledge Technology Small equipment

- final cutting work methods - plot chipper (Chipset), commercial - cage conveyor systemcommercial - early thinning pine and spruce: - multi-function chipper lorry - wood chip and firewood system biomass balance, properties (Moha), demo based on farmer tractor, - basics of chain delimbing and - integrated energy wood commercial debarking production (Hooli), demo - production systems based on - basics of compression - mobile chipper (Lahti), demo chopped firewood processing - chip separation properties - chipper, development and harvester, development - pneumatic transfer - bundling technology, development - firewood distribution and - small-scale production cost calcu­ - multi-tree handling, demo marketing systems, commercial lation model, basics/development - combine harvester-forwarder, - chopped firewood measurement demonstration and quality, basics - harvester branch guide, - heat generation entrepreneurship, development work methods, basics/demo - wood fuel guidance system, commercial Peat production

Knowledge Technology j Methods - drying - light machine chain: plastic miller - Tarkkaturve, demo - new materials - loader - collecting wagon - Teho method, commercial - underground drainage - scraper-ridger - sod peat method, demonstration - using wood chips to cover peat - Compeat method, development stockpiles - wood chip stockpile covering Bioenergy use Knowledge Technology Methods - basics of drying - feeder (IVO), ready for demo - wood chip entrepreneurship, - drying model - feeder (FW), ready for demo commercial - basics of fireplace combustion - dryer (IVO), demo - superpulp, ready for demo - catalytic purification - dryer (FW), ready for demo - burner, demo Biomass conversion

Knowledge Technology Methods - properties of pyrolysis oil - ITP method development - combustion properties of pyrolysis oil - basics of using pyrolysis oil as a diesel substitute Agroenergy

Knowledge Technology Methods

- properties of reed canary grass - growing and harvesting reed - diesel properties of rapeseed canary grass, demonstration - fractionation

28 search institutes of Tekes, the MTI and the MAE The programme has generated one doctoral disser ­ Teething troubles in this area have shown that tation and several diploma theses,pro gradu theses co-operation is by no means self-evident. In par­ and special projects. ticular, networking has been increased between research institutions and SMEs practising wood harvesting. Centres of excellence have also been strengthened in the course of the programme. 4 Essential results of the intermediate assessment Small and large companies have also become net­ worked through the programme. One example of this phenomenon is the company network that has The objectives of the programme were designed to evolved around the chain delimbing technology: a be tangible and measurable from the start. The large company using the fuel has networked a programme has done well in achieving the content number of research institutions and smaller com ­ objectives originally set. The strict, measurable and panies that produce the fuel and manufacture and in part financial objectives set have helped the develop equipment. programme management group to concentrate de ­ velopment work on those points of theproduction Examples of programme networks: chain or those areas of technology that contain the • Financing network; Tekes + the Ministry of best potential for achieving the set objectives. It Trade and Industry and the Ministry of Agri ­ can safely be assumed that a device or innovation culture and Forestry addressing a critical point in the chain has imme­ • Wood fuel research co-operation; Finnish For ­ diate market potential as a finished product. estry Research Institute (METLA) + Metsateho Oy + Technical Research Centre of Finland The Ministry of Trade and Industry lists the price (VTT) + Work Efficiency Association of wood chips at FIM 58 per KWh (MTI Energy • Chain delimbing cluster around Enso Oy Review 3/1996), which is clearly less than earlier. • Oulu region agroenergy network; Vapo Oy + Also, the management group has become con ­ Chempolis Oy + University of Oulu + MTT vinced that the on-site price of biomass fuel from • Central Finland Forest Energy proj ect as a local logging residue in final cuttings could even fall network involving the user below the programme objective of FIM 45 per • Sector-specific co-operation in the peat indus ­ KWh under favourable conditions. try: industry now participating in research in­ stitution projects instead of carrying out sepa­ The general vision of the potential of wood fuel rate projects has become more precise in the course of the pro ­ • Work Efficiency Association network: research gramme. Several both commercial and experimen­ institution + several small equipment manufac ­ tal integrated wood production chains have been turers launched within and with the support of the pro ­ gramme. Equipment has also been developed for harvesting other types of wood biomass. The three- year duration of the programme is too short for the development and extensive commercialisation of new technology. We may expect that some, but certainly not all, of the production chains now at 3.4 Implementing scientist the demonstration stage will come into general use training in wood harvesting in the next few years. Also, some technologies now in the early stages of de ­ Various groups within the programme have trained velopment will proceed to the demonstration stage. themselves for object-oriented practical develop ­ ment work meeting the technological challenges In peat production, the programme makes use of involved. The tangible quantitative objectives of the results of earlier research programmes. This has the programme and the projects in particular have helped greatly in the identification of essential guided research. potential for improvement on which to concentrate

29 effort. Clear and tangible results that improve the tenance and promotion of competitiveness in re­ competitiveness of peat energy have been achieved placing imports. This also applies to wood energy. through the centralisation of large-scale peat pro ­ With peat, the import savings amount to FIM 0.5 duction and the research that goes into it, and the billion per annum; with wood, the figure is about small number of companies practising it. FIM 1 billion.

In use technology, progress has been made in man­ The bioenergy use and refinement areas are more agement of emissions from small boilers, and obviously relevant to the export market. These power station fuel handling and drying technology. areas have also developed technologies that sup­ Several technologies have been brought to the dem ­ port the export of existing technologies, such as the onstration stage. New technologies for small power method for reducing emissions from small boilers; stations have been developed. The pyrolysis diesel this technology is a requirement for exports in this technology for instance is moving into the demon ­ field. The export of bioenergy use technology is stration stage. Development in this area is not as supported by electricity prices higher than those in important to wood or peat use volume increase as Finland in certain markets such as Western Europe. harvesting research is. On theother hand, it is more significant in reducing the environmental impact The programme has been well managed by the of use and to exports. co-ordinating staff. The co-ordination is particu­ larly demanding because the programme is being In conversion technology, the focus has been on financed by two sectors of Government administra ­ long-term technology, while also on conveying to tion, the MTI and the MAF. decision-makers a realistic image of the feasibility of conversion designs planned for Finland for rea­ The programme has been well publicised. Infor ­ sons of energy policy, agricultural policy or re­ mation distribution will be increasingly aimed at gional policy. bioenergy users.

Themost important positive environmental impact in wood energy production is the reduction of CO2 emissions when wood is used to replace fossil fuels. With peat, several development ventures 5 Further planning on have contributed towards reducing the load on the the basis of intermediate environment. In use technology, the use of a small boiler catalyst for instance can reduce CO and NOx assessment emissions from heating, while a bed-mixing dryer can conserve fuel use and thus emissions in district heating by over 15%. 5.1 Feasibility of the research The various areas of this research programme have areas unequal status with regard to technology export. Wood production technology and the equipment The objective, content and foci of the programme being developed for it can be exported as it is, correspond well to the needs of Finnish trade and mainly to the northern coniferous zone. Broader industry and society. They also serve the aims of exports are possible, although systems will need to Finnish energy policy such as environmentally be tailored to local conditions. Relatively small sound energy production, safety and diversity. The companies are involved in the programme in this basics on which the programme was founded still area; from their point of view, the main aim is to exist. cover the near market in the short term. Peat and wood use for energy has increased Peat technology development does not have much throughout the duration of the programme. With export potential even though equipment is being peat, this is at least in part due to the high level of exported. The benefit of peat technology develop ­ competitiveness achieved through research, while ment in foreign trade manifests itself in the main­ with wood the cause is the high rate of production

30 in the forest industry and, more generally, of the separate project; Tekes Panos-poltto pro ­ positive image that wood has as a domestic, envi ­ gramme launched in 1996); ronment-friendly fuel. • Multifuel and fuel mixture handling project (BIOENERGIA or separate project; separate The market situation for the forest industry has multifuel and fuel mixture project launched in changed during the programme period. This and 1996) the forest conservation debate have upstaged the discussion on logging savings. The foci selected at the start of the programme, integrated production methods for pulpwood and wood fuel, have proved 5.2 National and international correct choices even for this new situation. Inte­ division of duties grated methods enable utilisation for energy of the portion of harvested wood that is not suitable for If a separate research programme is set up for the pulping; besides, these methods also increase the raw material use of wood from thinnings, the volume of pulpwood produced. BIOENERGIA programme and the new pro ­ gramme must be co-ordinated. (HARJU pro ­ The emphasis on wood and peat production devel ­ gramme launched in 1996.) The programmes can opment has caused some discussion in the manage ­ be mutually beneficial. In other respects, the divi ­ ment group. This is due to the fact that promoting sion of duties between BIOENERGY and other bioenergy use is being justified by a variety of research programmes is clear. criteria, and these criteria have not been sufficiently discussed within the management group. Also, Bioenergy is an important component in EU re­ wood and peat are competitive as fuels in local search programmes. However, the role of peat in markets. A clear and apparently continuing trend EU programmes is practically non-existent. The in the programme is that peat projects have gradu ­ role of wood in harvesting technology is minor, but ally become company projects. field cultivation is a major application. Considering the effect of local conditions on the technology Theprogramme focuses on applications and prod ­ needed, we can observe that the EU programmes uct development. This approach should be main­ provide a major opportunity for obtaining outside tained, although research must not be forgotten. funding in addition to national funding in field New ideas should be taken up in the future too, cultivation; in other areas, EU funding can be little although these must support the main objectives of more than supplementary. the programme.

New research projects in agrobiomass have been launched. However, this is seen more as an issue 6 Research organization and of agricultural policy and regional policy than en­ ergy policy. The justifications for this work are in management groups fact based on the first two policies mentioned, with funding provided by the MAE The research programme management group is company-driven. The management group has in­ It is not advisable to introduce new main research cluded representatives from the funding bodies areas into the programme at this point. However, (Tekes, MTI and MAE), industry and research in­ the management group did propose that the follow ­ stitutes. The industry representation is significant. ing points could do with some attention: • Development project supporting small-scale The management group makes proposals on re­ peat production, aimed at helping small produc ­ search institute projects annually within the frame­ ers of peat (BIOENERGIA, project started in work defined by thefunding bodies. Thus, industry 1996); also guides research. The funding decisions for • Project examining emissions from small boilers company-driven development and demonstration and ovens, to improve export potential for small projects have been made at Tekes and at theenergy boilers and ovens (BIOENERGIA, RAKET or department of the MTI, and the management group

31 has assessed the suitability of project subjects to • Keijo Mutanen, Deputy Managing Director, the foci of the programme. Sermet Oy • Pekka Nevalainen, Managing Director, At the end of 1994, the funding for research and Outokummun Metalli Oy development in the energy programmes was trans­ • Jukka-Pekka Nieminen, M.Sc. (Tech), Neste Oy ferred to the Tekes energy technology line, while • Time Nyronen, Head of Research, Vapo Oy investment subsidies for new technology demos • Seppo Paananen, Head of Design, are still provided by the MTI energy department. UPM-Kymmene Metsa The programme includes small-scale demo invest ­ • Tarja-Liisa Perttala, Senior Technical Advisor, ments and particularly follow-up of demonstration Tekes projects. • Tuomo Ruohola, Head of Technology, Kvaemer Pulping Oy Since the beginning of 1996, the research pro ­ gramme has been co-ordinated by Jyvaskyla Sci­ The Tekes contact is Tarja-Liisa Perttala, the Min­ ence Park Ltd. The responsible director is Prof. Dan istry of Agriculture and Forestry contact is Matti Asplund, with Piijo Nikku in charge of co-ordina ­ Heikurainen, and theMinistry of Trade and Indus ­ tion and publicity. Previously, co-ordination was try contact is Senior Inspector Aimo Aalto. theresponsibility of VTT Energy. The research programme has four supervision The chairman of the management group for 1993- groups by research area: 1996 is Martti Aijala, Head of Technology at Ima- • Wood fuel production, chairman: Antti Korpila- tran Voima Oy; the members are hti, Metsateho Oy • Matti Heikurainen, Senior Inspector, • Peat production, chairman: Arvo Leinonen, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry VTT Energy • Heikki Karppimaa, Head of Development, • Bioenergy use, chairman: Satu Helynen, Turveruukki Oy VTT Energy • Kari Kuvaja, Forest Manager, Enso Oy • Biomass conversion, chairman: Kai Sipila, • Pekka Laurila, Managing Director, Biowatti Oy VTT Energy • IIpo Mattila, Head of Division, Central Union of Agricultural Producers and Forest Owners (MTK)

32 Chapter 3 EDISON - Electricity distribution automation research programme

Matti Lehtonen ally. The economic impact of these power failures Technical Research Centre of Finland VTT is significant on the level of the national economy, being estimated at about FIM 100 to 300 million. Extra costs are also caused by other quality factors, such as power fluctuations and surges. I Background and objectives The research programme has been financed by The objective of the EDISON research programme Tekes, the Development Pool for Electric Power is to develop a comprehensive next-generation Technology, the Finnish Electricity Association electricity distribution automation system includ ­ SENER and ABB Transmit Oy. Several small and ing a control room with support functions, links medium-size production companies and power with other information systems in thepower com ­ companies have also been involved, mainly pany and functions related to grid management and through work input and field measurements. The demand management. research programme has been coordinated and managed by VTT Energy. The system is being developed using the latest information processing and data transfer technolo ­ gies. The automation system is being developed for use in Finnish power companies, though with a 2 Results in major view to export potential. The aim is to have the research areas system ready for demonstration when the pro ­ gramme ends in 1997. In the first four years, the main research areas of the EDISON programme have been It is to be expected that a technical and economic • creating the basic concept of electricity distri ­ breakthrough in the area will be made by the end bution automation of the decade, with a powerful increase in the • new communication technologies market for electricity industry products related to • use and management of the power grid electricity distribution automation. • demand side management (DSM) • managing the quality of electricity Sales of Finnish electricity distribution automation • deregulation of the electricity market products in 1994 totalled over FIM 400 million. This includes the turnover of ABB and Enermet Oy. Sales of all Finnish power distribution station products exceeded FIM 1000 million. Exports ac­ 2.1 The basic concept of count for between 60% and 90% of the total elec­ electricity distribution tricity distribution automation technology pro ­ duced. automation

It is important for users to obtain electricity that is The new basic concept for electricity distribution as affordable as possible and of sufficiently high automation includes a comprehensive system, its quality. At the moment, power failures interrupt control room design and the necessary information electricity distribution for one to threehours annu ­ systems. The basic concept was defined during the

33 first two years of the programme and discussed radio in network automation, and NMT and GSM extensively in a report in 1995. in remote meter reading.

In connection with this work, profitability calcula­ tions on electricity distribution automation were 2.3 Use and management of performed for five power companies, using a tai­ the network lor-made software package. This software has been subsequently distributed to interested parties. A The programme is developing new methods for version for commercialization hasbeen developed solving problem situations in the power grid and by Tietosavo Oy. for monitoring loads and network status. Automat ­ ic fault location and isolation is also being pro ­ moted through equipment development. IT tools for managing various problem situations are also 2.2 New communication being developed for the control room. The moni ­ technologies toring of network loads is being implemented par­ ticularly at distribution transformers, whose utili­ New communication technologies are one compo ­ zation rate is being raised closer to the economic nent of the development work on the system. This break-even point. area focuses on establishing the available commu ­ nication alternatives and selecting the protocols ABB and VTT have co-developed a fault location used. New solutions are being developed in co-op ­ function for grid use and maintenance; thisfunction eration with the Finnish telecommunications in­ is being used in the ABB remote control system. dustry and telecommunications companies. The Versoft Oy distribution management system (DSM) has been developed in a joint research pro ­ Data transfer solutions have been surveyed and gramme between Lappeenranta University of Tech­ developed for the needs of network automation and nology, Tampere University of Technology and a the electricity market, which is being deregulated. utility called Koillis-Satakunnan Sahko Oy. The Four telecommunications technologies are being new systems have significantly reduced the length tested at the moment: Autonet/Actionet, packet of power failures experienced by consumers.

Figure I. Network automation and the distribution management system have reduced the length of power outages (Koillis-Satakunnan Sahko Oy and Versoft Oy).

34 2.4 Demand side management ment by developing technical tools, investigating the technical and economic impact of quality, and Power company planning methods and technolo ­ establishing a quality level that is technically and economically optimal. The evolution of interna ­ gies for data transfer between the power company ’s and the consumer ’s information systems are being tional quality standards is also being followed, and contributions made to their content as necessary. developed for demand management purposes. In­ formation on how power companies can control The EDISON programme has developed a quality and manipulate demand is being obtained through watchdog energy meter for power quality monitor ­ practical test arrangements and demonstrations. ing, in cooperation with Mittrix Oy and Enersoft Oy. This meter can continuously monitor the prop ­ The EDISON programme has developed a proto ­ erties of the distribution power. type demand management planning system in co ­ operation with Tietosavo Oy.

2.6 Deregulation of the 2.5 Managing the quality of electricity market electricity The programme is investigating the effects of elec­ The quality of electricity is described in terms of tricity market deregulation on power companies. voltage level, harmonic distortion, rapid voltage Work is also in progress on the data transfer and changes, flicker and voltage interruptions. The pro ­ measurement technology required in the competi ­ gramme aims to improve power quality manage ­ tive situation, and on information systems support-

Figure 2. Example of the balance display of the distribution energy management (DEM) system (VTT Energy and ABB Transmit Oy).

35 ing energy acquisition and electricity sales plan­ SMEs are major contributors in the manufacture ning. and partial assembly of electronics components for ABB electricity distribution automation products, Development of an energy management system for software development and the manufacture of geo ­ the distribution network has become a major pro ­ graphical information systems. ject. This system meets the data processing needs of network companies and power companies on the The programme arranges annual seminars covering free electricity market. The first prototype version the entire programme and workshops covering in­ has been tested at Espoon Sahko Oy since late dividual areas within it. As a rule, the research 1995. The decision has been taken to commercial ­ results are public information, and they are pub­ ize the system in cooperation with ABB during lished both in Finland and internationally. 1996 and 1997. The aim of international cooperation is to establish the level and content of the research and develop ­ ment being done elsewhere in order to make effi­ 3 Effectiveness of results cient use of it and to remain ahead of the compe ­ tition. Furthermore, cooperation provides a better The results of the EDISON programme will be picture of the international market for which the used primarily as new products and design methods programme is developing products. Intensive co ­ by power companies and the electricity industry. operation is impossible unless the Finnish parties Their effectiveness will be ensured by taking pro ­ have research and development work of their own. totypes and demonstrations into actual power sys­ tem environments. Close cooperation between the This cooperation began at the start of the pro ­ parties involved ensures that the results will be used gramme, via the Demand Side Management agree ­ in farther training and education. ment projects of the International Energy Agency (IE A). The programme is participating in two IE A The results of the programme will make power component projects on data transfer technologies companies more effective. This will be seen in and demand management planning method devel ­ demand management and as an increase in network opment. utilization. Thus, the costs of power distribution can be kept under control and the price of electricity Two EDISON projects have been approved for EU will remain competitive. Thequality of power dis ­ programmes, one in the JOULE programme tributed to consumers can be raised if it is economi ­ (Method for integrated evaluation benefits, costs cally feasible. The power system will become more and effects of programmes for promoting energy effective, and there will be more potential for en­ conservation) and the other in the SAVE pro ­ ergy conservation. The technical competitiveness gramme (Development and demonstration of of the electricity industry will improve. strategies for promoting DSM, utility based IRP and energy efficiency services in the Finnish re­ The practical results of the programme support the structured energy market). EDISON scientists are technical competitiveness of remote control and responsible for coordination in the latter. monitoring systems, for instance, and create poten ­ tial for new markets. This is important in electricity In international training in electricity distribution distribution automation particularly, since it is ex­ automation and demand management through the pected that a technical and economic breakthrough EU COMETT programme, lectures have been ar­ will occur in this area by the end of the decade, ranged and scientists in the programme sent to causing strong growth in the market for related courses. electricity industry products, e.g. power genera ­ tion, IT and telecommunications applications. An efficient information exchange and cooperation network has been set up with major research and SMEs and software companies can share in exports development organizations in the field. This net­ by cooperating with large companies. For instance, work includes EPRI and the Lawrence-Berkeley

36 laboratory in North America, the CRIEPI and Mill companies, with a view to technology exports. The laboratories in Japan and EA Technology in programme has proceeded well, being in fact ahead Europe. of schedule at the time of assessment.

International cooperation has also been actively The concept has been divided into areas of focus, sought at conferences. The EDISON programme which are broadly speaking network automation, is represented on the programme committee of the information systems, energy management on the DA/DSM-Europe conference and the organizing electricity market and demand management. The committee of the Nordic electricity distribution management group assessment and independent automation conference (NORDAC). The most re­ statements show that these are largely appropriate; cent NORDAC conference was organized in Fin­ however, more attention should be given to net­ land in June 1996, with the EDISON programme work automation and data transfer technologies. as host. Cooperation with the telecommunications industry should be closer. In researcher training, there has been active in­ volvement in the power generation technology re­ The EDISON programme is coordinated to com ­ search school. The school, which currently has bine the forces of all the major Finnish parties about 40 students, has been set up in cooperation involved. Centres of competence have been created between the Helsinki, Tampere and Lappeenranta over a broad geographical area at several universi ­ Universities of Technology and VTT. ties, research institutions and companies. The user parties, i.e. power companies, have provided active To date, the EDISON programme has produced six input. diploma theses, two licentiate theses and two doc ­ toral dissertations. International cooperation has been active and fruit­ ful. Extensive international contacts and recog ­ nized status on the decision-making and executive bodies of conferences in the field testily to the high level of Finnish competence. 4 Main results of the interim assessment The EDISON programme is considered extremely important and well focused in power companies. Its results support technical competitiveness and An interim assessment of the programme was car­ promote exports from the point of view of the ried out at the end of 1995 as a basis for orienting electrical manufacturing industry in Finland. This the programme during its last two years. The as­ is particularly important now when the electricity sessment was carried out by the research pro ­ distribution automation market is developing fast. gramme management group with the aid of four outside auditors: • Ilmari Peltola, Managing Director, Hameen Sahko Oy 5 Further planning based • Esa Pennanen, Managing Director, Enermet Oy • Mikko Niinivaara, BA Manager, ABB BA Net­ on the interim assessment work Control & Protection • Erkki Kemppainen, Division Manager, ABB The interim assessment shows that the EDISON Transmit Oy, MV Apparatus and Switchgear programme is pursuing a policy that is largely appropriate. It has proceeded as planned and is The following is a brief summary of the interim even ahead of schedule. assessment. During the programme, the need for technical de ­ The original objective of EDISON was to develop velopment in the field has constantly increased, due and demonstrate a comprehensive electricity dis ­ to the restructuring of the electricity market, on the tribution automation concept in Finnish power one hand, and the rapid development of telecom ­

37 munications and data processing technology, on Karjalan Sahko Oy, Savon Voima Oy, Tampere the other. However, it has not proved possible to City Electric Company, Vaasan Sahko Oy, Vantaan expand the programme to meet the increased de ­ Sahkolaitos Oy and Vatajankosken Sahko Oy. mand. Instead, resources have been concentrated on areas considered important in the interim as­ Power companies have been used for expert input sessment. in defining functions and basic concepts as well as for testing and demonstrations of new technology. On the basis of the interim assessment, the New technologies are also being introduced as EDISON programme has concentrated increas­ product development projects in the electricity in­ ingly on telecommunications technology applica­ dustry as far as possible, with special reference to tion development and the development of new their adaptability to Finnish conditions and the technical solutions needed on the deregulated elec­ international market. tricity market. It has been possible to shift the focus flexibly and quickly, primarily because the re­ The projects in the sub-areas are being imple­ search programme plans ahead for one year at a mented on a one to three year basis, forming a time. research framework corresponding to the strategic objectives. Decisions to continue existing projects 1997 is the last year of the EDISON programme, and to start new ones are taken annually by the and will focus increasingly on the demonstration research programme Executive Committee. This and commercialization of research results. ensures efficient allocation of resources to the ap­ propriate projects in a rapidly changing environ ­ ment. 6 Research organization and The progress of proj ects in the research programme is also monitored by four specialist groups consist ­ Executive Committee ing of experts in each of the relevant fields. The role of the monitoring groups is to support the The EDISON programme has been implemented research, give advice in problem situations, and in cooperation between the electricity industry, re­ liaise with interest groups such as users and indus ­ search institutions, universities, and power and en­ try. ergy companies. This co-operation has been de ­ signed to utilize Finnish competence and experi­ The members of the EDISON programme Execu­ ence as fully as possible in each problem area. tive Committee are • Esa Pekkola, Head of Development, ABB Cor ­ The main research parties are VTT Energy, Tam­ porate Research pere University of Technology and Lappeenranta • Kari Komulainen, Senior Technical Adviser, University of Technology. Research and develop ­ Tekes ment work is also being done at several companies, • Otso Kuusisto, Head of Department, Finnish both large (ABB and Imatran Voima Oy) and small Electricity Association SENER (Tietosavo Oy, Enermet Oy, Mittrix Oy, Tekla Oy • Professor Seppo Karkkainen, VTT Energy and Versoft Oy). • Professor Erkki Lakervi, Tampere University of Technology The active involvement of power companies dem ­ » Tauno Leppamaki, Managing Director, Pohjois- onstrates user interest in electricity distribution Kaijalan Sahko Oy automation. Ten distribution companies are in­ « Touko Salo, Head of Marketing, Enermet Oy volved in various projects, mainly in testing proto ­ type systems and equipment. These companies are Research programme director Dr. Marti Lehtonen Espoon Sahko Oy, Helsinki Energia, Hameen of VTT Energy has also participated in the work Sahko Oy, Koillis-Satakunnan Sahko Oy, Pohjois- of the management group.

38 Chapter 4 FFUSION - Fusion energy research programme

Seppo Karttunen The EU is investing about 840 million ECU in Technical Research Centre of Finland VTT, fusion research in its fourth framework programme VTT Energy (1994-1998). The largest fusion research installa­ tion in the EU is the Joint European Torus (JET) tokamak, which is in Britain. Operation of the JET installation has been agreed on up to the end of I Background and objectives 1999. A significant proportion of European fusion research is done in national laboratories that have In 1993, the Ministry of Trade and Industry ap­ signed association agreements with the Commu ­ pointed a working group to plan a Finnish fusion nity programme. research programme. At the same time, the Minis­ try of Trade and Industry and the Academy of The EU is also financing research into fusion in­ Finland increased the resources allocated to fusion stallations alternative to the tokamak. A Wendel- research. A survey of possible ways in which Finn ­ stein VII-X stellarator is to be built in Greifswald ish industry could participate in international fu­ at a cost of over FIM 1000 million, and will be sion research was begun. completed in 2004. There are also a number of medium-size plasma devices and several extensive The national fusion energy research programme, independent fusion technology research projects in FFUSION, was launched the following year; its Europe, involving fusion reactor materials, tritium management group was appointed on March 11, handling, remote maintenance equipment and large 1994. The research input in 1994 was nearly FIM superconductor magnets. 4 million and ten person-years. The programme just managed to reach a level where negotiations The main global research project is the design of could begin on integrating the programme into the the tokamak test reactor ITER (International Ther­ EU fusion programme. monuclear Experimental Reactor). The partici­ pants are Euratom, Japan, Russia and the United Finland joined the European Union on January 1, States. The ITER design costs are over FIM 5 1995, and Tekes signed an association agreement billion, and the construction costs are estimated at with Euratom on March 13, 1995. This agreement about FIM 35 billion. The decision on whether to linked the FFUSION programme to European re­ build the ITER test reactor will probably be taken search on fusion energy. in 1998 or 1999.

I. I International fusion research 1.2 Fusion energy research and the EU fusion programme programme FFUSION

The aim of international fusion energy research is The FFUSION research programme derives from clear: to achieve a commercially viable fusion re­ Finland ’s research policy decision to participate in actor. Several fundamental scientific issues must long-term extensive international fusion research, be addressed to attain this objective, and an enor ­ with particular reference to the coordinated fusion mous amount of new technology required by such research programme of the EU. a reactor must be developed.

39 Figure I. Diagram of the ITER test fusion reactor.

As a participant in the EU programme, Finland is Materials research is a key area in fusion reactor also involved in the global ITER test reactor pro ­ studies. Special materials, superconductors, sur­ ject. Because of the enormous long-term benefit face materials and joint technologies are strong potential of fusion energy, all industrialized coun ­ areas where the objective is to find joint ventures tries are helping with its development. In the short between industry and research institutions for par­ term, fusion research may produce scientific and ticipation in the ITER project. Industrial applica­ technological spin-offs, and major experimental tions are also relevant in remote handling and in reactor proj ects provide significant export potential maintenance and inspection systems for fusion re­ for Finland ’s high-tech industry. While fusion re­ actors. search is an import-based field in Finland, it could conceivably generate exports in certain specific sectors.

The FFUSION programme is divided into three 1.3 Objectives of the FFUSION areas: research programme • fusion plasma research • fusion reactor materials research Themain objective of the early stages of the FFU­ • remote maintenance systems for fusion reactors SION programme was to bring Finland ’s fusion research up to European standards. This objective Fusion plasma research focuses on the interaction has been attained with excellent success. The as­ between intensive electromagnetic radiation and sociation agreement between Euratom and Tekes, plasma, with plasma heating and diagnostics as the NET/ITER agreement and the Staff Mobility applications. The work has close links with Euro ­ agreement were signed just over two months after pean experimental work in fusion and plasma phys­ Finland joined the EU. Finnish membership of the ics and with ITER design. European JET project was ratified in spring 1996.

40 Another major objective was to expand the re­ Most of the fusion plasma work in the FFUSION search base to make it more technology-oriented programme is being done in cooperation with the and to increase Finnish industry ’s interest in the European experiments. These include the Euratom field. Finnish industry is now commendably active JET tokamak, the German ASDEX Upgrade in the work on ITER. tokamak and the Wendelstein VII-AS stellarator, and the French superconducting tokamak Tore Su­ Once the FFUSION programme got under way in pra. Finns are participating in analysis of experi­ 1994, the following were identified as main objec ­ mental results and in constructing mathematical tives: models of the experiments. Finns have also been • to carry out high-quality basic research in the involved in radio frequency heating work in ITER, field and fusion technology development as part and an ITER Task involving the ion cyclotron of the EU fusion research programme and the system is under way. An important part of the work international ITER project; involves, developing and applying demanding nu ­ • to promote cooperation between Finnish indus ­ merical codes. Industry has only taken part in fu­ try and research institutions in development and sion plasma research related to radio frequency planning work related to ITER; sources; Imatran Voima Oy (IVO) is participating • to focus research and development activities on in the ITER ion cyclotron system design work with a few competitive areas. the Technical Research Centre of Finland (VTT) and the Helsinki University of Technology (HUT).

An extended visit to the JET installation, intended to produce a doctoral thesis, began in summer 2 Results in major 1995. The visit is related to a JET Task agreement research areas on the interaction of energetic ions and RF waves. A similar visit to theMax Planck Institute (IPP) in Garching is being planned for 1996, concentrating on the diagnostics of density profiles on the Wen­ 2.1 Fusion plasma research delstein VII-AS stellarator.

Fusion plasma research is being done by the De­ Main results of fusion plasma research partment of Technical Physics at the Helsinki Uni­ versity of Technology and at VTT Energy. The Several demanding software applications based on fusion and plasma physics research comprises the advanced numeric methods have been developed scientific content of the FFUSION programme, in the FFUSION programme for fusion plasma aiming at providing high-quality Finnish input in radio frequency applications. Most of this work has the EU fusion programme. been done jointly by VTT Energy and the Depart­ ment of Engineering Physics and Mathematics at The contract of association defines Finland ’s area Helsinki University of Technology. There are sev ­ of focus as the radio frequency (RF) applications eral foreign partners, and the codes have been used of tokamak plasma, the main points being heating to analyse experimental results. plasma to fusion conditions (temperature range 1-2*10 8 K), non-inductive current drive and FEM (Finite Element Method) codes: Absorption plasma diagnostics. The theoretical and computa ­ and mode conversion issues in the ion cyclotron tional research covers all RF bands used, 20-60 area have been analysed with the FEM code. This MHz (ion cyclotron waves), 1-10 GHz (low hybrid code can solve full wave equations and is also waves) and 100-200 GHz (electron cyclotron useful in cases where the plasma has a steep density waves), all of which are in use in European fusion gradient, as in the edge plasma in a tokamak. The installations. Non-inductive current drive with RF programme has been used in commissioned studies waves is an important issue in the European pro ­ for the JET project, and its results have generated gramme, since it would enable steady-state opera ­ several international publications and a doctoral tion of tokamak reactors. dissertation.

41 Monte Carlo simulations: ASCOT, a trajectory Vlasov codes: The interaction of RE waves with tracking program for electrons and ions in plasma, electrons and ions in the plasma, and understanding is a Monte Carlo type code suitable for examining this interaction, are essential in optimizing the several tokamak phenomena. ASCOT observes heating and current drive potential of the various particle trajectories in a realistic tokamak geometry wave bands. At high heating power levels the in­ in which the background magnetic field can be teraction can become non-linear and lead to com ­ selected to correspond to various tokamaks, such pletely new phenomena. Analysis of these non-lin ­ as JET or ASDEX. The code contains collision and ear properties requires kinetic analysis and self- RE operations that affect the particle trajectories consistent solution of the Vlasov and Maxwell and energy. The ASCOT code hasbeen applied to equations. This is a numerically difficult task, and several special tokamak issues, such as the losses solutions of realistic cases require a great deal of caused by runaway electrons during current ramp- computing power. The advantage of the Vlasov up, the interaction of fusion alpha particles with method over PIC codes is the greater accuracy in RE waves, the determination of current drive effi­ processing the tail region of velocity distributions. ciency and current profiles and the orbit losses of Vlasov codes have been developed in the FFU- fast ions. Development work on the ASCOT soft ­ SION programme in cooperation with the Univer ­ ware is still in progress, and it will remain one of sity of Nancy in France and the CCFM (Centre the basic tools of the fusion plasma group. Monte Canadien de Fusion Magnetique). Vlasov analysis Carlo codes can be run in parallel computers, since has been applied to fast electron generation mecha­ the particle trajectories are calculated inde ­ nisms for various wave spectra suitable for current pendently. Parallel processing is able to make cal­ drive. Fast electrons are of key importance for culations significantly more accurate, since in­ current drive since, being current carriers, they face creasing the number of particles results in better low resistance, and the power needed to maintain statistics. the current is feasible. Vlasov codes have been supplemented with a collision term, which extends PIC particle simulations: PIC (Particle-in-Cell) their application to collision phenomena. simulations can be described as numerical experi­ ments in which the motion of particles and the Gyrotron research: Gyrotrons are microwave fields moving them are calculated self-consis- sources used for fusion plasma heating, current tently. The motion of charged particles affects the drive and diagnostics. This work has been carried fields in the plasma; this is contrary to Monte Carlo out in cooperation with the Forschungszentrum calculations, where the fields moving theparticles Karlsruhe and the Department of Applied Physics are given as input values. The fundamental problem in Nizhnyi Novgorod. Theoretical research on the with PIC codes is the CPU time and large memory gyrotron resonance cavity has led to several experi­ requirement. Parallel processing of PIC codes, mental improvements and innovations in high- which is not as straightforward as for Monte Carlo power, frequency-tuneable sources. Industrial ap­ codes, is being worked on, and a considerable plications of gyrotrons in Finland have been sur­ increase in computing power is expected. At the veyed. Diamond-coated gyrotron components moment, one- and two-dimensional PIC codes are have been supplied to foreign partners, and com ­ in use and these have been employed to examine ponent properties have been measured. Previously, electron acceleration mechanisms in the vicinity of there was virtually no knowledge about gyrotron plasma wave reflecting surfaces. As an application technology and applications in Finland. for Tore Supra tokamak, the generation of fast electrons at the mouth of the lower hybrid grill is Fusion bum. studies: The OD code FRESCO, where being examined. This phenomenon would seem to the plasma profiles are taken as known, has been explain the grill damage occurring in Tore Supra developed for simulating fusion bum in a tokamak and tokamak de Varennes at high heating power fusion reactor. FRESCO also exists for PC in a levels. The work is being done in close cooperation slightly simplified version. FRESCO can be used with the RE group at Tore Supra. The subject is to make rapid surveys of the power transients re­ part of the ITER Task under development concern ­ lated to powering up and shutting down a tokamak ing current drive by lower hybrid waves. and to disruptions during burn. The code has been

42 used to examine fusion reactor controls - for in­ following subjects were identified for Finnish fu­ stance, through fuel feeding speed and impurity sion materials research to concentrate on: super­ injections - to search for optimum operational con ­ conductors, special copper materials, dissimilar ditions and to establish stability criteria. Changes metal joints, materials and joints testing and char­ in the confinement modes of a tokamak have been acterization, and coatings. Previous efforts have simulated. FRESCO has also proved to be a useful already brought work to a high level internationally tool for fusion bum studies in a tokamak reactor. in these essential materials technology areas, and there is also strong backing for them from Finnish International publications on fusion and plasma industry. physics produced in the FFUSION programme in 1993-1995: Reactor materials and joining • 35 cited articles in international serial publica­ technologies tions • 37 conference papers The objective of the fusion materials project is to • 11 international research reports apply fracture mechanics competence to estimate • 8 general articles the radiation damage and damage caused by the • 2 patents environment to the materials in the first wall and blanket of a fusion reactor. The main objective is One doctoral thesis, two licentiate theses and two to integrate fusion materials research and develop ­ diploma theses were completed between 1993 and ment into the EU fusion energy research pro ­ 1995. gramme. Another objective is to work with Finnish companies to improve their competitiveness in the As far as fusion plasma research is concerned, the design of fusion reactor components and construc ­ objective of providing a high-quality basic research tion tenders. contribution to the EU fusion programme has been extremely well achieved. In the selected areas of Projects concerning Cu/SS joins and fracture me­ focus, Finnish fusion physics research is of top chanics studies on miniature test rods were European level, allowing Finland rapid access to launched in the EU fusion research programme in projects in the EU programme. Several scientist 1995, as part of the NET/ITER Technology task visits within the EU Staff Mobility programme are T212 and of the EU long-term fusion materials planned for 1996. programme.

The first wall structures of the ITER fusion test reactor consist of multimetal structures made of 2.2 Fusion reactor materials beryllium, copper and stainless steel. Potential first research wall element manufacturing methods include hot isostatic pressing (HIP) and explosive welding. Fusion reactor materials research is being carried The objective of the project is to demonstrate the out at VTT Manufacturing Technology and VTT usability of explosive welding and to characterise Chemical Technology and by the Accelerator the mechanical properties of copper-steel joints. Laboratory of the University of Helsinki. Fusion The usability of the technology will be demon ­ neutronics research has been concentrated at VTT strated by manufacturing a first wall element using Energy. The industrial partner is the Finnish Blan­ explosive welding and by determining its heat ket Group, which includes Outokumpu Poricopper transfer properties and thermal fatigue durability. Oy, Imatran Voima Oy, Rauma Materials Oy, Diarc The thermal properties of the first wall element will Technology Oy, High Speed Tech Oy and PI be determined in cooperation with JRC-Ispra. The Rauma Oy. Outokumpu Superconductors Oy has explosive welding joints were manufactured by been responsible for superconductor development. High Speed Tech Oy, with Outokumpu Poricopper Oy delivering the copper alloy needed. Materials research was launched with a prelimi­ nary study to survey Finnish competence and the The project defined the tensile strength, shearing needs of the EU fusion programme. As a result, the strength, fatigue strength, creep-rupture strength

43 and fracture toughness of explosive welded joints is to select the primary structural material of the between AISI 316 LN ITER Grade stainless steel next generation of fusion reactors by the year 1998. and CuCrlZr copper alloy at different tempera­ tures. The explosive welding joint was ductile, and Radiation levels from fusion materials are quite the ductile fracture occurred in the copper; thus, high, so in practice theamounts handled are small, the explosive welded joint was stronger than the and the test pieces needed for determining fracture copper alloy used in the joint. In long-term tests at toughness required by the standard cannot be high temperatures, fracture occurred along the j oint manufactured from the materials examined. The surface. qualitative assessment of materials fracture tough ­ ness is generally obtained through impact tests, but Creep properties are expected to be a major design a reliable direct fracture toughness measurement parameter in fusion reactor first wall structures. method is needed to determine the quantitative Creep could lead to a fracture along the joint sur­ design parameter. An analysis method developed face. Heat transfer over the interface between cop ­ by VTT Manufacturing Technology reliably deter ­ per and steel is an essential property for the usabil­ mines fracture toughness on 10x10x55 mm3 test ity of first wall structures, and breaking in this joint rods^ and the aim is to establish whether 3x4x27 surface could lead to uncontrolled heating of the mm test rods can be used for direct measurement structure. of fracture toughness.

Outokumpu Poricopper Oy and High Speed Tech Present test results on martensitic stainless steel Oy have participated in this project. Outokumpu show that the fracture toughness values obtained manufactures copper and copper products; the pro ­ using 10x10x55 mm3 test rods and 25 mm CT test ject supports this by using Outokumpu copper al­ rods are mutually compatible. On the other hand, loy in the research work. High Speed TechOy has the fracture toughness values obtained using small, competence in explosive welding; the research will 5x10x55 mm3, 5x5x27 mm3 and 3x4x27 mm3 test make this method more widely known. The re­ rods diverge slightly from the above. This diver ­ search results obtained in this project will improve gence may be due to inadequate measurement ca­ the basic characterization of both companies ’ ex­ pacity in the test rods or possibly the poor homo ­ isting materials and products by generating new geneity of the material examined. research results. There will be several potential applications for both companies in fusion reactor The divergence in fracture toughness values ob ­ structure design and manufacturing, and this pro ­ tained using different test rods is slight, so there is ject will improve the companies ’ visibility, com ­ good potential for establishing the correlation be­ petitiveness and level of technological competence tween fracture toughness and the geometry of the in future tenders. test rod. Further experiments will determine which divergence, if any, is due to the poor homogeneity National networking has been promoted through of the material examined. Furthermore, the effect the founding of the Finnish Blanket Group. VTT of radiation on fracture toughness will be estab­ Manufacturing Technology is cultivating coopera ­ lished. The irradiation will be performed by ECN tion with Riso National Laboratories in materials Petten. technology and with JRC-Ispra in the thermal fa­ tigue of first wall elements. VTT Manufacturing Technology cooperates closely with ECN Petten in research. Also, VTT An EU Long Term Materials project studying frac­ Manufacturing Technology has attended meetings ture mechanics on miniature test rods focused on of the Task Force Materials working group, which what are known as low activation materials such designs and coordinates fusion materials research. as martensitic stainless steel, vanadium alloys and SiC/SiC composites. These are potential next-gen ­ Plasma-facing components eration structural materials for fusion reactors. In particular, martensitic stainless steels are being One component of the programme is examining developed in the fusion materials research pro ­ the applicability of diamond-like coatings (DLC) gramme. The objective of the present programme in plasma facing components carried out under a

44 NET/ITER Task. The coatings are being manufac ­ gained in research in the Accelerator Laboratory tured by DIARC Technology Oy. will help improve the potential for Finnish research and industry to participate in the EU fusion pro ­ The objective of the project is to develop and gramme. characterize SiC/DLC coatings as part of the study on the erosion behaviour of fusion reactor first wall Some of the studies on the recovery of hydrogen- materials. The SiC/DLC coatings are manufac ­ containing inert gas defects and the results of the tured using the DIARC arc discharge method. This electronic braking of helium studied in 1995 have method is being developed further for the manu ­ been published in international journals in the field. facture of thick DLC/graphite coatings. Cooperation with VTT began in 1993 with a survey Results show that the DIARC arc discharge method in cooperation with the metal laboratory, on ways can be used to manufacture layered and thick carb­ of measuring light elements in Zr-based com ­ on coatings. The coatings have been thoroughly pounds. This work has been continued with VTT characterized, but use of the coatings in a fusion Chemical Technology in ERD and SIMS studies reactor must be based on tests conducted in fusion ­ of copper alloys. relevant environments. It seems that the coating process can be used to simulate the redeposition New equipment has also been constructed for the process of carbon during fusion bum in the fusion Accelerator Laboratory. A new ERDA measure­ reactor first wall, which will then allow the method ment system based on the flying time method was to be used for the manufacture of various test constructed in 1994 and introduced in 1995. This samples. enables the examination of more complicated im­ plantation profiles than previously. For DIARC Technology Oy, the project has im­ proved visibility and enabled basic research in Fusion materials analysis with product characterization. The properties of prod ­ mass spectrometer methods ucts are better known, and the fusion project has enabled further development of the DIARC coating Materials selection is important in constructing a process. fusion reactor. Finnish materials research requires the necessary resources, such as materials charac­ Ion irradiation of reactor materials terization methods, to be available.

On the basis of the preliminary survey preceding The necessary resources are being jointly devel ­ the FFUSION programme and the research com ­ oped and applied to the study of copper alloys and petence of the University of Helsinki Accelerator martensitic stainless steel in the joint VTT Manu ­ Laboratory, research has concentrated on trapping facturing Technology, VTT Chemical Technology of hydrogen in helium precipitations in materials and University of Helsinki research project. One that are planned for use in fusion reactors. of the objectives is to develop mass spectrometer determination methods for metals and to apply The central objective of the project is to examine these in determining the composition and structure the physical grounds for phenomena caused by ion of metals. Researchers are examining how metals beams. The main focus is on hydrogen-trapping can be used in fusion reactor applications and the defects in various materials. The research is estab­ effect of radiation on metal structure and proper ­ lishing the concentration relationships between ties. The objective is to carry out high-quality ma­ trapped hydrogen and ion-planted helium, the terials research to promote the use of Finnish properties of hydrogen-trapping defects and recov ­ materials in fusion applications. ery of the background material from various types of defects. In 1994-1995, mass spectrometer methods to de ­ termine trace elements using the ICP-MS method The results are being used in materials research in copper samples from Outokumpu Poricopper, under the national fusion research programme. NBS standard reference copper samples and Their long-term benefit is that the competence martensitic stainless steel were developed. The

45 concentrations of over 40 trace elements in steel Superconductor development and copper samples were established. Superconductors used in the ITER machine and the Surface analysis methods (SIMS, RBS and ESCA) Wendelstein 7X stellarator are perhaps Finland ’s have been used to examine the chemical composi ­ largest potential market in the near future. tion of diamond-like coatings (DEC) unalloyed and alloyed with silicon, the distribution of various ITER uses both Nb3 Sn and NbTi conductors, while elements in the coatings and the bonding of carbon, the Wendelstein 7X uses only NbTi conductors. So in cooperation with the Universities of Turku and far, Outokumpu Superconductors Oy has concen ­ Helsinki. Also, the effect of the erosion caused by trated on producing a NbTi conductor. When Fin­ various heat treatments and ion bombardment on land joined the EU fusion programme in 1995, the the structure of DLCs and the diffusion of deute ­ superconductor development programmes for both rium have been studied. machines were so advanced that Finnish participa­ tion was not possible. Basic physical phenomena between fusion plasma and wall material have been studied in cooperation In order to keep Outokumpu Superconductors in with the University of Helsinki. Damage caused by therunning as a potential superconductor supplier, fusion plasma has been simulated by implanting a technology project related to ITER was prepared deuterium and helium in F82 steel. The diffusion in 1995 and launched in 1996. This project is being of these light elements and damage recovery during carried out by Outokumpu Superconductors Oy. heat treatment have been examined using theSIMS and ERD methods. The situation in the Wendelstein 7X project is very critical. The cable intended for the magnets in the Fusion neutronics machine could well be developed by Outokumpu Superconductors, but so far the work has been done Capacity for neutron and gamma flow calculations by competitors. The final conductor and cable will for fusion reactors was established at VTT Energy probably be commissioned during 1997. in 1993-1995. Initially, the work was done using SN programs such as ANISN, contained in the REPVICS software created for pressure vessel ra­ diation calculations in fission reactors.

The SN method, in which discrete directions for 2.3 Remote-controlled inspection neutrons are selected, is not very useful in the extremely complicated geometries typical of fu­ and maintenance systems sion reactors. The Monte Carlo method would be for fusion reactors better, and the MCNP program has become some ­ thing of an international standard in the field. Be­ Remote-controlled inspection and maintenance cause of this, project members acquired MCNP4A systems for the ITER test reactor have been studied and trained themselves to use it. at the Institute of Hydraulics and Automation and the Control Engineering Laboratory at Tampere The program is first being applied to assessing the University of Technology and at the Automation neutron load on RE antennas, transmission lines Technology Laboratory of Helsinki University of and vacuum windows. An ITER Task on this sub­ Technology. ject and a scientist visit to the ITER design team in Garching are in progress. VTT Automation and VTT Electronics joined the project in late 1995. The industrial partner is the By 1996, fusion neutronics calculation had reached Finnish Remote Handling Group, consisting of a level of competence enabling full-scale partici­ Imatran Voima Oy, Plustech Oy, Hytar Oy, Tehdas- pation in the ITER project and the performance of mallit Oy and PI Rauma Oy. Water hydraulics and work for the ITER Joint Central Team in Garching. walking technology are Finnish specialities.

46 Water hydraulics applications in Reactor obtained on the market and on the applicability of maintenance for ITER water hydraulics to a fusion reactor environment.

The objective of the project studying water hydrau­ The overall objective of the project is to gain Finn ­ lics in the ITER fusion reactor was to study the ish water hydraulics know-how an active role in applicability and potential of water hydraulics for the EU and to obtain projects and deliveries for Remote Handling (RH) equipment related to the Finnish research institutions and companies. In ITER fusion reactor. The objective was to demon ­ practice, the project was divided into three areas: strate the potential of water hydraulics, to find the surveying general demands, designing water hy­ pressure medium best suited to the environment draulics for themaintenance equipment testing en­ and examine the demands and limitations placed vironment, and preliminary planning of water hy­ on components by this pressure medium, and to draulics remote control tool systems. help find suitable water hydraulics equipment. The systems being designed in the project are directly The main object selected for study was water hy­ usable in the RH equipment testing environment draulic equipment and systems, including a hy­ (Diverter Region Test Platform) being constructed draulic unit, for the transport and handling of heavy by ITER/NET. divertor elements. Also, the controllability of water hydraulics was examined through simulation and The project resulted in establishment of the basic measurements, and a water hydraulic servo system demands imposed by the environment, in coopera ­ was constructed. tion with ITER/NET. The market status of compo ­ nents suitable for water hydraulics remote handling Activities in 1994 and 1995 created a foundation devices and ways of controlling various parameters for a Finnish consortium of RH companies to re­ in water hydraulics were also examined. spond to requests for tender concerning divertor test equipment. Water hydraulics technology has Appropriate partners in industry were located dur ­ been established as the most feasible alternative for ing the project, and substantial knowledge was a number of Remote Handling applications in a

Cryostat

Vacuum Vessel

Maintenance Cassette equipment storage area

5 H indling port fndial path)

Toroidal

Figure 2. Divertor area of the ITER fusion reactor.

47 fusion reactor, as is evidenced by the increasing As a result of the project, a detailed preliminary number of research requests and commissions and study of the demands and technical implementa­ preliminary agreements for industrial deliveries in tion potential for such an inspection robot was 1996-1998. drafted, determining the feasible concept and seek­ ing potential technical solutions for various sub­ The divertor area of the ITER reactor consists of systems. The project has not proceeded any further 60 divertor cassettes, each of which weighs about so far, since the ex-vessel area maintenance sys­ 25,000 kg. During reactor maintenance, the diver ­ tems in ITER have not yet been opened up to tor cassettes are removed from the reactor and research and development. The concept studied is transported to the maintenance area along a track. still a potential object for further research, however, and the aim is to return to it in 1997. The concept Remote maintenance and viewing systems developed can also be used for the inspection of more conventional structures. The remote maintenance and inspection systems in ITER contain potential new applications for inter­ The test device for the robot designed for blanket active machinery systems and moving robot com ­ element replacement in the ITER reactor petence developed in Finland. Work on charting (ROBERTINO) is located at the EU Joint Research this potential more accurately began in 1993-1995, Centre in Ispra, Italy. TheAutomation Technology and attempts were made to find work that could be Laboratory of Helsinki University of Technology appended to the existing research and development was involved in research on the interactive guid ­ programme. Also, the guidance software for a robot ance methods and software for this device. In 1995, designed for blanket element replacement was de ­ the objective was to seek alternative feasible meth­ veloped. ods for accurate remote handling in a virtual model, the fundamental problem being the expansion and The purpose of the project implemented during contraction of flexible materials during operation. 1994 was to establish whether a climbing robot The virtual model should at all times correspond based on walking technology could be used for to an actual situation, to enable accurate movement inspection duties in the ex-vessel area. This work planning for unit operations on the basis of the was undertaken by the Automation Technology model. The high radiation level of the working Laboratory of Helsinki University of Technology, space is a particular difficulty, since it excludes the Regulation Technology Laboratory of Tampere nearly all conventional measuring instruments. University of Technology and Plustech Oy. In the course of thestudy, a method was developed The ex-vessel area of a reactor is complicated, for modelling flexible structures in the modelling containing various different pipes, ducts and instru ­ software used (TELEGRIP), and basic designs ments. A number of diverse, often unplanned in­ were sought for two potential methods that would spection jobs have to be undertaken in the area, enable the model to conform to the real world. calling for visual observations and measurements with instruments. At the end of 1995, Finland was offered the chance of participating in development of the IV VS (In- This environment should be easily navigable by a Vessel Viewing System) by studying the function ­ fairly small inspection robot, conveying the neces­ ality of a concept previously designed at JET and sary information to the user and carrying out light by designing the device in detail. A consortium repairs that are not part of planned maintenance. formed by Imatran Voima Oy, VTT Automation, The conditions in the area resemble conditions in VTT Electronics and the Automation Technology space; further hindrances include the strong mag ­ Laboratory of Helsinki University of Technology netic field and the radiation level, though this is not was launched, and the project started in February as high as inside the reactor. 1996.

48 3 Effectiveness of results nies about fusion has been a major achievement. As industry sees it, the main objectives of Finland ’s fusion programme are: 3.1 Industrial competence • technology transfer, i.e. learning and using the and potential knowledge and skills existing and being devel ­ oped in the fusion programme; The operating strategy of Finnish companies par­ • obtaining a market position in ITER and other fusion projects. ticipating in fusion research hasbeen discussed by a separate working group consisting of Matti Kankaanpaa and Pertti Pale, with Jorma Routti, Successful negotiations with the EFET consor ­ Erkki Rantala, lira Andersson and Seppo Kart- tium, making Finnish companies eligible for EU tunen in its management group. and ITER-EDA fusion deliveries and establishing a call-for-tender practice are the most important On the basis of the industry working group analy­ ways of improving the potential for Finnish indus ­ sis, participation in European fusion research, and try to participate in fusion research projects. particularly in construction of the ITER reactor, offers Finnish industry an enticing prospect. Euro ­ Imatran Voima Oy has been accepted as an EFET partner, and its membership became valid in 1996. pean industry is contributing about FIM 100 mil­ lion per annum to the design and about FIM 10 Industrial orders by ITER-EDA are only placed billion to the construction of ITER. With active with qualified industrial companies selected when the EDA stage was launched in 1992. The list was marketing, Finland could well win about 5% to updated with companies from new EU Member 10% of all ITER deliveries from the EU in 1998- States during 1996. Meanwhile, a preliminary call- 2008, i.e. annual sales of up to FIM 200 million. for-tenders practice has been agreed on with the Then there are the EU fusion programme ’s internal Commission and the management of the NET orders for its own equipment, made on the basis of Team. This has ensured that Finnish companies, tenders. too, have received calls for tenders from the EU programme since March 1995. For Finnish industry to capture as large a share of the orders placed with EU industry, the following Preparing tenders has proved to be a daunting task, objectives should be adopted: particularly for SMEs. Tenders must be carefully • close cooperation between industry and re­ search institutions, increasingly on the terms of prepared, since the selection is made purely on the basis of written tenders. This practice should be industry; developed so that it is not quite so taxing on SMEs. • alliance with EFET, a consortium of six major Programme subsidies should also be allocated to European industrial companies interested in fu­ sion; the preparation of tenders. • placing Finnish people in key positions; • obtaining commissions at the ITER planning The association agreement has given Finland a stage; good position in the NET Team in Garching, which coordinates participation by the European Home • focusing Finnish fusion research at the planning Team in ITER work. Apart from its official com ­ stage and conducting an aggressive marketing mittee membership, Finland also has seats on two campaign at the construction stage; • active and coordinated participation. RF heating coordination committees and expert posts in ad hoc groups discussing special issues in The strategies of the industrial companies and re­ the programme. search units participating in the FFUSION research programme are extremely compatible. Finland has proposed thefollowing groups of com ­ panies to be placed on the qualified list by the From industry ’s point of view, the research pro ­ Commission: gramme has a special advantage in creating closer cooperation between universities and research cen­ 1. Outokumpu Superconductors Oy tres. Dispelling the prejudices of Finnish compa ­ 2. The Finnish Blanket Group

49 Outokumpu Poricopper Oy, Imatran Voima Oy, the degree of EU funding in ITER Task work. At Rauma Materials Oy, Diarc Technology Oy, the same time, Finnish industry is getting the best High Speed Tech Oy, PI Rauma Oy possible preparation in competing for deliveries at 3. The Finnish Remote Handling Group the ITER construction stage. Imatran Voima Oy, Plustech Oy, Hytar Oy, Tehdasmallit Oy, PI Rauma Oy.

All the companies named above have also been 3.2 Scientist training approved for the qualified list. The groups have been formed to compete for ITER-EDA projects The FFUSION programme plays an important role assigned to Europe. Imatran Voima, Outokumpu in scientist training, since the research areas repre­ Superconductors and Poricopper, DIARC Tech­ sent the frontiers of high technology and physics. nology Oy, High Speed Tech Oy and Hytar Oy are Close international cooperation and the perform ­ already participating in projects in the EU pro ­ ance of ITER, JET and technology tasks to tight gramme. Industrial participation is being coordi ­ schedules constitutes the best possible training for nated by Prizztech Oy. those intending to be top scientists.

The Blanket and Remote Handling groups consist The technology projects in the FFUSION pro ­ of networks of major companies and small high- gramme represent distinct entities suitable as com ­ tech companies. The company group is also sup­ ponents of a licentiate thesis or doctoral disserta ­ ported by units of VTT and the universities. The tion, so the projects offer excellent scope for young arrangement enables excellent flexibility in tailor ­ researchers. In physics, fusion plasma research has ing projects according to the best know-how avail­ yielded several doctoral dissertations, and more are able. As an example, in the IVVS project prepared forthcoming. The code development, testing and towards the end of 1995, the research institutions application of demanding computer codes has re­ involved were VTT Automation, VTT Electronics sulted in several diploma theses. Parallel calcula­ and the Automation Technology Laboratory of tion is a new development focus, in which the Helsinki University of Technology, with I VO as programme leads the field. the industrial partner. The EU partners were the NET Team and JET. The funding consists of con ­ tributions, with Euratom providing between 25% and 100%, viz. an overall funding contribution of 4 Main results of over 60%. the interim assessment The benefit of the programme network and the EU programme to small high-tech companies such as The two main objectives of the FFUSION pro ­ DIARC Technology Oy, High Speed Tech Oy and gramme have been integration of Finnish fusion Plustech Oy where technology transfer is con ­ research in the EU fusion research programme and cerned is clear. For example, an extensive testing awakening the interest of Finnish industry in the and characterization programme for coatings and potential afforded by fusion research. Both objec ­ explosive welding joins is being carried out, the tives have been achieved very well. Joining the EU results of which can be used by the companies. A programme took even less time than anticipated. major proportion of the funding already comes from the EU Commission. By participating in the On March 13, 1995, Tekes and Euratom signed an EU programme, companies can also improve their association agreement and an agreement on international recognition. NET/ITER cooperation and staff mobility. The ex­ isting agreements are effective until 1998. Finnish IVO’s membership of the EFET group opens a membership of the European JET joint venture was direct channel for industrial participation in ITER- negotiated and approved by the JET Council in EDA design work, and there were already clear spring 1995. Confirmation of membership was signs of this in late 1995. It is possible to obtain postponed to 1996. In 1995, the EU already con ­ 100% funding in this way, significantly increasing tributed FIM 1.8 million in funding to Finnish

50 fusion research projects. Finnish scientists have 5 Further planning based on become well placed in EU fusion research organi ­ zations, both scientific and technological. the interim assessment

The organization of the FFUSION programme, with clear contact points and responsible people, has met the EU’s expectations. The close national The threat with the programme, as with all long ­ coordination and the fairly stable multi-annual term programmes, is of progress coming to a halt. funding that the programme provides for are a vital In future, attention should be paid to developing precondition for internationalization. projects and to guaranteeing the possibility for new projects to be launched every few years. The FFUSION programme has expanded from pure fusion physics research to more specific sub- Finnish fusion research has quite limited human areas of fusion technology involving fusion reactor resources at its disposal, and the programme rests materials research and remote handling systems. on the work of just a few people. A commendable Finnish industry is estimated to have good com ­ number of Finns have gone to work abroad, but petitive potential in these fields. Due to FFUSION, more visitors should be invited to Finland. The overall knowledge about fusion research has programme must see to it that new researchers are clearly increased and gained profundity, and trained. knowledge about the FFUSION focus areas has taken on greater depth. Each contributing funding party to the programme has its own control mechanisms and reporting ob ­ The FFUSION programme has awakened indus ­ ligations. Despite this, the amount of organiza ­ try’s interest in fusion research. Its contribution to tional work must be kept as low as possible. For the ITER reactor project could be nearly FIM 100 theprogramme to be effective, it is very important million at the planning stage and nearly ten times for a single report and plan to cover as many needs as much at the construction stage. Already, fusion as possible. The programme format also offers a energy research has expanded the scope of appli­ clear synergy benefit for fusion research publicity cation of certain Finnish innovations and thus im­ and marketing. proved the success potential of the high-tech com ­ panies concerned. Theresearch plans and reports drawn up for Tekes and the EU Commission in the FFUSION pro ­ The success of Finnish fusion technology projects gramme are well synchronized with each other. in obtaining EU funding demonstrates their high Since the main objective of the FFUSION pro ­ quality. Achievement of internationalization obj ec- gramme is to participate in the EU fusion research tives more rapidly than anticipated has led to in­ programme, project proposals in the programme creased specification of research areas and new are mainly approved by the EU Commission and goalsetting. the international steering committee group of the Euratom-Tekes association. Projects in the FFUSION programme are subject to tendering and controlled in many different ways. Major research projects submitted to the Academy In the main, projects should fall within the scope of Finland must be submitted in May, which causes of (the) association agreement approved by the EU a shift of about six months compared with the rest Commission. This is monitored by the national of the programme. The planning period for Acad ­ management group of the programme and the As­ emy projects is one calendar year. The EU Com ­ sociation Steering Committee, with both national mission is at present contributing 25% to Acad ­ and Commission representatives. Technology pro ­ emy-funded projects. The Executive Committee of jects must be opened to international tendering. the FFUSION programme monitors Academy re­ Projects funded by the Academy of Finland are search projects. being assessed separately for the time being; pre­ liminary research projects must be approved by the A publicity strategy should be drawn up for the national management group and Tekes. FFUSION programme.

51 6 Research organization and The members of the FFUSION research pro ­ Executive Committees gramme management group in 1995 were: • Professor Rainer Salomaa, Helsinki University of Technology, chairman The research units participating in the FFUSION • Managing Director Erkki Rare, Plustech Oy programme in 1993-1995 were: • Professor Juhani Keinonen, University of • VTT Energy Helsinki • VTT Manufacturing Technology • Senior Technical Advisor Martti Korkiakoski, • VTT Chemical Process Technology Tekes • VTT Automation • Head of Product Development Lenni Laakso, • VTT Electronics Outokumpu Poricopper • Department of Technical Physics, Helsinki • Research Professor Lasse Mattila, VTT University of Technology • Head of Development Juha Paappanen, • Automation Technology Laboratory, Imatran Voima OY Helsinki University of Technology • Perth Pate, Prizztech Oy/The NET Team • Regulation Technology Laboratory, Tampere University of Technology In 1994, the FFUSION research programme man­ « Department of Hydraulics and Automation, agement group included Marja Englund repre­ Tampere University of Technology senting IVO, Timo Erkolahti representing Ou­ • Accelerator Laboratory, University of Helsinki tokumpu, Markku Oikarainen representing Tekes and Jukka Lindgren representing the Ministry of VTT Automation and Electronics did not join the Trade and Industry. Programme director Seppo FFUSION programme until late in 1995. A dozen Karttunen and research scientist Timo Pattikangas companies are also involved in Finnish fusion re­ of VTT Energy have acted as secretaries. search. The main European partners are the JET installation and the NET Team, which coordinates Members of the Euratom-Tekes Association Steer­ European participation in ITER planning. ing Committee in 1995: The FFUSION research programme is coordinated • Director of the EU Fusion Programme by VTT Energy. The Executive Committee is Dr. Charles Maisonnier, EU Commission, chaired by Professor Rainer Salomaa of the De­ chairman partment of Technical Physics at the Helsinki Uni­ • Professor Hardo Bruhns, EU Commission versity of Technology, and the director of the pro ­ • Dr. Janos Darvas, EU Commission gramme is senior research scientist Seppo Kart- • Dr. Seppo Hannus, Head of Energy Technology, tunen of VTT Energy. Tekes • Dr. Matti Kankaanpaa, Finnish Academy of In spring 1995, the programme was linked to the Technology EU fusion programme via an association agree ­ • Professor Pekka Silvennoinen, ment signed by Euratom and Tekes. The Euratom- Research Director, VTT Tekes association is the thirteenth associate mem­ ber in the EU fusion programme. The chairmanship The secretary of the Steering Committee is Martti of the Association Steering Committee rests with Korkiakoski of Tekes. the EU Commission and Tekes in alternate years. In 1995, the chairman was Charles Maisonnier, The research is being funded by Tekes, the EU director of the European programme, from the Commission, the Academy of Finland, the partici­ Commission ’s science, technology and research pating research units and industrial companies and, directorate DG XII. to a minor extent, various foundations.

52 Chapter 5 SUSTAINABLE PAPER Energy in paper and board production

Jaakko Lahepelto try of Trade and Industry in 1993. One of these is The Finnish Pulp and Paper Research Institute SUSTAINABLE PAPER. (KCL) The programme continues from where the RAINA programme on low-energy paper making and the KUITU programme on low-energy mechanical I Background and pulp production ended in 1992. It will last six years, ending in 1998. The title of the programme reflects objectives the need to orientate the production and product structure of the pulp industry towards the principles The forest industry accounts for a quarter of total of sustainable development. energy consumption in Finland and a third of elec­ trical power consumption. The basic tenets of the programme are: • the need to cut down the specific consumption Energy consumption in the forest industry has of electricity and other primary energy; grown by an average of 4% to 5% per annum, • the need to improve the recyclability of prod ­ mainly due to considerable growth in production ucts; caused by greater efficiency and new investments. • the need to improve production efficiency fac­ The new paper machines being constructed and tors in order to reduce wastage; already completed will perpetuate this growth. A • the need to support development of energy-ef ­ significant proportion of investments is targeted at ficient technologies in the paper industry. paper grades whose raw material is mechanical pulp; this is well suited to Finnish silviculture but The central objectives of the programmes are: highly energy-intensive. • to develop technology for present manufactur ­ ing processes enabling attainment of the world ’s In 1992, the Finnish Government approved an en­ lowest specific energy consumption and to ergy conservation programme that sets energy con ­ make use of the internal energy production po ­ sumption objectives for industry, measured as spe­ tential of processes; cific consumption. The objective is to achieve sav ­ • to simplify new process designs and their con ­ ings of 10% by 2005, compared with the 1990 trol systems so as to significantly reduce energy level. The objective for electricity conservation has consumption; a market value of about FIM 220 million per an­ • to develop present and future low-energy paper num. Central organizations in industry committed industry products. themselves to this objective in autumn 1992 with an agreement signed by the Government and in­ On the basis of these objectives, the programme dustry. Practical measures aimed at attaining the was organized into three areas: the manufacture of objective include the eight second-generation en­ mechanical pulp, the manufacture of paper and ergy research programmes launched by the Minis­ board, and mill design and process control. 2 Results in major Results in mechanical pulping research areas Progress has been made in understanding and man­ aging the process, leading to results in what is 2.1 Energy savings in the manu ­ called ‘small step’ energy savings. No signs of a major technological breakthrough yielding to radi ­ facture of mechanical pulp cal energy savings have yet been seen, however.

Mechanical pulp is used primarily in the manufac ­ Energy savings in the order of 10% to 15%, meas­ ture of newsprint, mechanical printing papers and ured by specific consumption, can already be at­ board for consumer packagings. These paper tained with a number of changes in the usual me­ grades are of key importance in the Finnish paper chanical pulp making methods - for example, industry ’s product range. Finnish spruce has grinding or refining at a higher pressure and tem­ proved to be the best raw material for mechanical perature, refining with a shorter residence time in pulp. the plate gap zone, and grinding at reduced rpm. In all these methods, pulp quality deteriorates The benefits of mechanical pulp include slightly, i.e. there is lower fibre length and poorer • opacity and excellent ink absorption; brightness. • z-directional elasticity of paper or board; • bending stiffness; A better understanding of the process has led to • high yield and low manufacturing and invest ­ changes in running practices, including better con ­ ment costs. trol of quality and process variables. Sorting and fractioning methods have also been improved, and Properties limiting the use of mechanical pulp the various fractions can now be used more effi­ ciently. On theother hand, further research is being • poor strength properties; undertaken to eliminate the adverse effects caused • low pulp brightness and strong tendency to yel­ by the process changes mentioned in the previous lowing; paragraph. Practical results are expected from the • low absorbency of pulp, particularly after a pe­ pulp fractionating study, brightness permanence riod of storage; study, and development work on refiner plates and • problems with taste and smell; grinding surfaces. • high electricity consumption. In equipment development, advances in grindstone Energy issues underlie nearly all research involv ­ sharpening equipment, new surface materials for ing mechanical pulp, since changes in manufactur ­ grindstones, refiner plate improvements and the ing conditions affect not only the papermaking development of process control devices for me­ properties of pulp but the specific energy consump ­ chanical pulp making, could be mentioned. tion, too. Sufficient control of pulping still requires a lot of A major part of the research carried out in the basic research. Only a thorough investigation of programme has focused on investigating the theory fibres and the fibre matrix can lead to a radical of pulping. The objective is to lower energy con ­ reduction in energy consumption in pulping. sumption radically. At present, the theoretical en­ ergy efficiency of mechanical pulp making is only Thenational energy balance does not indicate that 0.1% to 0.6%, if the theoretical surface energy specific energy consumption in mechanical pulp increase in the pulping process is compared with making has gone down. Thisis due to simultaneous the pulping energy needed in practice. Another advances in printing paper quality, which means important object of study is ways of improving the that the pulp used as raw material for paper is now efficiency of existing processes, the obj ective being of a finer grade, requiring more energy to produce. for savings in the order of 10% to 30%. Without the research contribution of the SUS-

54 TAINABLE PAPER and FIBRE programmes, perature of the grindstone. A slotted screen tech­ however, specific energy consumption would ac­ nique for screening groundwood has also been tually be far higher than it now is. developed. These results have been commercial ­ ized. Defibration theory Refining process In the area of fibre morphology, work has focused on characterizing methods for thicker latewood The flow properties of a production-scale refiner fibres and thinner earlywood fibres and the effect have been studied in an extensive research project, of refining on both types of fibre. Papers manufac ­ resulting in a theoretical two-dimensional flow tured from thick-walled latewood fibres have a model with energy balance. greater tendency to roughen than those manufac ­ tured from thin-walled earlywood fibres. Thick- The radial power distribution in the plate gap of a walled fibres are also more easily blackened during single disc mill refiner was established in a study calendering. which also evaluated the defibration mechanism by analyzing the pulp samples taken from the plate A theoretical dynamic pulping model was devel ­ gap at different radii. These results have already oped as a result of research begun in the FIBRE proved useful for refiner plate development. programme. Ways of lowering refining energy consumption This incorporates the basic physical phenomena have been studied by changing the operating point essential for treatment of the wood matrix with a of refiners (main refining and reject refining). Re­ variable pressure field and common to both grind ­ sults obtained so far show that benefit can be ing and refining. On the basis of this model, a achieved provided that the operating point control method has been developed on a laboratory grinder, in a narrow operating window can be maintained based on use of a grinding surface with customized through on-line control technology. dimensions and completely defined. The method developed for the manufacture of a customized When the rpm of a refiner is increased, it is possible grinding surface adds a new dimension to the study to produce refiner pulp with a particular CSF value of pulping mechanisms. A patent has been applied at 25% lower energy consumption, but the fibre for. length decreases and the strength properties of the pulp deteriorate by about 10%. It is hoped that Grinding process developments in plate segment geometry will off ­ set the decrease in fibre length. Tests on the laboratory grinder proved that it is possible to increase production by changing the Energy savings of about 20% can be achieved if sharpening method on the stone, enabling thetem ­ the fines are removed by fractionation after every perature to be raised in the grinding zone at a refining stage and the grinding process focuses relatively low spray water temperature. The meas­ only on the fibre fraction. ured energy saving is about 10%. A new grindstone surfacing technique using a new ceramic material The following methods for reducing energy con ­ was developed in the same project. Theapplicabil ­ sumption have also been examined: ity of this material is being studied further on a • moving from single-disc refining to double disc semi-industrial scale. refining; • increasing the rpm of the refiner; To replace the traditional grindstone sharpening • Thermopulp, refining at an elevated tempera­ device, a sharpening technique using a high-pres­ ture; sure water jet has been developed. This has proved • chemical treatment of the long-fibre fraction. to have significant advantages compared with ear­ lier equipment. A measurement device attached to The reported energy savings were about 10% to the finger plate has also been developed which 15%, but the methods have their disadvantages. allows continuous monitoring of the surface tem­ Generally speaking, they produce pulp with a lower

55 brightness and fibre length, affecting the tear million in all. Vacuum system audits or develop ­ strength of the pulp. Chemical treatment, on the ment projects have been carried out on nine paper other hand, usually lowers opacity. machines in, or as a result of, the research pro ­ gramme. These demonstrated an annual saving po ­ Enzyme treatment of the coarse pulp fraction en­ tential of FIM 7 million. In all, control measures ables 10% to 15% energy savings and produces and minor investments could probably generate pulp with normal fibre length and optical proper ­ total savings of FIM 50 million in electricity and ties; in this, it clearly differs from other energy heating costs in existing paper production lines. conservation methods. The refining must be a gen ­ tle process in order to produce this result. The Research into new drying methods has revealed economy of this method and its applicability to significant potential for energy savings, but realiz­ industrial processes have not yet been studied. ing these savings requires the methods studied to be developed to the industrial level while also Pulp pretreatment and sorting processes solving the question of how to use the low-grade heat generated as a by-product. This has led to On the basis of pilot tests, a new sorter has been greater emphasis on energy integration and waste developed with interchangeable rotors for sorting heat use than the master plan provided for. The first at high or low consistency. A recycled pulp pro ­ benefits gained from new drying method develop ­ duction line based on the new sorter technology ment will probably be achieved through better ma­ has been developed. This line uses 30% to 40% chine manufacturing technology competitiveness, less energy than a similar conventional production but this will take five to ten years. line, since the number of electric motors, for ex­ ample, is 40% to 50% lower. A particularly tangible result in this research area is the introduction of a Condebelt dryer in a board Chemical treatment prior to refining can be per­ machine at Enso Oy’s Pankakoski mill this spring. formed either directly on the chips or on the coarse This development work, which took nearly 20 fraction of the first refining stage. An apparatus years in all, was supported through both the SUS­ developed for chip handling removes the air from TAINABLE PAPER programme and its predeces ­ the porous cavities in the chips by vacuum treat­ sor, the RAIMA programme. ment. The chips are then penetrated with a chemi­ cal solution. In grinding after this treatment, the Results in paper and board manufacturing energy saving is about 10% to 15%. This apparatus is ready for demonstration in industry. The operation of a paper or board machine, like that of a pulp dryer, consists mostly of web dewa ­ tering. The initial consistency in the headbox may vary from 0.3% to 1.5%, while the dry matter 2.2 Energy savings in the manu ­ content of the finished product on the reel-up is facture of paper and board over 90%. The energy consumption of a modem paper machine is between 3 and 5 GJ and 0.4 to In accordance with the main focuses of energy 0.9 MWh per tonne of paper, depending on the consumption, research has focused on vacuum de ­ paper grade. Thus, a large paper machine produc ­ watering on the wire and press sections of the paper ing nearly 1000 tonnes per day uses heat in the machine, the development of web drying methods order of 4 to 5 TJ per day, requiring 30 to 35 MW replacing cylinder drying, and infrared drying of of electricity. coating. These figures do not include the energy that may Extensive mill-specific audits have been carried be needed in mechanical pulp making. out to establish the status of wire section dewater ­ ing, raw water use, steam and cooling systems. It For example, on a production line manufacturing was established then that the drying sections of the coated magazine paper, most of the electrical en­ five paper machines examined would yield a real­ ergy (about 35%) is taken up by the coating ma­ izable annual heat saving potential worth FIM 2.7 chine, particularly for infrared drying. Pulp han­

56 dling (pumping, refining) takes 25%, vacuum measurements. Changes were suggested designed equipment 12%, paper machine drives 12% and to optimize the use of vacuum energy. The annual other applications 16%. For a newsprint production energy savings on the two paper machines are line, the figures are: pulp handling 31%, vacuum estimated at 7.9 GWh. equipment 20%, paper machine drives 30% and other applications 19%. Water volume measurement devices installed in the wire and press sections of the paper machine were Most of the thermal energy is used to dry the paper used to gather information on the performance of and coating. The problem in conventional cylinder the vacuum system under different running condi ­ drying is its inefficiency calculated in terms of the tions with the aim of establishing the prerequisites paper area unit; this calls for expensive and space­ for successful control. In conditioning the third felt, consuming technical designs and causes difficul ­ a high-speed compressor was used as a vacuum ties in the further use of low-grade heat. The energy source; contrary to other vacuum sources, its out ­ consumption for drying steam in Finland is about put can easily be controlled. 55,000 TJ per annum. Wet pressing Vacuum dewatering Wet pressing, which takes place at a lower dry matter content than at present (about 10% to 20%), Vacuum dewatering has been examined using the absorption tester developed in the programme. The enables a reduction in vacuum energy and an im­ tester uses high impulse frequency and extremely provement in paper machine runnability. short vacuum pulses about one millisecond long. In three part-projects applicable press structures are being studied, a mathematical model of the wet A calculation model was developed to determine the dewatering curves illustrating the development pressing process is being developed and wet press­ of dry matter content for any headbox stock exam­ ing tests on a dynamic nip simulator are being ined. An Excel spreadsheet was devised to calcu­ carried out. late the effect of vacuum levels and changes in vacuum devices in the wire section on the dry Drying content and the energy requirement of the wire In a joint project with the EU, the impingement section drives, as well as the theoretical need for drying of paper and textiles with superheated steam vacuum. The program is being used commercially is being studied. The test apparatus constructed has by the engineering office that developed it. been used to examine steam recycling and super­ heating and the technical design of the dryer in Several energy audits concerning vacuum systems drying a continuous web. The integration of a su­ and the use of vacuum in the forming and press perheated steam dryer in a paper mill energy pro ­ sections of a paper machine have been imple­ duction system has also been studied. If the prob ­ mented within the programme. A pilot machine lems identified in this research can be solved, the was used to make vacuum measurements which method offers potential for considerable savings in were then taken as a basis, using regression analy­ drying energy. sis, in creating a mathematical model on a board machine to estimate the effect of different vacuum Since the steam used in impingement drying is levels on dry matter content after the wire section. superheated and the dryer generates low-pressure saturated steam, profound changes must be made In the study, the vacuum systems of two paper in conventional paper mill energy production sys­ machines at one mill were optimized and overca ­ tems before the method is introduced. Because of pacity in the vacuum system identified. The energy this, a study has been made to establish what the savings resulting from the measures proposed total best methods would be in terms of technology and 4 GWh per annum, or about FIM 800,000. energy economy for providing the energy produc ­ tion and heat recovery needed for steam impinge ­ The functioning of the paper machines’ suction ment drying; the overall profitability of a paper mill systems was studied using air and water content fitted with such a system has also been studied.

57 The cost of a paper mill built with the new super­ 70 GWh per annum. The electricity savings poten ­ heated steam concept is of the same order as a mill tial was 1 GWh per annum on average. fitted with an air impingement dryer, but lower than a mill with cylinder drying. If the system is in­ stalled at an existing mill, the energy costs per tonne of paper decrease by a few per cent; at the 2.3 Energy savings in mill design same time, production can be increased by about and process control 5%. In both cases, the profitability depends largely on the potential for using surplus energy. The objective here is to reduce energy consumption by simplifying processes in the paper industry and The Condebelt test dryer has been developed into by improving the efficiency of paper and board a demonstration-ready drying system in the re­ machines. This can be achieved by applying unit search programme. The drying speed with a Con ­ processes under development and fast-advancing debelt is about 5.5 times that of cylinder drying measurement and control technologies in innova ­ using the same drying steam pressure, measured tive ways. by contact area. This area focuses on more effective planning of The applicability of a new installation design for paper mill energy integration from the point of the infra-red dryer designed in the RAINA pro ­ view of paper making, on simplifying process con ­ gramme was examined on five paper machines. nections, on reducing the number of machines used Tests to enhance the efficiency of IR drying were and the volume of mass transfer, and on improving continued on four of these. the efficiency of paper and board manufacturing.

In an extensive energy survey project, the energy Mill design and process control results management of the steam and cooling systems of five paper machines were audited and improve ­ Two preliminary studies were commissioned from ments suggested. It was shown that the potential consultants. The first concerned the potential en­ savings that can be profitably achieved amount to ergy savings in processes related to pumping and about 40 GWh per annum in the case of heat. The stock treatment in an SC paper mill. A study has savings potential of measures that need further since been done in this area concerning a new type study is about 10 GWh per annum for electricity of pressure screen used as a pump, and a new and 20 to 40 GWh per annum for heat. simplified mechanical pulp screening plant con ­ cept has been developed. WEB FORMING, reducing the amount of water used The second preliminary study concentrated on sim­ plifying the component processes of a pulp or paper A gap former for transport packaging boards has mill. At least three of the proposals made have been been developed in a corporate project within the discussed in various projects in the programme. A research programme. This has been examined in simple and efficient new screening plant for recy­ action on a test machine. The first commercial cled paper has been developed as a joint develop ­ board machine utilizing this concept was delivered ment project. in autumn 1995. The former can use higher head- box consistencies than usual, with a 20% to 30% At the beginning of the programme, especially as decrease in pumping. work on new drying designs proceeded, the impor ­ tance of energy and water integration in a mill was The water use of seven paper machines was studied established. Projects were included in the pro ­ in order to decrease the amount of water intake and gramme aimed at developing simulation methods effluent to be treated, and to show potential savings in this area and using them to seek mill designs and in pumping and water heating. As a result, it was individual solutions that would be economical in shown that it is possible to reduce water input by terms of energy consumption and environmental 30% on average and to achieve heating savings of impact.

58 Process simplification The applicability of pulp high consistency meas­ urement based on infrared light diffusion was stud ­ A consultancy project was used to study ways of ied at various sites. The method has been success­ simplifying theprocesses of an SC paper mill, and fully used for consistency measurement after the mechanical pulp making linked to it. A potential TMP grinder. It was established that the most fea­ saving of 20% to 40% in pumping was identified. sible applications were consistency measurements and regulation on post-digester pulp, oxygen-stage In a second consultancy project, energy savings pulp, and pulp in the paper machine refiner section. potential in pulp and paper mills was studied through process simplification, new process de ­ In pulp, water and liquor flow measurements in the signs and the application of new technology in heat forest industry, flow can be determined on the basis and electricity generation. Eleven separate sites of the setting of the control valve and the pressure were examined. The results of this survey can be differential over it. Equally, it can also be deter ­ used as a basis for further research. mined on the basis of the pressure differential in the centrifugal pump. The aim is to develop a smart The sorting capacity and pumping properties of a control valve and smart pump to act as flow meters. new type of pressure screen with axial inlet have From project results, it seems that most pumps can been studied in a test installation and in mill con ­ be used for flow measurement, probably including ditions. It was established that the screen could in all rpm controlled pumps. All the control valves most cases be operated without a feeder pump, tested were suitable for flow measurement. which would simplify the sorting process. Com ­ pared with earlier screening techniques, a saving of about 35% in investment costs and 45% in Modelling and simulation energy costs could be achieved. The applicability of commercially available simu­ Measurement and control technology lation software to paper industry balance calcula­ tions and flow circuit planning has been studied. In a study financed by the Executive Committee, The best applications found were WinGEMS and shortcomings in measurement and control systems BALAS. A paper production line and waste water in the paper and pulp industries were examined. evaporator were simulated in tests. Using these The aim was to communicate to machinery manu ­ tools, models of the grinder room and refiner plant facturers what the major development needs in the were made and connected to paper machines. The field are. In the pulp industry, only mechanical pulp models were used to establish how pulp-making making was considered. The study presents a list energy consumption could be enhanced and what of the measurement needs for which online solu ­ flow connections should be used to produce low tions and/or improved designs are required in vari ­ disturbance element levels in a paper machine. The ous areas. energy pinch analysis was performed on a TMP paper production line and a paper mill complex. The objectives of an extensive j oint proj ect managed The maximum savings potential for a whole com ­ by industry and the universities are to lower specific consumption of energy, control the quality of the plex was established as 11% in winter, or 4.4 MW. refiner process, increase the reliability of measure­ ments and develop simulation and optimization In the second part of the project, simulation tools tools for component processes. SER (Specific En­ were used to establish ways in which various proc ­ ergy Requirement) controls have so far been imple­ ess techniques and connections could be used to mented in two major TMP installations; thesehave reduce energy and water consumption in paper significantly improved control over, and the even­ making. By adding a multiple effect waste water ness of, the process. One of the two mills involved evaporator to the process, the fresh water needed reported that specific energy consumption had de ­ for the paper machine’s shower water circulation creased by 2% to 3%, while quality fluctuations in could be produced within the system. The economy the refiner pulp had decreased. The implementation of the method depends on the quality and amount of fuzzy quality controls is in preparation. of surplus heat at the mill.

59 3 Effectiveness of results improving technological competence implemented in practice is rather small. Condebelt, where devel ­ opment began 20 years ago, has progressed as far Industrial relevance as the first production unit commissioning. Com ­ ponent functions in paper machines, such as dewa ­ The joint development projects, in particular, show tering in the formation section and better under ­ results that are immediately usable by industry. It standing of the drying process and the refining takes longer to apply results from public research process are expected to improve competitiveness. projects in practice, and the attainment of results that will eventually be usable by industry is more Research on new wet pressing technology, on dry ­ uncertain. ing in steam atmosphere and on impingement dry ­ ing with superheated steam, has been launched in The programme Executive Committee considers it the programme. Commercial applications will not important for the programme to include not only emerge for some years, but if successful, these basic research but also a sufficient amount of ap­ could greatly advance know-how in this area in plied research, and for the range between the two Finland. extremes to be flexibly covered. Industry is more easily interested in solutions to practical problems. Energy conservation objectives can largely be Networking achieved through applied research addressing prac­ tical problems. Cooperation between research institutes has clearly increased in the course of this programme Competent and active industrial representation on and its predecessor. Individual research projects the programme Executive Committee and steering have been purposefully combined to form joint groups has ensured the inclusion of either indus ­ projects, creating a practical platform for coopera ­ try-proposed or otherwise industry-related re­ tion. New partners and cross-discipline methods search projects. have been found for solving problems.

In the case of mechanical pulp, the proportion of At the same time, research in the field has spread basic research has been deliberately kept high, out from the Helsinki area to the rest of Finland. aiming at better knowledge of the cellular structure In addition to the Otaniemi ‘campus’ (the Finnish of wood and its controlled opening. The industrial Pulp and Paper Research Institute (KCL), the labo ­ relevance of the results is, of course, difficult to ratories of Helsinki University of Technology and predict. However, it has been advantageous to or ­ VTT), we must mention Jyvaskyla, Tampere, Lap- ganize this particular field of research as a pro ­ peenranta, Oulu and Turku, where universities and gramme, since it is difficult to obtain critical mass research institutes have taken an active part in the in research relying on several different funding research programme. sources.

More sophisticated technology Scientist training

The results yielded by the research programme The SUSTAINABLE PAPER programme has gen ­ have high potential for raising technological com ­ erated studies from diploma theses to doctoral dis ­ petitiveness. sertations. According to information received by the coordinating office, one doctoral dissertation, The programme has only been running for three two licentiate ’s theses and a dozen or so diploma years, so the number of new processes or devices theses or comparable papers have been written.

60 4 Main results of Committee feels that the SUSTAINABLE PAPER programme could include certain new research ele­ the interim assessment ments in the pulp and paper industry that are con ­ nected with energy research.

The Executive Committee feels, that since the pro ­ 4.1 Feasible structure of gramme was founded as an energy research pro ­ project portfolio gramme, it should remain one and should continue to be developed as one. However, it should also be Programme implementation deviates from the possible to study entire research areas relevant to master plan in two clear respects. In mill design energy use even if these include elements that and process control, process simplification and strictly speaking do not come under energy re­ control system development have not proceeded search. according to the master plan. Supplementing the research programme as pro ­ Two preliminary studies were conducted in process posed above would mean concentrating on energy- simplification at the start of the programme, but intensive processes such as stock handling and only a small number of research projects have refining, pumping and mass transfer and also re­ followed these up. This area falls within the sphere ducing the use of water in paper making. The main of planning and consultancy offices. Their interest motivation in this area comes from environmental in and financial capacity for investing in develop ­ issues and the industry ’s need to remain at the ment is understandably quite marginal. The area forefront of progress, if only for image and mar­ has since been replaced with energy integration, keting reasons; rational use of energy is also a which is considered an important future focus. consideration, since its importance grows when processes are closed. Another deviation from the master plan is that research on the fibre line in chemical pulp making and recycled fibre pulp making is virtually non-ex ­ istent. Only one joint development project, con ­ cluded at the end of 1995, has been implemented in this area. 5 Further planning based on the interim assessment Otherwise, the project portfolio is considered fea­ sible. It includes an appropriate mix of small-step development projects and research aiming at much The Executive Committee has decided to propose more radical advances. that the research programme for 1996 should focus on the following five aspects: • mechanical pulp and stock handling; • web forming, dewatering and drying; 4.2 Programme scope • pumping and mass transfer; • integrated paper mill energy systems; The Executive Committee feels there is no need to • paper making with less effluent. make changes in the statement of scope in the master plan relative to other energy programmes. Since Tekes funding was cut in the State budget for The only other relevant Tekes programme is RE­ 1996, however, it proved necessary to change the NEWABLE PAPER, which ended according to scale of the follow-up plan. Internal coordination plan at the beginning of 1996. No demarcation in Tekes also caused a change in programme con ­ problems occurred between the two programmes, tent, mainly in two research areas. A separate re­ since RENEWABLE PAPER concentrated mainly search programme was launched for paper making on paper quality research. Tekes is considering how with less effluent, and pumping and mass transfer to organize chemical wood processing research will be managed in separate projects with no pro ­ once RENEWABLE PAPER ends. The Executive gramme links.

61 Since no acceptable applications were received for mittee would like the steering groups to provide the integrated paper mill energy systems area for hypotheses in their discussion of research topics. 1996, the number of research areas was reduced to The aim of each research project should be to two: mechanical pulp and stock handling; and web reinforce or refute its own basic premise. forming, dewatering and drying. It is difficult to interest operative personnel in the Also taking into account the fact that some projects forest industry in energy savings. It has proved were turned into joint development projects within easier to involve operative personnel when re­ the reduced funding framework, the volume of search has a practical objective. There are excep­ research under the programme was cut by about tions, though. For instance, no such problems were 20% on 1995. encountered in the TMP research mill tests, per­ haps because the problems were widely acknow ­ In future, SUSTAINABLE PAPER will concen ­ ledged and solutions awaited. Cooperation be­ trate further on mechanical pulp research. Along ­ tween the forest industry and equipment manufac ­ side this, energy issues in paper and board making turers in the Executive Committees and steering and energy integration development will be re­ groups has been exemplary. tained. Other problems besides those involving energy technology will also be taken up in me­ Two steering groups are enough instead of three. chanical pulp research. Drawing the line between paper and board making, on the one hand, and mill design and process con ­ trol, on the other, has been arbitrary. Paper drying falls under the former, while steam and cooling 6 Research organization and systems, through energy integration, belong to the latter. Using two steering groups will also conserve Executive Committees the industry ’s expert resources.

The Executive Committee and steering groups In general, SUSTAINABLE PAPER has been kept have proved functional and competent. The forest under better control than its predecessors KUITU industry has experience of intercorporate coopera ­ and RAINA. The programme is now put together tion in research, so the present cooperation in en­ by selecting research applications that aim at ob ­ ergy research caused no difficulties. It is consid ­ jectives selected beforehand. The earlier pro ­ ered particularly advantageous for rival manufac ­ grammes attempted to select suitable research ar­ turing methods, such as grinding and refining, to eas from the proposals submitted by research in­ be studied in parallel within the same programme. stitutes, and this was a weakness.

The members of the steering groups have com ­ The research itself is of fairly good quality, with a plained of a shortage of time caused by their own few exceptions. These exceptions include projects jobs, making it difficult for them to consider mat­ in which the internal coordination did not work as ters in detail in the groups. The Executive Com ­ expected.

62 Chapter 6 LIEKKI 2 - Research programme for combustion and gasification techniques

Mikko Hupa, Abo Akademi University Indeed, the LIEKKI 2 programme aims to support Jukka Matin I in na, Abo Akademi University the Finnish combustion and gasification equipment Maria Ljung, Abo Akademi University industry. In addition, LIEKKI 2 serves the devel ­ opment work on combustion technology and emis­ sion abatement carried out by those responsible for energy production in industry and the municipali ­ I Background and ties.

objectives The globally targeted reductions in emissions of greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide, also The LIEKKI 2 programme seeks to promote the require that combustion techniques are improved. development of combustion- and gasification- The charges payable for carbon dioxide emissions based energy conversion techniques in Finland. may significantly accelerate the commercialization Special emphasis is given to research serving the of new and more efficient combustion techniques development of new, more efficient and environ ­ giving lower emissions. ‘Emission taxes’ have also mentally friendly techniques, but the programme increased interest in expanding the use of biofuels also includes research on conventional combustion in the generation of electricity. In fact, biofuels are techniques. especially suitable for new pressurized techniques due to their remarkable reactivity compared with Another important aim is to maintain and improve coal, for instance. the know-how of parties engaged in research, es­ pecially universities. In the following, six combustion and gasification applications interesting from the Finnish point of Finland leads the field in many sectors of combus ­ view are discussed in more detail. The related tion technology. We have comprehensive experi­ development work is supported by the LIEKKI 2 ence in using various combustion techniques and programme. fuels in energy production in industry and the mu­ nicipalities. Moreover, combustion equipment is one of Finland ’s main export articles; in particular, fluidized bed combustors, pulp mill black liquor 1.1 Fluidized bed combustion recovery boilers, and heavy diesel engines and diesel power plants have been extremely successful Fluidized bed combustion is a very important sec­ on the world market. The market for these products tor of Finnish know-how and fluidized bed com ­ alone is enormous, amounting to tens of billions of bustors are one of the most successful Finnish Finnish marks according to estimates. At present, export items. Moreover, Finnish know-how has the total export of products designed in Finland played a key role in the development and commer ­ comes to several billion Finnish marks per year. cialization of larger-scale circulating fluidized bed combustors. These were commercialized in the late New products are also being developed in Finland. 1980s and there are now some 300 such combus ­ Commercial designs, especially for combustion tors in use, with a total thermal power exceeding and gasification based on pressurized fluidized bed 25,000 MW. Approximately half of these combus ­ technology, are just around the comer. tors are based on techniques developed in Finland.

63 Development of fluidized combustion techniques due (Ahlstrom and Foster Wheeler ‘topping cy- concentrates on simplifying the equipment (new cle’) cyclone solutions) and reducing emissions. One of • pressurized gasification of moist fuels (Imatran the main aims is in fact to bring the emissions of Voima Oy’s IVOSDIG process) every main component (NO, SO2, CO and N20) below the increasingly strict norms, without sepa­ The combined cycle technique for solid fuels has rate flue-gas cleaning devices. great potential, not only as an important export item but also in generating energy in the Finland of the Bubbling fluidized bed combustion is another im­ future. The higher efficiency of combined cycle portant technique for Finnish suppliers. Its suitabil­ plants saves fuel and cuts emissions, including ity for various fuels, and especially waste, is very carbon dioxide. With processes based on pressur­ interesting. Development of the technique interests ized fluidized bed technology - combustion or gasi ­ combustor technology manufacturers and other fication - a major increase in power generation process industries. The fluidized bed technique is could be achieved. Even with first-generation tech­ highly useful for the wood-processing industry, niques, the increase in the electrical power of in­ where it can be used for burning different types of dustrial back-pressure plants using solid fuels wood waste. The main problem with the technique would be hundreds of MW. In district heat genera ­ is, again, controlling the flue gas emissions. tion, doubling the power/heat ratio with solid-fuel combined techniques would increase the present volume of district heat by some 800 MW. 1.2 Pressurized fluidized bed combustion and gasification 1.3 Diesel power plants In recent years, the use of solid fuels in systems called ‘combined cycles’, which could signifi ­ Finland is a leading manufacturer on the global cantly improve the efficiency of power generation, heavy diesel engine market. In 1995, Wartsila Die­ has attracted considerable interest. In a combined sel delivered heavy diesel engines with a total cycle process, the fuel is gasified or burned under power of some 2,500 MW. The LIEKKI 2 pro ­ pressure. The resulting pressurized product gases gramme includes research related to the develop ­ are scrubbed and conducted into a gas turbine and ment of power-plant-size engines. The research further, under normal pressure, to a steam boiler. concerns control of the combustion process itself, Combined cycles using solid fuels are, however, minimization of emissions and the special chal­ still at the development stage. First concepts are lenges posed by low-quality fuels, such as corro ­ being demonstrated abroad. Companies are ex­ sion due to oil. tremely interested in combined cycles, and there are several versions under development in Finland, based on fluidized bed technology in one way or A another: I Combustion and gasification • pressurized circulating fluidized bed combus ­ of black liquor tion of coal (Ahlstrom, now Foster Wheeler Energia Oy) The technique used for the combustion of black « pressurized circulating fluidized bed gasifica ­ liquor, a by-product produced by the pulping proc ­ tion of biofuels using air (Ahlstrom, now Foster ess, is another area of expertise for Finnish com ­ Wheeler, and Sydkraft Bioflow) panies. More than half of the boilers sold on inter­ • pressurized circulating fluidized bed gasifica ­ national markets during the last few years were tion of biofuels and coal using air (Enviropower, designed in Finland. now Carbona Inc., and Institute of Gas Tech­ nology) Recent developments in black liquor combustion • pressurized circulating fluidized bed gasifica ­ mainly involve improved liquor-drying and the tion using air, combined with pressurized cir­ optimization of liquor and air feed into the furnace. culating fluidized combustion of the char resi­ In fact, the entire combustion process in the recov ­

64 ery boiler has been improved significantly. For challenges facing waste incineration involve al­ instance, sulphur emissions have been materially most solely emissions. reduced simply by process-technical means. The control and further reduction of other emissions, An interesting future prospect is the controlled especially nitrogen oxides, from the low levels incineration of waste with other fuels. In Finland, already reached is a challenge for the near future. municipal waste is incinerated only in Turku, al­ though plans do exist elsewhere. Closing the chemical cycle at pulp mills can alter the composition of black liquor and thus the con ­ ditions in the recovery boiler. This may also alter the use and design of the boilers. 1.6 Conventional combustion

The black-liquor gasification process, which is re­ Several new challenges also face conventional placing recovery boilers, has been studied for a combustion. Considerable research and experi­ long time. A combined cycle based on pressurized mentation is required, especially in the use of low- gasification using black liquor is much more com ­ NOx techniques which limit emissions of the nitro ­ plex than one using solid fuels. Because the inor ­ gen oxides. Controlling nitrogen oxides in the com ­ ganic substances of black liquor melt at low tem­ bustion of pulverized coal or peat by, for instance, peratures, it is very difficult, for instance, to control staging the air feed can cause new problems. The any fluidized bed process. Moreover, during gasi ­ unbumed residue of fly ash or the carbon monoxide fication the liquor releases large amounts of vapor ­ level in flue gases may increase, thewall tubing of ized sodium compounds, whose separation from the furnace may suffer from slagging, and there the product gases before the turbine is very diffi­ may be an increase in corrosion, etc. cult. In conventional combustion, the effect of the fuel The gasification of black liquor is still, neverthe ­ type is another current issue in Finland. As the less, an interesting technique, and Finnish indus ­ global coal market goes on expanding, a growing tries are very keen to develop it. A gasification range of coal grades is becoming available. process replacing the recovery boiler would revo ­ Whether a particular coal or peat grade suits, say, lutionize the pulp industry and mean massive mar­ the low-NO x technique used in a particular boiler kets for manufacturers. Black liquor gasification is cannot, however, be solved by means of conven ­ being developed in the USA, Canada and Sweden, tional fuel analysis. Instead, new methods for char­ in addition to Finland. Most international research acterizing fuels are required. concentrates on gasification under atmospheric pressure. 2 Programme structure and 1.5 Waste incineration main results

The incineration of both industrial and various The guiding principle in delimiting the LIEKKI 2 municipal wastes is attracting increasing interest programme has been the need for maximum inter­ in Western Europe, mainly because of a lack of action and support between the participating re­ areas suitable for dumping and the environmental searchers. Maximum coherence in terms of tech­ risks caused by dumps. niques and research has also been sought.

Extremely tight emission norms are being set for The LIEKKI 2 programme concentrates on phe­ incineration. In addition to ‘ordinary ’ emission nomena related to the combustion and gasification components (SOx, NOx), these norms concern a processes, that is, to the ‘thermal conversion ’ proc ­ wide range of substances and groups of substances esses. The aim is to promote the development of which appear only in very low amounts in flue new (and existing) combustion techniques by bet­ gases (dioxins, heavy metals, etc.). In fact, the ter understanding of the process details.

65 The programme concerns only the actual conver ­ • The chemistry of gaseous emission components sion process and, for example, the technique used (Pia Kilpinen, Abo Akademi University) to reduce emissions directly. It does not concern • Ash, aerosols and the behaviour of particles post-process cleaning of flue gases (such as selec­ (Esa Kurkela, VTT Energy) tive catalytic reduction of nitrogen oxides), various • New combustion and gasification techniques scrubbers and dust collectors. (Martti Korkiakoski, Tekes) • Black liquor (Esa Vakkilainen, Ahlstrom Ma­ The LIEKKI 2 programme does not distinguish chinery Oy) between different fuels but seeks to include the • Conventional combustion techniques and waste thermic conversion of all fuels, including wood, incineration (Juha Huotari, SERMET Oy) black liquor and other biomasses, municipal waste and other combustible materials. In the following, the research carried out by each review group and therelevant results are discussed The inclusion of research on combustion in heavy in more detail. The data are based on the individual diesel engines in the LIEKKI 2 programme has led projects ’ annual reports and on the reports by the to new contacts between pressurized fluidized bed review group chairpersons. combustion and diesel engine researchers. The en­ gine research included in LIEKKI 2 concentrates on the largest, power-plant-size engines and espe­ cially on the combustion process in cylinders. 2.1 Modelling the furnace The main purpose of LIEKKI 2 is to find new process technical applications. Indeed, a major part of the programme involves studying key problems with A mathematical model which describes numeri ­ the new combustion and gasification processes be­ cally the combustion process of burners, combus ­ ing developed in Finland. tion chambers or furnaces is an essential tool in developing combustion techniques. At its best, the The programme also includes more basic and long ­ model enables the calculation of all features pecu­ term research with no short-term links to current liar to a combustion process, i.e. gas flow and practical problems. temperature distribution at various points of the furnace, concentration distributions of various gas On the other hand, it is obvious that no rigid de ­ components, heat flux to the walls, etc. This makes marcations are practicable. Some of the more basic it possible to simulate new furnace or burner de ­ research projects may provide solutions to prob ­ signs by computer modelling, reducing the need lems with the development projects, or the applied for expensive practical tests. research may lead to observations or phenomena which are interesting in terms of basic research. In practice, however, these calculations involve numerous problems and it is seldom possible to For practical work, the LIEKKI 2 programme has describe combustion processes in detail. Neverthe­ been divided into six review groups. The groups less, mathematical modelling already plays an im­ were formed in order to improve contacts between portant role in practical development work. Mod ­ researchers by gathering under one group projects elling allows the effect of various factors on the with as much in common in terms of methods and combustion process to be established even in many framing of questions as possible. Thus, the princi­ complicated cases. ple for forming the review groups was their re­ search method rather than, for instance, the com ­ The mathematical model of the combustion proc ­ bustion techniques being developed. ess consists of two parts. The first is a numerical solver with which the numerous partial differential The six areas of research under LIEKKI 2 and their equations can be solved iteratively. The other con ­ chairpersons in 1996 were: sists of separate descriptions or submodels for each • Modelling the furnace process (Reijo Karvinen, of the significant physico-chemical subprocesses Tampere University of Technology) in the combustion process.

66 The preconditions for both of these parts of the role. The fact that many of the projects were already model are much more favourable these days. The under way before the LIEKKI 2 programme indi ­ calculation power of computers and the available cates the long-term work required by mathematical accuracy (number of computational cells) have im­ modelling. Under LIEKKI 2, much of that work proved tremendously. The commercial programs has been applied in practice. on the market (Fluent, Phoenics, Flow-D, etc.) are also better and more user-friendly. The study of The modelling of pulverized combustion has been physico-chemical submodels has made advances improved with the multigrid technique, in which and the submodels are also more accurate. individual burners are modelled using a denser grid, that is, more accurate calculation, than the rest A total of 30 modelling projects have been carried of thefurnace (Figure 1). This has made it possible out under the LIEKKI 2 programme since its in­ to better describe the phenomena occurring in the ception (1993 —1996). The total funding for this vicinity of the burner, crucial especially to emis­ period was FIM 25.8 million, the Tekes contribu ­ sion chemistry, without excessive time being used tion accounting for some FIM 12.9 million. At the for calculations of the entire furnace. This model ­ end of 1996, there were 11 modelling projects ling technique has already been successfully util­ under way. ized in, for instance, designing new burner arrange ­ ments in coal-fired furnaces. The projects concentrate on developing the various submodels of numerical modelling, mainly forpul- The modelling has also been applied to the devel ­ verized-coal furnaces, circulating fluidized bed re­ opment of diesel engines, although the problems actors, diesel engines and black liquor recovery involved in describing the evaporation, ignition and boilers. They have comprised both theoretical and combustion of oil drops have not yet been com ­ experimental research. Related industry, research pletely solved. As an example, Figure 2 presents institutions and universities have all played a major the pressure in an engine cylinder as a function of

Simulation II: Furnace

Simulation I: Burner area

Synchronization Z* Coupling

Figure I. Modelling of the furnace of a large pulverized-coal boiler using multigrid technique

67 ATDC Crank angle [deg]

Figure 2. Cylinder pressure in a diesel engine as a function of the crank angle.The continuous line depicts measurement results, the broken line depicts modelling based on the Eddy Dissipation Concept, and the dotted line depicts modelling based on the more recent Magnusen-Hjertager model.

the crank angle, according to measurements and fact, a number of experienced researchers have left two different gas combustion models. university research under LIEKKI 2 to join private companies. The programme ’s good modelling re­ In the modelling of black liquor recovery boilers, sults have also helped to increase interest in the the distributions of temperature and heat flux den ­ field, resulting in the initiation of the Computa ­ sity can already be calculated quite accurately. tional Fluid Dynamics (CFD) Technology Pro ­ Modelling of NOx emissions is currently being gramme in Finland in 1995 to improve numerical developed. calculation and find applications outside combus ­ tion processes. Modelling of the phenomenon occurring in the furnace or ‘riser* of fluidized bed combustors has also attracted substantial interest under the LIEKKI programme. The multidimensional mod ­ 2.2 The chemistry of gaseous elling of flows in the riser still faces considerable challenges, mainly concerning the description of emission components particle-to-particle interaction. Today, combustion chemistry is crucial to the de ­ The interaction of the turbulent mixing of gases velopment of all combustion processes. The flue­ and chemical reactions plays a key role in model ­ gas concentration of many undesirable substances, ling the formation of gas emissions from combus ­ such as sulphur and nitrogen oxides, gaseous or ­ tion processes, and is being studied by a number ganic compounds and soot, can already be reduced of research groups around the world. The LIEKKI considerably in the furnace during the combustion programme comprises two related projects, which process. This is almost always a better solution compare different approaches by calculating the both technically and economically than using sepa­ relevant phenomena in different ways. rate scrubbers to remove emission components from cooled flue gases. Another important result of the modelling research is that it has increased Finnish industry ’s confi ­ The LIEKKI programme has included numerous dence in the potential offered by modelling, en­ chemistry-related studies, divided into two review couraging it to invest in the necessary research. In groups. Review group two includes projects related

68 Figure 3. The variation of SO2 concentration in the lower part of the riser of a 12 MW fluidized bed combustor, measured with a photoacoustic laserspectroscopy-based (LIPS) method and by air ratio measurements using a lambda probe. Coal was used as thefuel.

mainly to the chemistry of gaseous emissions, The nitrogen chemistry of fluidized bed combus ­ while studies concerning the behaviour of solid or tion has been studied extensively under the pro ­ liquid particles, such as ash, are included in review gramme, providing a fairly clear overall picture of group three. how fuel nitrogen transforms into nitrogen oxides through various intermediate stages, and an idea of During 1993-1996 there were a total of 23 projects the factors which affect the different reaction routes in review group two. Their total funding was some (Figure 4). The most recent problems have con ­ FIM 32 million. At the end of 1996, nine projects cerned reactions related to the formation and de ­ were under way. composition of nitrous oxide, N2O, and the relative practical importance they have. Review group two has been engaged in developing techniques for sampling and analysing gas compo ­ In recent years, the nitrogen research carried out nents and metal fumes in connection with fluidized under the LIEKKI programme has concentrated on bed combustion. As an example, Figure 3 presents pressurized fluidized bed processes, requiring con ­ the measurement results for local variation of sul­ siderable experimental and theoretical work. The phur oxide content in the lower part of the riser of research carried out in Finland has been ground ­ a 12 MW circulating fluidized bed combustor. An breaking, while corresponding work is only just in situ analysis method based on photoacoustic beginning elsewhere. laser spectroscopy (LIPS) was used. In addition, the figure includes the corresponding local vari ­ According to measurements, nitrogen oxide emis­ ation of the air-to-fuel ratio measured with a sions from pressurized fluidized bed combustion lambda sond. The figure shows that the new in both full-scale and pilot plants are rather low, method is extremely fast and that it is able to even lower than in atmospheric fluidized bed com ­ monitor the rapid changes in local sulphur oxide bustion. Reasons for this have been sought using concentrations caused by variation of the air ratio. various laboratory measurements and model cal-

69 Figure 4. The reaction pathways of the fuel nitrogen in typical circulating fluidized bed combustion. When combustion begins, NfUel (the fuel nitrogen) yields Nchar (nitrogen which remains in the solid coke residue) and NVol (nitrogen compounds released in gaseous form). As the combustion process progresses, both are further transformed into other compounds such as nitric oxide (NO) and nitrous oxide (N2 O).

culations, but no conclusion has yet been reached. can lead to the formation of other nitrogen com ­ In addition, the formation of nitrous oxide (N2O) pounds depending on the conditions. in pressurized conditions seems to differ from that in atmospheric fluidized bed combustion. Further studies are required. 2.3 Particle behaviour, ash and During gasification, fuel nitrogen is partly trans­ aerosols formed into ammonia, which oxidizes very effi­ ciently into nitric oxide when the product gas is The research being carried out within the third burned out, and is therefore a potential source of review group concerns, for instance, the combus ­ NOx emissions in integrated combined cycle gasi ­ tion and gasification of fuel particles, the behaviour fication plants. Decomposing the ammonia in gasi ­ of solid particulates and ash from fuel impurities, fication gas into molecular nitrogen before com ­ evaporation and condensation of alkali metals, for ­ bustion by adding suitable reactants and/or cata­ mation and decomposition of tars, and the capture lysts to the gas has been studied under LIEKKI. of sulphur in limestone. All projects emphasize the Very efficient decomposition of ammonia into mo ­ behaviour of the various solid particles related to lecular nitrogen has been achieved with small combustion processes. Most of the projects com ­ amounts of oxidizer added at high temperature prise experimental work with laboratory or pilot (900C). In the presence of suitable catalysts, such equipment, but theoretical modelling and sampling as aluminium oxide, decomposition has been from full-scale plants are also carried out. achieved at even lower temperatures (400—600C). Figure 5 depicts typical ammonia decomposition By the end of 1996, the third review group had with oxidizer and aluminium oxide catalyst. The covered a total of 32 projects, with total funding of figure indicates that the decomposition reaction FIM 44.6 million. Of these, 22 projects were car-

70 a.1 no I z

- 1,000

Temperature C

Figure 5. Conversion of gasification gas ammonia with additive. Laboratory test at a pressure of 20 bar and with aluminium oxide as catalyst

tied out by universities and research institutions, • pressurized thermobalance, Tmax = 1,100 °C, while 10 were product development projects car­ p = 2—100 bar ried out by companies. At the end of 1996, 15 • pressurized grid heater, Tmax = 1,100°C, projects were under way. p = 2—30 bar • pressurized laboratory-scale fluidized bed batch Different fuels behave very differently in combus ­ reactor, Tmax = 1,000 °C, p = 1—20 bar tors. As the coal market is becoming increasingly • continuous-operation laboratory-scale fluidized international, a wider range of coal grades has bed reactor, Tmax = 1,000 °C, p = 1 bar become available to power plants, increasing the need to characterize the combustion properties of New measurement and analysis techniques specifi­ fuels. Moreover, the co-combustion of various cally developed in other projects have been used biomasses and wastes with coal is on the increase, in the test equipment. These included pyrometric especially in many European countries. temperature and size measurement of particles, a plasma-assisted spectroscopic method for measur­ The behaviour of fuel particles is being studied in ing metal fumes and real-time continuous meas­ the LIEKKI programme, especially for use in the urement of particle distribution. new pressurized combustion systems. The projects have characterized the combustion and gasification Thestudies have resulted in a vast databank on the behaviour of various grades of coal, peat and behaviour of various solid fuels in pressurized biomass under pressurized combustion or gasifica ­ fluidized bed gasification and combustion condi ­ tion conditions. In this respect LIEKKI has been tions, and also on the effect of pressure and heating groundbreaking, while so far only limited research rate on the pyrolysis and combustion of particles, has been carried out elsewhere. for instance. In addition to standard determinations (rate and total amount of volatile gas release and reactivity of the char residue), these charac­ Test equipment includes the following: terization projects study the formation of tar com ­ ♦ pressurized entrained flow furnace, pounds during gasification and the release of fuel Tmax — 1,300 °C, p = 2—20 bar nitrogen.

71 Figure 6 presents an example of unique combustion cently, the emphasis has been on the ashes from experiments with coal in a pressurized entrained various biofuels, which present far more problems flow furnace at a temperature of 800C and a pres­ for fluidized bed combustion than the different coal sure of 10 bar. The pyrometrically measured tem­ grades do. The projects have also studied the dis ­ perature distributions of the fuel particles at six tribution of the mineral substances in fuel into different oxygen concentrations are presented in different size particles in fluidized bed combustion, the figure. using computer-assisted scanning electron micro ­ scopes (CCSEM) and advanced techniques for Several projects concentrate on ash-related prob ­ measuring aerosols. In addition to the main ele­ lems in the combustion process. The behaviour of ments of ash (Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg), the potentially fuel ash is crucially significant for many combus ­ volatile alkali metals (Na, K) and harmful minerals tion applications. Ash may stick to heat-transfer (As, Be, Cd, Co, Cr, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sb, Zn) were surfaces, weakening heat transfer and causing cor ­ monitored in the aerosol measurements. The ash- rosion problems (slagging/fouling). It can alter the related problems were also studied in practical properties of the bed material in fluidized bed experiments under two projects carried out by par­ combustion, causing the particles to stick together ticipating companies. (bed sintering). It can also cause problems in flue gas scrubbers, etc. Theoretical ash research has, for instance, worked to develop multicomponent and multiphase equi­ The world of ash formation and transformation librium analyses for various ash mixes in order to phenomena has proved to be both varied and com ­ calculate their melting behaviour in different con ­ plicated, and it has been approached in numerous ditions. Development work has also been carried different ways in projects. The ash-related prob ­ out on an aerosol model of the nucleation and lems of fluidized bed combustion are addressed in condensation of vaporized compounds and the way several projects. Both experimental and theoretical they deposit onto surfaces. A model of this kind methods have been developed to predict the sinter­ would allow the order in which compounds con ­ ing propensity of ash from different fuels. Re­ dense and the size distribution of condensing par-

PRESSURIZED ENTRAINED FLOW REACTOR VTT Energy, Jyvaskyla, Finland

fraction (%)

Westerholt coal pressure: 1.0 MPa gas temperature 1073 K 02 (vol

Figure 6.The temperature distributions of burning fuel particles at six different oxygen concentrations in a pressurized entrained flow furnace. Coal (Westerholt) burning at 10 bar and 800C.

72 tides in cooling flue gases to be estimated. Both 2.4 New combustion and modelling approaches have been applied in de ­ gasification techniques scribing the processes which lead to corrosion and fouling in the cylinders and valves of heavy-duty diesel engines, as well as in fluidized bed combus ­ Thisreview group comprises R&D projects which tion. The study of oil ash behaviour relates to the seek to develop new process concepts for combus ­ particulate behaviour of various vanadium com ­ tion and gasification. The group ’s projects are all pounds. very practically oriented.

Figure 7 illustrates how various processes suit dif ­ In integrated gasification combined cycle proc ­ ferent size power plants. The capacity and costs of esses, the solids in the gasification product gases a conventional power plant process based on at­ must be removed extremely well before the gases mospheric combustion and a steam turbine are can be led to the gas turbine. The required level of fairly well known. Thus, all new techniques should, purity can be achieved with various ceramic filters, after a development and demonstration stage, offer for instance, but not all the related problems have lower power generation costs than existing ones. yet been solved. The filters are sensitive to me­ The projects in this review group concern the proc ­ chanical damage and tend to clog. Moreover, gas esses indicated in Figure 7. filtration at high temperatures does not always prevent certain volatile metal compounds, espe­ All three projects suitable for the smallest plant- cially alkalis, from passing through the filters. size (less than 5 MW of electrical power) are being developed mainly for biofuels. The target is small- Several studies on ceramic filters and vaporized scale generation with local fuels at, for instance, alkalis are under way, aimed at developing meas­ saw mills and farms. According to estimates, these urement methods, measuring alkali vaporization processes will yield roughly the same efficiency of during pressurized combustion in a pulverized flow power generation as small steam generation plants furnace and in a pressurized circulation fluidized (27—30%). This review group contains a study on bed pilot reactor, and testing the adsorption of a gasification-based power plant concept with die ­ alkali fumes into a suitable sorbent at high tem­ sel engine combustion of the gas. It also includes perature. a process incorporating direct combustion of pul­ verized wood in a gas turbine. In addition, the third review group has studied how sulphur can be captured with limestone or dolomite The main emphasis of the applied research carried in pressurized conditions. Research has dealt with out under LIEKKI is, however, clearly on the de ­ the absorption of both sulphur dioxide (combustion velopment of processes based on pressurized air- conditions) and hydrogen sulphide (gasification blown gasification, hot clean-up of the gases (sim­ conditions). The way limestone reacts with sulphur plified IGCC or Integrated Gasification Combined compounds depends on whether the lime is in Cycle) and pressurized fluidized bed combustion. calcium carbonate form or whether it has been These processes use a combined cycle (combined calcined into calcium oxide. Calcium will not cal­ gas and steam turbine process) for solid fuels. This cine in the conditions typical of pressurized is expected to offer better generation efficiency and fluidized bed combustion, while in pressurized lower plant investment costs. gasification it may either calcine or remain uncal ­ cined, depending on the conditions. The studies The fourth review group has included a total of 27 have been able to chart theability of various grades projects, 14 of which have been carried out by of limestone and dolomite to capture sulphur in companies, and the remainder by universities or different conditions, as well as to shed light on how research institutions. Total funding was FIM 42 to optimize capture in practice. The results have million in 1993 —1996. also been generalized as a particle model describ ­ ing the complex sulphation process of sorbent par­ The main task of many of the projects has been to ticles. evaluate the technical and commercial feasibility

73 I 5 10 50 100 200 500 MWe """ ■ ...... 1 STEAM GENERATION PLANT Non-pressurized combustion + steam process

GAS DIESEL Non-pressurized gasification + cold gas cleaning + diesel engine PYRODIESEL Manufacture of pyrolysis oil + diesel engine

PULVERIZED COAL TURBINE Pressurized pulverized coal combustion + hot gas cleaning + gas turbine PFCB AND TOPPING CYCLE Pressurized fluidized bed combustion + combined process

COMB NED GAS - 1 atm Atmospheric pressur e gasification + cold gas cleaning + comprima tion + combined proces COMBINED GAS - AIR Air gasification + hot gas cleaning + combined process or STIG

COMBINED GAS - OXYGEN Oxygen gasification + cold gas cleaning + combined process

I 5 10 50 100 200 500 MWe

Figure 7. New solid-fuel techniques under development, suitable for various plant sizes and competing with the conventional steam generation process.

and potential of processes and applications com ­ • pressurized fluidized bed combustion + hot gas peting with conventional combustion techniques. cleaning + the STIG process (2 and 3) The suitability of various biofuels for gasification • pressurized fluidized bed combustion + hot gas processes was studied in a comprehensive project cleaning + combined cycle(3 and 4) which is also connected to the EU’s JOULE re­ search programme. A total of 15 different The studies proved that, for economic reasons, biomasses were characterized. The results indicate, pressurized processes are not suitable for plants for instance, that the gasification properties of fast­ generating less than 30—50 MWe. When used in est-growing energy biomasses and agricultural plants generating more than 50 MWe, however, wastes are much more problematic than those of gasification combined cycles appear to be competi ­ Nordic wood-based fuels. The main reasons for tive with biomass plants using conventional com ­ this are the difficulties arising from the melting bustion techniques. behaviour of the ash, and the high alkali, chlorine and nitrogen concentrations. The progress of Finnish companies ’ pilot and dem ­ onstration plant projects was also monitored in this Furthermore, the same project applied process group. The demonstration project carried out model calculations to study the efficiency of vari ­ jointly by Ahlstrom (now Foster Wheeler Energy ous techniques using biomass in four electrical- Oy) and the Swedish power company Sydkraft AB power categories: 1) 0.2 MW, 2) 5—10 MW, 3) was especially interesting. In this project, the 20—30 MW and 4) 40—80 MW. The process world ’s first simplified IGCC biofuel plant com ­ options were: prising all the subprocesses was constructed in • non-pressurized gasification + diesel (catego ­ Vamamo, a municipality in southern Sweden. The ries 1, 2 and 3) plant, based on circulating fluidized bed gasifica ­

74 tion, produces 6 MW of electricity and 9 MW of bed combustion tests were made on residue char heat and has already been tested for about two with thetest equipment at Otaniemi. The char was years. During the test runs, the behaviour of differ ­ obtained from British Coal gasification tests on ent fluidized materials has been studied and the Kiveton Park coal, which also used limestone for functioning of a ceramic filter has been demon ­ sulphur capture. Thus the coke residue contained strated. According to test reports, carbon conver ­ large amounts of sulphur in the form of calcium sion in gasification has been extremely good and sulphide. Among other things, the tests indicated the heating value of the product gas high. that in suitable conditions the combustion effi­ ciency was high and that the sulphide captured in A combined cycle process based on fluidized bed the sorbent could be oxidized into sulphate without gasification and suitable for coal and biofuels has large emissions of gaseous sulphur. been developed by Enviropower Inc. , now Carbona Inc. The process was originally developed for coal in the USA (Institute of Gas Technology), but pilot tests under the LIEKKI programme have shown that the process is also very suitable for biofuels. 2.5 Black liquor Themaximum fuel capacity of the pilot plant used is 15 MW, the pressure 30 bar and the operating The fifth review group in the LIEKKI programme temperature 1,100C. gathered together R&D projects involving the combustion of black liquor, the by-product from The experimental work carried out within the pulp production. By the end of 1996, the group had fourth review group has concentrated around the dealt with a total of 24 projects, six of which were PFBC/G test equipment at the Helsinki University product development projects carried out by com ­ of Technology in Otaniemi, Espoo. panies. Total funding of the black-liquor projects came to FIM 23.1 million by the end of 1996. The maximum operating pressure of the equipment is 10 bar, the temperature 950C and the fuel feed The black liquor research carried out under the 300 kW in the gasification tests. The equipment programme concentrates both on improving the includes continuous-operation feeding devices for conventional recovery boiler process and on devel ­ coal, biofuels and sorbents, the actual gasification oping processes based on the gasification of black reactor (bubbling fluidized bed), a particle recycle liquor. cyclone, equipment for testing ceramic filters and a burner for product gas combustion. The equip­ The key questions pertaining to the operation of ment allows a wide range of measurements. Under the recovery boiler concern the varying properties the LIEKKI programme, it has been used in nu ­ of liquors, flue gas emissions from the boiler, and merous measurement campaigns, concerning, for fouling of the boiler ’s heat-transfer surfaces. Pro ­ instance, the gasification conversion of fuels and jects within the group have developed new labora ­ fuel mixes, alkali behaviour, reactions of the fuel tory tests for determining the combustion proper ­ nitrogen, sulphur capture, tar formation and parti­ ties of liquors. The tests measure quantitatively the cle removal with ceramic filters. combustion process of a single liquor drop. The tests provide data on, for instance, characteristic The equipment at Otaniemi has also been used for combustion time, pyrolysis yield, swelling factors, measurements of what are called topping cycle etc. for each liquor studied. These methods have processes. In a typical topping cycle process the been used to characterize several dozen liquor sam­ fuel is pyrolyzed or gasified only partly in the first ples from various processes around the world. The reactor. The remaining char residue is led to a studies indicate that liquors from different plants separate pressurized fluidized bed reactor for final have very different combustion properties. This combustion. By combining these reactors in a suit­ information is of material importance for the de ­ able way a second-generation combined cycle sign of recovery boiler operation and control. The power plant can be constructed, with a power gen ­ rather complex connection between combustion eration efficiency significantly higher than in a properties and liquor chemical composition has simplified IGCC process. Pressurized fluidized also been investigated.

75 NO Formation tendency Test (10% 02)

50 900°C 40.

C

§ Q. O Q. 20. z 10.

0 - 0 20 40 60 80 100 Time (s) Figure 8. Formation of nitrogen oxide in the combustion of a single drop of black liquor. Combustion conditions: furnace temperature 900C, oxygen concentration in gas 10%, approximate drop size 15 mg.

Extensive work has also been done on the nitric ture of dust using various advanced measurement oxide emissions of recovery boilers during the and analysis methods. Furthermore, particle for ­ programme. The nitric oxide in the flue gas emitted mation has been described using the aerosol mod ­ by recovery boilers originates mainly from the els described above. nitrogen originally present in the liquor. The re­ lease and transformation of this nitrogen in con ­ A key precondition for predicting dust formation nection with combustion has been studied by firing is the amount of different elements released during single liquor drops in controlled laboratory condi ­ the combustion of a black liquor drop in different tions and analysing the nitrogen compounds re­ conditions. Several research methods have been leased from the drop during combustion. Figure 8 applied and we now have a much clearer figure of presents the results from a laboratory measurement how sulphur, sodium, potassium and chlorine are of the nitric oxide emissions from the combustion released, although the quantitative description of of a single liquor drop. The figure clearly shows the release processes as a function of the conditions how the nitrogen in the liquor is released in two is still quite inaccurate. stages, first during pyrolysis, together with the devolatilized gases, and then towards the end of At the furnace exit, the dust ingredients are almost coke combustion. In fact, this research has already entirely molten and crystallize slowly as the flue provided a picture of the main reaction pathways gases cool. It has been suspected that the dust ’s in therecovery furnace followed by the nitrogen in melting point, or the role played by the molten the liquor. At the same time, the study has indicated phase in the dust, is essential in determining the several potential technological ways to limit nitric dust ’s tendency to stick to surfaces at various points oxide formation in the combustion process. in the flue gas duct. A thermodynamic model based on multicomponent and multiphase equilibriums Several proj ects have concentrated on investigating has been under development in the programme. the flue-gas dust released in liquor combustion. With this model, the melting range of a salt mixture The dust tends to foul the boiler ’s heat transfer can be determined (initial melting point, sticky surfaces, and both boiler manufacturers and opera ­ temperature, flow temperature, etc.) when the com ­ tors are working hard to find ways to minimize this. position of the mix is known. The model has been Projects in the programme have measured dust validated with DTA/TGA determinations of syn­ formation and studied the composition and struc­ thetic salt mixes. For instance, the model can be

76 used to evaluate changes in the fouling of heat Fuel, PDF, etc.) is used together with a conven ­ surfaces caused by dust, as its potassium or chlo­ tional fuel. In such applications, the proportion of rine content increases when a mill’s liquor cycle is waste is typically 10—30%. The research reflects closed. the prevailing trend, which seeks to utilize as many of the otherwise useless raw materials (wastes) as The spraying of liquor into the furnace is the most possible for fuel, or at least to dispose of them important factor in controlling combustion in re­ without harmful emissions and to reduce dumping. covery boilers. In the programme, the drop forma ­ tion at different nozzles in different conditions has By the end of 1996, this review group had included been measured using video techniques. Studies 14 projects, eight of them R&D projects carried have been made on injection with full-size nozzles out by companies. The group ’s total funding for into a trial spraying chamber and, later, also on 1993 —1996 came to FIM 30.7 million. direct injection into the recovery furnace. These measurements have provided new knowledge The fluidized bed combustors used in industry or about drop formation. It seems that the drop size in district heating plants are in many ways very is maximal when the liquor ’s boiling point is suitable for co-combustion, and the combustion of reached (approx. 120C), after which the liquor different waste materials was therefore tested in probably boils partly in the nozzle, causing the several different fluidized bed combustor sizes and drop size to decrease considerably. types. The tests concentrated on observing changes in the emissions from combustion or in the opera ­ Details related to the process of gasifying black tion of the boiler. In general, the level of conven ­ liquor have also been studied in the programme, tional emissions of flue gas from co-combustion including the behaviour of liquor in pressurized did not differ from the general level of solid fuel pyrolysis and gasification. The test equipment in­ combustion. Tested multifuel boilers are designed cluded a pressurized thermobalance, pressurized for the combustion of fuel grades containing large grid heater and pressurized drop tube furnace. The amounts of volatile substances and a wide range of results have provided data on the gasification rates particle sizes. Blending waste fuel causes no major of different liquors, liquor swelling, reactivity of change in these properties. the char residue, etc. at different atmospheres, tem­ peratures and pressures. The studies have concen ­ The combustion tests also focused on the content trated on what is called low-temperature gasifica ­ of the numerous hydrocarbon compounds. Special tion, that is, gasification at temperatures ranging attention has been given to compounds of hydro ­ between 700 and 750C. Low-temperature gasifica ­ carbons and chlorine, such as polychlorinated tion is a process concept where, for instance, a dibentzo(p)dioxins and furans (PCDD/F). Figure fluidized bed reactor has been proposed as the 9 presents PCDD/F emissions in flue gas from gasification reactor. This application requires that different-size multifuel boilers and with different the salt residue is not in a liquid state, as this might fuel mixes. The results are presented as a function lead to agglomeration of the bed material in the of the chlorine concentration in the fuels. The chlo­ reactor. rine concentration of the main fuel used was 0.05—0.1%; higher figures indicate chlorine intro ­ duced by waste. The measurements show that only when waste had increased the chlorine concentra ­ 2.6 Conventional combustion tion to more than 0.3% was there a danger that the technology and waste concentrations weighted by toxicity coefficients would exceed the set limits. incineration Possible slagging and corrosion of the boiler In this review group, research has concentrated on caused by blend combustion was studied by carry­ the development of mainly conventional co-com ­ ing out long-term tests with an industrial circulat­ bustion techniques using different waste materials. ing fluidized bed combustor, using 30—40 tonnes In co-combustion, waste or fuel refined from waste of various waste materials each day for more than (Refuse Derived Fuel, RDF, Packaging Derived a year. The use of waste as fuel did not cause any

77 CO-COMBUSTION OF RDF AND PDF WITH PEAT, WOOD CHIPS AND COAL - from 15 kWth to HT-Muaa PCDD/F, gas+part., (15 kW FBC); after furnace u> cc PCOO/F, gas+part. (4.5 MW D) FBC). after ESP 0) 3 - PCDD/F, gas+part., (103/63 MW FBC). after ESP

- PCDD/F. gas+part. (117 MW FBC). after ESP U- Q - PCDD/F. gas+part, (65 MW Q CFB). after ESP O Q. ■PCDD/F, gas+part., (15 kW FBC), after furnace

■PCDD/F, gas+part., (50 kW stoker, 100%RDF), after furnace

Figure 9. PCDD and PCDF emissions from different size boilers and different fuels as a function of the fuels’ chlorine concentration.

particular slagging or fouling problems, nor did it tation of the five-year LIEKKI and JALO combus ­ increase the need for soot blowing. Furthermore, tion and fuel-processing-technique programmes. the measurements did not indicate any corrosion- As LIEKKI 2 is a direct continuation of these two, induced changes in the thickness of the tube walls, national cooperation in the field has thus continued nor did short-term (one month) high temperature for almost nine years. Although we are here con ­ corrosion tests with materials at 500 and 550C cerned with the results and effect of the LIEKKI 2 indicate any signs of chlorine corrosion, for in­ programme, it is clear that these nine years have stance. been crucial for the programme ’s impact.

Factors affecting PCDD/F emissions were also Impact is approached from two points of view: the studied in laboratory conditions. results of the research activity itself and the use­ fulness and importance of the results for industry. In addition to the blend combustion of RDF and PDF materials, the combustion of car tyres in a The LIEKKI 2 programme ’s importance for com ­ cement kiln and the combustion of wood-process ­ bustion technology research hasbeen decisive. An ing sludge in fluidized bed combustors were stud ­ annual average of 115 researchers have worked on ied in corporate development projects. programme projects (Table 1). The programme has covered most of the public research on combustion and gasification technology in Finland. In several fields, the research carried out under LIEKKI has 3 Effectiveness of results gained a considerable standing internationally. Ta­ ble 2 presents a list of the international top publi­ The six-year LIEKKI 2 programme has been op ­ cations in which LIEKKI 2 results have been re­ erational for four years now (1993 —1996). Coop ­ ported. The range of publications indicates the eration in combustion and gasification technology multidisciplinary nature of combustion technology began in Finland back in 1988, with theimplemen ­ research.

78 Table I. Man-years in LIEKKI 2 projects 1993 —1996.

1993 1994 1995 1996 1993-1996 Total man-years 125 126 113 94 458 - public projects 67 76 74 64 281 - corporate projects 58 50 39 30 177

Table 2. List of publications in which LIEKKI 2 results have been reported.

Publication (1993-1996) Articles submitted on projects in LIEKKI 2 Aerosol Science and Technology 1 Appita 1 Applied Optics 1 Biomass & Bioenergy 1 Bioresource Technology 2

Chemical Physics Letters 2 Chemosphere 8 Combustion and Flame 6 Combustion Science and Technology 1 Energy & Fuels 4

Environmental Science & Technology 1 Fuel 17 Fuel Processing Technology 3 Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 3 International Journal of Power and Energy Systems 1

Journal of Aerosol Science 1 journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 2 Journal of the Chemical Society, Faraday Transactions 1 Journal of Hazardous Waste and Hazardous Materials 1 Journal of Molecular Structure (TheoChem) 1

Journal of Physical Chemistry 1 Journal of Pulp and Paper Science 6 Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry 1 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 1 Journal of the Institute of Energy 1

Nordic Pulp and Paper Research journal 1 Oil Shale 1 Paper! ja Puu - Paper and Timber 3 Talanta 1 TAPPI Journal 3 Waste Management & Research 1

TOTAL 78

79 Table 3. Degrees passed completely or partly in association with LIEKKI 2, The table also includes the first five years of the LIEKKI programme (1988 —1992).

Liekki 2 Liekki Total 1993 1994 1995 1996 1993-96 1998-92 1988-96

Diplomas 6 1 1 6 5 28 33 61 Licentiate theses 6 4 5 2 17 14 31 Doctoral theses 3 1 1 2 7 5 12

The programme projects have often included re­ The LIEKKI 2 programme in its entirety and all its search leading to academic theses. Table 3 contains research areas serve the product development, de ­ information on degrees passed during the LIEKKI sign and marketing of companies committed to the programme. programme very well.

Thanks to its review groups, annual seminars and The programme has generated internationally other contacts, exchange of information and coop ­ highly competitive know-how in combustion and eration have become increasingly active during environmental technology. Not only does this LIEKKI 2. In fact, a large number of the pro ­ know-how benefit thecompanies committed to the gramme projects have involved several research programme, it also has wider significance for Fin­ groups in recent years. land ’s energy economics, environmental manage ­ ment, forest and other process industries, and re­ The success of research activities and cooperation search and educational institutions and consult ­ is also attested by the LIEKKI research groups ’ ancies operating in these sectors. success in competing for acceptance under EU research programmes. In 1993 —1996, a total of 13 The programme offers very good international con ­ Finnish combustion or gasification-related projects tacts, which means that in an international forum were accepted for these programmes, most of Finland appears as a leader in combustion and which are also reported on under LIEKKI 2. environmental technology. Moreover, the contacts also put Finnish researchers in touch with relevant research institutions worldwide.

Every company committed to the programme op ­ erates internationally, although a significant part of 4 Significance to industry their operations takes place in Finland and their - interim assessment by research and development is concentrated here.

participating companies The Executive Committee believes that pro ­ gramme activities so far correspond well to the This chapter discusses the LIEKKI 2 programme ’s aims set. importance to Finnish industry and energy eco ­ nomics on the basis of the evaluation made by the As combustion technology will remain important participating companies in autumn 1995. This in­ in energy management well into the future, terim assessment has been published in its entirety LIEKKI 2 will remain central to Tekes’ energy in Finnish in the programme ’s 1996 yearbook technology research programmes. (LIEKKI 2 Vuosikirja-Arsboken 1996, part III, Abo Akademi University 1996, ISBN 951-650- Finnish companies and equipment suppliers in the 711-5). energy sector are very committed to the pro ­

80 gramme. As they serve both the domestic and the In view of the above, the Executive Committee international market, the programme has been de ­ proposes that the programme be continued with the signed, and its projects selected, with both the present volume of funding and without any major Finnish and the international energy market in changes in its content. mind. In 1996, the Executive Committee had the follow ­ Good combustion technology know-how allows ing members: new applications to be developed to serve an in­ • Chairman: Lars Gadda, Neste Oy creasingly wide range of companies. In addition to • Stefan Gros, Wartsila Diesel International Ltd the main concern - the special needs of the forest Oy industry - this involves the needs of SMEs engaged • Reijo Kuivalainen, Foster Wheeler Energia Oy in developing small-scale combustion. • Kauko Janka, Kvaemer Pulping Oy • Reijo Karvinen, Tampere University of Tech­ Although participation in EU research programmes nology is important, the substance they offer is not suffi­ • Martti Korkiakoski, Tekes cient to replace Finnish combustion research. Sec­ • Markka Raiko, IVO International Oy tors vital to Finland - wood-processing energy, for • Esa Vakkilainen, Ahlstrom Machinery Oy instance - are poorly represented in EU pro ­ • Sirpa Salo-Asikainen, Ministry of the Environ ­ grammes, which is why it is important for Finland ment to have its own national research programme con ­ • Mikko Kara, VTT Energy cerning combustion techniques. LIEKKI 2 research areas (chairman in 1996): In the Executive Committee ’s opinion, aims set for the LIEKKI programme are largely satisfactory. • Modelling the furnace process (Reijo Karvinen, Attention must, however, be paid to all external Tampere University of Technology) demands caused by changing markets or scientific • The chemistry of gaseous emission components or technical advances. (Pia Kilpinen, Abo Akademi University) • Ash, aerosols and the behaviour of particles The Executive Committee believes that a consid ­ (Esa Kurkela, VTT Energy) erable part of the programme ’s emphasis must fo ­ • New combustion and gasification techniques cus on projects which best improve the competi ­ (Martti Korkiakoski, Tekes) tiveness of existing products on the global market. • Black liquor (Esa Vakkilainen, Ahlstrom Ma­ Although cooperation between companies and re­ chinery Oy) search institutions does function smoothly, it • Conventional combustion techniques and waste should be further improved. incineration (Juba Huotari, SERMET Oy)

81 Chapter 7 MOBILE Energy and the environment in transportation

Nils-Olof Nylund,VTT oxide and 50% of hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxide Juhani Laurikko, VTT emissions are traffic-originated. Particulate emis­ sions correspond roughly to the share of energy consumption. However, the impact of traffic emis­ sions is intensified by their health-related effects; I Background and traffic’s contribution to air impurities in urban areas objectives is even higher than to emissions. In a global perspective, however, traffic congestion Traffic and transportation are essential to a devel ­ and the quality of urban air are not very bad in oped society. Societies based on global market Finland, although the cold winters do increase economies and world-wide distribution depend on emissions, especially from petrol-powered cars. A transportation services. Traffic is all too often seen firm reminder of thefact that problems of air qual­ as an obstacle and an environmental risk, while the ity do, nevertheless, affect us was last received in production and business activity it makes possible December 1995, when the quality of air in the is forgotten. According to estimates, the indirect Helsinki region was satisfactory at best. For three gain generated by traffic in Finland is some FIM days in late December, air quality was very bad in 200 billion each year (Kallberg, Tieliikenteen Tie- Helsinki and several other cities and urban areas in tokeskus Oy). The direct transportation costs of southern Finland as well, because of profuse emis­ final industrial products are some FIM 24 billion sions and exceptional weather. each year; following employment costs, they are the second highest variable cost item. Revenues Before 1991, energy research on the traffic sector from fuel, engine, machine, vehicle and vehicle and other traffic-related research lacked any logical component exports are estimated at FIM 10 billion structure. In 1991 —1992, traffic was included in annually. the first stage of the Ministry of Trade and Indus ­ try’s SIHTI programme. As this stage of SIHTI Of course, traffic, and especially its growth, does covered a rather extensive field, it proved impos ­ cause problems. Although traffic’s share of total sible to set up a strong network of know-how and energy consumption (some 15%) and contribution contacts. A substantial improvement took place to carbon dioxide emissions (some 18%) are lower when the traffic sector was given its own research in Finland than in any other industrial country, it programme, called MOBILE. still accounts for some 40% of consumption of oil-based energy in Finland. The use of other than The MOBILE programme was given the following oil-based forms of energy is more difficult and mission statement: To show how goods and people expensive in traffic than in other sectors, and traffic can be transported in Finnish conditions with the will most likely continue to be dependent on fossil lowest possible consumption of energy and volume fuels for a long time. of harmful emissions. Promoting the development of exportable products in Finnish industiy was Traffic’s contribution to total carbon monoxide, included as an additional aim. hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxide emissions in Fin­ land is significantly greater than its share of energy The planning of MOBILE was based on the prem­ consumption; approximately 75% of carbon mon ­ ise that it would be a technology programme which

82 Table I. Points of emphasis.

Type of traffic Small pass. Buses Trucks Off-road Trains Ships Air cars/ applications traffic delivery vans Contribution to + 0 + + 0 o" o domestic emissions Potential impact on emissions in Finland, during the programme period

• utilization rate +4- + + + • optimization of use ++ + -f+ + - - - • technical - + + ++ + ++ - development • fuel ++ ++ + + ++ + ++

Need to re-inventory + 0 + + 0 0 o emission volume Product development potential (domestic and international markets)

• vehicle/engine - + + + 2> ++ ++ - • components + ++ + + + + ++ ++ - ++ significant + limited - some o small ') significant sulphur emissions, however ^ tractors, working machinery, etc.++

would not address questions related to community nents and certain customized heavy-duty vehicles. structure, allocation of activities and the formation Finding solutions to problems concerning opera ­ of traffic demand. tion in cold conditions is important to Finland, and no significant international emphasis can be ex­ Although the energy technology programmes were pected in the field. originally designed for the Ministry of Trade and Industry, traffic does involve the activities of other It was realized right at the beginning that the traffic ministries as well. This is why the Ministry of research programme should not be restricted to Transport and Communications and the Ministry technical development alone; traffic systems of the Environment were also included in the plan­ should be covered more comprehensively in order ning stage, in the Executive Committee ’s work and to ensure a properly functioning programme. The in interim assessment programme was therefore divided into two main sectors, technical development and systems re­ During the planning stage, the various sectors of search. traffic were studied systematically and the relevant demand for research and potential for product de ­ Funding has laid emphasis on technical develop ­ velopment were assessed. Because of its limited ment, which has received some 70% of the total production of passenger cars, Finland has little available. Under the 1993 general plan, the techni­ influence on the development of passenger-car cal development sector conducted research on mo ­ technology. On the other hand, Finland is strong in tor fuels, engine technology and development of fields such as fuel development, off-road and ma­ equipment, as well as demonstrations and trial rine engines, exhaust gas aftertreatment compo ­ runs.

83 The systems research sector of MOBILE includes 2 Results in major research related to the use of vehicles and the loads carried by them, traffic flow, exhaust gas measure­ research areas ment and emission inventory. According to the general plan, the sector focuses on vehicle usage Technical development has concentrated on engine and load patterns, strategic planning, emissions, air fuels and diesel engines. On the other hand, devel ­ quality and assessment of costs. opment and demonstration projects concerning various alternative fuels and technologies have re­ Fuel production is central to traffic-related use of ceived considerable publicity. energy and its environmental impact. Thus, the fuel-engine-aftertreatment axis for exhaust gases Even the systems sector of the programme has was given special emphasis. For instance, the tech­ generated a large number of products, comprising nology of lightweight structures and aerodynamics different kinds of models and the information was excluded, despite its significance for the use needed for their application. They are important of energy and the high level of related expertise in tools for determining the properties of actual com ­ Finland. The inclusion of general vehicle technol­ mercial products and for product assessment. An­ ogy in future programmes should, therefore, be other product of a kind is the readiness to carry out taken into consideration. very extensive exhaust gas analyses which has developed and improved gradually during the pro ­ The following were listed in MOBILE’S general gramme. plan as the principal research areas: • different fuels, their use and performance • engine-technology-related methods for reduc ­ 2.1 Motor fuels ing emissions/low-emission diesel engines • development of exhaust catalysts and other technical solutions for emission reduction Both petrol and diesel fuels can be improved sig ­ • development of low-emission vehicles for urban nificantly, reducing the environmental impact services caused by their use. Key terms include reduction • reducing the consumption of energy by improv ­ of aromatic compounds and sulphur, control of ing the internal efficiency of traffic systems distillation ranges and a more discriminating selec­ • effects of conditions particular to Finland. tion of fuel components. The fuels produced with the above methods are often known as reformulated (petrol or diesel). The development of a fuel has During the programme ’s first three-year period, the considerable impact, since it affects all vehicles general plan was followed quite closely. The evalu­ using the fuel almost immediately, contrary to im­ ation carried out in autumn 1995 showed that the provements in vehicle technology, which only plan was still up-to-date and serviceable, and it has yield benefits gradually as old cars are replaced by therefore been adopted as the basis for planning newer models. the second period. The reformulation of fuels typically reduces what Work related to modelling and application of mod ­ are called regulated emissions (carbon monoxide els has, however, grown more important and should CO, total hydrocarbons HC, nitrogen oxides NOx, now be included among the principal areas of re­ particulates) by 10—30%. It thus represents only search. One especially interesting and important a partial solution to traffic-related emission prob ­ application is theuse of models related to air qual­ lems. It is nevertheless important, since it can re­ ity in urban areas. They offer completely new po ­ duce the amount of certain extremely harmful, e.g. tential for assessing everything from the effects of carcinogenic, exhaust components by as much as reductions in traffic-originated emissions to air 50—-70%. impurities. This is very significant, as the calcula­ tions of mere emission volumes and reductions do Because of the solid foundation SIHTI provided not always provide accurate data. for research and product development conducted

84 under MOBILE, reformulated diesel and petrol from 2,000 PPM. The use of effective exhaust already appeared on the market during MOBILE’S aftertreatment devices, especially with heavy-duty first three-year period. It is largely thanks to MO­ engines, requires an even lower sulphur content, BILE that Finland is a European pioneer in refor ­ however. Thus, the Citydiesel produced by Neste mulated fuels. Oxygenated petrol was introduced Oy contains less than 50 PPM. Other properties of as long ago as 1991, and actual reformulated petrol Citydiesel include its low aromatic content (under in 1994. Low-emission diesel, almost completely 20%), good ignition and cold operability proper ­ sulphur-free, has been available since 1993. ties, rather low final point of distillation, small density range and good lubricity, achieved with Neste Oy’s reformulated petrol contains less than additives. Furthermore, Neste Oy has optimized 1% benzene, while petrol sold elsewhere in Europe the availability and properties of this low-emission contains an average of 3%; as much as 5% is still diesel fuel by marketing separate winter and sum­ allowed. Ethers are used in reformulated petrol as mer grades. oxygen-containing components to improve com ­ bustion and knock resistance. At present, the ethers By merely changing the fuel, theparticulate emis­ used are MTBE and TAME, which are methanol sions from a typical heavy-duty engine can be derivatives, since ethanol-derived ELBE is too ex­ reduced by 30%, and NOx and CO emissions by pensive. some 10%. Hydrocarbon (HC) emissions remain roughly the same, however. With a catalytic con ­ During 1993 —1995 petrol research included the verter, the CO and HC emissions can be reduced following: even further. The total emission reduction achieved • effect of sulphur and benzene content is roughly 60% of the original level. Thehydrocar ­ • effect of aromatic compounds, olefins and the bons in particulates can be oxidized with a catalytic T90 temperature converter, so that a total reduction in particulate • comparison of various reformulated petrols emissions of roughly 50% is achieved with the • TAME as a fuel component correct fuel and a catalytic converter. Measured by • development of special exhaust gas analyses the AMES bacterial test, the mutagenicity of the (GC. technique, aldehydes, PAH compounds in particulates is reduced by some 70% merely by particulates and semivolatiles). changing the fuel, and a catalytic converter reduces the mutagenicity even further. The principal factors affecting the exhaust emis­ sions from diesel fuel include density and viscosity Projects concerning Neste Oy’s reformulated fuels of the fuel, cetane number (ignition quality), are one of MOBILE’S principal areas of research. chemical composition and sulphur content. During Such environmentally less harmful fuels are also 1993 —1995, the research programme included the being promoted by the government, through tax following: reductions. For low-emission petrol the reduction « the effect of the composition of diesel fuel on is FIM 0.05 per litre and for diesel, FIM 0.15 per emissions (16 different fuels were included in litre. the preliminary study) • comparison of various reformulated diesel fuels The MOBILE programme has also included stud ­ • optimization of low-emission winter and sum­ ies on the performance of alternative fuels, carried mer grades of diesel fuel out mainly by VTT Energy, and largely concerning • aftertreatment of diesel engine exhausts gas-powered heavy-duty vehicles. Contrary to re­ • exhaust gas and particulate emission measure­ formulated fuels, most alternative fuels require ments, by test stage both new or converted vehicles and a new distribu ­ • mutagenicity of particulates, nitro-PAH com ­ tion system. Thus their applications must be se­ pounds and distribution of particulate sizes. lected carefully to optimize cost effectiveness. Pri­ mary applications would include heavy-duty urban As a diesel fuel’s sulphur content decreases, the vehicles operating from depots, such as city buses, diesel engine ’s particulate emissions fall. In garbage trucks, municipal road-management vehi­ Europe, the maximum permissible sulphur content cles and delivery trucks, because these usually is being lowered to 500 PPM (parts per million), already have centralized fuel supply systems.

85 A total of ten heavy-duty LPG-powered vehicles The MOBILE programme has helped to establish have been monitored under the MOBILE project. the use of gas-fuelled heavy-duty vehicles in Fin­ One of them is a city bus and the remaining nine land. Alternative fuels have been promoted by, for SISU trucks. The results have mainly been positive . instance, the safety analysis of LPG (VTT Safety An LPG bus which originally operated in Espoo Engineering) and the study ‘Electric and gas vehi­ was transferred to Helsinki City Transport (HKL) cles in delivery traffic - Case Tampere ’ (TUT Trans­ in 1994. Mainly on the basis of the positive expe­ portation Engineering), partly funded by the MO­ riences from this vehicle, Helsinki applied and BILE coordination project. received funding from the EU Thermie programme to convert five diesel buses to LPG by installing In 1990 —1995, under IEA’s ‘Alternative Motor new engines. In addition, the City has made a Fuels’ programme, VTT Energy conducted an ex­ commitment to purchase services from a private tensive study related to MOBILE on alternative operator which has recently acquired two com ­ fuels for light-duty vehicles named ‘Performance pletely new natural-gas-powered buses. A fast-fill- evaluation of alternative fuel/engine concepts ’. The type natural-gas filling station has been built for study, widely endorsed within the IEA, measured the buses in Pirkkola by Gasum Oy, Helsinki. both regulated and ‘ non-regulated ’ emissions from HKL’s environmental programme includes pro ­ 14 vehicles. The total number of different vehicle- moting the use of both catalytic converters for fuel-test temperature combinations was 143. VTT diesel vehicles and vehicles run on gaseous fuels. purchased three test vehicles (two alcohol and one

CO HC No, Particulates o- 1

|_____ | CityDiesel

XU! CltyDle**l + catalytic converter 100

White smoke

-100

Reduction (%) compared with normal diesel fuel

Figure I. Emission reduction resulting from Citydiesel, compared with normal diesel fuel.

86 natural-gas-powered) for the study with IEA fund ­ the additional costs of more advanced technology ing. The long-term tests performed with these ve ­ are compensated with taxation or other advantages, hicles are being carried out under VTT’s MOBILE its price will not be an impediment. projects. The results support the view that in Fin­ land, use of alternative fuels should be concen ­ Minimizing fuel consumption is especially impor ­ trated on heavy-duty vehicles. tant in thedevelopment of marine and power-plant engines. When NOx emissions are reduced, fuel The use of rapeseed ester as a diesel fuel has also consumption usually increases. This also applies been studied under MOBILE. Mildola Oy’s joint to off-road diesel engines. Further challenges are development project ‘Rapeseed esters as diesel posed by demands for the restriction of particulate engine fuel’, carried out in 1993, mainly supple­ emissions. mented earlier studies. Practical engine and vehicle tests were carried out at Neste Oy, VTT and HUT. In a MOBILE project, Wartsila Diesel has devel ­ The necessary basic knowledge regarding the per­ oped a ‘Low NOx Combustion ’ solution for its formance of rapeseed esters as fuels and fuel com ­ VASA engines which meets the upcoming IMO ponents is, therefore, available. In addition, rape- regulations without increasing fuel consumption. seed esters have been used as a reference in, for The solution is based on delaying ignition so that instance, certain IEA and EU projects comparing maximum cylinder pressure is reached at the end various fuel options and their properties. of thecompression stroke; combustion then occurs solely during expansion. So that the engine ’s fuel economy will not deteriorate, the compression ra­ tio must be increased at the same time. 2.2 Engine development Delayed inj ection sets special requirements for fuel Finland is a significant manufacturer of medium- spray formation and for duration of injection, and speed marine and power-plant engines (Wartsila these in turn, require higher injection pressure. Diesel) and of high-speed engines for offroad Thanks to the MOBILE project on low-emission applications (Sisu Diesel). In fact, with its 20% marine diesels, Wartsila Diesel was already able in share of the global market, Wartsila Diesel leads 1995 to offer its customers versions of its 20, 32 the medium-speed segment. and 46 engines complying with the coming IMO regulations. Sisu Diesel’s 1995 engine deliveries came to 12,000 engines, or 1.1 MW of total power. The The ignition properties of the fuel are crucial to company ’s main markets, in addition to Finland, combustion in a diesel engine and to the resulting include Europe, South America and, a new region, emissions. Wartsila Diesel has studied the ignition North America. and combustion properties of various heavy oils with laboratory equipment and engine tests. The Regulations concerning marine and off-road ex­ demands set for ignition properties are emphasized haust emissions change more slowly than those when NOx emissions are reduced by direct water concerning road traffic. Emission restrictions were injection into the combustion chamber. already imposed on heavy-duty vehicle diesel en­ gines in the 1980s, while the first IMO regulations The Kotka Polytechnic (now Kymenlaakso Poly ­ on NOx emissions from ship engines still lack final technic) initiated a project on marine diesel emis­ ratification, and will probably not come into force sions which involved measuring the emissions of until the turn of the millennium. The same applies different ship types. Later on, the project concen ­ to EU directives on off-road applications. Products trated on developing various techniques to reduce with lower emissions than the regulations require emissions. With considerable success, the Poly ­ could provide a significant competitive edge, as technic applied its own EGR technique to scrub the there is already demand for them on progressive exhaust gases of the training ship M/S Katariina. markets. Moreover, many developed countries take The project has also studied the use of water emul­ a favourable view of economic instruments and the sion technology and SCR catalytic converter tech­ promotion of Best Available Technology (BAT). If nique for reducing NOx emissions.

87 The aim in Sisu Diesel’s project is to develop the 2.3 Vehicle technology Valmet series of diesel engines to meet theoncom ­ ing emission regulations for both on- and off-road In vehicle technology, research has concentrated applications. In the case of on-road applications, on developing components, studying various tech­ the project seeks to develop versions of the 612 and nical alternatives in reducing exhaust emissions, 420 engines which surpass the Euro II emission and developing vehicles for special services. limits. The aim will be achieved by, for instance, optimizing the compression ratio, fuel injection Kemira Metalkat Oy implemented a project aimed equipment, injection timing and turbocharging. at developing a catalytic converter for diesel en­ gines. Work began with an investigation of the The main emphasis is, however, on engines for related chemistry and a study of the reactions of off-road applications. Although emission regula ­ various hydrocarbons in the catalytic converter. tions are less stringent off-road than on-road, cus­ The latter was carried out jointly with Neste Oy. tomers are not willing to pay a high price for an off-road engine, and solutions which meet the re­ The technical challenges facing diesel catalytic quired low emission for on-road vehicles are usu­ converters include their use with sulphur-contain ­ ally considered too expensive. ing fuel, as sulphur-free fuel is not available in most market areas. Restricting the formation of nitric Demand for off-road engine development derives oxide (NO2) is also important. The project devel ­ from the transition from in-line injection pumps to oped to commercial level a revolutionary oxidizing rotary-type injection pumps with better flexibility catalytic converter for diesel engines, which con ­ for adjustments. An extensive study was made of tains only low amounts of precious metals. naturally aspirated engines to chart the alternatives with which EU Stage 1 emission levels can be VTT Energy is studying the operation of various achieved. petrol-engine catalytic converters in cold condi ­ tions and evaluating the suitability of commercial VTT has been developing Valmet gas-fuelled en­ and precommercial technical alternatives for re­ gines since 1988. During the research stage now ducing cold-operation emissions in the Finnish under review, optimization of the 612 and 634 climate, which is often very severe. gas-powered vehicle engines continued and the results and experiences were presented in a doc ­ ELCAT’s electric-car projects conducted under toral dissertation. In addition, Sisu Diesel imple­ MOBILE, aimed at developing a hybrid-engine mented a project defining the technical product solution for electric cars and optimizing lead bat­ specifications and manufacturing principles for a teries experienced a setback. The manufacturer of stoichiometric natural-gas-powered generator en­ the VW Transporter van, which was chosen as a gine. A 1,000-hour durability test run was also base for the hybrid, refused to approve the in­ conducted with the engine. creased axle loads needed for the hybrid solution. Thus only an electric prototype of the VW Trans­ The flow of fuel in a diesel engine was modelled porter, without the hybrid engine, was constructed. at the Helsinki University of Technology ’s inter­ ELCAT launched negotiations with new customers nal-combustion engine laboratory. For this project, for deliveries of the parallel hybrid application which is internationally significant, an in-house components developed in the project. computer code was created, and the work proved to be much more complex than expected. The origi ­ The battery project ran aground when the owner of nal plans had to be revised and some of the aims the participating battery-manufacturer changed, were not reached. As the calculation and modelling and the new owner was unwilling to make the of engine processes is considered highly important, necessary equipment investments. ELCAT contin ­ however, more emphasis will be given to this dur ­ ues to manufacture and sell the ELCAT City van ing MOBILE’S second three-year term. 200, based on a Subaru minivan, as well as com ­

88 ponents for electric cars. Its largest customer is met Automotive. The bus was registered under the Finland Post Ltd. product name ‘Ecobus ’. Valmet Automotive de ­ signed the bus, built the bodywork and was in In 1994, a separate study was made on the potential charge of overall realization, Oy Sisu Auto Ab for developing electric cars. Electric cars and their provided the axles and the dashboard, Sisu Diesel charging stations were demonstrated in Hameen- Oy the engines and Kemira Metalkat Oy the cata­ linna in a parallel project. In addition, a project lytic converters. The prototype has two engine implemented later on in Tampere also greatly alternatives, a diesel engine with a catalytic con ­ helped to promote research on the use of electric verter and an LPG engine with a three-way catalyst. cars. The prototype was bought for Finntech Oy, to be The potential of different hybrid solutions was used by VTT as a test platform and demonstration charted in two preliminary studies carried out by tool in MOBILE. The prototype was funded by the HUT Laboratory of Automotive Engineering. several companies, the Ministry of Trade and In­ Thestudies showed that, for instance, a high-speed dustry, the Ministry of the Environment and VTT. flywheel based on existing technology cannot be In terms of its technology, the Ecobus has been used as the energy reserve for a hybrid car. The extremely successful. The bus has been demon ­ best potential would probably lie in using it as a strated in the Nordic countries and in Central and regenerating power reserve, so that it could reduce Eastern Europe. It has also been tested by bus the demand for peak power on the energy reserve operators, including HKL (Helsinki Transport) and proper. Tampere City Transport.

Gas-fuelled special vehicles have also been devel ­ Although MOBILE played a key role in developing oped, viz. the Sisu LPG trucks already mentioned. this exportable vehicle and the product itself is a The first truck was finished in autumn 1992, six in success, manufacturing a preliminary series of 1993 and two in 1995. 10-20 buses before actual mass production has proved to be more difficult than expected. Nego ­ The largest user, the Helsinki City Public Works tiations on funding and on various manufacturing Department (HKR), is now operating four LPG- site and licensing alternatives are still under way. powered trucks. Regular monitoring of these has Theresearch programme does not, however, cover provided vital information for product develop ­ this stage of the process, which concerns mainly ment. The exhausts of some of the trucks and the venture capital, initiation of new business activity MAN LPG-powered bus operated by HKL were and making market evaluations. measured on a roller-type test-stand to assess the stability of emission levels. The main purpose of the demonstrations attached In the follow-up study on the MAN LPG bus, it to the research programme has been to promote the was observed that the original catalytic converter implementation of commercially viable techniques lost efficiency. It was therefore replaced with a and to simultaneously gather data for product de ­ converter manufactured by Kemira Metalkat, velopment. The demonstrations carried out under which proved to have superior efficiency and du ­ MOBILE have mainly involved alternatively pow ­ rability. Thanks largely to this study, Kemira ered vehicles, such as electric and gas-fuelled ve ­ Metalkat subsequently signed delivery contracts hicles, and the construction, although small-scale, with the vehicle manufacturer MAN and the City of related infrastructure. Valuable information on of Vienna, which operates numerous LPG-powered the usefulness of alternative techniques in Finnish buses. climatic and operating conditions has been pro ­ vided by various follow-up studies on the useful­ A prototype of a mid-sized low-floor bus was com ­ ness of new techniques and by systematically gath­ pleted in a Finnish cooperation project led by Val- ering and analysing user comments.

89 2.4 The use and duty cycles of of a wide range of methods in order to take different vehicles values and opinions into account objectively. The exploitation and application of international Projects studying the use and duty cycles of vehi­ research and its results has been one emphasis in cles have yielded information on traffic volumes, Finland, and here Energia-Ekono Oy has been most conditions and the use of various transportation active. Some guideline indicators of harmful im­ vehicles. pacts and ‘prices’ for them have already been de ­ fined for the principal emissions, and these have The results have already been used for various been used by the Finnish National Road Admini ­ energy and emission balance calculations. In the stration, for instance, which has applied them in future, the results will be utilized in creating a more calculating the externals costs arising from traffic. detailed picture of traffic conditions in Finland and The harmful impact value of individual substances their special characteristics. In addition, the uses can vary greatly, however, depending on the of telematics applications such as vehicle naviga ­ method or source of data used. tion have also been studied.

2.5 Emission inventories and 3 Effectiveness of results measurement of emissions, model calculations 3.1 Industrial significance A study has been initiated in joint projects by the Finnish Meteorological Institute and the Helsinki Within the MOBILE programme, more than 60% Metropolitan Area Council (YTV) in which mod ­ of Tekes research funding goes into development els are used to calculate the dispersion of traffic projects run by enterprises. Tekes’ maximum con ­ emissions and assess impurity contents. Although tribution to these proj ects is 40%, which guarantees parts of the system, which consist of numerous that the projects are meaningful to industry. Private models, are still rather simple, significant advances contributions from industry help to ensure efficient have already been made towards the goal: a tool implementation of the programme ’s joint projects. for assessing the environmental impact of regional traffic solutions. The following table shows products and product improvements generated by MOBILE directly and Results from YTV’s air quality measurement net­ indirectly. In addition to businesses, VTT Energy work have been used in assessing the calculation has played an important role in developing gas-fu ­ results. Encouragingly, the assessments have elled engines and special vehicles. shown that the results are of the correct magnitude. The calculation system will probably be first ap­ In addition to concrete products which can be plied in practice in the assessment of the Helsinki manufactured and sold, the programme hasgener ­ region ’s traffic plans to be carried out during 1997. ated what could be called immaterial products, which provide companies with vital support in product development, as well as important infor ­ mation. The main immaterial products are: 2.6 Cost assessments and • cooperation in physico-chemical and biological life-cycle analyses analyses of non-regulated exhaust emissions. A consortium comprising Neste Oy, the National The harmful effects of emissions should be priced Public Health Institute and different units of in order, for instance, to justify economic controls VTT (Energy, KEM (Chemical Technology), and gradually include environmental protection Biotechnology and Food Research) within the sphere of market mechanisms. This is • assessment of traffic emission impact on atmos ­ an extremely challenging task and requires the use pheric impurities by applying a combination of

90 traffic and dispersion models and comparing generated high-quality technological know-how calculation results with those from air-quality ranging from products to manufacturing technol­ measurements. Joint project between the Finn ­ ogy. The programme has allowed participating ish Meteorological Institute, YTV and VTT En- companies to further expand and diversify their ergy- own product development and given them a better picture of their sectors, the demands set for their products, and client expectations.

The programme has promoted the emergence of more comprehensive and multidisciplinary re­ 3.2 Improvements in search groups with in-depth know-how and it has technical standards also tightened cooperation between research groups working in different sectors. New, concrete Thanks to the MOBILE programme, technological and successful cooperation has also evolved in standards have improved in Finland. The pro ­ product development between companies as a re­ gramme, especially its fuel development sector, has sult of the programme.

Table 2. Products and product improvements realized under MOBILE or with its support.

Product Company Special feature Commercial maturity Reformulated engine Neste Oy reduces CO and HC emissions (no on the market petrol catalytic converter), (also exports) reduces CO, HC and NOx emissions (catalytic converter), reduces toxicity of exhaust and volatile emissions Reformulated diesel Neste Oy reduces NOx, sulphur, particulates and on the market oil non-regulated emissions, toxicity of (also exports) exhausts, enables the use of catalytic converters Low-emission ma­ Wartsila a series of marine diesel engines which product definitions/ rine diesel engine Diesel meet the coming IMO norms on the market Low-emission diesel Sisu Diesel for agricultural (off-road) applications , on the market engine meets the EU Stage l/EPA 96 requirements (also exports) Oxididation catalyst Kemira studies on the optimization of fuel and on the market converter for diesels Metal kat converter combinations, new product (mainly exported) concept

Low-emission gas Sisu Diesel low-emission engine for stationary use product engine (generators, CPH, LPG or natural gas + specifications/ catalytic converter) prototype LPG truck Sisu Auto extremely low-emission vehicle for urban on the market areas (street maintenance and refuse (preliminary series) collection)

Mid-size urban bus Valmet low-emission bus for urban areas (gas and prototype Automotive diesel-powered)

91 3.3 Networking programme. Examples of this are the diversifica ­ tion of VTT Energy ’s exhaust gas research unit and theequipment for measuring emissions from small engines acquired by VAKOLA. Programme-re ­ During its operation, the programme has helped to lated projects have also supported creation of the build the infrastructure needed for research. This test run site for medium-speed diesel engines op ­ infrastructure consists of research groups with in- erated jointly by VTT Energy and Wartsila Diesel. depth and multidisciplinary know-how, and coop ­ eration between them, as well as the research fa­ The cooperation of bodies under various ministries cilities and other material resources required for (Ministry of Trade and Industry, Ministry of Trans­ high-quality research. port and Communications, Ministry of the Envi ­ ronment and Ministry of Education via universi ­ The following are examples of research coopera ­ ties) is characteristic of MOBILE. In its class, tion based on and strengthened by the MOBILE MOBILE is a good example of the cross-sector programme: cooperation much discussed and sought after in • cooperation in the physico-chemical and bio ­ government. logical analysis of non-regulated emissions • cooperation in calculating traffic emissions and Thanks to thecritical mass generated by MOBILE, comparing calculation results with air-quality Finnish traffic-related research has won interna ­ measurements tional attention. The programme has been publi­ • cooperation in modelling urban traffic volumes cized in several international contexts by the coor ­ • cooperation in developing traffic models with dinator of MOBILE (VTT Energy), including the practical measurement results. research organizations of the EU and the IEA. As an organization, the MOBILE programme was in­ The programme has also helped to provide re­ vited to help create a new structure for IEA’s traffic sources for research. Research institutions have sector projects. The MOBILE programme and its been prepared to invest in equipment when they projects have featured in some 30 international have a client providing research funding from the conferences and publications.

Table 3. Companies and research units participating in the MOBILE programme.

Code Company/unit Research and operation sectors Cooperation unit Yl Neste Oy, R&D reformulated motor fuels T7, T16, Y2 (petrol and diesel oil)

Y2 Kemira Metalkat Oy, R&D catalytic converters Yl, T7 Y3 Wartsila Diesel Oy, R&D medium-speed marine diesel engines T7, TI2 Y4 Sisu Diesel Oy, R&D high-speed diesel engines T7, Tl Y5 Elcat Sahkoautot, R&D electric and hybrid cars T4 Y6 Valmet Automotive, R&D mid-size urban bus T7 (ECOBUS®) Y7 Oy Sisu Auto Ab trucks T7 Y8 LT-Konsultit Oy traffic systems and energy consumption in transportation

Y9 Suunnittelukymppi Oy analyses of traffic and traffic congestion T3 Y10 Finnair Oy, tuotetekniikka emissions from air traffic TI5

92 Table 4. Public sector entities participating in the MOBILE programme.

Code Department/ unit Research and operation sectors Cooperation unit

Tl HUT, Laboratory of Automotive vehicle navigation, alternative T7 Engineering sources of power T2 HUT, Internal-Combustion mathematical engine modelling, T7 Engine Laboratory high-speed diesel engines

T3 HUT, Laboratory of traffic simulation, signalized control Y9 Transportation Engineering T4 TUT, Transportation Engineering life-cycle analysis of vehicles, planning, T8 management, analysis of vehicle demonstrations

T5 TUT, Occupational Safety emissions from working machines Y4.T7 Engineering in various situations of use T6 MTT/VAKOLA emissions from small working machines T5 and their reduction T7 VTT Energy, motor fuels, alternative fuels, YI,Y2,Y3, Engine Technology emission-reducing techniques, Y4.Y6.Y7, emission measurement techniques T8,T9,TI0 T8 VTT, Communities and Infra­ cold operation of vehicles, drive cycles, T4 structure, Transportation Research distance travelled in urban areas

T9 VTT Chemical Technology physical and chemical analysis of T7 exhaust gases TIO VTT Biotechnology and biological analysis of exhaust gases T7 Food Research Tl 1 HTOL/Test-Center Tiilila the effect of traffic situations and driving T7 on energy consumption in traffic

TI2 Kymenlaakso Polytechnic measurement of emissions from ship Y3 engine, reduction of emissions from existing ships Tl 3 Finnish Meteorological Institute, modelling of the dissipation of emissions, TI4.T7 Air Quality Department emission contribution by traffic TI4 YTV air quality measurement, emission calculation Tl 3,T7 TI5 Finnish Civil Aviation Administration emissions from civil aviation YIO Tl 6 National Public Health Institute biological analysis of emissions (mutagenicity) Yl

3.4 Researcher training The programme has promoted research projects by arranging two meetings between steering groups each year. The purpose of these meetings is to Steering groups and annual seminars have been direct research projects and assist project manag ­ included in the programme to serve continuous researcher training and exchange of information ers. In addition, the steering group meetings are between researchers. important providers of training. They promote the

93 dissemination of information and active discussion There were also four external evaluators: Reino between projects and researchers. It has, for in­ Lampinen from the Ministry of Transport and stance, been a challenge to motivate engine and Communications and Antero Honkasalo from the air-quality researchers to discuss emissions and Ministry of the Environment from Finland, and their volumes in a common language. Sweden ’s Stig Ericsson from Scania and Professor Erik Egeback from Lulea University of Technol- The steering groups have been arranged into tech­ ogy.Companies were generally of the opinion that nical development and systems research sectors in the MOBILE programme had been beneficial to line with the programme ’s main sectors. In addi ­ them. In a statement issued in connection with the tion, projects have been encouraged to participate interim assessment and dated June 13,1996, Neste in the other sectors ’ steering group meetings to Oy’s Product Development Manager, Markku improve both dissemination of information and Laurila, summarizes MOBILE’S activities as fol ­ training. lows:

The annual seminars held in April 1994 and March “The majority of the MOBILE joint development 1995 during the research period under review have projects aim to improve competitiveness. In fact, acted as vital forums for demonstrating project such improvement is already attested by the pro ­ results. In 1994, an extensive exhibition called jects concerning reformulated fuels, engine tech­ ‘Clean urban vehicles from Finland ’ was arranged nology and exhaust gas aftertreatment. Although in connection with the seminar. The exhibition the research institutions ’ projects have no direct comprised low-emission vehicles developed commercial aims because of their nature, many of within or in connection with the programme. them seek to improve Finnish know-how in a way which may, for instance, have an indirect impact The programme has also included ‘theme semi­ on the competitiveness of Finnish industry. nars’, designed to study a more closely defined area of the programme and to function as a tool in “The MOBILE research programme ’s impact on researcher training. In 1993, a theme seminar was the environment is both direct and indirect. The organized on exhaust gas measurements and, in the effect of projects regarding fuels, engines and cata­ same year, MOBILE researchers also participated lytic converters on traffic emissions have been in­ in an international seminar on life-cycle analysis, dicated by studies and partly realized through com ­ arranged by UETPEE and SIHTI2. In 1994, a mercialization. The most concrete example is the theme seminar was arranged on alternatives for reformulation of petrol and diesel oil. Emission local traffic in cooperation with the Finnish Bus measurement capacity meeting international re­ and Coach Association and the Local Traffic As­ quirement has been created under these projects, sociation. and the awareness of the emissions of domestic traffic and the ways to influence it have been en­ The MOBILE research programme ’s general plan hanced materially. Moreover, tools for environ ­ states that the programme promotes researcher mental impact assessment, such as life-cycle analy­ training and graduate studies. During 1993 —1995, ses, emission evaluation and models on the dissi ­ five diplomas and one licentiate and one doctoral pation of emissions have been developed in several dissertation were completed under the programme. projects.

“Some of thejoint research projects have created export potential for technology. The majority of 4 Main results of Neste Oy’s traffic fuel exports already consists of the interim assessment reformulated fuel, and it is very probable that the projects developing engines and catalytic convert ­ ers will create further export potential. In autumn 1995, an interim assessment was carried out as a combination of the Executive Committee ’s “All in all, the MOBILEprogramme has generated internal and external evaluations. The Committee a very good return on the investments made in it. was asked to give an opinion on the programme. While some of the benefits might have arisen with-

94 out MOBILE, the results can be applied more renewed constantly; the evaluation has already sug ­ easily and quickly thanks to the programme. 11 gested ways to go about this.

In its statements related to the interim assessments “All the evaluators favour continuation of the pro ­ and reports, Wartsila Diesel International Oy states gramme. Industry has received the support it needs that it hopes the programme will place more em­ from research projects oriented towards product phasis on industrial research and product develop ­ development, and some of the results have already ment projects. New ways to ensure that products found an application in products whose market reach the markets should be developed. The Ex­ standing has improved because of modifications ecutive Committee should be strengthened by the which have made them more environmentally addition of an expert on international marketing. sound. The objective information provision chan­ Wartsila Diesel also suggests that the rule of 40% nelled through the programme has also been help­ maximum funding should be extended to research ful. Reformulated traffic fuels are surely the most institution projects. successful example, as they are known to have reduced emissions. In the light of these opinions, there seems to be general satisfaction over MOBILE’S success. The “It is certain that national research programmes Swedish evaluators especially praised the good will continue to provide a good format for promot ­ structure of Finnish energy research. The interim ing public R&D. The versatile executive commit ­ report summarized the evaluation as follows: tees with comprehensive vision, and the other ex­ pertise accumulated under the programmes are an “During its three years of operation, theMOBILE excellent way to ensure the efficient and objective programme has found its place in the field of en­ focusing of limited resources. Finnish and foreign ergy technology research. Thanks partly to the research - and funding - must be kept separate. solid foundations inherited from the SIHTI pro ­ While international projects and open international gramme, MOBILE activities have been high-qual­ cooperation in research are needed, maintaining ity, productive and, for the most part, well-focused. and promoting national competitiveness must al­ As the programme ’s research field is rather exten­ ways be given priority. 11 sive, proper focusing of resources has been - and still is - essential. The use of expert assistance to back up the Executive Committee ’s visions in pre­ paring research plans has been very helpful. 5 Future planning based on

“The programme ’s general plan and overall aims the interim assessment are still extremely useful. The definition of the field of enquiry and its delimitations can be considered The programme ’s original general plan was still up-to-date, although slight adjustments are neces­ considered useful for the second stage. Although sary from time to time. In focusing research and the work already carried out has followed service ­ resources, the Executive Committee should con ­ able guidelines, the interim assessment led to cer­ tinue its policy of moving from open applications tain suggestions for improvements that will fine- and tenders to contracted research, where the Com ­ tune the existing plan. mittee defines the demand and aims, and then seeks researchers. There is good potential for this be­ While the programme ’s principal goal of reducing cause of the comprehensive and highly-skilled emissions was achieved at least reasonably well, a Finnish research community which has emerged few evaluators proposed that the other subgoal, largely thanks to the programme and its predeces ­ reducing consumption of energy and emissions of sor. carbon dioxide, should be given greater emphasis when future research is planned. “Programme activities and the added value they generate for productive research and publicity con ­ The external evaluators (Lampinen and Honka- cerning it have provided a solid return on the re­ salo) recommended that the programme target be sources invested. Activities must, nevertheless, be set, at least in some respects, much further ahead,

95 perhaps 5—7 years from now. This could be done shown that in international cooperation, there is in the case of projects involving the maturity and often a danger of information leaking to competi ­ long-term usefulness of various technologies. tors. It would not, therefore, be practicable to chan­ These could be made to include analysis of the nel nearly all of Tekes’ future research funding into possible alternative strategies for the future. At the projects which are part of EU or other international same time, these projects would generate indica ­ research programmes, as has been suggested. tors for the course of future product development. Internationally, we should try to develop special Reviewing MOBILE as part of Tekes’ activities areas of research serving our own needs, as a part opens up new vistas and an opportunity to create of some international project. This would help to a more comprehensive system of programmes cov ­ increase our know-how and could open up demand ering the technology of passenger and goods trans­ for direct research services. An example of such a portation vehicles and off-road machinery. At the useful and international project, and one closely same time, projects could be incorporated from related to MOBILE, is the Annex V project, which fields now outside MOBILE, including lightweight is being realized under the lEA’s Alternative Motor structures and aerodynamics - traditionally strong Fuel Agreement. In Annex V, Finnish know-how fields in Finland - and the energy consumption of in research on fuel and exhaust gas emissions in passenger and goods transportation vehicles. As an cold climates has been both developed and utilized. increasing number of product development pro ­ The project has received considerable praise from jects were incorporated, the programme ’s present the IEA and is viewed as a good example of how emphasis on energy consumption and, especially, international research cooperation should be car­ reduction of emissions would decrease. ried out under the IEA.

Although traffic and transportation are not actually In view of the wide range and versatility of the an independent sector of production or industry, problems MOBILE addresses, its funding has been they form an integral part of a modem society based rather limited. Thishas had a direct bearing on the on an open market economy. Their importance will average size of projects; in order to achieve even increase all the time as European integration ex­ reasonable coverage, the programme contribution pands markets and mobility, leading, almost inevi ­ to funding has had to be limited to FIM tably, to more demand for transportation and traf­ 100,000—150,000 on average. In fact, the total fic. Moreover, transportation is growing into an budgets of the smallest projects have been less than important factor for competitiveness, especially for FIM 100,000, which should be considered an ab­ Finland. Thus, in the future, companies offering solute minimum for any research project. Thanks transportation services could become the pro ­ to good cooperation and efficient use of the avail ­ gramme ’s ‘clients ’, in addition to existing indus ­ able resources, however, the research has been trial enterprises. productive. The programme itself has made possi ­ ble the existence and efficient operation of such Without exception, all the evaluators considered small projects by giving them a clear frame of intemationality and the dissemination of informa ­ reference and its full backing. In a sense, the pro ­ tion a vital part of the programme ’s activities. At gramme has operated on a ‘project-within-a-pro- the same time, however, concern was indicated jecf principle. It would be wise to increase project about the future of national research funding. size at least somewhat, of course, but if the pro ­ gramme gave more emphasis to contracted re­ National research programmes such as MOBILE search in which the Executive Committee defined were especially favoured by companies because in the problems and aims and then made a contract their experience, large, multinational programmes on the research project, small-scale problems and usually suffer from cumbersome bureaucracy and projects would surely be most suitable and effi­ poor communication, and much of their resources cient. are wasted in administration. Experience has

96 6 Research organization and nated as director of the research programme and Juhani Laurikko as main coordinator. Other pro ­ Executive Committee gramme coordination was in the hands of experts from the very beginning: head of research Ari Juva The Executive Committee directs research and de ­ (Neste Oy; technology sector) and Associate Pro ­ fines its content, decides on the projects to be fessor Jorma Mantynen (TUT, traffic and transpor ­ admitted into the programme and distributes Tekes tation; systems sector), who are in charge of evalu ­ funding in the case of research institute projects. ating the scientific quality of research conducted During 1993 —1995, the following persons nomi ­ under the programme. In addition, Professor Kai nated by either the Ministry of Trade and Industry Sipila (VTT Energy) has provided expertise on or Tekes took part in the work of the MOBILE biofuels. The experts’ role in monitoring the pro ­ research programme Executive Committee: gramme ’s implementation has proven extremely valuable, as the main coordinator would not have • Antti Saariaho, HUT (chair) been able to manage all the technical aspects of a • Arto Haakana, Elcat programme as extensive as MOBILE. Since the • Goran Hellen, Wartsila Diesel Int. Oy coordination unit, VTT Energy, is itself engaged in • Timo Korhonen, Sisu Auto (1995) projects, the experts also evaluate their quality. • Tarja Lahtinen, Ministry of the Environment • Pekka Lappi, Kemira Metalkat Oy Results of individual projects are reported to the • Markku Laurila, Neste Oy-Oljy (Oil) Executive Committee through the steering groups. • Mikael Rehula, Ministry of Transport and In practice, this is done by the experts, some Com ­ Communications (1994-1995) mittee members, the programme director and the • Sampo Siiskonen, Oy Sisu-Auto Ab coordinator participating in steering group meet­ (1993 —1994) ings. On the basis of these meetings, the experts • Raisa Valli, Ministry of Transport and then draft situation reports on their respective sec­ Communications (1993) tors and the reports are handled at Committee meet­ • Mauno Ylivakeri, Sisu Diesel Oy ings. The steering groups have proved very effi­ cient and productive. Thanks to this structure, there Raija Pikku-Pyhalto has been the programme is no need to set up a separate executive committee monitor and also a member of the Executive Com ­ for each project. Of course, such a system is still mittee. possible, and is indeed used for the largest projects. In addition, thework done at steering group meet­ Actual programme activities are the charge of VTT ings ensures that information is efficiently dissemi ­ Energy/Engine Technology, which has functioned nated between the researchers and also to the Ex­ as coordination unit. Nils-Olof Nylund was nomi ­ ecutive Committee. Chapter 8 NEMO 2 - Advanced energy systems and technologies

Peter Lund, HUT point of view of theparties exploiting the research results. The programme ’s main emphases are the following: • arctic wind power; I Background and objectives • components of wind power plants; • integration of solar energy into applications, NEMO 2, a research programme on advanced en­ including thin-film solar cell techniques. ergy systems and technologies, was begun in 1993. It was based on the main results of theMinistry of The development and practical demonstration of Trade and Industry ’s NEMO programme, the 1992 solar and wind energy and supporting basic and memorandum of the Ministry of Trade and Indus ­ production technologies are the programme ’s aims, try’s energy research working group, and its own in line with the master plan. preparatory work. In practical research, emphasis has been given to A general plan for 1993 —1998 was drafted for potential usefulness, market potential, cooperation NEMO 2, comprising the following main aims: between companies and international cooperation, • to promote the development of Finnish technol- and high quality. ogy; • to promote technology exports; In 1993 —1995 the programme included 22 re­ • to increase utilization of wind and solar energy search projects and 30 joint development projects. in Finland. Total funding came to FIM 73 million, of which Tekes’ contribution was 49%. The private sector Increasing the utilization of wind and solar energy contributed half of the total funding. From its 67% is vital, since development of the home market is contribution in the first phase of the NEMO pro ­ crucial to attainment of the programme ’s purpose gramme (1988 —1992), public funding fell to 49% - the commercialization of Finnish technology on in NEMO 2, with a corresponding increase in con ­ the global market. tributions from industry.

The programme ’s operations are directed on the basis of corporate interest, the markets and the programme ’s own strengths. In terms of content, 1.1 Global situation this translates into market-oriented development of technology. The energy research working group ’s Advanced energy techniques (solar electricity and memorandum (Ministry of Trade and Industry, heat, wind power) is one of the fastest-growing 1992) set wind and solar energy as the main em­ sectors of energy technology in the world. Al­ phasis for research. In the general plan, this re­ though its impact on the generation of energy is search is supplemented and backed by technolo ­ still small, it has considerable potential. gies for energy storage and other small-scale gen ­ eration. On a local scale, advanced energy techniques al­ ready have an impact on energy production; in The Executive Committee has brought the pro ­ Denmark, 4% of total electricity is wind-generated, gramme ’s broad aims up to date annually and fo ­ and in certain regions of the country the figure cused research on those fields of technology and exceeds 25%. In some Mediterranean countries application which appear most promising from the solar heating is used to produce nearly 10% of all

98 hot water services. Globally speaking, wind power In fact, Finland is Europe ’s leading industrial generates some 12 TWh/a, solar heat 13 TWh/a manufacturer of thin-film applications in solar and solar electricity 0.6 TWh/a. In a scenario technology. In solar heating technology, Finns are drafted by Shell International, solar and wind en­ forcing their way into the European markets. ergy play a key role in long-term global energy production. They are expected to be economical relative to other energy sources by 2020, leading to a 30% market share by 2050. 2 Results in major research areas The global market for the advanced technologies is expanding by more than 20% each year. At present, the annual volume of business is some FIM 2.1 Commercial significance 12 billion. By the year 2000 it is expected to reach FIM 15-18 billion, and by 2010 FIM 50—70 bil­ Wind power lion. The main research areas of NEMO 2 coincide with those of theEU ’s energy and energy research Within the arctic wind power project, an ic­ policies. For instance, nearly a third of the EU’s ing/freezing-sensor was developed which is also energy research, other than nuclear, corresponds being sold to foreign weather stations and wind with NEMO 2. The research areas in advanced power plants. Corresponding new products are be­ energy technology are of international importance. ing developed jointly with industrial partners. The principal long-term advantage is the extensive utili­ In 1995, the total capacity of photovoltaics in­ zation of wind power in arctic conditions, in north­ stalled in Finland was 1.5 MWP. Some 6,000 m2 ern Europe, for instance. Finland is clearly the of solar collectors had been installed at that time, international technology leader in the field. The and wind power capacity was 7 MW. research area also involves joint development and EU projects. At present, Finnish companies have a 2—3% share of the sector ’s global market and some have even One of the projects is developing key technologies acquired a solid foothold in their own niches. 20% to enable the exploitation of offshore wind power of wind power plant power transmission compo ­ potential. Cost-efficiency at the construction stage nents and 10% of thin-film solar arrays are Finnish. and best possible solutions are being sought with

25000

20000

15000

10000

'Wind power [MW]' solar heat ['000 m2] photovoltaics [MwJ

Figure I .The development of the global advanced techniques market (Wind power MW, solar heat, surface area of collectors (1,000 m^), photovoltaics MWp).

99 a pilot project. In the short-term, 300 MW (FIM The project developing hydrogen-based energy 1.5—2 billion) could be constructed. In the longer storage techniques was one of the first in the world term, the potential is 3—10 TWh/a. to find efficient solutions to long-term storage of solar energy. The project has also resulted in a A new wind power plant based on advanced hy­ competitive special product for small-scale elec­ draulic transmission has been developed under the tricity applications in remote rural areas. programme. The aim is to launch a 100 kW wind turbine which can compete with conventional Other technologies plants. The product ’s success will derive from the simplicity of its structure (reducing investment The results of the programme ’s small ORC plant costs) and its improved efficiency (increasing an­ project will be utilized in a demonstration plant. nual income). The ORC (Organic Rankine Cycle) method is based on a low-temperature cyclical process. The At present, the annual global wind power market software developed in the project can be used for is 1000 MW. This is expected to double within five optimizing the ORC process, yielding considerable years, reaching a market of FIM 5.5 billion. Of this, commercial advantage in planning actual plants. power components (generator, gearing, inverters) comprise some 20%, or around FIM 1 billion each The main obstacle preventing electric cars from year. becoming common is insufficient battery technol­ ogy. The project on air and metal hydride elec­ Today, most plants are based on a generator and trodes has developed a new battery type with a gearbox. A gearless generator equipped with a storage capacity several times greater than that of permanent magnet and an inverter for larger plants conventional lead batteries. has been developed under the programme. The solutions can generate 10—15% more power than The aim of theproject on high-temperature super­ previous techniques, leading to a 5—10% reduction conductors is to demonstrate the use of new mate­ in the cost of wind-generated electricity. rials in a 1.5 kW synchronous machine. Large- scale and long-term application in transformers Solarenergy and electric appliances, for instance, reduces size and weight by 40—70% compared with conven ­ The solar panel prototypes and know-how in sys­ tional generators, cutting raw-material costs. In the tems design created under the project on the inte­ Finnish electricity grid, the potential savings gen ­ gration of solar energy have provided the technical erated by superconductivity could reach some preconditions for commercializing solar power 1.2% or FIM 3.5 billion. systems and launching them onto new markets, and have enormous long-term growth potential. The project ’s development work has included thin-film solar power facades for buildings, offering a 30% cost reduction on the crystalline silicon technology 2.2 Principal projects dominating the market at present. Finnish know ­ how is of a high international level. Solar energy Arctic wind includes joint development and EU projects. The development of wind power technology suit­ The main commercial significance of the project able for arctic conditions was initiated during the on developing solar heating technology is to de ­ first stage of the NEMO programme in the late velop related components so that they can be manu ­ 1980s. Wind measurements were carried out in factured industrially. The project ’s results include Lapland ’s fell region and other measurements at a new absorption surfaces for solar collectors. In small test plant on the Pyhatunturi fell. The test addition, it has generated industrial production and plant on Pyhatunturi in Pelkosenniemi was con ­ exports of solar collectors to European markets. structed in October 1993 in cooperation with VTT, They have considerable short-term commercial im­ the Finnish Meteorological Institute and Kemijoki portance. Oy.

100 Measurements showed, already at an early stage, voltage grid and feed electricity to local distribu ­ that the wind conditions on fell tops were ex­ tion networks. The plants are used to monitor and tremely good. On most fells, the annual average measure the stress caused to a standard mass-pro ­ wind speed is more than 8 metres per second. duced wind power plant by an arctic climate. On During winter months the average speed tops 10 the basis of one year’s operating experiences and m/s, sometimes even 12 m/s. In coastal areas, the theoretical studies, components and functions have maximum annual average wind speed is 7 m/s, and been modified at both plants. The number of wind at open sea 8 m/s, measured at theheight of a wind measurements in Lapland has increased during the power plant ’s hub. Thus, wind conditions alone can programme and measurement equipment has been cause 50% higher gross production at a wind power improved to suit the conditions better. plant located on top of a fell, compared with a corresponding coastal plant. Both the Paljasselka and Pyhatunturi research sta­ tions have antifreeze systems, which are tested The principal problem in generating wind power during the winter. On the basis of these tests, a new in arctic regions is the formation of ice and rime heating system was developed for the winter of on the plant ’s structures. The icing of rotors reduces 1995 —1996. The system is also used at the first power and increases load, which causes instability arctic wind farm, located at Lammasoaivi in the and flexing. Icing and the resulting excess mass municipality of Enontekio. Other key modifica ­ also cause problems when a plant is restarted after tions have involved hydraulic systems, lubrication a stoppage. materials and the selection of component materials.

The wind energy research conducted by Kemijoki Other companies have also participated in devel ­ Oy has been part of the NEMO programme from oping arctic wind power generation in addition to the very beginning. Its aim has been to study wind Kemijoki Oy, VTT and the Finnish Meteorological conditions and power generation in fell regions. In Institute. They include Vaisala Oy (wind meters addition to wind research, ways of preventing the and weather stations), Labko Ice Detection Oy (ice icing of rotor blades, the frequency of conditions detection and heating systems) and Wind World where rime occurs and the possibility of operating and Nordtank, the suppliers of the Pyhatunturi and wind power plants in arctic conditions have also Paljasselka power plants. been studied. Kemijoki Oy has cooperated with VTT and theFinnish Meteorological Institute. The Future plans include the development of an inte­ purpose is to achieve the technological standard grated heating system in cooperation with blade required by commercially viable wind generation manufacturers. in arctic conditions. The research system has implemented Vaisala Oy’s At the moment, the test plant on Pyhatunturi and new heatable wind meters at wind metering sta­ the measurements carried out thereare an essential tions located on fells, and for controlling the Py­ part of arctic wind energy research. The purpose is hatunturi test plant. In addition, Labko Ice Detec­ to develop, measure and test techniques which will tion Oy’s ice detector was modified for controlling enable the operation of modem wind power plants the heating of rotor blades, and a detector-based in Lapland and other arctic regions. Research and heating control system was developed. With ice development concentrates on: detectors the number of hours a heating system is • instrumentation: wind meters and indication of used can be cut significantly, leading to consider ­ icing/freezing conditions; able energy savings over mere temperature-based • development of heating systems for wind power or manual control. plant blades; • wind power plant ice loads. The commercial version of the heating system comprises: There are two wind power plants in existence in­ tended for research use. The plant on Enontekid ’s • heating elements; Paljasselka generates 65 kW and that on Pyhatun­ • freezing sensors which start the heating system turi 220 kW. Both plants are connected to a low- only in freezing conditions;

101 • a control system which turns on only the re­ (a-Si) already corresponds to that of certain facade quired heating elements on the basis of blade material used in commercial and office buildings. geometry, heating element configuration and For small houses, however, solar heating, together wind speed. with passive solutions, will most likely remain the primary form of utilizing solar energy. This commercialized heating system will be in­ stalled on Pyhatunturi and at the Lammasoaivi Neste Oy Advanced Power Systems (NAPS), Neste arctic wind farm. Oy Technology Center and Helsinki University of Technology (HUT) have conducted the research in The Pyhatunturi plant also includes instrumenta ­ cooperation. tion for measuring loads. The results have been compared with simulations made with ADAMS In component development, a-Si panels have been software. The software produced for the project is modified for integration in buildings, installation especially suitable for calculating loads in chang­ techniques have been improved and DC solutions ing situations. have been developed as an alternative to grid-based ones. In addition, full-scale pilot tests have been The importance of maintenance has become clear conducted for evaluating the practical functioning during operation of the test plants. Distances are of system concepts. In equipment development, long in Lapland and transporting heavy equipment measurement instructions have been drafted and to fell tops can be very difficult, especially in test equipment has been developed for component winter. A maintenance programme will be devel ­ assessment. oped for arctic wind farms, providing short down ­ times and low operating costs. The project ’s main results include a new solar electricity product and several component proto ­ The environmental impact of wind power plants types. The facade solution based on amorphous has also been studied. Kemijoki Oy has commis ­ silicon developed under the project is materially sioned an environmental report on the impact of cheaper than conventional panels. A full-scale pilot power plants on local inhabitants and fauna. system was built at the Pietarsaari housing fair on the basis of this solution. Integration of solar energy

The optimal use of active and passive solar heating Hydrogen storage and solar electricity requires both the development of respective technologies and their combination Solar electricity systems are often used in small- in a way practicable to each application. scale applications outside the power grid, e.g. as power sources for telecommunications. In the The benefits of systems integrated into buildings north, seasonal storage is also necessary and is not are as follows: possible with lead batteries. • system installation does not require extra sur­ face area; In a solar hydrogen system, the excess solar energy • solar panels can replace construction elements, produced in the summer is conducted to pressur­ thus having an architectural functional; ized electrolysis apparatus, where water is broken • the electricity produced by such systems is of down electrochemically into oxygen and hydro ­ more value to consumers than to power com ­ gen, which is then stored in a pressurized tank. In panies. winter, the hydrogen is used in a fuel cell and the water produced can be conducted back to the elec­ Integrated solar electricity systems differ crucially trolysis apparatus. As a result, the system’s circu­ from power plants. As components replacing con ­ lation is closed. struction materials, the solar panels ’ surface-area cost will probably be more important than thecost Solar hydrogen systems have been studied jointly of the power they generate. Theprice of photovol ­ by Helsinki University of Technology (HUT) and taic panels manufactured from amorphous silicon Neste Oy’s research centre since 1990.

102 Both HUT and Neste now have foil-size test plants, • to transfer technology to Finland. and a prototype plant is nearing completion. H2PHOTO software was developed for dimen ­ In terms of aims, the main result is the programme ’s sioning and optimizing the systems. The develop ­ positive impact on business. During the pro ­ ment work led to five international patents, related gramme the volume of business activity in the to pressurizing the electrolysis cells, adjusting sector has grown to FIM 200 million per annum, pressure and feeding pressurized service water. of which more than 80% is exports. The strong Several international publications have also been growth of advanced energy technologies is a result produced. of developments in top-level technology, favour ­ able trends on international markets, availability of Neste has constructed a prototype of a solar hydro ­ venture capital and related publicity directed at gen system. The first commercial applications are Finnish target groups. expected within a few years. Seasonal hydrogen- based storage solutions for daily power consump ­ Activities under the NEMO 2 programme and its tion of 1—10 kWh are the eventual aim. projects in 1993 —1995 may also generate some FIM 50—60 million a year in new turnover, even Component development has concentrated mainly after the programme ends in 1998. Long-term po ­ on solid-polymer electrolysis cells (SPEL) and tential is some FIM 350 million per year. their pressurization systems. Various methods of hydrogen storage have also been compared. In The NEMO 2 programme ’s main result in terms of small systems, pressurized tanks and metal hydride energy economy is the introduction of wind power storage are applicable. Metal hydride solutions are to Finland; in 1989 only 0.3 MW of wind power suitable for very small applications, as their pres­ was generated, whilein 1995 the figure was 7 MW. sure and thermal properties are selected so that an Moreover, the programme has been crucial to the electrolysis cell can be used to charge the hydride creation of the Ministry of Trade and Industry ’s and the hydride can be decharged to the fuel cell wind power programme, which aims to construct without additional heating. 100 MW of power by the year 2005.

The solar hydrogen system under review is also The NEMO 2 programme has generated new re­ interesting economically, compared with a conven ­ search and technology products and new business tional system using diesel generators as an auxil­ activity. The production stage has been reached for iary power unit in places where maintenance is the following products: difficult. Special attention must be paid to mini­ • launching of solar heating systems business mizing maintenance. A small system based on gas (Neste Oy); cylinders and a fuel cell as an auxiliary power unit • initiation of solar collector development and is also a promising alternative. manufacture (Neste Oy); • a control unit for solar power systems (Coronel The project ’s main result, a prototype of a seasonal Oy); storage system, is being exploited by Neste in • a cathode protection device based on solar expanding the market for solar power systems to power (Savcor-Consulting Oy); new areas and applications. • a prototype of a small-scale wind-diesel power plant (Neste NAPS Oy, HUT) • a wind scanner prototype (Vaisala OY, Finnish Meteorological Institute); 3 Effectiveness of results • a gearbox for large MW wind power plants (Kumera Oy) The NEMO 2 programme has had a positive impact on the development of advanced energy technology Other product plans include: in Finland. Its principal aims and effects are: • an absorber solution for solar heat collectors (P. • to increase business activity; Koskelan Vesi ja Lampo Ky, HUT); • to develop new technological know-how; • two solar power facade prototypes (Neste Oy • to initiate new business activity; Technology, Lansilasi Oy, HUT);

103 FIM mill.

Figure 2. Development of advanced energy technology business in Finland.

Programme underway/Programme ended Solar

- - Wind

Others

2005-10

Year

Figure 3. An estimate of the impact on manufacturing business of the projects carried out under NEMO 2 during 1993 —1995.

Figure 4. A scenario of the NEMO 2 programme ’s impact on the Finnish energy economy. • a prototype of an autonomous solar hydrogen A total of 3—4 strong clusters of know-how have system (Neste Oy Technology, HUT); formed at VTT and at universities of technology. • an arctic freezing sensor and blade (Labko Ice Their functions include researcher training. The Detection Oy, Kemijoki Oy, VTT); research groups have a key role to play in training • a prototype of an arctic wind power plant (Kemi­ experts in the sector. At present, the groups com ­ joki Oy, VTT); prise some 50 people, two thirds of whom are in • a hydrostatic wind power plant, two prototypes researcher training. A graduate school in energy (Tmi Kone-Sampo, Imatran Voima Oy); technology has been founded at the Helsinki Uni­ • a gearless generator prototype (TUT); versity of Technology, open to project researchers • a hydrogen battery for electric cars and post-graduate trainees. In connection with re­ (Elcat, HUT); searcher training, 16 first degrees and 8 advanced • a prototype of a small-scale ORC power plant degrees, 5 of which are doctoral dissertations, have (High Speed Tech Oy, HUT). been completed.

A large number of product improvements and An additional advantage generated by the pro ­ know-how products also exist, including planning gramme for companies is the researcher transfers of wind farms and instructions for planning solar (approx. 10) from universities to demanding prod ­ electric buildings. uct development and commercialization work in the private sector. Another advantage is the 10—15 Several pilot plants have been constructed to pro ­ products and product ideas created within the pro ­ mote the aims of technology and energy policies. gramme. The most important ones are: • the arctic 225 kW wind power test plant on The programme activities themselves have had a Pyhatunturi; positive impact on the sector ’s businesses, accord ­ • the arctic wind farm on Lammasoaivi (1996); ing to which it often brings added value and im­ • the 500 kW offshore plant (planning begun in proves competitiveness. The commitment of com ­ 1995); panies is also demonstrated by the growth in the • the 50 kW hydrostatic wind power plant in business funding provided since the inception of Koppamas (completed in 1996); the programme. In 1995, companies contributed • the 52 m2 solar heating system in Leppavaara; one half of the programme ’s funding. Compared • the 100 m2 solar heating plant in Orivesi (moni ­ with the start of the programme, the volume of joint toring only); research projects in terms of Finnish marks has • the 200 kW fuel-cell plant in Hameenlinna grown nearly twenty-fold. Moreover, many of the (monitoring only); joint projects are long-term (more than 3 years), • the 195 nr high-temperature water storage in requiring firm commitment to the programme (i.e. Sjokulla. Neste Oy, Neste Oy NAPS, Mikrokemia Oy, Kemi­ joki Oy, Imatran Voima Oy, Prizztech Oy). Actual clusters of know-how with high scientific standards and sufficiently large research groups The programme ’s indirect influence (i.e. via pub­ have formed in the following fields: licity and contacts) on those companies which are • integration of solar energy (i.e. control, struc­ indirectly participating (such as ABB Motors Oy, tures), thin-film technology and storage; Valmet Voimansiirto Oy) can partly be seen in the • wind power technology and components for changes in these companies ’ product ranges. It difficult conditions; seems that advanced energy technology is switch­ • systems and electrical techniques in advanced ing its emphasis more clearly to specialized prod ­ energy technology. ucts. For instance, instead of an ordinary power generator, a company may develop a generator The solar energy cluster comprises some 20 re­ intended specifically for wind power plants. searchers and 10 companies. Roughly 50% of the products and product ideas generated within the The programme has a positive effect on companies programme originate in these clusters. Indirectly, and on joint development projects. In fact, close they are involved in 80% of all new products. cooperation between research activities and com- panics has been typical. Each research project in­ • The programme has introduced the utilization cludes a company that intends to utilize the pro ­ of wind energy to Finland and increased power ject’s results. In addition, research coalitions com ­ companies ’ interest in wind power. prising research and joint development projects • Theprogramme ’s scientific standards are high. have been formed between companies and research In certain areas they are of the highest standard institutions (arctic blades, photovoltaic facades, internationally. solar hydrogen, hydride batteries, etc.). The pro ­ gramme has a significant influence on the content According to the interim assessment, the NEMO 2 of these projects and their focus. Results from research programme ’s contents and emphases have international cooperation are put to practical use been chosen correctly, and the main segments, most effectively through these programme chan­ solar and wind energy, form an excellent, market- nels. oriented and environmentally sound technological whole. International networking has also been central to the programme. NEMO 2 has included a total of Advanced energy technology is global and its sec­ 17 EU research programme projects, contributing tors of research are international. For example, of nearly 20% of NEMO 2’s total R&D funding. The the EU research, other than nuclear, nearly a third programme is actively participating in the concerns NEMO 2’s research areas. It is obvious OECD/IEA Solar Heating and Cooling, Photovol- that international cooperation is vital to solving the taics Power Systems and Wind Energy pro ­ key problems in advanced energy technology. At grammes. Nordic cooperation has also been active. the same time, attention must be paid to the con ­ siderable commercial interests involved, even in The programme ’s information and publicity activi ­ the short term, emphasizing the importance of our ties have improved awareness of advanced energy own national research in support of Finnish com ­ technology and promoted realization of the pro ­ panies. gramme ’s aims. Each year, the programme has, for example, organized a research seminar and several The areas which have strategic importance for in­ information sessions, participated in fairs, publish­ dustry (such as know-how clusters) should be given ed the NEMO bulletin (2—3 each year) and a strong emphasis in research and investment. Na­ yearbook, and created a multimedia presentation. tional funding enables research to be directed in a way not always possible in international pro ­ grammes. International cooperation must, how­ ever, be given emphasis. According to the interim assessment, the NEMO 2 programme has been 4 Main results of very successful in this. National research must the interim assessment often also be considered as a necessary input in international cooperation and a precondition for international funding. According to the interim assessment conducted by the Executive Committee and a foreign evaluator, In less specialized areas, generic research could be the programme had complied well with the re­ better covered by, for instance, EU funding. The search plan ’s aims. NEMO 2 programme ’s model for international co ­ operation, into which companies are closely inte­ The principal observations made in the assessment grated, is an efficient basis for an international are given below. division of labour. • The programme has clearly promoted the de ­ velopment of advanced energy technology and The various partners in NEMO 2 have participated related business activity in Finland. closely in the different stages of commercializing • The programme has generated considerable advanced energy technology. Cooperation between added value for companies in the sector. research institutions and companies is close and • New clusters of know-how have formed in re­ smooth, allowing the programme ’s results to be search institutions and companies. transferred to practical applications.

106 With regard to new product ideas, generated largely programme (integration of solar energy, including by research projects, the interim assessment sug ­ thin-film techniques, arctic wind, wind power com ­ gests that the added value provided by cooperation ponents). The following provide support for busi­ could be increased by founding small development ness-oriented research projects, in compliance with companies in which the actual work would be the master plan and the needs of the know-how carried out by researchers, while venture capital clusters: would be provided by larger companies. Univer ­ • energy storage: solar and wind energy; sity-based science parks and their researcher and • multifunctional solar collectors based on thin- technology companies are one possible option. film technology; • improvement of the efficiency and stability of The NEMO 2 programme has participated actively amorphous silicon; in the research programmes of theNordic Council • improvement of the cost-efficiency of solar of Ministers, the IEA and the EU, each of which heating; has generated added value for the programme itself • wind in cold climates and models for a technical as well as for the private sector. Which form and solution; forum of cooperation will become the primary one • effects of increased use of wind power in the will naturally depend on the content of the coop ­ energy system, including environmental im­ eration and the advantages that this offers the pro ­ pacts. gramme. It is likely that participation in EU re­ search programmes will increase. Linking these In these areas, there is theoretical potential for projects more closely with the programme would improvement of some 50% on the present techno­ be sensible in terms of national research and re­ logical level. Part of this potential can be realized sources. EU research funding would mainly in­ through the programme. volve generic research in which the typical partici­ pants are larger companies and research partners. Public financiers such as Tekes have an important In the future, EU funding should be actively sought role in promoting advanced technology. Without in order to gain international information and pub­ Tekes’ input, the development of advanced forms licity for the NEMO 2 programme. of energy and energy technologies and their ex­ ports would have remained at a modest level in Finland.

5 Further planning based on At the moment, what justifies advanced energy techniques is technology and its commercializa ­ the interim assessment tion. These generate new industry, technology ex­ ports, top-level R&D and jobs. Although their im­ The interim assessment proposes no major modi ­ pact on Finland ’s energy economy is not significant fication to the programme ’s contents. The pro ­ at the moment, this could well change in the future. gramme ’s focus is in place and there is little need In this respect, wind power has advanced the most; to adjust it. wind power could well be given a production target in energy policy. For wind, a suitable target level A majority of theprogramme ’s projects have been could be the Ministry of Trade and Industry ’s wind long-term (at least three years), which means there power plant programme ’s 100 MW target for 2005. is a need for updating and new projects. In addition, new SMEs entering the sector may introduce new Public funding will remain vital to technology needs, as the research and cooperation assistance research and development. Limited ‘smart energy they require has proved considerable. This can be technology programmes ’ with concrete techno­ anticipated particularly with regard to innovative logical aims, such as cutting systems costs, are a wind power plants and solar heat systems. potential new programme format. Such pro ­ grammes would include the development of tech­ The programme ’s main segments, wind and solar nology and markets at the same time. The competi ­ energy, make up a practicable technological whole, tiveness of new products on global markets could as do the know-how clusters formed within the be achieved more quickly if a small niche were

107 created for them on the Finnish market; there are • Mr. lira Andersson, Director, Prizztech Oy several successful examples of this abroad. As • Mr. Markku Autti, Managing Director, such, smart programmes do not require additional Kemijoki Oy funding, merely some degree of reorganization be­ • Dr. Mikko Kara, Research Director, VTT tween financiers and other partners. (Technical Research Centre of Finland) • Mr. Kari Komulainen, Special Researcher, TEKES Technology Development Centre • Dr. Yijo Laiho, Director, Research Department, 6 Research organization and Imatran Voima Oy Executive Committee • Dr. Rainer Salomaa, Professor, Helsinki University of Technology • Dr. Peter Lund, Associate Professor, Helsinki The NEMO 2 research programme hasbeen coor ­ University of Technology, director of the dinated by Helsinki University of Technology. The programme Executive Committee is chaired by director Tapio Alvesalo from Neste Oy NAPS. The director of the The project secretary, Ms. Satu Isokoski, has also programme is Associate Professor Peter Lund, acted as secretary to the Executive Committee. HUT, department of technical mathematics and physics.

During 1993 —1995, the Executive Committee comprised the following: • Dr. Tapio Alvesalo, Director, Neste Oy NAPS, chairman

108 Chapter 9 RAKET - Energy use research programme for buildings

Markka Virtanen.VTT and products. This approach has succeeded in com ­ mitting companies more strongly to research.

One trend in the building construction sector has I Background and objectives been to seek overall solutions in which energy saving components can be combined to form func ­ The goal of Finnish energy policy is to increase the tional entities. The emphasis has been on the de ­ efficiency of energy consumption by 1% over what velopment of approaches to be applied to the ex­ could otherwise be attained. The target for savings isting building stock, because construction has in specific energy consumption by sector for the shifted increasingly from new build to maintenance year 2005 is 10-15%. Energy conservation is also of the existing building stock. expected to reduce emissions by 15-20%. Reach­ ing this goal will require major changes in the The equipment systems of buildings have devel ­ energy economies of buildings. oped with respect to technology and function at a very fast rate and will continue to do so, placing It is essential for the achievement of environmental great demands on the professional competence of and energy policy targets to reduce the use of operating personnel. Building equipment systems non-renewable fossil fuels. In the building sector are often so complex that it is difficult to under ­ this will, for example, mean more extensive use of stand their correct use, functioning and control. solar energy. Indeed, the coming decades must be Removal of this obstacle is one of themajor goals. seen as a period of transition from the use of fossil fuels in the heating and cooling of buildings to The goal of the research programme is to develop renewable forms of energy. energy saving methods based on new equipment, structure and regulation technology and to promote Application of the best commercial and prototype the commercialization and application of new ap­ technology will allow savings of 30-70%. Intro ­ proaches to improved energy use in buildings. To duction of prototype technology will require a sig ­ implement this objective, the research programme nificant rise in energy prices from present levels will (100-200%) to make them profitable. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), the great ­ • develop energy conservation technology - est long-term potential for energy savings in the equipment, structural approaches and eventu ­ building sector is found in advanced control and ally competitive solutions that represent a high automation technology, heat recovery and heat standard of construction and meet demands for pump technologies, new insulation materials and a good indoor climate. structures and in improved glass technology. These • develop building automation systems, support are also priorities of the RAKET research pro ­ systems and software tools for design and real gramme. estate maintenance with which the proper op ­ eration of technical systems can be achieved The results of research on energy use can be ex­ and maintained. ploited by making construction and energy tech­ • promote practical application of energy conser ­ nology a competitive factor for companies in the vation technology by encouraging compilation sector. Energy research on buildings has focused of the applied knowledge of company consortia on areas in which there is commercial interest on and the best existing technology for use in the the part of companies in developing technologies organization of test building and demonstra-

109 tions and for informing consumers and deci ­ dwelling is 120 kWh/m2 per year according to sion-makers of energy conservation technology. follow-up studies. • produce information for officials and other de ­ cision-makers for use in the preparation and Single-family dwellings in Finland consume 22 pursuit of energy and research policy. TWh of energy per year. At a consumption level of 40 kWh/m2; single-family dwellings would con ­ sume some 5 TWh for heating. The energy savings per year would be 17 TWh, which would be equiva ­ 2 Results in major lent to FIM 3 billion. research areas To date, ten single-family dwellings have been built. Most of them are new, although some were renovated. Increased insulation thickness, im­ proved windows, heat recovery from ventilation 2.1 Low-energy buildings and building of air-tight structures without cold ­ bridging are means of energy conservation. The Finnish low-energy buildings are based primarily increase in building costs is less than 5% compared on reduction of heat loss. Insulation, windows and with a conventional single-family dwelling. heat recovery from ventilation have been im­ The solutions by structural part were as follows: proved. In the research programmes preceding the • thickness of wall insulation 250-300 mm RAKET programme (Energy-economical build ­ (U value 0.16-0.13 W/m2 K) ings and building components and Energy and • heat insulation for the roof slab 450-500 mm automation systems for buildings) model solutions (U value 0.10-0.08 W/m2 K) for buildings and their equipment were determined. • heat insulation for the floor slab 200-250 mm Many of these were realized or are being realized (U value 0.20-0.16 W/m2 K) in the test building projects of the RAKET pro ­ • heat insulation for the windows gramme. (U value 0.70-1.20 W/m2 K)

Rapid commercialization has more priority in the The target value of n50 for natural ventilation, targets of test building ventures than the actual which depicts airtightness, was 1.0 1/h and the research projects. Key factors are overall economy, realized values 0.8-1.6 1/h. The temperature effi­ practical guidelines for planning, reference mate­ ciency of heat recovery from ventilation has been rial on the functioning of the solutions obtained 60-80%. with measurements and comprehensive dissemina ­ tion of information. Synergy between test building Systems based on oil, electricity and solar technol­ and research in the programme was created with ogy have been developed for the single-family test support systems that have included comments on plans for test building and various analyses elabo ­ dwellings. Storage systems were sought to mini­ mize heating costs. The benefits of heat-storing rating on the plans. fireplaces for heating of the entire building were The goal is to develop economically competitive also studied. model solutions in which the consumption of pur­ chased energy would be less than a quarter of the The consumption of heating energy measured in rated level. In single-family dwellings this would the houses was some 40-70 kWh/m" per year and correspond to 50 kWh/m2 or less in total annual the total energy 95-135 kWh/m". The normal total energy. energy consumption of a single-family dwelling in southern Finland is approximately 200 kWh/m' per The results of theoretical research begun at the end year. The quality of the indoor air proved good and of the 1980s were measured in the RAKET pro ­ residents have been satisfied with it. gramme. The room heating energy consumption target in the first test buildings was set at 60 In seeking even further reductions in consumption kWh/m2 per year. Thefuture level of consumption of purchased energy than those presented above, was reduced to 40 kWh/m2 per year. The ordinary use of high efficiency heat pumps and active ex­ heating energy consumption of a single-family ploitation of solar energy are needed as well as

110 Follow-up in the 1980s Follow-up in the 1990s 250 Total Energy Single-family dwellings Heating, including wood built according to norms 1 I 200 Improved insulation and tightness, I better windows and heat recovery from ventilation air ] E 5 150 § 1 100 --

1) The follow-up included houses and heat pump and heat recover

-+- —I— -I- CM o CM < LU 8 a m 1 Q- CL 0_ E O 3 s: $ LU LU CZ) CO 0_ o ist Ocr LU LU UJ O y y LU LU Research

Figure I. Energy consumption in the test single family dwellings.

from good insulation of the outer shell and heat and heat recovery from ventilation. Low-tempera ­ recovery from ventilation. A single-family dwell ­ ture room-specific floor and air heating was used. ing was built in Pietarsaari, Finland, within the The technology was designed to ensure that occu ­ framework of the RAKET programme and IEA pants would be disturbed as little as possible during energy research co-operation. Consumption of pur­ maintenance and repairs. The equipment could be chased heating energy is only 10 kWh/m per year, maintained and repaired via the stairwell. which is substantially below the present normal level. Total energy consumption in the house is 40 In the low energy office buildings control of inter­ kWh/m" per year. nal and external heat load and the need to minimize or eliminate mechanical cooling altogether were The consumption target for heating energy in the emphasized, apart from good insulation and heat test apartment blocks is half the present norm, recovery from ventilation. The METOP test office which is typically some 120 kWh/m' per year. building consumes 60% less heating energy than a Heating of apartment buildings in Finland con ­ typical office building, and no mechanical cooling sumes 17 TWh of energy per year. At a level of 60 is needed. A solution based on the METOP office kWh/m" heating of apartment blocks would con ­ building was demonstrated at the Lappeenranta sume 4 TWh per year. The monetary value of student union office building. Technologies such energy savings would be some FIM 2 billion per as structural protection from the sun, control of year. internal heat loads, integration of structures and equipment systems in short-term energy storage, Savings in heating energy in Apartment House use of outside air in cooling and a high degree of 2000 was achieved without appreciably increasing building automation were tested there. The project building costs. The energy conservation technolo ­ encountered many difficulties and the targets were gies used included a well-insulated shell, windows not reached in full. Monitoring point

Ventilation Current Ventilation Current

Emission Coefficient 0.90

Emission Coefficient 0.04

Emission Coefficient 0.90 Emission Coefficient 0.04

7/1 7/31 8/30 9/29 10/29 11/28 12/28 1/27 2/26 3/27 4/26 5/26 6/25 7/1 7/31 8/30 9/29 10/29 11/28 12/28 1/27 2/26 3/27 4/26 5/26 6/25

Time of Year Time of Year

Figure 2. Temperature and moisture content on the lower surface of crawl spaces.

The low emission coefficient for long-wave radiation on the lower surface of the crawl space below a floor slab will raise the temperature of the lower surface of the crawl space and substantially reduce the potential for fungal attack and condensation. The outside conditions represent the weather in Helsinki in 1979 and the inside temperature is a constant 22 °C.

2.2 Building systems structure the increase in heat loss caused by con ­ vection was insignificant when the insulation com ­ prised three 100 mm layers and convection barriers Research on structural systems focused on insula ­ were placed between them. At inside and outside tion structures, new window and glass structures, temperatures of 20 °C and -20 °C the increase in equipment systems integrated with structures and heat loss would have been 5-19%. Building paper on structural solutions for renovation. that permits diffusion of water vapour is a suitable convection barrier. Prototypes for thick insulation structures are based on light-weight mineral wool and films coated with Film insulation structures comprise air space and low-emissivity material. This eliminated convec ­ films in which long-wave heat radiation can be tion currents and long-wave heat radiation inside eliminated almost entirely by using films with a the structures. low-emissivity surface on one side. The free water collecting on the roof in self-drying roof structures The effect of air currents could be eliminated al­ could be removed by capillary action using thick most entirely with ‘ convection barriers’. For exam­ water-repellent and moisture-resistant cellulose-fi ­ ple in the case of a 300 mm mineral wool wall bre paper and then evaporated.

112 Figure 3. The carbon dioxide concentration in a 12m^ bedroom. The diffusion of carbon dioxide through the wall structures (42 m ) of a bedroom without moisture barriers considerably lowers the carbon dioxide content of the inside air and improves its quality. Two adults are in the bedroom between 23 and 07. The air circulation coefficient is 0.25 I /h. Moisture barrier: plastic vapour barrier in the wall structure through which carbon dioxide is not diffused. The structure of the bedroom walls beginning with the inner surface: porous wood fibre board (12 mm), building paper (no moisture barrier) or plastic vapour barrier (vapour barrier), pulp fibre insulation (150 mm), porous wood fibre board (12 mm) and ventilation gap and timber cladding.

1

1 heat pump compressor 2 cooling radiator for generation of hot water service 3 condenser for heating hot water 4 two-part storage tank 5 hot water service network 6 heating water network

Figure 4. Connection of heat pump to the hot water storage tank and heating network.

M3 Solar collector

Collector thermostat (I) Cooling air in summer*"

| Collector without R- Damper (I) i heat exchanger (I) Exhaust air heat exchanger

Hot water Connection with storage tank Exhaust air fan oil-fired boiler I Exhaust air Circulation Damper (2)

Exhaust air Room thermostat (2)

Intake air fan

Radiator

Heat exchanger cold water Insulation

Solar and air heating system for a low-energy house in 1978. Total energy consumption was 43 kWh/m3.

WASTE AIR /Wm Fan \\ Zz H Filter \\ // IZl Flow controlled Z«gen» g ™"9 O Sound absorber Fireplace g Heat recovery

VENTILATION HEATING UNIT '/

Ventilation heating system for a low energy house in 1996. Total energy consumption is 35 kWh/m3 .

Figure 5. Equipment systems for low-energy houses have been simplified over the years. Internationally pioneering work was done in mod ­ erable savings in energy and power were achieved elling and developing experimental research meth­ with the ThermoNet system. Cost savings are also ods for cellular plastic insulation. The methods will achieved by using low-temperature return water be used in the future to develop polyurethane struc­ from the district heating system. Used extensively, tures based on CFC-free propellants. the system will reduce heat loss from a district heating distribution network and improve the op ­ Research on window and glass structures has in­ erating economy of co-generation. ternational significance. Co-operation in the sector was carried out in IEA projects. The goal was to A commercial application of the cooling beam used design a window suitable for Finnish conditions as the room unit in the Merki air-conditioning which would be optimal both thermally and opti ­ system has been developed. The concept of the cally. The windows underwent a comprehensive system has been demonstrated and converted into energy analysis. Via technology transfer, informa ­ a commercial planning guideline. Heat recovery tion on the heat and radiation transmittance of instead of postheating can be integrated with the adjustable glass and windows was obtained, as was room unit in the solution intended for renovation. information on the properties of aerogels and vac ­ The system developed saves a considerable amount uum glazing. of mechanically produced cooling energy in office buildings (30-40%) compared with conventional Theresearch programme developed a prototype of arrangements. a solar air collector based on translucent insulation. Solar energy is collected in the absorption layer The need for mechanical cooling in office spaces behind thetranslucent layer. The heat is then trans­ can be reduced substantially with cooling equip­ ferred by means of natural closed air circulation ment at individual work stations. The most efficient from the absorption layer to the structural parts of approach proved to be a ceiling fan, which kept the the building that store heat. The volume of heat work station comfortable even when the room tem­ obtained with the air-collector system may be dou ­ perature rose to 28 °C. Since an average air flow ble that of a structure based on passive translucent velocity of 1 m/s on the surface of the body can be insulation. A prototype was tested in the PASSYS obtained with a ceiling fan, the body experiences (passive solar components and systems testing) a temperature 3 degrees lower. outdoor test chamber developed in the research programme. Theresearch programme developed two economi ­ cal low temperature pump prototypes. One is for 5 Repair concepts for the external shell were ana­ kW, and is meant for new buildings. The 8 kW heat lyzed for different apartment block types. The em­ pump is meant for renovated premises. Consider ­ phasis in repair solutions for the external shell is able improvements over existing equipment in the on the application of new window technology and capacity for hot water production, the heat coeffi ­ the use of balcony glazing in energy renovation. cient and the control system were achieved in the The company projects developed products suitable prototype developed by the programme. Thestruc ­ for renovation; commercial applications of the new tures were also kept simple. Work on development window technology and additional ventilated insu ­ of ground heat pumps continues in a product de ­ lation for outer walls. velopment project.

In advanced solar heat equipment the heat from the solar air collector is stored in the earth under the 2.3 Equipment systems building. The temperature of the earth mass storage is raised with a heat pump to the level required for Research on equipment systems focused on air heating and hot water services. The system is at the conditioning, heating and renovation. demonstration stage.

The research programme took part in the develop ­ In developing wood as a fuel for heating single ­ ment of the TermoNet and Merki air-conditioning family dwellings, the aim was easy use, energy systems. Thanks to efficient heat recovery, consid ­ efficiency (measured boiler efficiency in the neigh-

115 Figure 6. The fault diagnosis system provides information on the basis of which the reason for the fault can be determined.

A fault detection tree. The desired process can be restored after diagnosis. A database is used to record and store fault data.

( Daylight Artificial

Daylightsystems

Effect of lighting control methods Lighting intensity Measurement Luminance Lighting requirements ■Limit of detrimental factors Requirements imposed by work Control algorithms Personal lighting needs 50-- Fuzzy control Other systems - presence Light fixture control - display control Blinds control 20-- - AV equipment Systems Control

Physical and visual Energy savings Daylight (%) comfort

Figure 7. The electricity consumed in lighting can be reduced with effective controls.

Lighting control can be implemented for example with fuzzy logic. The daylight ratio is the ratio between the interior lighting intensity and the external horizontal lighting intensity under the open sky.

116 bourhood of 80%) and low emissivity. The system The research programme developed several real­ developed is based on a wood-fired boiler with a time fault diagnosis systems for district heat ex­ rated output of 40 kW, a hot water storage tank of changers, oil burners and air conditioning. A fault 1.8-3.0 m2 and water-based heat distribution. A diagnosis method for the building level was also number of manufacturers are developing heating developed within the framework of IEA co-opera ­ systems based on the use of wood and solar energy. tion. The research also developed an inspection The main objective is to use the heat from a fire­ method for the operation of heat and air-condition ­ place throughout the building and integrate solar ing control systems. technology with water-based heat distribution. The lighting criteria developed in the research pro ­ The research programme developed model solu ­ gramme created the basis for development of a tions for renovating and improving the ventilation control algorithm for lighting. Room lighting need systems of apartment blocks built in the 1950s- not be kept constant. A comfortable volume and 1970s with various technologies. Drying equip­ distribution of lighting depends on natural light. ment (Esteri) based on heat pump technology was Measurements made with the help of test personnel developed to alleviate the moisture problems of showed that lighting could be balanced, that is the apartment block bathrooms. formation of shadows and brightness differences between various parts of a room could be reduced. Ways have also been sought to improve the energy The necessary control of lighting could be achieved economy of air-conditioning cooling equipment. for example with a learning intelligent control sys­ The main problems in the operations of cooling tem based on fuzzy logic. The electronic interface systems (direct vaporization systems, water cool ­ for the fluorescent light fixtures was developed in ers and standard air-conditioning machines) have a company project. been overdimensioning of plants and operating problems in winter. Both problems can be tackled The programme also analyzed the effect of inte­ effectively in the design stage. Views on systems grated lighting and air-conditioning systems on design, dimensioning criteria, output control and measurement and energy consumption in a typical solutions for the renovation of cooling systems office building. Model solutions for the design of with respect to most malfunction and disturbance controls for lighting and air-conditioning systems situations were presented. were devised on the basis of the analysis.

2.5 Design technologies and 2.4 Operating technology and data systems building automation Development of design methods concentrated on Research on building automation systems concen ­ data management and systems and on tools and trated on energy control systems and data systems analysis methods for design. for operations, optimization of the use of HEPAC processes and diagnostic methods, control j a regu ­ The RAKET programme developed an energy- lation of lighting and integrated systems regula ­ economy model for building and HEPAC and auto ­ tion. mation design in which the design stages are de ­ picted in terms of energy economy. The model The research programme developed an energy includes a need survey, project planning, building management system that serves as a frame of ref­ design, construction and commissioning. The erence in R&D on building maintenance, use and model is to function as a frame of reference in automation systems. The concept was applied in a development of data system applications for the company project that developed an intelligent con ­ design process. nection between the electric company and house­ holds (Hemis). The concept has now advanced to Theresearch programme developed a HEPAC and the prototype stage. electricity feedback system model and database on STAGES IN THE LIFE CYCLE OF A SIMULATED BUILDING - information on the previous stages are available for the following stages

Figure 8. Building air-conditioning systems can be simulated with PROMISE software.

the internal climatic conditions of office buildings ture for thedesign system must both be developed. and the sources of impurities and emissions in Management of knowledge-based instead of docu ­ them. The former contains data on the energy con ­ ment-based design data is the basic requirement for sumption of office buildings, flows of outdoor air integrated design tools and computerized building. in office rooms, symptoms of employees and the The RAKET programme adopted a product data chemical and physical values of indoor air. Infor ­ model based on the ‘RATAS’ concept for use in mation from 56 office buildings in 9 different coun ­ documentation. The basic solutions of the inte­ tries was compiled for the database. grated design environment based on the product model were developed for the prototype level in Before energy-saving building systems can be the COMBINE project of the EU IOULE pro ­ widely applied, design methods and the infrastruc ­ gramme. A prototype of an integrated simulation environ- 3 Effectiveness of results ment(PROMISE), in which simulation and design tools were combined with a commercial CAD sys­ tem using the same product information, was de ­ 3.1 Industrial relevance veloped for national commissioning of the design environment. The product data technology used Low-energy buildings parts of the ISO/STEP data management technol­ ogy. Product data technology will be a key element The RAKET programme has verified with meas­ in the core of data transfer in the building process urements that it is possible and economical to and in the long-term for data management through­ reduce consumption of heating energy in single ­ out the life cycle of the building. family dwellings by more than 50% (to some 120 kWh/m2 annually). Various technical solutions for Individual methods were developed for analysis of achievement of energy savings have been evaluated energy, internal climate, and environmental and in test construction. On the basis of this experience, cost effects. An important aspect of the national house suppliers have brought alternatives onto the energy-saving programme is theintroduction of an market in which low energy consumption is a com ­ energy technical classification for buildings. It petitive advantage. The alternatives can be imple­ would promote efficient energy use of buildings mented with reliable technology and only a slight and application of energy-saving technologies. The rise in building costs. classification will require determination of target values for energy consumption in individual build ­ In the present projects, energy technology for sin­ ings. The RAKET programme developed a method gle-family dwellings has reached the stage of com ­ for determining target values for consumption of mercial applications and this has been demon ­ heating energy, electricity and tap water in build ­ strated in the test building. Commercial prefabri­ ings that vary in age, type and amenity standard. cated house kits are a result. In contrast, the test- Themethod includes Etana software, which facili­ built apartment blocks have remained prototypes tates drafting of energy consumption in a standard and have not had an effect on general building year. It has been tested in apartment blocks and methods. Individual commercial products have service buildings and a commercial version is mar­ been created, but no energy-economical type keted as a practical tool to property management house. With regard to office buildings, only one organizations by theFinnish Property Owners ’ As­ test construction project exists. sociation. Test building has offered companies an opportunity The RAKET programme developed a method suit­ to develop and test energy-saving structures and able in Finnish conditions for evaluation of the products and to publish the results. Test construc ­ environmental impact of building energy use. It tion has provided many details which can be de ­ comprises a checklist for designers, methods for veloped in future design of energy-saving houses. calculation of the specific emission values of the Apart from equipment manufacturers, most prefab­ forms of energy used in buildings and a simplified ricated house suppliers have increased their capac­ calculation tool. The checklist is suitable for evalu ­ ity to offer energy-saving solutions to their custom ­ ation of the design stage. Evaluation of the annual ­ ers. ized emission coefficients of the forms of energy used in buildings is made possible by the calcula­ The designs tested and proved functional in test tion methods for specific emission values. The construction and the energy-saving equipment and calculations take account of the emissions pro ­ windows now on the market have made general use duced in the fuel production and use chains and the of the building method possible. The long-term problems entailed in co-generation of district heat­ goal is to develop methods and convert them into ing and electricity, especially in the building sector. products that require little expertise for implemen­ tation. This objective hasbeen sought for example counted for 90%. Products were exported to the by developing energy-saving house models to ­ Nordic countries and Russia. gether with suppliers of prefabricated houses and by preparing handbooks based on test building Fruitful development work also created the experience. MERKI low-temperature air-conditioning system based on Halton Oy’s free cooling coupling. Room Structure and equipment systems air-conditioning equipment is a commercial appli­ cation of the research. Research on window and glass structures has pro ­ duced a high standard of information which is also The model solutions for residential ventilation pre­ of direct use to the industrial sector. The results of sented in the HEPAC 2000 research programme the new window and glass research has led to the were realized in company projects conducted launching of new products. within the RAKET research programme. Vallox Oy and LVI-Parmair Oy, both suppliers of ventilation During the research, Fenestra Oy launched a win­ equipment, have taken responsibility for develop ­ dow with improved heat insulation capacity. It is ment of the systems. based on heat mirror technology. The new glass improves insulation by 50% compared with the The results of development work on new heat products previously on the market. The research pumps, oil heating and fireplaces have been prom ­ did not entail actual product development; analyses ising. New heat pump products for the SME sector, concerning the building methods and the technical fireplaces and product development principles for aspects of the system were made instead. The total oil heating have been produced. Their significance annual demand for the window technology in Fin­ is increased by the fact that the manufacturing land is some 800,000 m3; the realistic annual export industry is relatively small in size and the potential potential is around 1,000,000 m3. for companies to invest in product development is limited. Technological support for the SME sector The company project of the research programme has been provided through the project, in accord ­ developed an additional front window solution ance with Tekes policy. suitable for renovation purposes and there is now a commercial application (Lemminkainen Oy). Suomen Lampopumpputekniikka Oy will continue There are also commercial applications of addi ­ development of a ground heat pump. The work will tional insulation solutions for outside walls (Polar take into account future requirements such as new and Makela Metals). refrigerants and logic control. The market potential for ground heat pumps in Finland at present is in ABB Installation Oy’s ThermoNet system was de ­ the thousands, although sales amount to only 200- veloped within the framework of several technol­ 300 units annually. Domestic sales, however, are ogy projects and programmes as the system covers growing rapidly and the export potential runs into not only air conditioning but also the entire energy tens of thousands in the Nordic countries alone. supply chain. ThermoNet is ABB’s building tech­ nology system. There are versions of the system Few project proposals supporting R&D on renova ­ for various applications, such as markets and tion were included in the programme. No viable swimming baths. A commercial application of products or methods were developed in this area. ThermoNet technology is in the offing and the The high price of the solutions compared with the supply network for the system will be built within energy savings achieved is a problem. the framework of a separate ThermoNet technol­ ogy programme. TheRAKET research programme Operating technology and will develop more extensive systems based on building automation ThermoNet technology and promote company net­ working. The cumulative turnover of the Ther­ Research on diagnostics has produced concepts moNet systems for approximately two years is FIM and prototypes which have been used in develop ­ 200 million, of which turnover in Finland ac­ ment of building automation systems. Area main­

120 tenance companies have modernized the remote The Executive Committee of the research project control and other control systems used in property has chosen the projects. The national objective of management; the principles of open building auto ­ IEA research co-operation is to create added value mation and intelligent operational interfaces have in domestic research on energy use in buildings been applied (Atmostech Oy, Elektroniikkatyo through technology transfer and researcher net­ Oy). working. The research programme has participated in the Energy Conservation in Buildings and Com ­ Lighting research has developed the key principles munity Systems project and in the Solar Heating for the dimensioning, control and regulation of and Cooling project. lighting. Company projects have developed prod ­ ucts for need-based, energy-saving lighting sys­ The programme also encompasses some of the EU tems (Helvar Oy and Oy Ensto Ab). JOULE research projects. Some of the new re­ search and demonstration projects of the JOULE/ Helvar Oy has developed interface equipment for THERMIE programme concern core areas of the fluorescent lamps based on new technology; the RAKET programme. savings effect is some 25%. In Finland, some 2.6 million conventional chokes for fluorescent lamps Thanks to the extensive content of the RAKET are used annually and some 100,000 electronic research programme and national and international interface units. It has been estimated that 20% of networking, the opportunities for research or train­ the domestic market could convert to electronic ing have been good. One dissertation and one li­ interface equipment in ten years. Domestic sales centiate thesis have been completed. Approxi ­ would then amount to FIM 50 million. Helvar Oy mately ten MScs and diplomas in engineering and exports 95% of its interface equipment to western technician’s diplomas have been completed within Europe and thevolume is increasing by some 15% the programme. annually.

4 Main results of 3.2 Networking and the interim assessment researcher training The RAKET programme has started from the goals The RAKET research programme has conducted set by theMinistry of Trade and Industry, and thus national research co-operation with Tekes research its goals differ somewhat from those of Tekes, the and development programmes in particular. Exam­ host organization. The central goal of the TEKES ples of partners are the building environmental technology programmes is to make companies technology (RYM), building automation technol­ more competitive by developing new products and ogy (SAMBA), wood construction technology, by adding value to existing ones, thereby promot ­ district heating and renewable forms of energy and ing exports and creating new jobs. technology research (TERMO) programmes. Re­ search communication hasbeen handled in co-op ­ The assessment suggests that individual domestic eration with MOTIVA. low-energy test building be abandoned in the fu­ ture. Resources will be channelled into commer ­ Overall, the criteria used in domestic operations cialization of results by supporting test building. have been applied in the prioritization of interna ­ TEKES will see that the products developed in the tional operations. International research co-opera ­ RAKET programme are taken into consideration tion has been conducted within the framework of in test building for other technology programmes. the energy organization of the western industrial countries (IEA) and the European Union. A new priority on the building level will be testing of the low-energy building concepts in interna ­ Participation by the research programme in IEA tional research projects, for example for the Ger­ research co-operation has not had separate funding. man market and for promotion of product exports.

121 The volume of renovation in relation to new build ­ and much indirect benefit can arise on this basis. ing will increase. Most of the energy consumed in Theprogramme should decide the extent to which heating will be used in the existing building stock. beneficial results are desired and how much stress The building potential and concepts for implemen­ should be placed on more practical results. Devel ­ tation have been studied adequately. Now func ­ opment of intelligent product components should tional solutions for new building and renovation ensure that product components can be integrated are needed. and are recognized as essential parts of a control ­ lable/adjustable system. Priority on structural research will be as follows: Commercial applications of research findings on The priorities in research on building automation heat insulation structures will be developed. This in the future are as follows. The direct potential for will produce energy-saving buildings and competi ­ theapplication of technology already developed or tive solutions and generate business. Heat insula ­ to be developed will be determined. Tools and tion solutions suitable for renovation will be devel ­ systems supporting the functions of real estate oped. They are also significant in building exports. companies, such as remote monitoring and control Applied research will be channelled towards struc­ and data transmission between energy authorities tures based on new window and glass technology and real estate, will be developed. These will yield and applications thereof. Future research on equip­ significant energy savings compared with the re­ ment systems will be directed more strongly into sources invested in them. Intelligent user interface the development of electricity-saving technology equipment will also be developed. and building technical system entities. Also, means for cutting peak loads and their impact on the Development of design methods is a long-term energy chain is an important research entity. effort, and the effects become gradually visible. First and foremost, it is essential for both builders Energy saving solutions for renovation and energy and architects to use the new methods and tools. renovation still have great potential; effective There remains a need to create simple user-friendly methods should be sought and developed. The pro ­ applications, especially for the initial stage of de ­ gramme will be actively channelled where the sign (for example life cycle calculations, simula­ greatest potential lies and into projects where the tion models and combining of databases with CAD goals are high. systems) and for property management. It will be necessary to continue international co-operation, Priorities with respect to equipment systems are since Finnish expertise is above the European av ­ next. Comprehensive building technical systems erage. The RAKET programme will favour pro ­ will be developed and products parts will be inte­ jects producing applicable results during its final grated with the comprehensive systems. Resources years. Concrete, partially incomplete programme will be channelled into the development of elec­ tools will get the results of development onto the tricity-saving technology and systems for natural designer ’s table quickly and feedback about their and artificial lighting. Themeans to cut peak loads usefulness will be available. and the effects on the energy chain will also be determined. Energy savings and renovation solu ­ tions will be developed. Apart from Finland, the Priorities will be as follows. Development of re­ need for renovation in nearby areas of the former search findings into products and commercial ap­ Soviet Union will also be taken into account. plications will continue. Simple, user-friendly ap­ plications, especially for architects, are the goal. Companies and other users in the building auto ­ Design tools that support exports of building tech­ mation sector consider a high standard of research nology will also be developed. Development work in Finland essential. It is in the nature of research linked with data management and data systems for in this sector that not all results can be applied the design process will be conducted primarily immediately. A base of knowledge and awareness within the framework of other technology pro ­ is created with continuous high-quality research grammes.

122 5 Further planning based on • Research on energy efficient design technolo ­ gies and data systems will emphasize develop ­ the interim assessment ment of products and commercial applications of design and maintenance programme tools. According to the interim assessment, the original goals of the RAKET research programme should be specified on the basis of TEKES’ general goals. Energy saving in buildings and thedevelopment of 6 Research organization and energy-saving technologies remains the central goal of the research programme. The projects of Executive Committee the research programme will emphasize corporate interest in the technologies and products to be VTT Building Technology has been responsible developed and the benefits obtained from results for management of the RAKET programme. The as well as their suitability for exports and renova ­ programme director was originally Reijo Kohonen tion. and the coordinator Markku Virtanen, who even ­ tually assumed leadership of the programme. Pro ­ The new premises of the research programme are gramme decisions were prepared in support groups the following. and ratified by the Executive Committee, and a • Projects aiming at more efficient energy use in large number of experts in the sector have taken building complexes (for example the energy part. The substantial participation in the work of efficiency of entire blocks and regional energy the management and support groups by companies supply systems) will be included in the research and consultants within the sector has been signifi ­ programme, in addition to building-level prod ­ cant. ucts and systems. • Test building proj ects on the product and system The management of the research group comprises level will be favoured instead of low-energy the following persons: buildings. • Vesa Lehtomaki, chairman, Culminatum oy • The emphasis in research on structural solutions • Reijo Hanninen, fnsinbdritoimisto will be on making products out of existing heat Olof Grandlund Oy insulation methods and especially the develop ­ • Reijo Kohonen, ABB fnstallaatiot Oy ment of new window and glazing-technology • Aila Korpivaara, Ministry of the Environment applications. • Heikki Kotila, The Technology Development • Research on building-technical systems will Centre of Finland TEKES emphasize development of comprehensive sys­ • Mauri Mattila, The Finnish Property Owners ’ tems. Development will give equal weight to Association solutions that save electricity and fossil fuels • Vesa Peltonen, Arkkitehtitoiminta Ky Kai and stress their integration with developed con ­ Wartiainen trol and regulation solutions (intelligent product • Heikki Reijonen, Neste Advanced Power components). Systems • Development of intelligent product components • Bemdt Schalin, Helvar Oy and building automation systems will ensure • Olli Vainio, Faroe Oy Ab that the product components developed are in­ • Markku Virtanen, secretary, VTT Building tegrated with the existing systems. Technology

123 Chapter 10 SIHTI 2 - Energy and environmental technology

Karl Larjava, on. In other words, it is all a question of optimiza ­ Technical Research Centre of Finland (VTT) tion, which requires broad expertise, a good overall Rabbe Thun, approach and reliable methods for evaluating im­ Technical Research Centre of Finland (VTT) pact.

With the growing importance of environmental issues, it has become necessary to allocate our limited financial and intellectual resources to ap­ I Background and objectives propriate actions and to those research areas which will be most essential in the future. Forecasting, Prevention of global environmental problems re­ and the related life-cycle analyses and model and quires long-term changes in the structure of indus ­ cost calculations, have proved effective tools, for trial production, as well as research and new tech­ example in comparing in advance the efficiency of nology. These must all be carried out using com ­ different ways of restricting emissions in complex monly approved follow-up and control methods. situations. The European Union aims to achieve harmonized legislation on the environment, which Finland, too, The SIHTI 2 research programme comprises an must comply with. We should therefore, acquire extensive study of the harmful effects of different detailed information on the planned provisions, forms of energy production, ways of restricting which may have far-reaching effects on different them and the costs incurred by industry and society. fields. One essential issue will be evaluation and Reliable databases on energy production, fuels and comparison of the harmful environmental effects boilers used, and emissions from different forms of energy production and consumption. of energy production are the basic requisite for all evaluation of the harmful effects of energy produc ­ One basic problem in decision-making concerning tion. Creation of such databases has, indeed, been the environment is to find ideal compromises. Un­ one of the most essential objectives of the SIHTI fortunately, progress without any negative side ef­ programme. Other very important goals are devel ­ fects is rare in environmental matters. Because the opment of methods and tools required in decision ­ effects are transferred from one medium or dimen ­ making concerning the environment, and tests on sion to another, integrated control of emissions is their feasibility and reliability. necessary. Even this is not always enough, how­ ever, as aims for energy production and airborne Measurement of emissions constitutes a special emissions which are in themselves logical may problem field which frequently poses new chal­ conflict with other factors. The matter is further lenges. Tighter regulations concerning airborne complicated by changes in values and a lack of emissions, and advances in new combustion and basic data. treatment technology have created a need to meas­ ure the behaviour of particles in different proc ­ It appears that trends in environmental issues esses. Hence, the first goal of particle emission change in constant waves, and it sometimes seems research within SIHTI 2 is to create a real-time necessary to react first to problems which are not method of m easuring size distributions which can always the most burning issues in reality. In such be applied to flue gases. Theprogram also focuses cases, it is relatively easy to increase our knowl ­ on detecting new gaseous components which may edge about basic facts, but the solutions may then be difficult to measure and on designing and build ­ have harmful indirect or even direct effects later ing equipment for continuous measurement.

124 In addition to energy production and related envi ­ decisions on new investments and other strategic ronmental issues, SIHTI 2 examines environ ­ decisions to be based on an examination of fore ­ mental questions concerning the forest industry. casts for the cost-efficiency of alternative long ­ Objectives common to both industries are the re­ term measures to reduce emissions and related duction of harmful emissions, recycling of raw regulatory instruments. material, and reduction and utilization of wastes. While preventing acidification of the environment is one vital issue, reducing greenhouse-gas emis­ sions is another environmental issue of global im­ 2 Major results portance. Trends in carbon dioxide emissions, in particular, largely derive from the solutions adopted 2.1 Tools for strategic environ ­ in energy production and consumption. At present, mental decision-making complete elimination of carbon dioxide emissions is neither technically nor economically feasible, but they can be reduced by achieving more efficient Restrictions on emissions and the energy consumption and changing the structure of regulatory effects of taxes the energy system. Environmental protection has become one of the greatest forces for change in the energy industry, As emissions can be reduced using cost-effective with reduction of flue gases as a major objective. treatment equipment, regulation through standards This has resulted in several international agree ­ and permits is extremely efficient. Some countries ments on emission reductions, which in turn have impose special taxes to reduce greenhouse-gas led to national programmes to reduce emissions. emissions, but so far this hasnot led to an interna ­ For energy production in particular, the implemen­ tional system of taxation. To prevent distortion of tation of such programmes invariably requires ma­ competition and the resulting harmful effects on jor investments in either emission-reducing equip­ the environment, today ’s deregulation of energy ment or new technical solutions for power plants. markets calls for harmonization of various environ ­ It is therefore very important for concrete aims, mental standards and taxes.

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70

1 Coal 1 Oil Q Gas jjjj Peat Q Waste a# Emission coefficient

Figure I.Carbon dioxide emissions and specific emission coefficients in 1994; thesame in 2010,calculated according to the different taxation proposals.

125 Using both real and fictional examples, a study by densing power production. The effects of environ ­ Energia-Ekono examined the regulatory effect of mental taxes on the scale and technology of power environmental taxes and new tariff systems on the plants vary in different cases. The effect of changes operation and profitability of power plants. The in taxation on the profitability of an increase in the study focused on how taxation affected the profit ­ power-to-heat-ratio depends on how alternative en­ ability of building new plants, the choice of fuel ergy sources are taxed. The amounts of emissions and the utilization of co-generation potential. The of particles, No x or CO?, varied little in different study included an evaluation of the relationship taxation models. It appears that the only effect between emission treatment costs and harmful ef­ taxation could bring about is a decrease in sulphur fects. The effects of three different taxation models dioxide emissions. on emissions and distribution of fuel consumption were calculated using data from a database on boilers. Life-cycle analyses and emission databases

The results showed that a shift of emphasis from Consumer demands for cleaner products are re­ production (as in the present taxation system) to flected in the increased use of life-cycle analyses consumption would reduce the regulatory effect of and eco-labels, which have become an important taxation and make natural gas and peat less com ­ competitive factor, especially in the forest industry. petitive than coal or oil. Under the present taxation This is already apparent in companies ’ need for system, condensing power from peat is the most information on the environmental effects of the expensive of the power generation forms examined energy they buy to manufacture their products. The and natural-gas-based co-generation the cheapest. SIHTI 2 programme demonstrates the importance Even if taxation is doubled, this order is main­ of collecting data from life-cycle analyses of Finn ­ tained, but it weakens the profitability of coal-fired ish energy production in a common database which plants; a raise in taxes would improve the competi ­ can be used for a whole range of analyses and tiveness of co-generation power in relation to con ­ research projects.

Production cases and main fuels induced in the database

□ Separate heat production □ Separate steam production □□□ * g Separate power production ' □ > Combined heat and steam production g E Combined power, heat and steam production TT Combined power and steam production □nnn j Combined heat and power production w w rt ifl rt 2 3 (II 0) W) qj M "O !*]f| "O CL CL — £ yj II ii up CO z z £ a Z ^ tti CO

2 Q.

Figure 2. Power plants and main fuels covered by the SEEP survey.

126 The LCA database (SEEP), compiled by VTT En­ trends in Finnish energy production and industry, ergy and LCA Engineering, covers the major part VTT Energy used an international computer of Finnish energy production and contains data on model. A study by Energia-Ekono assessed the various fuel chains, power-plant processes, (treat­ cost-efficiency of emission restrictions in the Hel­ ment) unit processes and emissions. Data have sinki and Tampere areas. been collected on more than 900 boilers. The present and future competitiveness of the prop ­ Theinformation in the SEEP database is illustrated erties of Finnish electricity was another topic in the in figure 2. The database contains models of all SIHTI2 programme. Imatran Voima Oy (IVO) has existing or technically and economically feasible compared the present and predicted environmental combinations of production methods and main fu­ aspects of electricity production in the EU coun ­ els that emerged in the SEEP survey. Each square tries and also in Norway, which is part of the free at the bottom of the distribution in figure 2 equals Nordic electricity market. IVO’s project focused one of the 115 possible unit processes in the data ­ on emissions of sulphur, nitrogen oxides and carb­ base. on dioxide, which are essential criteria for environ ­ mental permits and a key topic in international A study carried out by the Meteorological Institute debate on restricting emissions. has compiled data on sulphur and nitrogen emis­ sions from different sectors of industry. The aim of According to the forecasts, the mean level of spe­ the study is to produce information on the concen ­ cific emissions of SO2 and No x in the EU will tration and deposition of air impurities, to examine decline in the future. Finnish energy production has their harmful effects on the condition of pine for ­ a competitive edge in large-scale cogeneration of ests in the province of Satakunta which are likely electricity and heat, structurally diverse energy to be first affected first by acidification. The study production and major investments in air-pollution calculates the migration, transformation and depo ­ control. Compared with the other countries stud ­ sition of the emissions to the nearest 11 kilometres. ied, Finnish electricity will be cleaner than average The calculations have been verified by readings in the near future as well. from measurements. Environmental impact assessment The Helsinki Metropolitan Area Cooperation Coun ­ cil, in cooperation with the Meteorological Insti­ Because environmental impact assessment in­ tute, has produced a more detailed account of ni­ volves a great deal of uncertainty in the case of trogen oxide emissions and calculations of nitrate emissions, several projects under SIHTI 2 have deposition, with emissions grouped by source, and focused on assessing the external environmental distinguishing between concentrations and deposi ­ effects of energy production and the costs incurred tions from long-range migrations. The results of by society. These projects involved various meth­ the study can be used in assessing the need for ods and calculation models and focused on the emission reduction and its effect in the Helsinki harmful effects of emissions on human health, metropolitan area. nature and materials. The most serious national effects are possible damage to forests, crop failures Examination of forecasts in agriculture and acidification of water. The worst global impact is the greenhouse effect. Effects on VTT Energy has examined how emission restric­ biodiversity were not examined. The projects cov ­ tions should be targeted in and around Finland in ered nearly all fuels, power plant systems and tech­ order to achieve the most cost-effective reduction nology which may be used in Finnish energy pro ­ of acidifying depositions, and has developed a lin­ duction. ear optimization model for achieving optimal cost- effectiveness. The source data used in the model Energia-Ekono studied the local environmental im­ consist of the cost functions of reducing emissions pact and external costs of energy production based of sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and ammonia on coal, natural gas, oil or peat. More detailed by source area, and migration coefficients for the assessments of external costs were made in the deposition from sources of emissions. To simulate Helsinki metropolitan area and Tampere, for exam-

127 pie. A survey of people ’s willingness to pay for Another way of minimizing the environmental ef­ better air quality was made in Tampere. fects of a biofuelled IGCC plant is to recycle the ashwithin the process. IVO has assessed the external costs of nuclear, hydro, solar and wind power and use of biofuel, A joint project by VTT Communities and Infra­ and their commensurability. Participating in a structure and the National Public Health Institute wider EU project, VTT Energy has applied a Ger­ examined the significance of northern water reser­ man model for the assessment of different fuel voirs in the production of greenhouse gases. Finn ­ chains. Fine-particle emissions, their composition ish interest in the effect of reservoirs on climate and their effects on human health have been studied has basically grown out of the plans for a hydroen ­ by the University of Kuopio, the Meteorological ergy barrage at Vuotos. According to the calcula­ Institute and IVO. tions, overall emissions from Finnish reservoirs used for hydroenergy are approximately 1 per cent The eco-profile of oil products was evaluated in a of total annual emissions from fossil fuels and peat research project by Neste Oy, where a team of 16 used in energy production. VTT Energy has esti­ experts focused on the use of natural resources and mated greenhouse-gas emissions from alternative emissions to the environment, and ranked action to waste-treatment systems, and assessed ways in decrease the environmental load from the point of which these emissions could be reduced. view of sustainable development. Meanwhile, Jaakko Poyry Consulting Oy has developed eco- The great differences in the results of assessing efficiency indicators for forest-industry products, environmental impact and external costs are partly assessing, for example, the eco-efficiency of news­ due to differences in the methods used, researchers’ print using new image-based GLCA analyses. assumptions, and the restrictions and goals set for the research subjects. The results are difficult to A study by the Thule Institute of the University of interpret because of the great variety in the amount Oulu compared the profitability of wood combus ­ of information on different effects, for example. tion and alternative domestic fuels, in the public Further projects under theSIHTI 2 programme will sector, in communities and regionally. The exam­ therefore include the development of methods for ples used in the calculations were a conventional evaluating environmental impacts which can be 60/120 MW thermal power plant on the coast and applied to ensure more reliable assessment and another inland, and a 5 MW district heating station commensuration of the external costs incurred in a rural community. Indirect effects were calcu­ from alternative energy-production methods. lated from input-output analyses.

A study by VTT assessed the local environmental impact of a bio-fuelled 50/50 MW IGCC plant 2.2 Flue gas emissions planned for the Enso paper mill in Summa. The from power plants Forest Research Institute participated in the project by examining how the collection of forest harvest­ Measurement of emissions ing residues (wood chips) for the plant would affect the nutrient level and biodiversity of the forest. Within theSIHTI 2 programme, VTT and Energia- Ekono have made numerous measurements of Solid waste from the biofuelled IGCC plant will emissions from different types of power plants, e.g. be very different from that from conventional IVO's peat power plants in Rauhanlahti and Se- power plants. Most of the waste will be hot filter inajoki, the Enso-Gutzeit Oy bark-fuelled boiler in dust. Because of the high content of carbon and Kaukopaa, Meri-Pori ’s coal-fired power plant and impurities from the dust generated in fluidized bed Mantan Energia Oy’s power plant. The equipment combustion of biofuel, carbon and other impurities used for the emission measurements included both must be recycled in the process or handled at a commercially available instruments and tailor- separate plant. Using clean wood fuel is likely to made instruments designed under the programme. result in an end product which can be recycled to For example, continuous measurement of NH3 and the forest and also used for soil improvement. Hcl emissions, in particular, has been carried out

128 using the portable FTIR analyser manufactured by harmful components in these waste streams. The TEMET Instruments. The purpose of these meas­ aim of the project is to create a standard sampling urements was to test theaccuracy and reliability of and analyzing system. Measurements at this plant measuring instruments and to check the effective ­ showed that chromium and nickel end up in the ness of flue gas scrubbers. The readings from the bottom ashin much larger amounts than in the fly Meri-Pori coal-fired plant showed that the effi­ ash (filter dust), while other metals behaved in ciency of the desulphurization plant was over 90 quite the opposite way. The amount of heavy met­ per cent, NOx emissions from the flue gas stack als in gypsum was usually less than one tenth of were less than 100 ppm, and the post-catalyst am­ that in the waste sludge from the waste water monia content less than the detecting range of the treatment plant. Although about 20 times more FTIR analyser. gypsum is produced than waste sludges, it contains the same amount of heavy metals. The largest amounts of emissions in normal power plant operation are fairly well known, but calculat­ The programme has also included thedevelopment ing total annual emissions would also call for data of a new electric low-pressure impactor (ELPI) for on emissions in abnormal situations, such as plant continuous measurement of fine particles. Opera­ start-ups or shutdowns, chimney sweeping, disrup ­ tion of theequipment, which will be commercially tions in the flue gas scrubbers, and data on changes available, is based on a unique design, which com ­ in combustion parameters and in fuel quality. Us­ bines the structure of a basic impactor and elec­ ing standard methods to determine the volume of tronic detection of particles. The reliability of the emissions in abnormal situations would require results obtained with this new equipment has been continuous measurements. verified using reference measurements with a me­ chanical cone vibrator. The SIHTI 2 programme includes several R&D projects on new methods and equipment for con ­ Another project under the SIHTI 2 programme tinuous measurement of particles, heavy metals produced new photoacoustic analyzing equipment and flue gases in particular. A project by Imatran for detecting sulphur and nitrogen compounds in Voima and VTT is examining in detail the waste flue gases at levels as low as 3-6 ppm. The results streams of substances at a power plant equipped indicate that the flue gas analyser is technically with desulphurization and de-NOx technology feasible. The properties of photoacoustic measur­ (Figure 3) and the behaviour of environmentally ing equipment, which will also be commercialized,

Figure 3. Material flows into and out of a power plant equipped with desulphurization equipment. (M = site of flue gas sampling)

129 are best represented in an in situ probe and in transfer which were examined were the composi ­ conditions where the temperature and particle load tion and temperature of the flue gas and the liq­ are very high. uid/gas ratio of the scrubber and theparameters of the filler particles. The flue gas components were In the case of CO, N20, NH3 and other flue-gas sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, hydrogen components which are difficult to measure, meas­ fluoride, carbon dioxide and methyl mercaptan. urement directly from the flue will be possible with The study also included calculations on the simul­ a new spectrometric system based on an infra-red taneous scrubbing of several components. Com ­ range voltage-controlled Fabry-Perot filter. Be­ parisons of different calculations showed the ef­ cause of the technical design, the component meas­ fects of the reaction rate coefficient, thermody ­ ured will have excellent selectivity and stability. namic equilibrium constants, the diffusion coeffi ­ Operating costs will also be low and there will be cient and the stoichiometric coefficient of the re­ no need to pretreat the samples. action on liquid mass transfer.

Treatment of flue gases Within the SIHTI 2 programme, Kvaemer Pulping Oy (Tampella Power Oy), together with several At power plants, flue gases are usually separated industrial plants, has developed the theory and from solid substances with an electric precipitator. technology for a new, electrically enhanced flue Today ’s precipitators have very high resolution, gas scrubber. Results from plant-scale tests show with an emission level normally below 10 mg/m 3. that the new scrubber reduces dust emissions up to However, a large amount of fine particles slip 70-90 per cent more effectively than conventional through the penetration windows of precipitators. scrubbers. The new scrubber has been successfully In the SIHTI 2 programme, factors affecting the tested at a diesel power plant in Germany supplied size of the penetration window were measured at by Wartsila Diesel, for example. modem pulverized-coal-fired plants and the results were verified using a laboratory-size combustion The main aim of a project by Carbona Oy (Envi- and precipitator unit. ropower Oy) has been to demonstrate on a pilot scale regenerative desulphurization of gasification The ideal sizing of electrostatic precipitators for gas and, at the same time, a method for recovery the tight emission restrictions of the future calls for of elementary sulphur at a high temperature and better knowledge of the effect of ash properties and pressure. The method removes sulphur very effec­ the precipitator ’s operating parameters on its reso ­ tively from flue gases generated in the IGCC proc ­ lution. A joint research project between VTT and ess, eliminates the need for a non-reusable desul ­ ABB examined the correlation between the reso ­ phurization sorbent or further processing, and turns lution and the size of fly-ash particles down to the sulphur end product into a very compact, com ­ 0.015 microns. The size distributions related to the mercially viable form. The researchers are devel ­ amount and mass of ash particles, and the appear­ oping a dynamic model for regenerative desul ­ ance and composition of the particles were deter ­ phurization which could be used in future for simu­ mined using new aerosol technology measurement lating the process and for planning adjustments. methods and modem analysis techniques. Thecar ­ bons and fly-ash particles collected by the different The Foster Wheeler Energy Ltd (A. Ahlstrom Cor ­ electrode plates of the precipitator were analysed poration) project has successfully tested the use of using the CCSEM method, to determine the trans­ a catalyst in reducing nitrous oxides generated in formation of carbon minerals and their selective coal combustion. The project also showed that penetration. The penetration was found to correlate alkali consumption in desulphurization could be strongly with both the size and the composition of reduced by recycling the waste from the process. the particles. These solutions, and certain new combustion meth­ ods, will together contribute to optimizing the op ­ Tampere University of Technology has developed eration of fluidized bed boilers to meet different a simulation model for examining the mass and standards related to emissions. Foster Wheeler has heat transfer of a filler scrubber and optimizing the also examined ways to reduce sulphur dioxide scrubber’s operation. The factors affecting mass emissions from pyrometallurgic processes, ana­

130 lysed the economic aspects of alternative methods Surveys and interviews conducted at industrial in a few case studies, and studied the reduction of plants and research institutes resulted in twenty dioxin emissions from fluidized bed combustion demonstration project proposals on varying scales: of the waste. four plant-scale and five smaller-scale project pro ­ posals on pulp bleaching; three full-scale and five Within the SIHTI2 programme, VTT, in coopera ­ smaller-scale project proposals for mechanical tion with Sisu Diesel, has studied ways to reduce pulp and paper making; and three proposals con ­ exhaust fumes from lean-bum engines running on cerning recycled fibre. The total cost of all the natural gas, and has developed a closed-loop con ­ projects, if implemented, was estimated at FIM 300 trol system to optimize engine operation. The ex­ million. periments were made on a 6-cylinder Valmet 634 G engine, which produces approx. 90 kW of power Closed water cycles in energy production and has a maximum power of 160-170 kW. The NOx content was clearly the Duoplan ’s project was followed by the construc ­ parameter most readily controlled, but the conven ­ tion of a closed-cycle water system evaporation tional measuring instrument used in the tests plant at Enso ’s Kotka paper mill in 1995. The proved too slow; also, the lambda sensor measuring results of implementing the new, environmentally the oxygen content was found inadequate for a friendly technology have been very promising. leanblend. The closed-loop system for mixture control will be further developed, allowing any The production of mechanical and chemical pulp voltage signal to be used as a control signal. So far, generates an abundance of high-temperature waste the system has been tested on an engine dyna ­ heat. Most of the energy used in production is spent mometer, but the test run of the final version will on heating the water, and this is then - almost take place at a power plant. completely wasted in the hot water fractions. Ap­ plication of a new multi-phase vacuum evaporation The goal of a Wartsila Diesel project was to find technology, allows the waste heat to be recovered an effective and economical desulphurization from process waters, eliminating the use of live method for diesel power plants using residual oil. steam. Experiments are being made at commercial plants supplied by Wartsila Diesel in India, Germany and To reduce capital costs, Ahlstrom Machinery has Great Britain. developed a new multistage evaporator called ZEDIVAP™. The new heat-exchanger surface ma­ terial and construction can eliminate those salts and small-molecule substances which are difficult to 2.3 Reducing the environmental separate using other techniques. The water proc ­ load from the forest industry essed with the multistage evaporator is even cleaner than chemically treated raw water. The new In 1994, Duoplan Oy completed their demonstra ­ diaphragm-type evaporation technique reduces tion programme on technology for environmental water consumption by over 50 per cent. protection in the forest industry, including a sched­ ule and budget. This programme aims to Enrichment of dissolved substances which impair • promote the development and implementation the production and quality of paper can be pre­ of low-emission technology in the pulp and vented by adding a small amount of clean water. paper industry; Evaporation removes the harmful substances, and • minimize the risks for users of the technology; putrefaction of the concentrated waste-water • improve thecompetitiveness of the Finnish for ­ sludge in an anaerobic reactor produces gas which est and mechanical engineering industries; can be burnt in the power plant boiler. • evaluate the effects of application of the tech­ nologies on emissions from, and the energy In parallel with the above demonstration project, consumption of, the Finnish pulp and paper the SIHTI 2 programme supports the development industry. of evaporation technology, and is trying to find new

131 Example of recycling of purified closed-cycle water

PULP MAKING PAPER MAKING

Wood raw L—. Grinding Pulp Paper material and lJprocessing machine : processing bleaching c l Cold raw water

Sludge Effluent

Figure 4. Treatment of recycled process water at a thermomechanical pulp mill using waste heat and vacuum evaporation. applications for it in both the forest industry and quarter of the normal level. In the first stage of the other process industries. A study by Abo Akademi process, nitric oxide is oxidized with ozone or measured substance contents at different stages of chlorine dioxide into nitrogen dioxide, which is evaporation and examined various alternative con ­ then reduced to nitrogen with carbon dioxide from nections in closed water cycles using mass and the treatment of malodorous gases, or with sulphite energy-balance calculations. VTT Energy analysed cooking liquor. The method can be used for both e compositions of condensates from the evapora ­ new scrubbers and old, and is made even more tion of waste-water fractions and evaluated recy­ effective by adding more purification stages. cling options for concentrates on the basis of the chemical indicators. The results of this study have Recycling of solid waste already been used in planning projects concerning new evaporation plants and closed water cycle A joint project between VTT and several compa ­ systems. nies examined the use of ash and other waste frac­ tions from the forest industry for fertilization. The De-NOx at soda recovery plants new integrated process scheme includes studies on separating water from green liquor dregs and burn ­ Another important demonstration project concern ­ ing the dregs in the bark boiler, fractioning and ing the forest industry is the experiment on de-NOx extraction of ash, and filtration and agglomeration at a soda recovery plant at Enocell Oy’s pulp mill of ash and biological sludge. More efficient recov ­ inUimaharju. This method, developed by Kvaemer ery of the energy in the waste, savings in dumping Pulping (Tampella Power) and used for the flue gas costs and thereusability of ash fertilizers make the scrubber of a soda recovery plant, can reduce the new process concept an economically significant average emission content of a soda recovery plant alternative to the present practice of dumping most to approximately 20 g NO2/MJ, which is about a of the waste at landfill sites.

132 2.4 Recycling wastes from power using tests of bearing strength and solubility, for plants and communities example, with encouraging results. In addition, new applications have also been found Desulphurization products and ash for residual products from power plants, such as use as binding agents containing fly ash (filter A joint project between several energy companies dust), desulphurization products and cement for has charted experiences of the operation of major strengthening the surface of old gravel roads and desulphurization plants and examined factors af­ for mass stabilization at sites with a lot of clay. The fecting desulphurization costs in different condi ­ surface of gravel roads can be strengthened by tions and for different types of coal. One of the mixing fly-ash based, self-hardening binding agent things indicated by the results was that the presence in a 20-cm thick layer. Although containing much of chlorine, either in the coal or in the process less cement, the mixture has the same strength as water, can greatly affect the operation and costs of soil cement. The mass stabilization technique for a desulphurization plant. According to experi­ soft clay sites has been successfully demonstrated ences, the chlorine content in desulphurization in tests at the Ring Road III (road) construction waste correlates directly with the moisture and site. treatability of the waste. Experiments carried out under the project showed that the optimum range Community waste of the chlorine content of the end product is 1-3 per cent; a chlorine content of over 5 per cent Recycling the energy content of municipal waste clearly hampered the process. If the chlorine con ­ is another target in the SIHTI 2 programme. Half tent in coal is very low, the desulphurization proc ­ of the municipal waste ending up at landfill sites ess can be made more effective by adding chlorine. consists of various combustible materials, such as paper, cardboard, plastic and mixed products. Al­ Research into reuse of by-products from power though some of these can be recycled by making plants has earlier focused mainly on technical func ­ the present recovery systems more efficient, most tionality rather than on environmental aspects. A of the waste cannot be reused. Separation of com ­ joint project by Lohja Rudus Oy and VTT studied bustible wastes from non-combustible can consid ­ the development of desulphurization products into erably reduce the amount of material now taken to materials suitable for construction engineering, landfills. which could be an environmentally sound replace­ ment for stone aggregates in certain earthworks. A study by Soil & Water Ltd examined possible methods, costs and environmental effects of pro ­ For the test of environmentally acceptable proper ­ ducing very clean combustible material by sorting ties, nearly 100 test pieces were manufactured from materials by origin, turning them into fuel, and fly ash and desulphurization products mixed as burning them at an existing boiler plant. The tests indicated by earlier experience, using various types on collecting and sorting the wastes were carried of binding agents. The solubility of sulphate, chlo­ out in Jyvaskyla. To eliminate harmful compo ­ ride, chromium and molybdenum in thetest pieces nents, such as PVC plastic(s), metals, glass and was examined using diffusion solubility tests origi ­ other undesired wastes, participating households nally developed for stabilized materials. were given detailed instructions on how to sort their wastes. Thecollection showed that, typically, 7 per The solubility results showed that masses prepared cent of the waste sorted at homes was biological. from a mixture of fly ash and a semi-dry desuphuri- This did not as such impede burning of the wastes, zation product can be used for embankments or but would often generate unpleasant odours and road beds, for example. To apply the results in begin biological decay processes during storage. practice, a test field was built in Suomenoja, Espoo, and a test road in Vuosaari, Helsinki, both made The material collected was crushed with a hammer from mixtures selected on the basis of the solubility crusher and a cutting rotor machine. Plastic films tests. The technical properties and environmental and textiles were found difficult to crush, whereas aspects of the test sites have since been examined metal objects were efficiently separated with a

133 magnetic separator. The burning was done using volves high investment costs, the method can be the fluidized bed combustion boiler at Rauhanlahti commonly used only at production sites of over peat power plant. For the combustion tests, 5-7 per 200 hectares. cent waste was added to the peat, which roughly corresponds to the amount which could be ex­ Soil absorption is a treatment method which makes pected from homes, workplaces and construction use of the soil ’s natural retention of nutrients. Water sites in and around Jyvaskyla. The actual burning from the peat production site is led using a pump of the material collected was an easy stage in the and perforated pipes or sprinklers to a forest area. process, whereas handling and feeding in the ma­ The state of the forest, the growth of plants and terial turned out to be more complicated. The larg ­ trees, the level and quality of the groundwater, the est changes in emissions occurred in the case of undergrowth, and the results of the treatment have HC1, which was 33 milligrammes per cubic metre, all been monitored, and the entire method, includ ­ while burning peat with no waste content gave a ing the automatic controls and the remote alarm reading of 12 milligrammes per cubic metre. No system, has been developed further. This approach other significant rises in emissions were detected. removes soluble nutrients and solid matter effec­ tively - by up to 80-90 per cent - from drainage waters from the peat production area, and can be used in seasons when the soil is not frozen. 2.5 Effluents from peat production and the afteruse of released During the follow-up period, a joint Vapo Oy and production sites Forest Research Institute project found that the right kind of water distribution technique will keep the plants in the absorption field effective. Results The Aqua Peat II project led by Vapo Oy has showed that according to the growth of plants and developed new methods of water treatment for the trees the birches and also conifers grew faster. control of water pollution at peat production sites, Stronger undergrowth will also remove soluble studied the effects of peat production on the local nutrients. However, this method can only be used environment, and developed methods for detecting in areas with a specific type of soil. and measuring these effects. The evaporation pond method largely resembles Some of the water treatment methods are effective, the absorption method above, but here the pond is though applicable to special sites only, while others surrounded by embankments on a site with only a can be easily implemented at various production thin layer of peat, and water is removed both by sites. The weather, having a decisive effect on the direct evaporation from the water surface and by environmental load, creates problems with water absorption into the ground. The efficiency of this treatment. Other difficult factors are winter and the method depends on the pond area and the amount effect of the thaw season. Use of some methods is of drainage water pumped into it. At first the puri­ also difficult at sites where there is no permanent fication efficiency is good. However, there are in­ staff to monitor their efficiency. dications of lower efficiency after 4-5 years. The pond attracts waterfowl and has now become the Chemical treatment is an effective way of reducing nesting and feeding place for many species. humus and colour in the water from peat produc ­ tion sites, in some cases by nearly 90 per cent. This Flow regulation has been studied by Vapo Oy in method requires a separate treatment plant and can cooperation with the Lund University, Department be used at exceptionally demanding sites where of water Resources Engineering, Sweden. The watercourses below the production area must be method, which aims at reducing environmental conserved. load, is based on cutting flow peaks by damming up water in the drainage network of the peat pro ­ In addition to the treatment results, the study fo ­ duction area. Solid-matter particles then settle in cused on the chemicals used, the optimal doses of the production area itself, thus reducing the solid- these chemicals, development of equipment, stor ­ matter load by up to 80-90 per cent. In addition to age of data, and the automatic control and moni ­ developing the method and carrying out field in- toring system. Because chemical treatment in­

134 Polluting effect of bog

Natural bog Peat production bog I Sedimentation Absorption" Chemical water basins imu treatment and drains forest land Overland Subsurface Load Evaporati on flow on bog „ drainage (g/ha/day) basin

Solid matter WWI |A I MW gw I WW Organic matter NR* MW WM 1 90 l MM t IWt Phosphorus mg# MW MW #0.09 1 NWg MM i gw Nitrogen mb* Rw 401 * 25.1 1 W# gw i

Figure 5. Water pollution loads of a peat-production bog and a bog in a natural state.

vestigations, new bed pipe barriers and a new run- tored to detect long-term changes in the water­ over field have been developed to protect the re­ courses below it, and to devise measurement meth­ cipients during the flooding season. A doctoral ods. One of these can be used to time sedimenta ­ thesis will be published in connection with the tion, and hence the settling time of solid matter. project. A three-year project to find new ways of using Flow measurement has been developed for more cut-away peat production areas was carried out effective evaluation of run-off water from peat pro ­ jointly by Vapo Oy, the Forest Research Institute, duction sites and the resulting load. Using conven ­ the Agricultural Research Centre, the Hunters ’ tional V-shaped overflow weirs has not always Central Organization, and the universities of Oulu brought reliable results, because the gradients of and Jyvaskyla. The most common new use is af­ the production areas are often too low to be meas­ forestation. Bog floors can prove as good sub­ ured. The Helsinki University of Technology and strates as pine forests. Whether the area is suitable Vapo Oy project has focused on producing con ­ for silviculture is dictated by the thickness of the tinuous automatic measurement data and creating remaining peat layer and the soil beneath the peat. a new type of measuring equipment for difficult Because the roots of the trees must reach the min­ conditions. The research has also produced suc­ eral soil at an early stage, the peat layer should cessful Venturi pipes which have little effect on ideally be 20 centimetres thick. A thicker layer damming, and has improved the potential for and requires startup fertilization or tillage. A bog floor reliability of flow measurement. with rough and water-permeable soil may be too meagre for trees, in which case some other use A joint project of Vapo Oy and the Institute for should be found for the area. Environmental Research of the University of Jy- vaskyla has examined the long-term effects of peat Bog floors are ideal for pasture, grain or special production. The area, which had been drained and cultivation. Because they do not contain any resi­ closely observed in the mid-1980s, was now moni ­ dues of pollutants, pesticides or fertilizers, the

135 products grown can be considered clean. In Hirv- low-emission production technologies and equip­ ineva, Liminka, 30 hectares of Phalaris aducinarea ment. To maintain this leading position, however, was sowed on the bog floor for use as bioenergy we must be able to react swiftly and effectively to with peat and wood or for pulp or paper making. signals from our environment and continuously Experiments with various oil plants and medicinal invest in research and development with an open- and aromatic plants have also yielded good results, minded approach to tighter emission standards and and cultivation of many well-known and important to the potential offered by environmentally sound aromatic plants was particularly successful. (cleaner) technology.

After peat production the area can also be con ­ The SIHTI 2 programme attempts to meet these verted into a lake, though this requires careful challenges by launching both multidisciplinary re­ planning. In Rastunsuo, Rautalampi, the cut-away search projects on interaction between industry and peat production site was turned into a 15-hectare the environment, and innovative projects aimed at lake. The related problems, techniques and water developing and applying new technology. Devel ­ quality were investigated jointly with the Univer ­ opment of energy conservation, technology and sity of Technology. A bog floor can also be re- cleaner products in industry has a good starting- paludified. In Aitoneva, Kihnio, a part of the bog point in today ’s databases, which contain valuable floor was turned into shallow pools and observed data on nearly all Finnish boilers, emissions from in order to study the growth rate and opportunities power plants in different operating situations, the for plants. The results were compared with those functionality and efficiency of flue-gas scrubber obtained in areas which had been released naturally techniques, the reliability of measuring equipment from peat production in the 1950s. and analysis methods, and the environmental ef­ fects of emissions. A variety of large databases also The SIHTI 2 programme has also yielded instruc ­ serve the authorities and companies when far- tions for the prevention of water pollution in peat reaching strategic decisions concerning the envi ­ production. The instructions contain data on the ronment are about to be made. planning, implementation, use and effects of dif ­ ferent water treatments, sedimentation basins, The creation of the valuable database on emissions overland flow fields, evaporation and absorption is partly the result of the development of new fields, chemical water treatment and flow regula ­ equipment for continuous measurement of flue gas tion. The results also contain data related to pump­ volumes and analysis of particle content. The data ing stations and open and subsurface drains. Spe­ on emissions can be utilized by the authorities, cial attention is drawn to the importance of soil boiler users, and manufacturers of boilers and re­ analyses and careful planning to prevent sudden lated equipment. Measurements of operation, in soil-related problems at the implementation stage. particular, produce the kind of data that manufac ­ turers can use in planning improvements, design ­ ing new generations of equipment and defining guaranteed ratings. All this will give Finnish indus ­ 3 Effects of the results try an important competitive edge. and findings A good demonstration of industry ’s commitment to the SIHTI 2 programme is the fact that it involves 3.1 Relevance to industry nearly every major Finnish company on both the domestic and the export market, not only as grant- Finnish industry has received considerable inter­ receivers but also as providers of funding. national recognition for both its energy production and its concern for the environment. This is due partly to the natural lack of fossil fuels and our wish to protect the unique, unspoiled Finnish coun ­ 3.2 Level of technology tryside and partly to the often pioneering coopera ­ tion of process users and equipment manufacturers Projects under SIHTI 2 which deal with particulate in the forest industry in particular, in developing emissions and the development of related separa­

136 tion mechanisms are excellent examples of projects The SIHTI 2 programme also includes a number which have resulted in the commercial release of of confidential product development projects innovative new treatment equipment. For example, which have been launched by individual compa ­ ABB has devised an effective new electrostatic nies primarily to improve their own competitive ­ precipitator, and Kvaemer Pulping has designed a ness. Many of these are connected with wet or flue gas scrubber for diesel power plants. catalytic flue gas scrubbing. Although all the pro ­ jects benefit their industrial partners, they might be For researchers at universities and scientific insti­ even more useful if research groups worked in tutes, measurement techniques offer interesting op ­ closer cooperation. portunities to design high-tech instruments and put them onto the market. For Finland, success in this type of activity, which is usually basic research by nature, can create opportunities for rapidly grow ­ 3.3 Environmentally sound ing businesses and new jobs. Nevertheless, com ­ activity petition in the international market is extremely tough, and this calls for either a clear marketing National and international measures aimed at pro ­ plan from the developer of a new technology, or an tecting the environment, saving energy and halting outside user from the very first stage. the greenhouse effect, for example, provide an excellent opportunity for consolidating the stand ­ One of the four SIHTI 2 research projects on de ­ ing of Finnish technological know-how and im­ veloping new measuring technology has already proving the competitiveness of the Finnish export yielded a marketable product; another is currently industry. In inventing cleaner processes and prod ­ at the interesting stage of being released by a small ucts, we must, however, remember that their com ­ measuring service company jointly with Imatran petitiveness depends not only on buyer apprecia­ Voima Oy (IVO). If these projects prove commer ­ tion but also on the opinions of end users of the cially successful, they may well lead to various products - paper, for example. Consumers and spinoff projects on new applications. other interest groups must therefore be convinced that operations and products are environmentally An important aspect of the SIHTI 2 programme is sound in a credible, factual manner. To support this support for research and development projects aim, SIHTI 2 has assessed the environmental ef­ within major companies, such as Wartsila Diesel’s fects and life-cycle costs of various products, proc ­ project on the heavy fuel oil and residual oil use in esses and systems by designing appropriate tools diesel engines, and the development of desulphuri­ and methods, and finding key indicators and stand ­ zation equipment - two very important fields in ard forms for environmental reports. both today ’s market and tomorrow ’s. To secure the leading position of Finnish manufacturers, we must This research has resulted in new data and methods guarantee a serious input in R&D. which can be utilized in both strategic decision ­ making and thedevelopment of new processes and Other examples of a potentially growing market product ranges. Because of the great variety and area are new separation techniques for closed water multidisciplinary nature of its projects, SIHTI 2 cycle systems in the process industry. The SIHTI hasbeen a pioneering research programme in Fin­ 2 programme has responded by supporting Ahl- land. strom Machinery, for example, in its work on the new ZEDIVAP multiphase evaporation equipment. A good example is the new life-cycle study on the competitiveness of forest industry products carried One field of study which is very important from out by Jaakko Poyry Consulting. The study in­ the Finnish point of view and is also supported by volved close cooperation with the industry and has the SIHTI 2 programme is the design of new low- yielded both extensive information on the present emission power plant concepts using biomass or situation and useful forecasts on development peat. Although other energy research programmes trends in the industry, processes and products. focus on improving boiler technology, SIHTI 2 has focused on environmental issues which are critical Another example is a study by Carbona Ltd (En- for implementation of the new technology. viropower Ltd) and VTT on the competitiveness of

137 a biomass-fuelled IGCC plant at a paper mill and lowed, for example, through active participation in its impacts on the local environment. In addition the work started by the IEA. to new power plant technology and the environ ­ mental issues directly connected to it, the study Because peat and biofuels are especially significant focused on the environmental impacts and costs of for Finland ’s self-sufficiency in energy, we must the entire system, from acquisition of the biofuel find solutions to the environmental problems in­ to final disposal of the wastes. volved in the use of peat, and especially reduce the watercourse pollution caused by peat production The SIHTI 2 programme includes several other areas and later use of peatlands in a way which is examples of similar extensive studies on environ ­ consistent with theprinciples of sustainable devel ­ mental impact, dealing with an entire fuel chain or opment. These problems have been studied in sev­ power plant system. For the purposes of interpre­ eral projects under SIHTI 2, resulting in practical tation, it is vital for the environment to be evaluated instructions and methods which have helped im­ using reliable, unambiguous results. prove the image of peat-based energy production.

Recycling projects related to secondary emissions Increasing the use of wood as a fuel is another aim from power plants and the forest industry have also of SIHTI 2. This has been studied by examining been prominent in the programme. Finnish com ­ the district heating plant of a rural community, for bustion technology and flue gas scrubbers are example, and a major peat power plant where sul­ highly advanced, even by international standards, phur emissions can be cut by using wood as a but utilization of solid wastes and reduction of co-fuel. environmental pollution from the wastes has been of much less interest.

Closed water cycle systems in the process industry 3.4 Networking constitute a new and challenging area of research, which aims not only at reducing water consump ­ The SIHTI 2 programme actively promotes coop ­ tion and environmental pollution from waste water, eration between research institutes, universities but also at recovering valuable raw materials or and businesses by organizing follow-up meetings chemicals contained in the effluents. The problems and expert seminars. Cooperation is also one of the concern low dry-matter content, the corrosive main criteria in assessing individual projects and properties of waste waters and their behaviour in granting funds. Funding decisions include an obli ­ the concentration process (in evaporation, for ex­ gation to report on theresults of projects at annual ample). Answers to these questions are being seminars. During 1993-1995, the number of par­ sought in the SIHTI 2 programme in cooperation ticipants in these annual seminars increased from with equipment manufacturers and potential users. 115 to 180, indicating a growing interest in the research done under the SIHTI 2 programme. By In order to utilize the energy content of community networking different research teams, groupings of wastes, political decision-makers need support first-class experts can be formed; some of these are from technical and economic background informa ­ focusing on elimination of particle emissions from tion that is extensive and reliable. However, there flue gases, for example, or specializing in evaluat ­ can be no standard, universally applicable inte­ ing the external costs of environmental impact. grated solutions to the problem of safe and eco ­ nomical treatment and/or final disposal of house­ hold and industrial wastes; the solutions must be tailor-made for each situation. Thisis why the field 3.5 International cooperation is included in the SIHTI 2 programme, with ex­ periments on collecting and sorting household The programme promotes international coopera ­ wastes, burning paper and packaging waste, an­ tion in the form of expert meetings, seminars, aerobic digestion of biodegradable wastes, and re­ workgroups and special assignments. As part of the search on related environmental issues. Interna ­ COMETT training programme supported by the tional trends in this field of study have been fol ­ EU, and as a joint project with the Finnish Asso ­

138 ciation of Graduate Engineers (TEK), a seminar on 4 Major results in energy issues in life-cycle assessment was held in 1993, with a large number of foreign experts as interim assessment lecturers and workshop leaders. The 1993 annual seminar included a series of lectures on scrubbing The multidimensional SIHTI 2 programme is di ­ techniques, and a seminar in 1994 dealt with ex­ vided into six research areas: pectations, experiences and problems related to the • strategies for reducing environmental emissions environmental impact assessment, with the focus • environmentally sound technology in the forest on bioenergy. In 1995, a small-scale series of semi­ industry nars on assessing environmental impact was ar­ • flue gas emissions and scrubber technology ranged with the SILMU programme of the Acad ­ • measuring technology for environmental emis­ emy of Finland; also, the 10th World Clean Air sions Congress and the European Aerosol Conference • utilization of secondary waste streams from in­ were held in Finland and supported by SIHTI 2. dustrial processes • environmental issues related to peat production In the autumn of 1994, the SIHTI 2 programme participated in a technology export campaign to These areas have involved various studies, creation China, which was supported by the Finnish Foreign of databases, development of theoretical models of Trade Association, charting potential targets for processes and equipment, experiments in measur­ export of energy and environmental technology in ing emissions, technical and financial calculations the province of Guangdong and greater Guang- and examinations of systems, and development of zhou(Canton). In 1995, SIHTI was actively in­ processes and methods, ranging from laboratory volved, along with several companies, in the ‘Arc­ scale demonstrations to full-scale on-site demon ­ tic Shock’ technology export campaign aimed at strations. the international media. Development of power station and purification Instead of seeking direct cooperation with foreign technology is an essential part of the technology research programmes, SIHTI 2 prefers to cooperate programme, and this is expected to yield significant on a project level where specifically Finnish as­ results which will serve both domestic industry and pects of research and development are taken into producers of technology and equipment for export. account. However, SIHTI 2 has also participated Tailor-made desulphurization techniques to meet in research launched by the International Energy the challenges of modem diesel technology, for Association (IEA) concerning greenhouse gas example, could help boost exports. emissions from biomass and reuse of the energy in community wastes. The coordinator of the SIHTI Using common databases will help both the 2 programme has been involved in preparing the authorities and companies find cost-efficient solu ­ IPCC’s second report on greenhouse gases and in tions. The projects on the development of life-cycle the work of the Environmental Profile Product analyses will allow specifically Finnish aspects to Working Group established under the ECE. be taken into account in the EU, thus influencing, at least indirectly, the formulation of legislation and practices reflected in international trade.

So far, the programme has focused on the forest industry and paid less attention to other industries, but we need information on how the opportunities created by know-how in this field can be applied 3.6 Postgraduate education in other important Finnish industries with develop ­ ment potential. Another possibility is to modify the The SIHTI 2 programme actively encourages and technology developed for major companies - flue supports researchers’ postgraduate studies. In gas scrubber techniques and evaporation technol­ 1993-1995, three doctoral theses were written with ogy, for example - for use by small and medium ­ funding from the programme. sized companies.

139 Because projects on measurement technology re­ more urgent, and the time for transboundary super­ lated to emissions have been rather few, it may be vision of emissions may not be far away. We are wise to consider combining all the measurement already bound by international agreements and rec­ projects in the energy programmes into one re­ ommendations on emission reductions, and there search programme. is also scientific proof that global warming is caused by human activity. In the light of these facts, Because of a shortage of international data, it is making the right choices can be extremely difficult, important to examine the environmental effects of requiring thekind of long-range multidimensional the entire domestic energy production and con ­ research carried out under the SIHTI2 programme. sumption chain. To make peat and waste more acceptable as energy forms, we need further re­ In the near future, the most important research search on their use for energy generation. In addi ­ fields related to energy production will be more tion, we should also carry out research on reducing effective elimination of sulphur and nitrogen ox ­ emissions from small-scale burning of wood. ides, and particle emissions, and utilization of solid wastes. This will entail not only the development If a corporate project is funded out of a single of new equipment and techniques but modifica ­ energy research programme, it may not be suffi­ tions at existing plants to avoid heavy new invest ­ ciently large-scale to meet the company ’s needs. ments whenever possible. Funding should therefore be allocated to projects creating know-how which will benefit several com ­ Although the problems and issues related to energy panies. The programme should continue to focus consumption may not be as clearly defined, devel ­ on only a small number of research fields in the oping technologies that will save raw materials and future. Joint research projects between universities, the environment as well as energy can be deemed research institutes and companies must also be extremely important for the forest industry in par­ given priority. According to external evaluators, ticular. The work done on closed chemical and projects on basic research and risk evaluation water cycle systems in pulp processing is a good should be well represented in the programme. example of innovative research that must continue.

A third important area is thedevelopment of emis­ sion measurement in a way ensuring that the results 5 Plans for further research can be reliably traced and meet national and inter­ national requirements. It must also be possible to Considering that Finnish per capita energy con ­ use the data on emissions as a basis for new regu ­ sumption is among the highest in the world, it is lations on reducing emissions and for the develop ­ self-evident that energy technology plays a very ment of treatment equipment. important role in the economy. This is due to both the climate and our energy-intensive industry, Development of tools and methods for assessing based on renewable natural resources. In addition, environmental impacts and valuation of the envi ­ a surprisingly large proportion of exports in the ronment will remain an essential issue. In particu­ metal industry is related to the energy business. lar, methods for life-cycle analyses and their appli­ Major companies involved here include Wartsila cation to various energy production systems or Diesel, Foster Wheeler, Kvaemer, Outokumpu, energy-intensive products should be developed ABB and Ahlstrom. Investments related to envi­ further. Because of the forthcoming international ronmental protection are the fastest-growing standards for environmental (eco-)labelling, this grouping in energy production, and Finnish indus ­ field of research is of great current interest. Al­ try needs government support for both product though the field clearly extends far beyond energy development and applied technical research and research, it can very well be included in the SIHTI development if it is to keep up with the interna ­ 2 programme. tional competition. Although research on secondary emissions from On the other hand, environmental issues concern ­ power stations has many links with the Tekes tech­ ing energy production are becoming more and nology programme on environmental geology,

140 which serves the construction-material industry, • Juha Pohjala, ABB Environmental Systems Oy the evaluators do not recommend that these pro ­ • Matti Hiltunen, A. Ahlstrom Corporation, jects be combined, as the construction material now Foster Wheeler Energy Ltd industry and the energy business do not share the • Erkki Kiiskila, A. Ahlstrom Corporation, same interests. now Ahlstrom Machinery Ltd • Terho Jaatinen, Eco Technology JW Oy, Research on recycling other solid industrial and (Outokumpu Ecoenergy) community wastes and recovering their energy • Kauko Janka, Tampella Power Oy (until 1994) content should also be supported, concentrating on • Ari Tamminen, Tampella Power Oy, waste materials and system solutions which are now Kvaemer Pulping Oy important from a Finnish point of view. • Perth Laine, Finnish Forest Industries Federation Solutions to environmental problems caused by • Pirkko Molkentin-Matilainen, peat production will affect the future of the peat Finnish Forest Industries Federation industry and have a significant effect on Finnish • Raija Pikku-Pyhalto, TEKES self-sufficiency in energy, the economy and em­ • Simo Salanne, Kemira Oy ployment figures. Reducing watercourse pollution • Siipa Salo-Asikainen, Ministry of the from peat production and finding ways for sustain ­ Environment able development of production areas is a task of • Pirkko Selin, Vapo Oy great importance. • Heikki Uusi-Honko, TEKES • Tapio Ohman, Helsingin Energia • Kari Saviharju, VTT Energy (Secretary)

Because of the extensiveness of the programme, 6 Organization and SIHTI 2 consulted the following experts for assess­ management of ment and supervision of the various projects: • Professor Allan Johansson, VTT Chemical the programme Technology (strategic and clean technology issues) The steering group of the SIHTI 2 research pro ­ • Professor Johan Gullichsen, Helsinki gramme represents a wide range of both decision ­ University of Technology (forest industry) makers dealing with energy and environmental • Docent Juhani Ruuskanen, University of policy and industrial producers and users of energy. Kuopio (measurement technology) The steering group is chaired by Dr Heikki Ni- ininen of Imatran Voima Oy. The programme is The supervising groups in charge of organizing supervised by Ms Raija Pikku-Pyhalto of Tekes, cooperation between researchers, publishing infor ­ and was until 1995 coordinated by Mr Kari Savi- mation on the research and monitoring the progress harju of VTT Energy. of projects were chaired by the following experts: 1. Strategic and clean technology issues: Allan Members of the SIHTI 2 steering group 1993-1995 Johansson • Heikki Niininen, Imatran Voima Oy (Chairman) 2. Technology for power plants and purification • Bertil Roslin, Alko Inc. equipment: Kari Saviharju • Andres Ahnger, Wartsiia Diesel Oy 3. Measurement technology: Juhani Ruuskanen • Marja Erola, Ministry of Trade and Industry 4. Forest industry (water treatment, recycling of • Alec Estlander, Jaakko Poyry Group ashes), secondary emissions from power plants, • Antero Hietaluoma, ABB Environmental reuse of energy in wastes, and peat production: Systems Oy Perth Vakkilainen.

141 Chapter 11 SULA 2 - Energy in steel and metal production

Hakan Hakulin The objectives proposed by the energy research Association of Finnish Steel and Metal Producers working group of the Ministry of Trade and Indus ­ try are the goals for the programme: • The world ’s lowest specific consumption of en­ ergy in existing processes; • Leadership in reducing theenergy consumption I Background and objectives of certain unit operations; • New energy-saving processes. SULA 2 is the energy research programme of the steel and metal producing industry. The partici­ The research will help achieve the following ob ­ pants are the steel and metal producing companies jectives: Outokumpu, Rautaruukki, Imatra Steel and Fundia « Improve the competitiveness of steel and metal Wire. The combined gross value of their produc ­ producing companies and increase technology tion in 1995 was FIM 31.5 billion with exports exports; accounting for FIM 13 billion. The sector em­ • Maintain and improve the level of expertise in ployed 15,650 people in Finland in 1995. The fact research in the field at universities and research that the steel and metal producing industry is not institutes; located in Finland ’s major cities increases its sig ­ • Help the steel and metal producing industry nificance as a regional economic factor and source contribute to observation by Finland of interna ­ of employment. tional agreements on CO2, sulphur and NOx emissions. In 1995, the steel and metal producing industry used a total of 3,995 GWh of electricity, or 11% of Only research projects that are specifically related the total electricity used by Finnish industry, while to steel and metal producing technology are ap­ the energy content of fuels and reductants was proved for the programme. Projects involving steel 60,000 TJ, 17% of the Finnish industry total. The and metal producing energy production are re­ share of energy costs in the production costs of ferred to the LIEKKI 2 programme (combustion various metals varies from 25% to 50%. and gasification), while projects involving emis­ sion reductions and waste treatment are referred to The general objectives of the SULA 2 programme the SIHTI 2 programme (energy and environ ­ are: mental technology). Projects involving the product • Lowest possible specific energy consumption; properties of metals have mainly been referred to • Harmful emissions in air and water must not other Tekes programmes even if their objective is exceed internationally agreed standards; to reduce energy consumption. • Best possible utilization of raw materials; • Best possible utilization of by-products and The priorities of the SULA 2 programme are in waste heat; process development. Worthwhile areas of concen ­ • Reducing the amount of process waste and util­ tration in energy research by Finland include the izing this waste, economic aspects permitting; following: • Developing stronger materials, improving • Iron and steel production measurement accuracy and developing dimen ­ • Zinc production sioning so that the volume of products scrapped • Theproduction of ferrochromium and stainless in further refinement would be minimised. steel

142 • The pyrometallurgical production of copper and At the Raahe Steel Works, the equipment modifi ­ nickel cations needed for increasing oil injection were • Rolling and heat treatment of steel. made in connection with renovation in 1995 and 1996. The aim is to replace a further 100,000 tonnes of coke per annum with heavy residual oil from the Neste refinery. Heavy residual oil has a 2 Results in major high sulphur content, so it is not a desirable com ­ ponent of fuel oil. However, it is an affordable fuel research areas and reducing agent for blast furnace use. In blast furnace processes, the sulphur can be bound com ­ pletely to the slag.

2.1 Iron making in blast furnaces At the Koverhar blast furnace, the equipment modi ­ fications needed for increasing oil injection were Blast-furnace production of pig iron is the over ­ made in connection with renovation in summer whelmingly greatest consumer of energy in the 1995. Theaim is to replace a further 25,000 tonnes steel and metal producing industry. The primary of coke per annum with oil. energy consumption is about 43 PJ per annum, accounting for 80% of the total energy content of Replacing coke with oil has several benefits, in­ fuels and reductants used by the entire steel and cluding considerable cost savings due to the price metal producing industry. difference between coke and heavy residual oil. The hydrogen in the oil accelerates the reduction Although the specific energy consumption of blast reaction, raising production capacity. Also, the pro ­ furnaces in Finland is among the lowest in the duction capacity of the coking plant at the Raahe world, there is still potential for further reduction Steel Works will be enough to satisfy the need for of energy consumption and costs. Also, the blast coke in Finnish blast furnaces even after the iron furnace process is difficult to control, so one object output of the Raahe and Koverhar steel plants is of research is how to improve control over the increased. process. Producing iron in a blast furnace usually involves producing coke and iron ore sinter. As the amount of oil used is increased, the point is reached at which the oil cannot be completely Eleven projects have focused on developing blast burned in front of the tuyeres. If this is the case, furnace, coking plant and sintering processes. Par­ some of the pyrolysis gas will escape into the blast ticipants have included Rautaruukki Oy, Fundia furnace shaft and create soot deposits as it decom ­ Wire Oy Ab and units from the University of Oulu, poses. Factors affecting oil combustion have been Helsinki University of Technology (HUT), Abo studied in the programme. Akademi University, Tampere University of Tech­ nology and VTT the Technical Research Centre of The University of Oulu (Process Metallurgy) has Finland. studied the thermodynamic requirements of com ­ bustion. The contribution of various gas compo ­ Increased oil injection, blast furnace charging con ­ nents has been examined using thermodynamic trol and blast furnace computer control are three of databanks, with the temperature and theratio of oil the research objectives. The studies have also in­ to air in the tuyere as variables. The effects of volved the blast furnace projects of Jemkontoret, hydrocarbons, hydrogen and sulphur have been the conversion of Koverhar to 100% pellet charg­ examined separately. This study is a literature ing, and improved energy economy at the Raahe study. Lab tests have also been performed on hy­ Steel coking plant. drocarbon with a high-temperature reduction under load test. Increasing oil injection At the moment it seems that hydrogen has a posi ­ Coke is being replaced by oil injected through the tive effect and that sulphur can have a detrimental tuyeres of the Raahe and Koverhar blast furnaces. effect on both reduction and the high-temperature

143 properties of the ore. Lab tests show that as hydro ­ diameter of the injection lance. Droplet size does carbons decompose, the carbon generated may car­ not seem to depend on the viscosity of the liquid. bonize the reduced iron, which in turn leads to the softening of the ore and premature melting. The University of Oulu (Process Metallurgy) is analyzing the results of the individual tasks pre­ The Combustion Chemistry Research Group at sented above and constructing a comprehensive Abo Akademi University has studied the kinetics model of phenomena in the race way. This model of combustion reactions in the race way, first ni­ is intended to demonstrate the gas flow field, pres­ trous oxide and acetylene formation and then soot sure and temperature distribution, gas composition formation. The results indicate that thorough mix­ and coke movements. The results are used for ing of the oil with the hot blast prevents soot example in examining soot formation and deter ­ formation. The reaction kinetics study is finished, mining measures to prevent soot formation. and the companies are satisfied with the results. Work is in progress on a doctoral dissertation in The Energy and Process Engineering Laboratory Raahe as part of the Rautamukki research pro ­ of Tampere University of Technology has studied gramme on the reduction of iron ore and its behav­ oil combustion through simulation. In modelling iour under conditions that presumably exist in the oil combustion in the race way, three phases have company ’s blast furnaces when large quantities of to be considered: the gas, the coke and the oil sulphurous oil are injected. A tuyere with two droplets. lances was installed in one of the two blast furnaces before the renovation. This tuyere was fitted with In the first stage of the study, oil combustion phe­ a video camera so that the oil combustion could be nomena were modelled. The most trouble was observed. caused by calculation of the coke swirling in the raceway. In the current second stage, the behaviour Blast furnace charging management of coke and the phenomena related to combustion are considered. The third stage is intended for Gas distribution in the blast furnace shaft is con ­ modelling tuyere and oil injection details with a trolled through charging. Efficient blast furnace more detailed model. gas reduction potential and low coke consumption require even gas distribution. The gas distribution The Energy Engineering and Environmental Pro ­ also affects formation of wall deposits and the tection Laboratory of HUT has studied droplet steady movement of the charge in the shaft. formation in oil injection with a scale model. Drop ­ let size has proved to be the main factor affecting The gas distribution can be affected with the charg­ combustion speed. ing sequence, movable throat armour and the tech­ nical design of the charging device. The only way to examine droplet formation in oil injection is by testing. Factors affecting droplet size The Heat Engineering Laboratory at Abo Akademi cannot be studied under production conditions. It University has developed an AI application for was therefore decided to build a scale model to test guiding charging. These models, based on estima­ injection with suitable blends of liquid and air at tion theory, neural networks and polynomial appli­ room temperature. The dimensions of the model, cations, have been installed for testing in the auto ­ the speed of the liquid and the water and the prop ­ mation system of the Koverhar blast furnace. erties of the liquid must be selected so that the factors influencing oil droplet size in the blast In practice, it has been observed that the models furnace can be estimated with dimension analysis. do reflect changes in distribution, although con ­ verting the blast furnace from sinter to pellets has The work was begun in 1994. The results show that proved problematic, and the signal from the meas­ the average droplet size grows in proportion to the urement probe has proved unreliable. Application oil speed and surface tension and decreases in of the models developed for the Raahe blast fur­ proportion to the hot blast speed and the inner naces is being discussed with Rautamukki. Blast

144 furnace wall temperature data will be integrated The Koverhar rules-based charging model has been into the models at a later date. developed in cooperation with Fundia Wire Oy Ab and the Heat Engineering Laboratory of Abo Rautaruukki Oy and the University of Oulu (Proc ­ Akademi University. The interactive control sys­ ess Metallurgy) have examined blast furnace tem operates in real time, and the process computer charging models. These models were necessary is linked to a relational database. The control sys­ tools for the changes carried out in connection with tem has a graphic display based on mathematical the renovation of the Raahe blast furnaces. The models, simulation software and a knowledge da ­ shaft diameter of blast furnace no. 1 was enlarged tabase that provide the user with exact information in 1995, and no. 2 was fitted with a bell-less charg­ on the state of the process, any problems, and any ing device in 1996. measures needed. The control system has made process monitoring and control very clear, making The Rautaruukki research centre 1:10 scale model it easy to optimize use of energy and raw materials. was rebuilt, with many technical improvements introduced. Tests were run on both the old and the The programme is studying the applicability of new model. neural networks and fuzzy models to blast furnace control. The research combines an expert system On the basis of the scale model tests on blast with mathematical models developed for the upper furnace charging, the charge material distribution part of a blast furnace, neural network models and in the shaft was examined using different charging existing measurements. Themodels use data from methods and material proportions; the differences the upper part of the blast furnace to predict gas in charge distribution between the present and the and temperature profiles in the upper part of the future enlarged blast furnace were also studied. The blast furnace and the form and location of the results have been used in the design of the rebuilt cohesive zone. The objective of these models is to blast furnace no. 1 and the configuration of the enhance charging control. Models are also being charging program, and a mathematical charging developed to interpret the state of the high-tem­ model was created. perature area in the blast furnace and inform the operating engineer of changes in the process. An automatic charging model was created for the bell-less blast furnace, designed for a blast furnace The system predicts and warns of irregularities in with two feeding hoppers and charged with sin­ material descending and proposes control meas­ ter/pellets and coke. ures. Modelling is in progress for both the Raahe and the Koverhar blast furnaces. Integrating neural Marketing for the mathematical models was started network applications with the existing expert sys­ this year. The first delivery will take place by the tem is expected to introduce new features to the end of 1996. The added value contributed by the system and open new potential for developing models to the system, which consists of a dozen process control. mathematical models, is about FIM 300,000. Rau­ taruukki delivers two to three systems annually. The research in the project is being conducted jointly by the Control Engineering Laboratory of Computer control of blast furnaces the University of Oulu and the Heat Engineering Laboratory of Abo Akademi University. Rau­ Blast furnace computer control was studied in the taruukki Oy and Fundia Wire Oy Ab are also par­ SULA programme in cooperation with Jemkon- ticipating. toret. A rules-based control system has been im­ plemented in Koverhar and an expert system has Blast furnace projects in the Jernkontoret been acquired for the Raahe blast furnace, as the joint research SULA programme final report stated. These con ­ trol systems are being further developed. The con­ The materials manufacturing technology labora ­ trol systems now incorporate the charging models tory at HUT tested the effect of gas composition developed by Abo Akademi University and Rau­ and additives (Ca, Mg) on iron oxide reduction. taruukki Engineering, described above. When the amount of oil injected is increased, the

145 amount of hydrogen and sulphur also increases, so tion scale to determine any potential problems in it is important to examine what effect these have. pellet handling and use. The tests have established the effect of hydrogen and additives on the reduction rate. Pellet behaviour was first studied with a blast fur­ nace scale model. The charging system of the old The process metallurgy laboratory of Lulea Uni­ model was converted to correspond to the new versity of Technology and the Process Metallurgy charging system installed in summer 1994. Tests and Control Engineering Laboratories of the Uni­ were carried out on the new charging system during versity of Oulu have jointly studied dust formation. summer and autumn 1994. The results of the scale Dust formation in the LD converter is being studied model test could be transposed to production scale. in Lulea, while Oulu is studying dust formation in the sintering process. The aim is to reduce the Production scale tests with a 100% pellet charge amount of return fines and emissions and to utilize were scheduled for September 1994, but due to the emissions. poor condition of the lining of the blast furnace, the tests were carried out with only 15% to 30% of Much new knowledge has been gained in the re­ pellets. The results were encouraging; it was pos ­ search, but it has proved difficult to convert this sible to control the charging and the quality of the knowledge into practical improvements in the iron was good. Thanks to the preliminary work, process. Return fines and emission levels can pos ­ conversion to pellet charging after the blast furnace sibly be reduced by changing operation parame­ renovation went smoothly. The charging was well ters. Coke dust from the coking plant can be used under control and new production records have as fuel in the sintering plant. already been set.

An oxygen meter for sintering gases has also been Improving the energy management of developed for use in controlling. An ECSC project, the Raahe Steel coking plant with Rautaruukki as coordinator, was launched to improve the usability of the oxygen meter. Joint Energy consumption in coke oven batteries has Nordic research will continue in Lulea once the been reduced and a model suitable for coke oven Jemkontoret project is concluded. battery heating control has been developed in a project managed by Rautaruukki Oy. So far, a 16% Koverhar converts to 100% pellet charging fuel saving has been achieved, corresponding to about 615 TJ per annum. The coke production In summer 1995, the Koverhar blast furnace was capacity has increased by 7.6%. converted to use pellets instead of sinter in the blast furnace charge. This was because the sintering The coke oven battery heating control model is plant was closed down for environmental reasons. excellent for the coke oven battery automation This closure reduced the CO2, SO2, NOx and dust system marketed by Rautaruukki Engineering. emissions from the plant considerably. The annual Three export deals concerning the control model consumption of electricity and fuel also decreased: have been concluded. A new temperature measure­ ment device with other potential applications has coke breeze by 33,900 tonnes, light fuel oil by been developed in the projects. 1,360 tonnes and electricity by 13,600 Mwh. Sub-contractors in the project include the Univer ­ Pellets behave differently from sinter in blast fur­ sity of Oulu, Tampere University of Technology nace charging. Converting from sinter to pellets has and VTT Jyvaskyla. Development of the control caused serious problems abroad. The main prob ­ model is being continued in cooperation with the lem is charging control. However, some conver ­ Control Engineering Laboratory of the University sions have gone rather smoothly. To make the of Oulu. change with as few problems as possible, it was decided to test the arrangement on a charging Producing steel in an LD converter model that has yielded good results in research on sinter charging. In addition to model testing, it was This study has focused on improving converter considered necessary to carry out tests at produc ­ control.

146 Development of energy consumption of coke oven batteries

GJ/t

4.2

4.0

3.8

3.6

3.4

3.2

3.0 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 year

Figure I. Energy consumption at the Raahe Steel Oy coking plant.

Rautaraukki Oy and the metallurgy laboratory of MEFCON has been tested by Rautaruukki since HUT have participated in the ‘Konverterstyming February 1996. It calculates the carbon balance in project ’ managed by Jemkontoret. In this pro ­ blowing and predicts the carbon content of steel gramme, HUT has developed a programme called when blowing stops. The off gas analyzer used in CONSIM-2, while the Royal Institute of Technol­ carbon balance calculations has worked well, but ogy has worked on its own model and MEFOS has the calculation itself has had problems. After the worked on the MEFCON programme. test period, the applicability of MEFCON to dy ­ namic controlling of the Raahe converters will be The calculation program developed (CONSIM-2) assessed. simulates the chemical and thermic evolution of the process: it calculates changes in the amount, In the new Rautaruukki project on direct pouring composition and temperature of the molten iron from the converter, tests with drop probes were and slag as blowing progresses. The oxygen con ­ begun in late 1995. The experience gained shows version process is simulated by introducing the that the use of probes significantly reduces the basic values from the real process and connecting number of heats that have to be corrected due to the parameters from the kinetic subprogram into temperature. the actual blowing program and the physical prop ­ erties of the reactor. Various working versions of Slag in steel production the program exist; in the most recent one, the surface blowing parameters — oxygen blowing This project consists of five master’s theses for speed, lance height and lance geometry — direct Process Metallurgy at the University of Oulu. The the process, i.e. oxidization of the impurities and experimental part of these theses was carried out iron and the formation of slag. as a production test at the Raahe Steel plant. The study focused on the use of calcium aluminate slag CONSIM-2 is written in QuickBasic. Although in the ladle, slag handling in the converter, the CONSIM-2 is still too slow for converter control, effect of desulphurization slag on the cleanness of its scientific standard is high and it can be used in steel, and the effect of inclusions on steel quality process research. and castability.

147 The project has increased the theoretical and prac­ near future, so some research, at a reasonable cost, tical knowledge of slags. The changes to slag prac­ has been dedicated to smelting reduction. tices made as a result of the research have so far reduced production costs by FIM 7 to 8 million per The work hasbeen carried out at the Laboratory of annum and improved steel quality. The results have Metallurgy of HUT from 1989 onwards. The re­ also been applied at the Koverhar steel plant. Some search has yielded the following: are applicable to the Imatra Steel Works. • a test method based on X-ray image system and temperature measurements to observe the be­ Handling of the arc furnace and haviour and reactions of iron oxide pellets at its exhaust gases high temperatures • a thermodynamic material-energy balance The objective of the project on the new arc furnace model to examine the smelting reduction proc ­ of Imatra Steel was to improve competitiveness in ess and to optimize parameters steel melting and energy economy and to minimize • reports on the state of new smelting reduction emissions. processes in production or in development.

The project has produced optimum solutions for The future availability of steel scrap for the steel the production process. Steel scrap is preheated industry is uncertain. Steel scrap is an important with furnace off gases. The material flow between source of raw material for the steel plants of Imatra the furnace and the secondary metallurgical treat­ Steel and Outokumpu Polarit. Steel scrap is also ment was designed to be straightforward and quick, important in keeping the production costs down at thereby reducing heat loss. Imatra Steel made a the Rautaruukki Raahe Steel Works and the Fundia significant contribution to the design of the pre­ Koverhar steel plant. The development of steel heating. The furnace gases are purified with a bag production methods and trends in theinternational filter. The work has been supported by a literature scrap metal market show that the supply of steel survey conducted at the Laboratory of Metallurgy scrap in relation to consumption is declining. It of HUT. would therefore be economically sound to take up alternative raw materials. The decision to launch the project was made in autumn 1994, and the new melting shop was started The Laboratory of Metallurgy of HUT has sur­ up in August 1996. The arc furnace commissioned veyed the options of replacing steel scrap with is an AC furnace with a charge weight of 75 tonnes alternative raw materials in the Finnish steel indus ­ and a transformer rating of 50 MVA + 20%. The try; a master’s thesis on iron carbide production estimated electricity consumption of the new arc has also been written. The objective was to estab­ furnace will be 440 kWh per tonne, or about 50 lish the properties of potential alternative raw ma­ kWh per tonne less than the present, once the terials and their effect on the steel production proc ­ operating practice has been established. To develop ess and product properties. The production and this, a new Tekes-assisted project entitled ‘Arc availability of materials replacing steel scrap was furnace energy optimization ’ has been launched. estimated with a scope of five to fifteen years.

Iron carbide is considered an interesting potential New iron and steel production processes replacement for steel scrap. In the master’s thesis mentioned above, the thermodynamic require­ The major industrialized countries have been de ­ ments for the formation of iron carbide were ex­ veloping several new iron and steel production amined and the formation of iron carbide and its methods based on smelting reduction technology. mechanisms were studied in practice. Coal is used instead of coke, and some methods focus on smelting the iron ore concentrate without Strip casting pre-treatment, i.e. sintering, or pelleting. It is im­ portant for Finnish steel producers to know The purpose of strip casting is to cast a thin strip whether a serious rival to the conventional blast that after slight finishing in a rolling stand is suit­ furnace and converter process is emerging in the able as is for cold rolling or other finishing. This

148 would practically eliminate the energy-intensive velopment of strip casting for stainless steel has and expensive stage of hot rolling, bringing the been discontinued. casting and rolling energy consumption and pro ­ duction costs down to about a quarter of the con ­ ventional.

With the present thin sheet production of Rau- taruukki Oy, 700,000 tonnes per annum, this would 2.2 Ferrochromium and translate into total energy savings of 70 GWh of stainless steel production electricity or 60 million Nm3 of coke gas per an­ num. The Eaboratory of Metallurgy of HUT has carried In the MEFOS strip casting project of 1990-1993, out basic research on chromium containing slags a pilot strip casting machine was constructed, the and the reduction of chromite. Outokumpu Chrome problems of strip casting were addressed and test has done work on the properties of the charge in castings were started. The strip casting machine ferrochromium furnaces. Outokumpu Polarit has constructed is a belt casting machine. The casting conducted research and surveys that led to acqui­ speed is 20-60 m per minute, the thickness of the sition of a ferrochromium converter. A minor pro ­ strip cast is 5-10 mm, the strip width is 450 (900) ject in optimization of ladle treatment of stainless mm, and the charge is 4-6 tonnes. steel has also been carried out.

Further test castings were made in the strip casting The Eaboratory of Metallurgy of HUT has con ­ project in 1994-1996, ensuring that the method ducted reduction tests in solid state with pellets and selected lends itself to further development. The lump ore. The tests with sintered pellets having main development points at the testing stage were varying degrees of oxidization showed that a higher the feeding of molten steel onto the belt, heat oxidization degree makes the reduction reaction transfer from the cast strip, and the properties of faster. A high-temperature reduction test series has the strip. been planned in cooperation with Outokumpu Chrome. The new high-temperature furnace of the A simulation model of heat transfer and solidifica ­ Laboratory of Metallurgy enables testing at higher tion in the strip casting method has been developed temperatures than before (c. 1750 °C); this means at HUT. The model enables calculations of how the that slag compositions corresponding to those in composition of steel and the parameters of the process conditions can be used in smelting reduc ­ casting process affect the temperature and solidifi ­ tion tests. The tests, in which a chromite sample is cation of the strip and the microstructure of the cast immersed in molten slag in a graphite crucible, are strip. being carried out with different slag compositions and at different temperatures. Smelting reduction The project participants in 1994 were Rautaruukki tests are also being carried out in the presence of Oy, Avesta Sheffield AB, Daido Steel, Jemkon- molten FeCr. The tests are in progress. toret, Mannesmann Demag Huttentechnik, AB Sandvik Steel, SSAB Tunnplat AB, Vattenfall and Models depicting gas reduction of carbon-free pel­ Vitkovice, and MEFOS, HUT and the Swedish lets and lump ore over a wide range of reduction Institute for Metals Research. Funding has been degrees and taking into account the transient stages obtained from the Swedish NUTEK, the Finnish in which reaction control changes as reduction Ministry of Trade and Industry, the participating proceeds have been developed in a study entitled companies and Jemkontoret. ‘Kinetic reaction models of chromite reduction by CO’. The modelled calculations and test results The European Coal and Steel Community has con ­ correlate well. The parameters of the reaction mod ­ tributed to thefunding since 1995, and the partners els have been modified and the next step is to evolve outside the EU have had to withdraw. They were expressions for the sintering effect and to integrate replaced by Krupp and Preussag of Germany. De­ these into the models.

149 For thermodynamic reasons, the melting of ferro- The decision to construct the converter plant was chromium is an energy-intensive process. Al­ made in summer 1994 and the first charge was though the technology used by Outokumpu processed in the new converter on November 29, Chrome Oy is among the best in the world, the 1995. By the end of July 1996, the converter had electricity consumption is about 3200 kWh per produced 73,300 tonnes of desiliconized and de- tonne of ferrochromium. carburized ferrochromium. Electricity consump ­ tion had decreased by about 80 kWh per tonne of Due to improvements made in connection with the steel produced, which is in line with theobjectives research, the operating time power has increased set for the research proj ect. Other cost savings were by 14 MW between 1992 and 1995. At the same achieved in electrode consumption and improved time, ferrochromium production has increased by chromium yield. 25% and energy consumption has dropped by 80 kWh per tonne of ferrochromium. With an annual However, the major economic return on the con ­ production of 235,000 tonnes, this means a saving verter investments will come from increased pro ­ of 18,800MWh. duction capacity. It is estimated that the slab pro ­ duction capacity of the steel plant will increase The utilization of the energy content of the molten from 440,000 tonnes to 540,000 tonnes. FeCr in steel production was also examined in the research programme. It was found that a separate In the project dealing with optimization of ladle FeCr converter is the best for temporary storage of treatment of stainless steel, a timing control model the molten metal and for utilizing its energy con ­ and a temperature control model between the AOD tent. The operation practice, control system and and the ladle station were completed. Preliminary process model of the converter were determined results show that handling times at the ladle station and created in the programme, and points related have decreased by about 40 minutes per ladle, to lining deterioration and timing control were which indicates energy savings of about 1000 estimated. MWh per annum.

CHROMIUM-STEEL INTEGRATION

LIQUID FeCr 301 OXYGEN Cr 53% SCRAP 151 LIME 4t OXYGEN INERT GAS LIQUID, SCRAP DILUTED FeCr 41 t FeCr I ALLOYING CONVI Cr 37% MAT. LIME

LIQUID AOD-CHARGE LADLE I 821 TREATMENT, >- AOD SLABS 87t 'Cr 20% CONTINUOUS LIQUID CASTING STAINLESS OXYGEN Ni 6.5% STEEL 881 SCRAP ALLOYING MAT. LIME OXYGEN INERT GAS

Figure 2. The chromium converter at the Tornio Stainless Steel Works.

ISO 2.3 Pyrometallurgical production 2.4 Zinc production of copper and nickel

The optimization of suspension smelting technol­ The most extensive project in the research pro ­ ogy through computer simulation has been studied gramme involves the pyrometallurgical production in the Outokumpu flash smelting technology pro ­ of zinc. Thermodynamic calculations show that ject. The research was carried out at the Laboratory this is more advantageous in terms of energy con ­ of Materials Processing of HUT. Experts from sumption than the present roasting-leaching-elec- Outokumpu furnished the necessary process data. trowinning method.

The project was launched in 1992, and its objective In the concluded SULA programme, Outokumpu was to improve energy use in suspension smelting Research conducted test runs with three process technology by using computer simulation to seek alternatives. Two of these, reduction of zinc calcine optimum conditions for reaction phases in the in a flash smelting furnace and injection of zinc process and more efficient operating parameters. calcine into molten iron, have been described in By combining reaction kinetic and thermodynamic the final report of the SULA programme. The third calculations on the combustion reactions with flow alternative, injection of zinc ore concentrate into and heat transfer simulations, a variety of alterna­ molten copper, was nevertheless considered the tives can be examined; improvements to process most promising at the time when the programme control and regulation and to energy recovery, loss concluded. minimization, combustion reaction optimization and enhancement of energy use can therefore be A test apparatus has been constructed at a pilot found quickly and at low cost. The design of smelt­ plant to test this method. The apparatus consists of ing furnaces can also be improved. a combined electric furnace and converter and a zinc splash condenser. The research concentrated on equipment and proc ­ ess technology objectives: modelling of flash Two test runs were performed in 1993; these dem ­ smelting furnace flow and heat transfers, simula­ onstrated that the apparatus had to be improved. In tion of sulphide combustion reactions, develop ­ the test run after the improvements in September ment of concentrate burners, reducing the dimen ­ 1994, the results were more promising, but the sions of the waste heat boiler and use of boiler shaft combination of electric furnace and converter still technology. did not work as expected. A three-week test run carried out in autumn 1995 proved that the link The flash smelter and its waste heat boiler have between the furnaces was not functional enough. been simulated in two and three-dimensional labo ­ The furnace construction needs further develop ­ ratory models with commercial Computational- ment. Fluid-Dynamics software used for the calculations. The new method has a significant economic advan ­ The completed project resulted in a well-function ­ tage in that the copper and lead in the concentrate, ing model of waste heat boiler flow and heat trans­ as well as trace elements such as silver, can be fer. The objectives related to the concentrate burner recovered. Tests performed so far have provided and the flash smelting furnace were largely enough information for a reliable profitability cal­ achieved, but the reaction objectives were achieved culation. This calculation was completed in spring only in part. The models are being developed fur­ 1996, but it has not been fully discussed yet. ther in a new project. Outokumpu Zinc has studied heat recovery in zinc So far, the research results have been applicable to production in Kokkola. It seems that thebest solu ­ the expansion of the Harjavalta smelting plant of tion is to heat the return acid with steam using Outokumpu and to several projects managed by Alfa-Laval heat exchangers. Outokumpu Engineering.

151 2.5 Steel rolling and of the cost savings generated by theproject is FIM heat treatment 600,000 per annum.

In steel rolling and heat treatment, research focused on steel slab and billet reheating furnaces. The 3 Impact of results objective was to reduce scale loss and to improve energy management (Raahe Steel, Imatra Steel, Fundia Dalsbruk and Fiskars Forging) and to in­ The results of 29 projects are referred to in this crease heating capacity (Fundia Dalsbruk and Ima­ intermediate report of the SULA 2 programme. The tra Steel). results of 18 of these projects have been directly applicable to production. Rautaruukki Raahe Steel performed optimization of reheating furnace atmosphere. The objective of Four projects are for basic research in production the study was to establish suitable measurement process development. Three concern increasing the sensors and measurement points for furnace gases. amount of oil used as fuel and reducing agent in In the related scale study, the effect of various blast furnaces. conditions on scale removal during rolling was Two projects have examined iron and steel produc ­ examined. tion methods still in the development stage and new raw materials not yet used in Finland. The obj ective The test furnace achieved an annual energy saving of 17,500 GJ. The project has improved the surface has been to create capacity for changing production quality of hot rolled products through reducing processes and raw materials, should the competi ­ scale loss; an annual return of FIM 1 million was tive situation and raw material availability so de ­ obtained. mand in the future.

The billet furnace at the Fundia Wire Dalsbruk Two projects have focused on developing new rolling mill has featured in several SULA projects. processes. Rautaruukki has participated in a con ­ In 1993, two energy management improvement sortium working on strip casting. Outokumpu has projects were conducted. They resulted in an an­ run a project aiming at developing a new pyromet- nual saving of 19 TJ in specific oil consumption allurgical zinc production method. The company and an annual saving of 10 MWh in the specific has not issued its final statement regarding the electricity consumption. profitability calculation completed in spring.

In 1994, a research project was begun at the Labo ­ ratory of Processing and Heat Treatment of Mate­ 3.1 Effect of the applications rials at HUT on energy savings in hot forming by reducing the amount of scrap and scale loss. The on specific energy oxygen content of the atmosphere in slab reheating consumption and economy furnaces at the Raahe Steel Works, in the billet reheating furnaces of the Imatra Steel Works and Considerable savings in production process energy the Taalintehdas rolling mill were measured at vari ­ consumption, estimable from production reports, ous locations and in different operating situations. have been achieved in several projects. Oxygen levels of a height previously unknown were observed. The situation is better under control in The following economically significant results can Raahe than in Imatra or Taalintehdas, however. also be mentioned: • Theproduction capacity of the Raahe blast fur­ The best results so far have been achieved in the naces has increased by 7.5%. The blast furnace billet furnace of the Imatra Steel Works, with a expert system accounts for a major portion of 9.5% (19 TJ) reduction in energy consumption. this. Changes made in connection with the project ac­ • Coking plant production capacity has increased count for about 10 TJ of this. A cautious estimate by 7.6%, and the lifecycle is longer.

152 Table I. Energy savings achieved through the SULA 2 programme.

Heat Electricity Graphite TJ/y GWh/vy electrodes ton/v Blast furnace expert system, 270 RaaheSteel Works Energy economy in a coking plant, 615 temperature control of a coke battery, Raahe Steel Works Optimization of the electric resistance of 18,8 a submerged arc furnace burden, Tornio ferrochromium smelting plant Utilization of the energy content of 30 300 molten FeCr in the production of steel, Tornio Stainless Steel Works

Optimizing the ladle treatment of stainless 1 steel, Tornio Stainless Steel Works Optimization of gas composition in slab 17,5 reheating furnaces, Raahe Steel Works

Billet reheating furnace energy 19 0,1 management improvement, Taalintehdas rolling mill Energy savings in hot working by reducing 10 theamount of steel scrap and scale loss, Imatra Steel rolling mill Total 930 50 300

The total energy savings are worth over FIM 30 million per annum.

• The new slag practice at the Raahe steel plant Further electricity savings can be expected as a cuts costs by about FIM 7 to 8 million per result of investments at the Imatra steel plant and annum. the Tomio stainless steel melting shop once the • The economic benefit gained from the improve ­ operating methods are developed. Thetotal annual ment in the surface quality of hot rolled products savings are expected to be about FIM 11 million. from the slab reheating test furnace at the Raahe Steel Works is about FIM 1 million per annum. The necessary changes for increasing oil injection • Improving the yield of the billet furnace at the were made to the Raahe Steel Works blast furnaces Imatra Steel Works has generated savings of in connection with the renovation in 1995 and about FIM 500,000 per annum. 1996. The aim is to replace 100,000 tonnes of coke • The capacity of the ferrochromium plant has per annum with sulphurous heavy residual oil from increased by 25%; the SULA 2 project has made the Neste refinery, in addition to the replacements a major contribution to this. already made. The necessary changes for increas­ • The capacity of the stainless steel melting shop ing oil injection have also been done at the Kover- of Outokumpu Polarit will increase from har blast furnace in connection with renovation in 440,000 tonnes per annum to 540,000 tonnes summer 1996. Theaim is to replace 25,000 tonnes per annum. of coke per annum with oil.

153 The specific consumption of fuel and reducing agents of blast furnaces

(coke + oil +coal, kg/t of pig iron)

Finland Sweden ------Germany ------England ____ United States ------Japan

Figure 3. Improvement of blast furnace energy efficiency.

The economic benefits of replacing coke with oil ore could be discontinued. This eliminated emis­ are the following: sions from the sintering plant — 1100 tonnes of • A significant saving due to the difference in SO2, 500 tonnes of NOx and 800 tonnes of parti­ price between coke and heavy residual oil. cles. • The hydrogen in the oil speeds up thereduction reaction, raising the production capacity. When coke is replaced with Neste heavy residual « The production capacity of the coking plant at oil, thesulphur in the oil is bound in the slag, which the Raahe Steel Works is enough to satisfy the can be used for a number of purposes. The annual need for coke at all Finnish blast furnaces, even increase in oil injected into blast furnaces contains after iron production at the Raahe and Koverhar about 3500 tonnes of sulphur. Steel Works is increased.

3.2 Minimizing environmental 3.3 Technology exports damage The results of the research programme have been Two projects have ended significant emissions. directly applicable in exports. Three export deals have been concluded for the blast furnace expert The new arc furnace at the Imatra Steel Works is system, three in connection with coking plant en­ fitted with an exhaust gas cleaning plant that can ergy management, and one for the blast furnace recover the dust generated in melting. The amount charge model. of dust containing zinc is about 2500 tonnes per annum. Conversion to a 100% pellet charge at the The results have also been used in sales work by Koverhar steel plant meant that the sintering of iron Outokumpu Engineering Contractors.

154 3.4 Networking 4 Main results of intermediate assessment The steel and metal producing industry in Finland has cooperated in the field of research for quite some time and also worked with the Swedish steel The management group feels that the programme industry in connection with research by Jemkon- hasbeen sufficiently versatile and meets the needs toret. The Tekes-assisted continuous casting devel ­ of the industry. In the programme, it has been opment projects are a good example of successful possible to implement the research needs of the networking. industry more extensively and with a tighter sched­ ule than before. The programme has also served as A new cross-disciplinary network focusing on blast a discussion forum for the steel and metal produc ­ furnace oil injection has been created within the ing industry. SULA 2 programme. This network combines ex­ pertise from the SULA 2 and LIEKKI 2 pro ­ The management group feels that the locating of grammes. The participants are the University of production process research in the SULA 2 pro ­ Oulu (Process Metallurgy), the Laboratories of gramme is a better idea than placing the projects Materials Processing and Energy Technology of according to the methods used, such as flow dy ­ HUT, the Combustion Chemistry Research Group namics or neural networks, in various Tekes pro ­ of Abo Akademi University, the Energy and Proc ­ grammes. The management group feels that knowl ­ ess Engineering Laboratory of Tampere University edge of the relevant process is of crucial impor ­ of Technology, VTT Energy, and the implemented tance in project supervision. of the results, Rautaruukki and Fundia Wire. The network consists of a chain comprising basic re­ search, pilot tests, production tests, and production application. 5 Further planning on the basis of the intermediate assessment 3.5 Training for researchers In connection with the intermediate assessment, The steel and metal producing industry has tradi ­ the management group decided that the programme tionally worked in close cooperation with the uni ­ should focus on improving general production ef­ versities and departments that train engineers in the ficiency. Important criteria for assessing project field. The Department of Materials Science and proposals include the following: Rock Engineering of HUT, the University of Oulu • low specific energy consumption (Process Metallurgy) and the Heat Engineering • reducing the environmental impact Laboratory of Abo Akademi University are well • maximum utilization of raw materials represented in the SULA 2 programme. Other uni ­ • maximum utilization of by-products and proc ­ versity and research laboratories have been in­ ess heat volved in the Rautaruukki blast furnace research. • improving competitiveness Cooperation has produced good results. « enabling technology exports. A centre of competence in the blast furnace process In addition to research projects, life cycle analyses has been created at the University of Oulu in the course of the programme, and HUT has founded a can be accepted for the programme if they are CFD technology application centre at the Labora ­ suitable in content. tory of Materials Processing. Outokumpu might be interested in developing a By summer 1996, the programme had generated process for local processing of ore. three doctoral dissertations, five licentiate ’s theses and 40 master’s theses. Four further doctoral dis ­ The university research programme for the coming sertations and six licentiate ’s theses are in prepa­ years is included in the research programme pro ­ ration. posal of the management group in autumn 1995.

155 Accordingly, the University of Oulu has begun new The coordinating organization is the Association projects concerning reactions in the blast furnace of Finnish Steel and Metal Producers, and the process and injections in the blast furnace. Abo programme director is Hakan Hakulin. Akademi University has begun two new projects on blast furnace computer control. The ferro- The management group has appointed an expert chromium production process research at the group for each priority area that has at least one Laboratory of Metallurgy of HUT has moved to an research project; members are selected from uni ­ interesting new phase with the availability of the versities and companies participating in research, high-temperature furnace to scientists. Research on although outside experts can also be included. The the flash smelting process is being carried out at management group has at least one representative the Laboratory of Materials Processing at HUT. in each expert group. It is recommended that the participating companies ’ development projects in The CFD modelling of slab and billet reheating eachpriority area also report to the expert group. furnaces is a new project, although it is connected to the obj ectives of the four slab and billet reheating The expert group members at theend of 1995 were furnace projects carried out and begun in the first as follows: half of the programme. A new project in converter control improvement research can probably be Basic processes in iron and steel production started at the Laboratory of Metallurgy of HUT. • Kydsti Heinanen, Rautaruukki Oy, Raahe, chairman • Hakan Hakulin, SULA 2 programme • Prof. Lauri Holappa, HUT, Laboratory of 6 Programme organization Metallurgy • Prof. Jouko Harkki, University of Oulu, Process and management groups Metallurgy • Prof. Reijo Karvinen, Tampere University The industry has guided research through the man­ of Technology, Heat Engineering Laboratory agement group and expert groups. It is a better idea • Perth Kostamo, SULA 2 Executive Committee to have an expert group for each priority than to • Timo Lintumaa, Outokumpu Steel Oy, Tomio have a separate guidance group for each project. • Kalevi Raipala, Fundia Wire Oy Ab, Koverhar • Henrik Saxen, Abo Akademi University, The management group members in 1993-1995 Heat Engineering Laboratory were as follows: • Matti Seppanen, Rautaruukki Oy, Engineering • Tapio Tuominen, Vice President, Science and • Kari Terho, Imatra Steel Oy Ab, Imatra Technology, Outokumpu Oy, chairman 1993- • Mikko Ylhaisi, Tekes 1994 • Peter Sandvik, Vice President of Research, Ferrochromium and refined steel production Raahe Steel, Rautaruukki Oy, chairman 1995 • Prof. Lauri Holappa, HUT, Laboratory of (member since 1993) Metallurgy, chairman • Jussi Asteljoki, Vice President, Research and • Jussi Asteljoki, SULA 2 Executive Committee Development, Outokumpu Oy, 1995 • Hakan Hakulin, SULA 2 programme • Seppo Haarala, Manager, Development and • Prof. Jouko Harkki, University of Oulu, Quality, Imatra Steel Oy Ab Process Metallurgy • Perth Kostamo, Director, Development, • Helge Krogerus, Outokumpu Research Oy, Pori Fundia Wire Oy Ab • Timo Lintumaa, Outokumpu Steel Oy, Tomio • Sirpa Smolsky, Managing Director, Association • Pekka Niemela, Outokumpu Chrome Oy, of Finnish Steel and Metal Producers Tomio • Mikko Ylhaisi, Project Manager, Tekes • Mikko Ylhaisi, Tekes

156 Pyrometallurgical production of copper and nickel Steel rolling and heat treatment using the Outokumpu flash smelting technology • Pekka Mantyla, Rautaruukki Oy, Raahe, • Pekka Taskinen, Outokumpu Research Oy, Pori, chairman chairman • Seppo Haarala, Imatra Steel Oy Ab and • Jussi Asteljoki, SULA 2 Executive Committee SULA 2 Executive Committee • Hakan Hakulin, SULA 2 programme • Hakan Hakulin, SULA 2 programme • Prof. Mikko Hupa, LIEKKI 2 programme • Prof. Pentti Karjalainen, University of Oulu, • Ari Jokilaakso, HUT, Laboratory of Laboratory of Materials Processing Materials Processing • Mikko Korteniemi, Outokumpu Polarit Oy, • Ilkka Kojo, Outokumpu Engineering Tomio Contractors Oy • Henry Lonnberg, Fundia Wire Oy Ab, • Prof. Kaj Lilius, HUT, Laboratory of Taalintehdas Materials Processing • Mikko Ylhaisi, Tekes • Mikko Ylhaisi, Tekes

157 Chapter 12 TERMO - District heating

Tero Makela Some 15,000 PJ of district heating are generated Finnish District Heating Association annually throughout the world, while Finland ’s total annual energy consumption is approximately 1,300 PJ. Approximately 85% of the world ’s dis ­ trict heating is produced in Russia and other eastern I Background and objectives European countries. Finland generates 0.6% of the world ’s district heating. District heating is a large-scale business in Finland and its position is strong; it is the most common The level of investment in district heating is high, form of heating. Our major cities rely on it for for example in eastern Europe and the Far East. 80-90% of their heating. District heating and re­ Technical systems are being improved and becom ­ lated electricity generation are a basic element in ing more uniform as standardization progresses. Finland ’s energy supply. It is increasing its market Business in thesector is international. The integra ­ share at a rate of approximately 2% per year. tion of Finland with Western Europe has opened up new potential for co-operation, for example in The total length of district heating networks in research and exports. Finland at the end of 1995 was 7400 kilometres. Most of these networks were built in 1975-1985. Unlike other programmes, TERMO has focused on Annual capital outlays for this network have been a specific sector. Suppliers of district heating have around FIM 500 million. As these investments are developed their own operations through the pro ­ of a long-term nature, with a typical life cycle of gramme. Funding for the programme has been 15-50 years, today ’s systems will be in use well provided on a fifty/fifty basis by energy companies into the 21st century. Increasing demands are being and Tekes. Since participation by companies pro ­ placed on the efficiency of these investments. The ducing technology for district heating has been district heating business in Finland amounts to limited, few new products have emerged. Conse ­ some FIM 5 billion annually. quently, TERMO has sought primarily to deter ­ mine the significance of district heating for overall Some 15 kilometres undergo renovation every energy policy, to make operations more economi ­ year, and this figure will rise to 18-23 kilometres cal and to assess the need for new technology. Both by the year 2012. Most of the pipes are freely research institutes and companies have taken part moving plastic casing pipes, which will be replaced in the programme. by preinsulated bonded pipes.

In 1991 1.1 million apartments in Finland were served by district heating and their heating energy 2 Results in major costs were FIM 1.7 billion, excluding hot water. research areas With respect to price, district heating will remain competitive with other forms of heating. The low Projects in the TERMO research programme fall level of variable costs, in particular, will guarantee into four areas: district heating a stable market position in existing • heat distribution buildings and areas presently served by district • measurement and data transmission heating. High capital costs make district heating • financial aspects less competitive in areas of single-family houses. • systems development

158 2.1 Heat distribution The temperature of the ground surface can be measured with a manual infrared thermometer. A system for analyzing the condition of Measurements are taken when the ground is dry district heating networks and free of snow. The method is sensitive to weather variations, although it has proved the most Leakage from district heating pipes can be detected certain means of observing incipient heating leaks at an early stage on the basis of ground surface and damage to insulation in particular. temperature and flow sound. Prolonged leakage The research programme has developed a method from district heating pipes can be detected at the latest when water penetrates to the surface of the for the analysis of a district heating network based on thermography, which is used in comprehensive ground, in an inspection chamber or in a basement. maintenance. It entails continuous monitoring of Injecting dye into district heating water has been the network and requires experience of the behav­ primarily successful in the detection of leakage from customers ’ heat exchangers. In such cases, iour of different types of heating pipe construction district heating water may become mixed with hot and knowledge of soil properties. tap water. The district heating analysis system developed in the research programme comprises a thermogra ­ In the autumn and spring, leakage can be detected phy imaging section, an analysis section and a data when there is frost on the ground or in winter by observing the snow surface. This means is limited management section. The thermography section records all the necessary information on a video because it is random. Leaks between two inspec­ tion chambers may be found by digging up the tape, which can subsequently be transferred to a database. The analysis section produces tempera­ ground between them, by listening with a micro ­ ture profiles on the basis of the thermography and phone at ground level or by inserting a sound includes individual pictures. Temperature profiles source and microphone from the inspection cham­ can be compared on the basis of pictures of the bers into the pipes from two directions. The use of same section of district heating network made at sound to detect leaks is hampered by background different times; conclusions can also be drawn noise and pipes to customer buildings located be­ tween inspection chambers. concerning the changes that have occurred.

Infrared camera

> [f]---- ►

Modem Modem

Microphone

Digital processing DATA MANAGEMENT

Trip meter [CSooqi

Printer

Figure I. A district heating analysis system.

159 By means of data management, the basic data in Thermal strain must be controlled the system is updated, the thermography is planned, data is downloaded from a video tape and The steel pipe and insulation of a preinsulated samples are chosen for examination of the longi ­ district heating pipe tend to expand and contract tudinal temperature profiles. with temperature fluctuations in the steel pipe. If thermal movements are prevented, tension arises The greatest limitation of the thermography between the pipe and the insulation. The extent of method is the weather, for the ground must be dry this tension depends on the temperature loads and and free of snow. The difference between the tem­ the properties of the material. perature of the pipe and the space area must be sufficiently large. The effects of disturbances are The potential for damage to the insulation was eliminated by drawing a longitudinal profile of the studied in conjunction with cutting a cold layed ground temperature distribution. In this way even pipe. If the pipe is cut while hot, in which case small increases in temperature can be detected. there is considerable compressive stress, the ther­ mal strain tends to be released and the pipe in­ Savings in pumping energy creases in length. On the basis of available material parameters, the sheer stresses will not exceed the Approximately 200 GWh of electricity per year is values permitted by the standards and the insula ­ consumed by district heating pumps in Finland. tion will not be tom off the steel pipe. Selection of a suitable district heating pump and choosing the best adjustment method and location In a cold layed pipe there is high compressive stress for it can yield savings in capital expenditure and at the operating temperature; this stress exceeds the energy. yield point. The research calculated the trench lengths for several pipe sizes that would prevent The research programme compared two control pipes from buckling when they are dug up while methods, a frequency converter and a fluid clutch. hot. The permitted length for a DN 100 pipe was 0.54 metres, for a DN 300 pipe 2 metres and for a The basic efficiency of a frequency converter is DN 600 pipe 4 metres. better over the entire operating range than that of a fluid clutch. As an investment, the frequency converter is also more economical up to a motor size of 200 kW. For smaller sizes, frequency con ­ verter control is more economical in terms of over ­ 2.2 Measurement and all costs. data transmission

For larger pumps, a fluid clutch is more economical Forecasting district heating consumption in terms of the cost of acquisition, although its lower efficiency must be taken into account. Re­ The research programme applied a new develop ­ covery of cooling heat from the fluid clutch and ment in data processing called knowledge engi ­ the value of the recovered heat are of considerable neering for forecasting short-term district heating significance. consumption. For example forecasts covering pe­ riods of up to 24 hours are needed to optimize The specific investment costs of booster stations generation of heat and electricity. depend basically on the size of the main pumping station. If the pump size is increased from 25 kW The research showed that the results of the forecast to 340 kW, the costs of investment fall from a level programme are good, compared with results based of FIM 25,000/kW to some FIM 5,000/kW. It on conventional mathematical models and those therefore seems reasonable to develop factory- provided by a regression analysis model based on made booster stations that would make acquisition time-series analysis. The results are excellent com ­ more economical. pared with the results from commercial models.

160 Figure 2. Type curves for the days of the week during the winter, assuming an outside temperature of 0°C.

The relative error in winter is 3.8% and in summer radiation was taken into account in the choice of 5.0%. reference days.

Knowledge engineering relies on the use of rules Calibration of the flow meters based on experience and facts and on structures depicting consumption. District heating consump ­ Flow meters are used to monitor and control sig ­ tion is affected most by the outside temperature and nificant flows of energy and material. Flow meas­ by daily, weekly and monthly fluctuations. Also, urement in district heating determines the accuracy the heat storage capacity of the district heating of the energy measurement almost entirely. network and buildings and the lag between produc ­ tion and consumption exert their own effects. Eleven laboratories in Finland and two located elsewhere in Europe, where the flow meters were The consumption rhythms in the method developed calibrated, took part in the comparison carried out by the research programme are predicted by means during the research project. The measurement re­ of three reference days. Reference days are chosen sults were estimated on the basis of how much they on the basis of how well they represent the day of deviated from the reference level. A deviation of the week and the predicted outside temperature. less than 0.5% was considered a good result.

An increase of one degree in outside temperature At three laboratories, the measurements results of reduces consumption in winter by 7.5-13 MW, in the magnetic meter surpassed the limit mentioned spring by 9.5-15.5 MW and in autumn by 11-16 above at all flow velocities. The deviation of one MW in a district heating system with a connection laboratory exceeded the limit at the highest volume load of 890 MW. A forecast of theoutside tempera­ flows. The results obtained with the turbine meter ture is obtained from the Finnish Meteorological deviated from the reference level more than those Institute; the control staff can also amend the fore ­ obtained with the magnetic meter. cast on the basis of their own information. Heating cost allocation for individual Data on wind and cloudiness are applied in the apartments forecast by means of the weighted values for the reference days. For weak and low quality explana­ The research programme determined how the heat­ tory variables, an adaptive and self-learning model ing energy costs of apartments could be allocated based on error forecast has been developed. Solar fairly in housing served by district heating. The

161 procedure is used on the Continent and Finnish fairness is of financial significance for both cus­ building companies must include it in their export tomers and suppliers of district heating. projects. The research programme developed a simple com ­ The most economical heat allocation equipment in puter-based program to facilitate determination of terms of investment cost which operates on the a new customer ’s subscribed load and for checking evaporation principle does not function with suffi­ the subscribed load against the heat energy con ­ cient accuracy in Finnish heating systems. sumption.

Accurate allocation of heating costs would require In practice, direct measurement of the subscribed compensation for discrepancies caused by the lo ­ load of a building is difficult, because the dimen ­ cation of apartments and consideration of heat sioning outside temperature should be -26...-32°C. transfers caused by the temperature differences Thesubscribed demand can be checked by reading between rooms. The expense of equipment of this the building ’s invoicing meter, for example at in­ kind is so great that its acquisition and use cannot tervals of two hours over a week during the heating be justified solely on the basis of the economies season. The energy needed for hot tap water can achieved through energy savings. be determined separately.

Pricing methods for district heating

2.3 The economics of Pricing is an essential factor for theprofitability of district heating a company in both the short and the long term. Low prices cause financial difficulties for the company Determining the subscribed in the short term, because the price does not cover heating demand the costs. High prices, however, may prevent new customers from joining the network and encourage Determining the subscribed heating demand of a existing customers to switch to another form of building served by district heating with maximum heating.

RETURN ON CAPITAL INVESTED IN 1993 (adjusted prices) ENTIRE COMPANY

0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1.2 1,4 1,6 CAPITAL CIRCULATION. Figure 3. Return on capital invested and its component factors.

162 Determination of product-specific costs is the basis less investment than did the building of the network for a company ’s pricing decisions. In pricing, the in the 1970s and 1980s. operations of the company must represent a con ­ tinuous process, so that the production resources The specific heat consumption of buildings served needed to sustain operations can be acquired at the by district heating has declined steadily since the prices used in the calculations. oil crisis of 1973. This trend is expected to con ­ tinue. The easiest savings have already been made Many companies set prices either partially or en­ and additional savings will require investment in tirely on the basis of costs. The most common conservation technology. cost-based pricing methods are cost pricing, con ­ tribution margin pricing and rate of return pricing. The research did not discover any factors that would threaten the position of district heating or Rate of return pricing is best suited to district the current low level of stable prices. There are no heating. The method allocates all costs incurred to factors in the offing that would weaken the market the product, including the return requirement on for district heating. Flexible fuel choice is an ob ­ the capital tied up in the product. It is well suited vious advantage of district heating. for long-term pricing. New methods of energy generation such as gasifi ­ cation and fluidized bed combustion will replace Success factors for energy companies conventional heating plants when they reach the end of their life cycles. New technologies will Corporate profitability can be measured with sev­ permit more environmentally sound use of low- eral different criteria, the most common of which grade fuels and the benefits of cogeneration will are the gross margin percentage, operating margin also be exploited. All new large-scale energy gen ­ percentage, profit percentage and ROI. In assessing eration technologies allow cogeneration of heat profitability, different yardsticks can lead to differ ­ and electricity. ent conclusions. The competitiveness of district heating, particu­ The price level significantly affects the return on larly in new building by small-scale customers, capital invested. In a competitive market, compa ­ may decline. A solution to this problem must be nies have to price their products with respect to sought by developing control and automation sys­ those of their competitors so that the ratio of price tems for heat exchange stations, and by using to quality is mutually competitive. The price level cheaper heat distribution technology. for a standard product is therefore rather even. On a competitive market, companies in general at­ tempt to maximize their returns. In the energy business, some companies set low energy prices as 2.4 System development their target, either instead of or alongside maximi­ zation of return. Changes in heat loads

Future prospects for district heating New buildings and renovations of existing build ­ ings may change the community district heating Due to the high investment required by district load. heating, the pace of change and reform in the sector is slow. In most Finnish communities served by The objective is to reduce the specific heat con ­ district heating, generation plants and networks sumption of buildings by some 20% from the pre­ already provide the extent economically profitable. sent level by 2005. Per capita living space will increase by approximately one-third by the year Further investment usually aims at optimization of 2030. By 2040, the Finnish building stock will have production, securing heat distribution, improving increased by some 60% on the present figure. The the network controllability or replacement of ex­ present building stock will then have been com ­ isting facilities. These objectives obviously require pletely replaced or renovated.

163 Modernization of the building stock and equipment The effects of temperatures on the properties of the technology may permit lowering of temperature absorption equipment are important for the use of levels in the district heating network, which would district heating as a source of primary energy. Re­ in turn reduce heat loss and increase the potential ducing the temperature of the outgoing water ade ­ for back-pressure electricity generation. quately poses problems. As the incoming tempera­ ture of the district heating water declines, the water In 2005, the heat consumption of renovated build ­ flows increase and the heat ratio falls. The tempera­ ings will be 15% below today ’s level and in 2040 ture of theoutgoing district heating water must not some 30% below that of a renovated building today. fall below 65-70°C. In summer the incoming tem­ perature is some 75-80°C, so the cooling effect can Calculations showed that total district heating con ­ be only around ten degrees. The result is a large sumption will change only a little from 1994 to flow of water. 2040. The specific consumption of energy and peak demand will decline, but growth in the building With respect to investment costs, the absorption stock will require greater heating capacity. equipment is more expensive than a compressor. With respect to operating costs, the absorption The research examined optimization of generation equipment is more economical only if the price of capacity in an example company. In 1994, the district heating is less than FIM 50-75/M Wh. This optimum size of a base load power plant was 15/36 research shows that today ’s absorption cooling MW, but the cost difference between plants gener ­ equipment cannot compete with conventional com ­ ating 4 MW more or less is very small. The opti ­ pressor cooling at present energy prices. mum power plant size in 2040 would be 19/45 MW.

District cooling 3 Effectiveness of results

Rising electricity prices and the ban on use of CFC The district heating load forecasting system, the compounds has put the designers of cooling equip­ thermography method, and the cost-sharing ment in anew situation. Alternatives must be found method for cogeneration of heat and electricity are for the conventional refrigerants. No final alterna­ examples of the exportable products developed by tives have yet been found. the programme.

Absorption cooling is one such alternative. In the The projects in the research programme have been absorption process a mechanical compressor is re­ practical. Research topics have stemmed from the placed by a compressor running on thermal energy. needs of district heating companies. In recent Compression is based on the properties of the years, some of the research has been of a basic solution; steam is absorbed in a suitable liquid and nature and some has aimed at the future. the solution is pumped to a higher pressure. The work required is much less than that needed for the Striking a balance between current questions and compression of steam. preparations for the future is a frequent problem in corporate-driven research programmes. The pro ­ The cooling process is based on a refrigerant and gramme must also be directed towards balanced a solvent. Ammonia and water, which were widely development of the entire district heating system. used in the past, are not the best combination for an air-conditioning system. The biggest problem is The applicability of TERMO programme research due to the toxic nature of ammonia. Lithium bro ­ has been good, and the results obtained have been mide and water are used extensively. Water serves put to work throughout district heating. The pro ­ as the refrigerant and an aqueous solution of lith­ jects have made companies in the sector more ium bromide as the solvent. Problems are caused competitive. District heating and cogeneration of by significant underpressure and thepowerful cor ­ heat and electricity have improved the quality of rosive effect of the solution. Structures must be the Finnish environment, and this can be demon ­ made of special alloy steel and be very tight. strated by research.

164 4 Main results of the The priorities in the programme are on economy and sustainable development for district heating; interim assessment they are based on analyses of research needs and on energy policy. The goals direct research towards Theresearch programme was organized so that the solutions to key problems. projects of most interest to companies were chosen for implementation. The programme brings re­ Research has focused on the interest of national search in the Finnish district heating sector to ­ heat suppliers. The district heating market in Fin­ gether, and this facilitates coordination and use of land, however, is too small for industry in the resources. sector. During the final part of this programme or in thenext programme there should be more stress Research has served the needs of companies in the on product development and export promotion. It sector in accordance with the interests of the fund ­ must, however, be recalled, that the district heating ing companies. The role of industrial companies system is an entity that also requires economic and must be increased in the future and then operations administrative support systems. Establishment of can also be directed towards product development. a functioning entity on the export market is both the strength of Finnish companies and an opportu ­ The main targets of the programme are correct. nity for them. Advances in technology should be more important in the future, although overall development of dis ­ The main objectives of the TERMO programme, trict heating operations must be continued. economy and sustainable development, support the goals of national and also international energy The coordination and cooperation in Finland are technology. The goal of district heating remains the relatively effective. International cooperation re­ optimal use of energy; this has already been its quires increased emphasis. Problems related to lan­ greatest advantage. The system must be, however, guage and financing hinder cooperation. Coordi ­ subject to continuous development in order to be­ nation becomes more difficult as internationaliza ­ come increasingly efficient and economical. The tion increases. trend is the same throughout the world.

Marketing and publicity in the programme have The role of product development and efforts to this increased, but are still rather ineffective. Different end can be increased. In this respect, encourage ­ target groups require different complementary ap­ ment of industrial companies to participate is cru­ proaches. Marketing can also encourage new users cial. to join the programme. International coordination has been achieved pri­ marily by participating in the work of the IEA district heating programme and the energy research 5 Further planning based on programme of the Nordic Council of Ministers. Fairly effective monitoring of international re­ the interim assessment search has been possible thorough these channels.

The funding procedure for the research programme Information on the programme has been more guarantees that projects of interest to district heat­ widely available than in the previous period (1988- ing companies are carried out. Research has been 1993). Results have been presented regularly at of an applied nature and has focused on solutions sessions arranged by the Finnish District Heating to practical problems. Some future-oriented pro ­ Association. A review of progress in the pro ­ jects were also included, and they have also in­ gramme is compiled and published twice a year. A cluded a practical view, basically technical and seminar for researchers is held annually. Informa ­ economic. tion still does not reach all those interested.

165 Sessions arranged by the Finnish District Heating The Executive Committee comprises the following Association have proved an efficient means of dis ­ individuals: seminating information. Information reaches • Ilkka Pirvola, Helsinki Energy (chairman) members of the organization through these ses­ • Heimo Hiidenpalo, Helsinki Energy, (chair­ sions, but not all parties in the sector. Researchers man) obtain information mainly at the programme ’s an­ • Professor Lasse Koskelainen, Helsinki Univer ­ nual seminars. sity of Technology • Heikki Kotila, Tekes The principal advantages of district heating could • Veli-Matti Makela, Lappeenranta Energy be emphasized more in marketing the research. • Arto Nuorkivi, Energia-Ekono Oy District heating is not perceived as a high technol­ • Markku Salminen, Suomen Talokeskus Oy ogy product, which would be of general interest. • Kari Sipila, VTT Energy Information reaches a narrow group, mainly in the energy sector. Each project has its own project group, including representatives from each source of funding. This Research institutes should seek closer co-operation method has developed a direct connection between with heat suppliers and industrial companies. Com ­ researchers and research. panies would also be the source of competent ex­ perts who could implement theprojects or parts of The projects to be implemented will be chosen in them. Some companies could also include research two stages; the first elimination will be made by among their operations. This would provide addi ­ the Finnish District Heating Association and the tional resources for research. final one by the funding organizations in their funding decisions. TEKES funding will be sought for projects that obtain sufficient funding of their own.

The funding procedure screens the applications to find those of most interest to companies. The fund ­ ing companies take an active part in implementing projects and supervising the work. This procedure 6 Research organization and provides the greatest potential for benefiting from the results. The arrangement provides an incentive Executive Committees to researchers to be in contact with funding/bene ­ fiting companies, because their support decides The TERMO programme has been coordinated by whether the projects are implemented. the Finnish District Heating Association. The na­ ture of the programme and its goals are set and Responsibility for corporate funding rests almost monitored by the Executive Committee. Research entirely with the companies supplying district heat­ proposals come from the research organizations on ing. The role of industrial companies has been the basis of master plans and requests for tenders small. Consultancies that have provided significant from the Executive Committee. financing for their own projects are an exception.

166 International Energy Agency (IEA) ENERGY TECHNOLOGY COLLABORATION LIEKKI 2 BIOENER NEMO 2 FFUSION SIHTI 2 MOBILE SULA2 SUSTAIN RAKET EDISON TERMO

Buildings and community systems X XX X Energy Storage

High-temperature Superconductivity in Electric Power Sector XX

Energy Technology Data Exchange (ETDE) X X X X X X X X X X

Centre for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies (CADDET) X XX XX X X

Advanced Energy Efficient Technologies for the Pulp and Paper Industry XX X X Process Integration Technologies —

District Heating and Cooling XX

Alternative Motor Fuels Agreement XX Co-operation on Technologies and Programmes for Demand-Side Management

Bioenergy XX Hydropower Technologies and Programmes

Solar Heating and Cooling XX

Photovoltaic Power Systems XX

Wind Turbine Systems XX Coal Research Information

A Cooperative Program on Technologies Relating to Greenhouse Gases Derived from Fossil Fuel Use XX Fluidized Bed Conversion of Fuels Applied to Clean Energy Production XX

Programme on Research, Development and Demonstration of Coal Combustion Sciences XX NORDIC ENERGY RESEARCH Bioenergy processes - photosynthesis

Fuel cells XX Energy and society

Solid fuel XX XX

District heating X Petroleum technology Process integration EU ENERGY RESEARCH PROGRAMMES

ALTENER X

JOULE XX XX XX XX X

THERMIE X X BRITE-EURAM FAIR

FUSION 12 XX OTHER INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change

++ permanent project cooperation and/or funding from the programme + cooperation through exchange of reports, etc. 168 Technology Programme Reports

9/97 Partnership in Injection Moulding Business 1993-1997. Evaluation report. Erkko Autio and Hannu Berger

8/97 Partnership in Injection Moulding Business 1993-1997. Final report. 46 p.

7/97 The Mechanical Wood Processing and Wood-based Panels Technology Programmes 1992-1996. Evaluation report. John R Klus and Reijo Hirvensalo

6/97 New Generation Paper Technology Programme 1992-1996. Evaluation report. Pierre Lepoutre, Tom Lindstrom and Derek Page

5/97 New Generation Paper Technology Programme 1992-1996. Final report

4/97 Energy Technology Programmes 1993-1998. Intermediate report

1/97 Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) Technology Programme 1995-1999. Mid-term evaluation report 1997, 93 pages. Raimo J. Hakkinen, Charles Hirsch, EgonKrause and Harri K. Kytomaa

16/96 The Machine Vision Technology Programme 1992-1996. Evaluation report. 1996,35 p. L. F. Pau, Hannu Savisalo

15/96 The Machine Vision Technology Programme 1992-1996. Final report. 1996, 188 p.

13/96 Biodegrable Polymers Technology Programme 1992-1996. Evaluation report. 1996, 51 p. Bert E.M. Lemmes, Etienne H. Schacht

12/96 Pharmaceutical Technology Programme 1989-1994. Evaluation report. 1996,31 p. Robert S. Langer, Charles L. Cooney, Joseph D. Brain

11/96 Synthesis Technology Programme 1992-1996. Evaluation report. 1996 37 p. Stephe L. Buchwald, Rick L. Danheiser, Richard R. Schrock

10/96 Manufacturing Processes for Cast Components 1991 —1995. Final report. 1996, 48 p.

8/96 PRODEAL Technology programme 1992-1995. Evaluation report. 1996, 27 p. Raymond E. Levitt, Marti Manila

7/96 SIMSON: A CIM Development Programme for the Finnish Metal and Engineering Industry. Evaluation report 1996, 86 p. James L. Alty, llkka Eero la

5/96 Evaluation Report of the Process Technology Programme. 1996, 90 p. David H. Klipstein, Gregory J. McRae

4/96 Process Technology Programme 1991-1995. Final report. 1996, 250 p.

2/96 The Electronic Design and Manufacturing Technology Programme 1991-1995. Evaluation report. 1996, 84 p.

1/96 The Electronic Design and Manufacturing Technology Programme 1991-1995. Final report. 1996, 160 p.

The Evaluation Report of the Administration of the Materials Research Programme - a network perspective. 1992, 47 p. Pasi Malinen

169 Industrial Chemistry Programme 1987-1992. 1992, 167 p.

Pharmaceutical Technology Programme 1989-1994. 1994, 151 p.

SIMSON. Technology, Organisation and People - Towards World Class Manufacturing. 1995, 243 p.

Subscriptions Technology Development Centre Tekes Library P.O.Box 69 FIN-00101 Helsinki Finland Fax +358-0-694 9196 email: [email protected]